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Old-growth European Beech forest in Biogradska Gora National Park, Montenegro

Coast Redwoods in old-growth forest in Muir Woods National Monument, Marin County, California.

An old-growth forest (also termed primary forest, virgin forest, primeval forest, late seral forest, or in Britain, ancient woodland) is a forest that has attained great age without significant disturbance, and thereby exhibits unique ecological features and in some cases may be classified as a climax community^[1]. Old-growth features include diversity of tree-related structures that serve as diversified wildlife habitat that leads to higher bio-diversity of the forested ecosystem. Diversified tree structure includes multi-layered canopies and canopy gaps, high variance of tree heights and diameters, diversity of decaying classes and sizes of woody debris, and diversity of tree species.

Characteristics[link]

Tongass National Forest, Alaska

Old-growth forests tend to have more large trees and standing dead trees, multi-layered canopies with gaps resulting from the deaths of individual trees, and coarse woody debris on the forest floor.^[2]

Forest regenerated after a severe disturbance, such as wildfire, insect infestations or harvesting, is often called second-growth or regeneration until enough time passes for the effects of the disturbance to be no longer evident. Depending on the forest, this may take anywhere from a century to several millennia. Hardwood forests of the eastern United States can develop old-growth characteristics in one or two generations of trees, or 150–500 years. In British Columbia, Canada, old growth is defined as 120 to 140 years of age in the interior of the province where fire is a frequent and natural occurrence. In British Columbia’s coastal rainforests, old growth is defined as trees more than 250 years, with some trees reaching more than 1,000 years of age.^[3]

Forest types have very different development patterns, natural disturbances and appearances. A Douglas-fir stand may grow for centuries without disturbance while an old-growth ponderosa pine forest requires frequent surface fires to reduce the shade-tolerant species and regenerate the canopy species.^[4] In the boreal forest, catastrophic disturbances like wildfires minimize opportunities for major accumulations of dead and downed woody material and other structural legacies associated with old growth conditions.^[5]

Many botanists specifically define old growth in terms of meeting several criteria, under which system forests with sufficient age and minimal disturbance are considered old growth.^{[citation needed]} Typical characteristics of old-growth forest include presence of older trees, minimal signs of human disturbance, mixed-age stands, presence of canopy openings due to tree falls, pit-and-mound topography, down wood in various stages of decay, standing snags (dead trees), multi-layered canopies, intact soils, a healthy fungal ecosystem, and presence of indicator species.

Biodiversity[link]

The Northern Spotted Owl primarily inhabits old growth forests in the northern part of its range (Canada to southern Oregon) and landscapes with a mix of old and younger forest types in the southern part of its range (Klamath region and California).

Old-growth forests are often biologically diverse, and home to rare species, threatened species, and endangered species of plants and animals, such as the northern spotted owl, marbled murrelet and fisher, making them ecologically significant. Levels of biodiversity may be higher or lower in old-growth forests compared to that in second-growth forests, depending on specific circumstances, environmental variables and geographic variables. Logging in old-growth forests is a contentious issue in many parts of the world. Excessive logging reduces biodiversity, affecting not only the old-growth forest itself, but also indigenous species that rely upon old-growth forest habitat.^[6][7]

Mixed age[link]

A forest in old-growth stage has a mix of tree ages, due to a distinct regeneration pattern for this stage. New trees regenerate at different times from each other, because each one of them has different spatial location relative to the main canopy and hence each one receives a different amount of light. The mixed age of the forest is an important criterion in ensuring that the forest is a relatively stable ecosystem in the long term. A climax stand that is uniformly-aged becomes senescent and degrades within a relatively short time-period to result in a new cycle of forest succession. Thus, uniformly-aged stands are a less stable ecosystem.

Canopy openings[link]

Forest canopy gaps are essential in creating and maintaining mixed-age stands. Also, some herbaceous plants only become established in canopy openings, but persist beneath an understory. Openings are a result of tree death due to small impact disturbances such as wind, low-intensity fires and tree diseases.

Old-growth forests are unique, usually having multiple horizontal layers of vegetation representing a variety of tree species, age classes, and sizes, as well as "pit and mound" soil shape with well-established fungal nets.^[8] Because old-growth forest is structurally diverse it provides higher-diversity habitat than forests in other stages. Thus, sometimes higher biological diversity can be sustained in old-growth forest, or at least a biodiversity that is different from other forest stages.

Topography[link]

The characteristic topography of much old-growth forest consists of pits and mounds. Mounds are caused by decaying fallen trees, and pits (tree throws) by the roots pulled out of the ground when trees fall due to natural causes, including being pushed over by animals. Pits expose humus-poor, mineral-rich soil and often collect moisture and fallen leaves, forming a thick organic layer that is able to nurture certain types of organisms. Mounds provide a place free of leaf inundation and saturation, where other types of organisms thrive.

Standing snags[link]

Standing snags provide food sources and habitat for many types of organisms. In particular, many species of dead-wood predators such as woodpeckers must have standing snags available for feeding. In North America the spotted owl is well known for needing standing snags for nesting habitat.

Decaying ground layer[link]

Fungus on a tree stump in the Białowieża Forest, one of the last largely intact primeval forests in Central Europe

Fallen timber, or coarse woody debris, contributes carbon-rich organic matter directly to the soil, thus providing a substrate for mosses, fungi and for seedlings, and in creating microhabitats by creating relief on the forest floor. In some ecosystems, such as the temperate rain forest of the North American Pacific coast, fallen timber may become nurse logs, providing a substrate for seedling trees.

Soil[link]

Intact soils harbor many life-forms that rely on them. Intact soils generally have very well-defined horizons, or soil profiles. Different organisms may need certain well-defined soil horizons in order to live, while many trees need well-structured soils free of disturbance in order to thrive. Some herbaceous plants in northern hardwood forests must have thick duff layers (which are part of the soil profile). Fungal ecosystems are essential for efficient in-situ recycling of nutrients back into the entire ecosystem.

Definitions[link]

Ecological definitions[link]

Stand age definition[link]

Stand age can also be used to categorize forest as old-growth.^[9] For each geographical area, there is an average time since disturbance when the forest will reach old-growth stage. This method is useful, because it allows quick and objective determination of forest stage. However, this definition does not provide explanation about forest function. It just gives a useful number to measure. Due to that fact, some forests may be excluded from being categorized as old-growth even if they have old-growth attributes just because they are too young. Also, older forests can lack some old-growth attributes and be categorized as old-growth just because they are so old. The idea of using age is also problematic, because human activities can influence the forest in varied ways. For example, after logging of 30% of the trees, we can wait less time for old-growth to come back than after removal of 80% of the trees.

Forest dynamics definition[link]

From a forest dynamics perspective, old-growth forest is a forest in a stage that follows Understory Reinitiation stage.^[10] A review of the stages helps to understand the concept:

1. Stand-replacing: disturbance hits the forest and kills most of the living trees.
2. Stand-initiation: population of new trees becomes established.
3. Stem-exclusion: trees grow higher and enlarge their canopy, thus competing for the light with neighbors. Light competition mortality kills slowly growing trees and reduces forest density. This allows surviving trees to increase in size. Eventually the canopies of neighboring trees touch each other and drastically lowers amount of light that reaches lower layers. Due to that, the understory dies and only very shade-tolerant species survive.
4. Understory reinitiation: trees die from low level mortality, such as windthrow and diseases. Individual canopy gaps start to appear and more light can reach forest floor. Hence, shade-tolerant species can establish in the understory.
5. Old-growth: Main canopy trees become older and more of them die, creating even more gaps. Since the gaps appear at different times, the understory trees will be at different growth stages. Furthermore, the amount of light that reaches each understory tree depends on its position relative to the gap. Thus, each understory tree grows at a different speed. The difference in establishment timing and in growth speed create a population of understory trees that are variable in size. Eventually, some understory trees grow to become as tall as the main canopy trees, thereby filling the gap. This perpetuation process is typical for the old-growth stage. This, however, does not mean that the forest will be old-growth forever. Generally there are three possible futures for old-growth stage forest: (A) The forest will be hit by a new stand-replacing disturbance and most of the trees will die. (B) The tree community will eventually create unfavorable conditions for new trees to regenerate. In this case, the old trees will die and smaller plants will create woodland. (C) The regenerating understory trees are different species than the main canopy trees. In this case, the forest will switch back to Stem-Exclusion stage, but with different tree species. The forest in old-growth stage can be stable for centuries but the length of this stage depends on the forest's tree composition and climate of the area. For example, frequent natural fires do not allow boreal forests to be as old as coastal forests of western North America.

Of importance is that while the stand switches from one tree community to another, the stand will not necessarily go through old-growth stage between those stages. Some tree species have relatively open canopy. That allows more shade-tolerant tree species to establish below even before Understory Reinitiation stage. The shade-tolerant trees will eventually out-compete the main canopy trees in stem-exclusion stage. Therefore, the dominant tree species will change, but the forest will still be in Stem-Exclusion stage.

Tree species succession may change tree species composition once the old-growth stage has been achieved. For example, an old boreal forest may contain some large aspen trees, which may die and be replaced by smaller balsam fir or black spruce. Consequently, the forest will switch back to Understory Reinitiation stage.^[11] If old growth stage is seen as an end point of stand development, it can be easily evaluated using structural or static attributes. However, in some forest ecosystems this can lead to decisions regarding the preservation of unique stands or attributes that will disappear over the next few decades because of natural succession processes. Consequently, using stand dynamics to define old-growth forest is more useful in cases where the species that constitute old-growth forest can have long life span or in ecosystem where succession is very slow.

Social and cultural definitions[link]

Redwood tree in northern California redwood forest. According to the National Park Service "96 percent of the original old-growth coast redwoods have been logged."^[12]

Common cultural definitions and common denominators regarding what comprises old-growth forest, and of the variables that define, constitute and embody old-growth forests include:

• The forest habitat possesses relatively mature, old trees;
• The old-growth trees have long continuity on the same site;
• The forest itself has not been subjected to significant inhabitation by mankind that has altered the appearance of the landscape and its ecosystems, has not been subjected to logging, and has inherently progressed per natural tendencies.

The debate over old growth definitions has been inextricably linked with a complex range of social perceptions about wilderness preservation, aesthetics and spirituality, as well as economic or industrial values.^[13]

Economic definitions[link]

Old-growth forests were often given harvesting priority because they have the most commercially valuable timber, they are considered to be at greater risk of deterioration through root rot or insect infestation, and they occupy land that could be used for more productive second-growth stands.^[14] In some regions, old growth is not the most commercially viable timber – in British Columbia, Canada, harvesting in the coastal region is moving to younger second-growth stands.^[15]

Other definitions[link]

A 2001 scientific symposium in Canada found that defining old growth in a scientifically meaningful, yet policy-relevant, manner presents some basic difficulties, especially if a simple, unambiguous, and rigorous scientific definition is sought. Symposium participants identified some attributes of late-successional, temperate-zone, old-growth forest types that could be considered in developing an index of "old-growthness" and for defining old-growth forests:^[16]

Structural features:

Avatar Grove near Port Renfrew, British Columbia. Giant Douglas-firs (left) and red cedars (right) fill the grove.

• Uneven or multi-aged stand structure, or several identifiable age cohorts
• Average age of dominant species approaching half the maximum longevity for species (approximately 150+ years for most shade-tolerant trees)
• Some old trees at close to their maximum longevity (ages of 300+ years)
• Presence of standing dead and dying trees in various stages of decay
• Fallen, coarse woody debris
• Natural regeneration of dominant tree species within canopy gaps or on decaying logs

Compositional features:

• Long-lived, shade-tolerant tree species associations (e.g., sugar maple, American beech, yellow birch, red spruce, eastern hemlock, white pine)

Process features:

• Characterized by small-scale disturbances creating gaps in forest canopy
• A long natural rotation for catastrophic or stand-replacing disturbance (e.g., a period greater than the maximum longevity of the dominant tree species)
• Minimal evidence of human disturbance
• Final stages of stand development before a relatively steady state is reached

Importance[link]

• Old-growth forests often contain rich communities of plants and animals within the habitat due to the long period of forest stability. These varied and sometimes rare species may depend on the unique environmental conditions created by these forests.
• Old-growth forest serves as a reservoir for species which cannot thrive or easily regenerate in younger forest, and so can be used as a baseline for research.
• Plant species that are native to old-growth forests may someday prove to be invaluable towards curing various human ailments, as has been realized in numerous plants in tropical rainforests.^[17][18]
• Old-growth forests also store large amounts of carbon above and below the ground (either as humus, or in wet soils as peat). They collectively represent a very significant store of carbon. Destruction of these forests releases this carbon as greenhouse gases, and may increase the risk of global climate change.^[19]

Ecosystem services[link]

Old-growth forests provide ecosystem services that may be far more important to society than their use as a source of raw materials. These services include breathable air, pure water, carbon storage, regeneration of nutrients, maintenance of soils, pest control by insectivorous bats and insects, micro- and macro-climate control, and the storage of a wide variety of genes.^[20]

Climatic impacts[link]

The effects of old-growth forests in relation to Global Warming has been contested in various studies and journals.

While some studies that old-growth forests are an important part of carbon sequestration and its impacts on climate change and climate change mitigation. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said in its 2007 report: “In the long term, a sustainable forest management strategy aimed at maintaining or increasing forest carbon stocks, while producing an annual sustained yield of timber, fibre or energy from the forest, will generate the largest sustained mitigation benefit.”^[21]

Critics note that at old-growth forests are often perceived to be in equilibrium, but could be releasing as much carbon dioxide as they capture, or are currently in a state of decay.^[22] Another scientific studie concluded that forest harvesting has little or no effect on the amount of carbon stored in the soil.^[23] As trees grow, they remove carbon from the atmosphere. As they reach maturity, growth slows and ultimately stops as mortality catches up to growth.^[24] Harvesting also removes carbon from the forest but some of it is stored in wood products (preventing its immediate release to the atmosphere) and some is available for use as biomass energy (displacing fossil fuel use),^[25] although using biomass as a fuel produces air pollution in the form of carbon monoxide, NOx (nitrogen oxides), VOCs (volatile organic compounds), particulates and other pollutants, in some cases at levels above those from traditional fuel sources such as coal or natural gas.^[26][27][28] In most North American forests, this drop happens when a tree is between 60 and 150 years old, depending on the species and environmental factors.^[29]

Each forest has a different potential to store carbon. For example, this potential is particularly high in the Pacific Northwest where forests are relatively productive, trees live a long time, decomposition is relatively slow, and fires are infrequent. The differences between forests must therefore be taken into consideration when determining how they should be managed to store carbon.^{[30] [31]}

Management[link]

Old-growth forest in the Opal Creek Wilderness, a wilderness area located in the Willamette National Forest in the U.S. state of Oregon, on the border of the Mount Hood National Forest. It has the largest uncut watershed in Oregon.^[32]

The increased understanding of forest dynamics in the late 20th Century has led the scientific community to identify a need to inventory, understand, manage and conserve representative examples of old-growth forests with their associated characteristics and values.^[33] The literature around old growth and its management is inconclusive about the best way to capture the true essence of an old growth stand. In British Columbia, Canada, old-growth forests must be maintained in each of the province’s ecological units to meet biodiversity needs.^[2]

A better understanding of natural systems has resulted in new ideas about forest management, such as managed natural disturbances should be designed to achieve the landscape patterns and habitat conditions that are normally maintained in nature (DeLong 1998; Wong and Iverson 2004). This coarse filter approach to biodiversity conservation recognizes ecological processes and provides for a dynamic distribution of old growth across the landscape.^[33] And all seral stages – young, medium and old – support forest biodiversity. Plants and animals rely on different forest ecosystem stages to meet their habitat needs.^[34]

In Australia, the regional forest agreement (RFA) attempted to prevent the clearfelling of defined "Old Growth Forests". This led to struggles over what constitutes "Old Growth". For example in Western Australia, the timber industry tried to limit the area of Old Growth in the karri forests of the Southern Forests Region; this led to the creation of the Western Australian Forests Alliance, the splitting of the Liberal Government of Western Australia and the election of the Gallop Labor Government. Old Growth Forests in this region have now been placed inside National Parks. A small proportion of Old Growth Forest also exists in South-West Australia, and is protected by a Federal laws from logging, which hasn't occurred there for more than twenty years.

Locations of remaining tracts[link]

Wildland fires in U.S. ecosystems. Particularly before 1550, fires happened most frequently in tan, yellow, blue, pink, and light green areas. (Click on image to enlarge)

In 2006 Greenpeace identified that the world's remaining Intact forest landscapes are distributed among the continents as follows:^[35]

• 35% in Latin America. The Amazon rainforest is mainly located in Brazil, which clears a larger area of forest annually than any other country in the world.^[36]
• 28% in North America. North America harvests 10,000 square kilometres of ancient forests every year. Many of the fragmented forests of southern Canada and the United States lack adequate animal travel corridors and functioning ecosystems for large mammals.^[36]
• 19% in Northern Asia. Northern Asia is home to the largest boreal forest in the world.^[37]
• 8% in Africa. Africa has lost most of its intact forest landscapes in the last 30 years. The timber industry is responsible for destroying huge areas of intact forest landscapes and continues to be the single largest threat to these areas.
• 7% in South Asia Pacific. The Paradise Forests of Asia Pacific are being destroyed faster than any other forest on Earth. Much of the large intact forest landscapes have already been cut down, 72% in Indonesia and 60% in Papua New Guinea.^[36]
• Less than 3% in Europe. In Europe, more than 150 square kilometres of intact forest landscapes are cleared every year and the last areas of the region’s intact forest landscapes in European Russia are shrinking rapidly.^[36]

Logging in old growth forests[link]

The large trees in old growth forests are economically valuable, and have been subjected to aggressive logging around the world. This has led to much controversy between logging companies and environmental groups.

The island of Tasmania, just off the south east coast of Australia has the largest amount of temperate old-growth rainforest reserves in Australia with approximately 1,239,000 hectares in total.^[38] While the local Regional Forest Agreement (RFA) was originally designed to protect much of this natural wealth, many of the RFA old growth forests protected in Tasmania consist of trees of little use to the timber industry. RFA old growth and high conservation value forests that contain species highly desirable to the forestry industry have been poorly reserved. Only 22% of Tasmania’s original tall-eucalypt forests managed by Forestry Tasmania have been reserved. Ten thousand hectares of tall-eucalypt RFA old growth forest have been lost since 1996, predominantly as a result of industrial logging operations. In 2006, approximately 61,000 hectares of tall-eucalypt RFA old growth forests remained unprotected.^[39] Recent logging attempts in the Upper Florentine Valley have sparked a series of protests and media attention over the arrests that have taken place in this area. In addition, Gunns Limited the primary forestry contractor in Tasmania has been under recent criticism by political and environmental groups over its practice of woodchipping timber harvested from old growth forests.

See also[link]

	Ecology portal
	Environment portal
	Earth sciences portal
	Sustainable development portal

References[link]

Old growth red cedar stump near Port Renfrew, BC

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Primeval forests

Song In (in hangul 송인, in hanja 宋仁) was a civil official in the mid-Goryeo era who became the intermediary founder of the Jincheon Song clan. His highest post was munha pyeongjangsa (문하 평장사). This was the highest government position in the period. Song In was responsible for administration, judicial affairs and economy in the district.^[1]

As he performed meritorious deeds during the King, he was conferred with Chanhwagongsin and Jincheonbaek. Baek was a position of politicians who were responsible for administration, judicial affairs and economy in the district. As the government created him Jincheonbaek, his family started regarding Jincheon as their origin. Hence, the family origin became Jincheon Song.

When he was in the position of Sangsanbaek, he tried to be just and fair in all the administrative affairs and strived to enhance the welfare of his people. He also focused on education for the youth and courtesy for people, which made his district famous for most excellent behaviors in the nation. After that, the people have long paid tribute to his feats.

During the insurrection of Yi Jagyeom in the 4th year of King Injong of Goryeo's reign in 1126, he was killed by a rebellious band led by Cheok Jun-gyeong while escorting the king. After the rebels were put down, Song In was posthumously named 'meritous subject' and titled Lord Sangsanbaek (상산백).

Song In was born in Durujinmaeul (village), Duchon-ri, Deoksan-myeon in 1125 during the reign of King Injong of the Goryeo Dynasty. He was promoted to Pyeonjangsa, which was the highest government position in the period.

Tomb of Song In[link]

Chungcheongbuk-do Monument No. 91 Location: Duchon-ri, Deoksan-myeon, Jincheon-gun

This is the tomb of Song In (?-1126). It has a rectangular-shaped protective wall surrounding the tomb, typical of the Goryeo style. There are two tombstones erected in the late Joseon Dynasty period.

In the grave area, there are many tombs that belong to the clan. In front of his tomb stands the jaesil (chamber for memorial rites) with the tablet reading 'Sangsanjae'.

His grave is in Duchon-ri, Deoksan-myeon, which had been called Duruji, Sanjeong-myeon. The beautiful peak behind his grave is called Mountain Bibong which was named after Bongsae (bird) that is said to live in heaven and to fly down to sit on the summit. However, after the statue was inscribed of In Gong, the founder of Jincheon Song, the peak was compared to a slowly dropped ume flower. Thus, Mountain Bibong was called Maesanbibong, in which 'Mae' was named after an ume flower instead of a bird.

As he was a meritorious subject and served as a Pyeongjangsa (higher government official), the government ordered his grave mound to be surrounded by stones and a monument. The grave is one of the oldest ones in Jincheon and is recorded in Seokchong (stone tomb) in Hwanyeoseungram.

Thousands of descendents of Jincheon Song are living across the nation. Song Guk-cheom and Song Eon-gi who were devoted to fight against the Mongolian invasion into Goryeo are also the offspring of Jincheonbaek.

See also[link]

• Song (Korean name)
• Bon-gwan

References[link]

External links[link]

• Photo of the tomb
• Song In
• Monument 91, Tomb of Song In
• Jincheon Song bon-gwan information (Korean)
• Jincheon Song bon-gwan website (Korean)
• http://www.jincheon.go.kr/english/sub04/sub0404_01.jsp

This Korean biographical article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e

This Korean history-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e

Paul Stamets holding Fomitopsis officinalis.

Paul E. Stamets (born July 17, 1955) is an American mycologist, author, and advocate of bioremediation and medicinal mushrooms.^[1]

Research and advocacy[link]

Stamets is on the editorial board of The International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms, and is an advisor to the Program for Integrative Medicine at the University of Arizona Medical School, Tucson, Arizona. He is active in researching the medicinal properties of mushrooms,^[2] and is involved in two NIH-funded clinical studies on cancer and HIV treatments using mushrooms as adjunct therapies. Having filed numerous patents on the antiviral, pesticidal, and remediative properties of mushroom mycelia, his work has been called pioneering and visionary.^[3] A strong advocate of preserving biodiversity, Stamets supports research into the role of mushrooms for ecological restoration.

The author of numerous books and papers on the subject of mushroom identification and cultivation, Stamets has discovered four new species of mushrooms. He is an advocate of the permaculture system of growing, and considers fungiculture a valuable but underutilized aspect of permaculture. He is also a leading researcher into the use of mushrooms in bioremediation, processes he terms mycoremediation and mycofiltration.

Stamets was the recipient of the "Bioneers Award" from The Collective Heritage Institute in 1998,^[4] as well as the "Founder of a New Northwest Award" from the Pacific Rim Association of Resource Conservation and Development Councils in 1999. He was also named one of Utne Reader's "50 Visionaries Who Are Changing Your World" in their November–December 2008 issue. In February 2010, Paul received the President's Award from the Society for Ecological Restoration: Northwest Chapter, in recognition of his contributions to Ecological Restoration. His work was featured in the documentary film The 11th Hour.^[5] He has also been featured in the eco-documentary films Dirt (film)^[6] and 2012, Time for a Change (film).^[7]

In 2008, he delivered a TED talk: "Paul Stamets on 6 Ways Mushrooms Can Save the World",^[8] which has been well reviewed.^[9]

Personal life[link]

Stamets runs Fungi Perfecti, a family-owned company that sells mushroom cultivation kits and supplies. Stamets has two children, Azureus and LaDena Stamets, and is married to C. "Dusty" Wu Yao. Paul Stamets is an accomplished martial arts athlete, holding a black belt in Taekwondo (1979), and also in Hwa Rang Do (1994).

Books[link]

• Mycelium Running: How Mushrooms Can Help Save the World (2005, ISBN 1-58008-579-2)
• MycoMedicinals: An Informational Treatise on Mushrooms (1999, ISBN 0-9637971-9-0)
• Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World (1996, ISBN 0-89815-839-7)
• Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms (1996, ISBN 1-58008-175-4)
• Mushroom Cultivator, The (1983, ISBN 0-9610798-0-0)
• Psilocybe Mushrooms & Their Allies (1978), Homestead Book Company, ISBN 0-930180-03-8)

References[link]

External links[link]

• Stamets's Bio at Fungi Perfecti
• Stamets' TED talk, Stamets' Ted Talk from Mar 2008.
• Stamets' TEDMed talk 2011

This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (June 2009)

Carole James
MLA for Victoria-Beacon Hill
Incumbent
Assumed office 2005
Preceded by	Jeff Bray
Leader of the Opposition in the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia
In office 2005–2011
Preceded by	Joy MacPhail
Succeeded by	Dawn Black
Personal details
Born	Carole Alison James (1957-12-22) December 22, 1957 (age 54) Dukinfield, England
Political party	New Democratic
Residence	Victoria, British Columbia
Occupation	school trustee, social worker

Carole Alison James, MLA (born December 22, 1957) is a Canadian politician and former public administrator. She is the former Leader of the Opposition in British Columbia and former leader of the British Columbia New Democratic Party (NDP), a social democratic political party. She announced her intention to resign as leader on December 6, 2010 and was officially replaced by interim leader Dawn Black on January 20, 2011.^[1][2]

Background[link]

James was born in Dukinfield, Cheshire, England, and raised in North Battleford, Saskatchewan, and in Victoria, British Columbia. After graduating from high school, James and her first husband worked in institutions for the developmentally disabled in Alberta and British Columbia. As a mother of young children, Alison and Evan, she became involved in a parents' group in Victoria, which led to her first foray into politics.^[3] James is part Métis, and in 2004 married her long-time partner, Albert Gerow, a First Nations artist and former Burns Lake municipal councillor and Royal Canadian Mounted Police officer.

James has been a foster parent for over twenty years.

On July 13, 2006, James announced publicly that she had been diagnosed with localized uterine endometrial cancer.^[4] She underwent surgery and radiation treatment and her prognosis is considered to be excellent.

Early career[link]

James served on the Greater Victoria School Board from 1990 to 2001, including seven terms as chair, and gained a province-wide profile in her unprecedented five terms as president of the BC School Trustees Association. She also served at the national level as vice-president of the Canadian School Boards Association. From 1999 to 2001, James held the position of director of child care policy for the British Columbia government. In addition, she served on several local and provincial panels and committees.^[5]

In 2001, James ran unsuccessfully for the NDP in the riding of Victoria-Beacon Hill only losing by 35 Votes to BC Liberal candidate Jeff Bray.^[6] She subsequently moved to Prince George, British Columbia to serve as the director of child and family services for Carrier Sekani Family Services, and later as co-ordinator of the Northern Aboriginal Authority for Families.^[5]

Leader of the Opposition[link]

James was elected leader of the provincial NDP on November 23, 2003.^[5] At the time of her election the party was suffering low morale in the wake of the 2001 provincial election, which had reduced the NDP to only two seats in the Legislative Assembly. During her campaign to win the party leadership, James pledged to modernize the NDP's ideology and internal structures and build a broader base of support for the party,^[7] a move which alienated some traditional supporters.

During the 2005 provincial election,^[5] James campaigned heavily on her name and image. On election night James and the NDP surprised many supporters and critics alike with a very strong electoral showing; the party winning 41.52% of the popular vote (a 19.96% increase from the 2001 election result) and 33 out of 79 seats in the Legislative Assembly. James also won her own seat in the riding of Victoria-Beacon Hill with 57.01% of the vote, defeating the incumbent B.C. Liberal MLA Jeff Bray by an almost 2-1 margin of victory.^[8] She was re-elected in 2009.^[3][5]

Leadership controversy and resignation[link]

On December 1, 2010, Jenny Kwan, a prominent party member, released a statement to the media criticizing James' leadership of the New Democratic Party, and calling for an immediate leadership convention.^[9][10][11] In response to Kwan's statement, James called an emergency caucus session to address opposition to her continued leadership.^[12] While the session was meant to take place on December 5, it was later postponed so that private discussions could take place with a group of thirteen caucus members opposed to James' continued leadership.^[13] On short notice on December 6, James announced she would resign the party's leadership.^[14][15] She continued in the position, however, until Dawn Black was chosen to act as Interim Leader.^[16][17]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official Biography, BC Legislative Assembly
• Biography, B.C. New Democratic Party

v t e New Democratic Party of Canada Party wings Federal New Democratic Party Provincial Alberta British Columbia Manitoba New Brunswick Newfoundland and Labrador Nova Scotia Ontario Prince Edward Island Saskatchewan Territorial Yukon Historical Toronto Quebec Federal level Leaders Woodsworth (CCF) Coldwell (CCF) Argue (CCF) Douglas Lewis Broadbent McLaughlin McDonough Layton Turmel Mulcair Leadership elections 1961 1971 1975 1989 1995 2003 2012 Parliamentary election candidates 1988 1993 1997 2000 2004 2006 2008 2011 Provincial level Current leaders Hanson - Yukon Dix - BC Mason - AB Nilson - SK Selinger - MB Horwath - ON Cardy - NB Dexter - NS Rodd - PE Michael - NL Most recent leadership elections Nova Scotia 2002 Newfoundland & Labrador 2006 Prince Edward Island 2006 New Brunswick 2007 Ontario 2009 Manitoba 2009 British Columbia 2011 Factions The Waffle Left Caucus Socialist Caucus New Politics Initiative Fightback See also History United Farmers Labour candidates and parties Ginger Group Co-operative Commonwealth Federation New Party New Democratic Youth of Canada