In linguistics, vowel length is the perceived duration of a vowel sound. Often the chroneme, or the "longness", acts like a consonant, and may etymologically be one, such as in Australian English. While not distinctive in most dialects of English, vowel length is an important phonemic factor in many other languages, for instance in Finnish, Fijian, Japanese, Old English, and Vietnamese. It plays a phonetic role in the majority of dialects of English English, and is said to be phonemic in a few other dialects, such as Australian English and New Zealand English. It also plays a lesser phonetic role in Cantonese, which is exceptional among the spoken variants of Chinese.

Many languages do not distinguish vowel length, and those that do usually distinguish between short vowels and long vowels. There are very few languages that distinguish three vowel lengths, for instance Luiseño. Some languages, such as Finnish, Estonian and Japanese, also have words where long vowels are immediately followed by more vowels, e.g. Japanese ''hōō'' "phoenix" or Estonian ''jäääär'' "ice edge".

Vowel length and related features

Stress is often reinforced by allophonic vowel length, especially when it is lexical. For example, French long vowels always occur on stressed syllables. Finnish, a language with two phonemic lengths, indicates the stress by adding allophonic length. This gives four distinctive lengths and five physical lengths: short and long stressed vowels, short and long unstressed vowels, and a half-long vowel, which is a short vowel found in a syllable immediately preceded by a stressed short vowel, e.g. ''i-so''.

Among the languages that have distinctive vowel length, there are some where it may only occur in stressed syllables, e.g. in the Alemannic German dialect and Egyptian Arabic. In languages such as Czech, Finnish or Classical Latin, vowel length is distinctive in unstressed syllables as well.

In some languages, vowel length is sometimes better analyzed as a sequence of two identical vowels. In Finnic languages, such as Finnish, the simplest example follows from consonant gradation: ''haka → haan''. In some cases, it is caused by a following chroneme, which is etymologically a consonant, e.g. ''jää'' " ← Proto-Uralic *''jäŋe''. In noninitial syllables, it is ambiguous if long vowels are vowel clusters — poems written in the Kalevala meter often syllabicate between the vowels, and an (etymologically original) intervocalic ''-h-'' is seen in this and some modern dialects (e.g. ''taivaan'' vs. ''taivahan'' "of the sky"). Morphological treatment of diphthongs is essentially similar to long vowels. Interestingly, some old Finnish long vowels have developed into diphthongs, but successive layers of borrowing have introduced the same long vowels again, such that the diphthong and the long vowel again contrast (e.g. ''nuotti'' "musical note" vs. ''nootti'' "diplomatic note").

In Japanese, most long vowels are the results of the phonetic change of diphthongs; ''au'' and ''ou'' became ''ō'', ''iu'' became ''yū'', ''eu'' became ''yō'', and now ''ei'' is becoming ''ē''. The change occurred after the loss of intervocalic phoneme /h/. For example, modern ''kyōto'' (Kyoto) exhibits the following changes: kyauto → kyoːto. Another example is ''shōnen'' (''boy''): seunen → syoːnen (shoːnen).

Phonemic vowel length

Many languages make a phonemic distinction between long and short vowels: Sanskrit, Japanese, Finnish, Hungarian, Kannada etc.

Long vowels may or may not be separate phonemes. In Latin and Hungarian, long vowels are separate phonemes from short vowels, thus doubling the number of vowel phonemes.

+ Latin vowels	rowspan="2"		! colspan="2"	! colspan="2"	! colspan="2"
! short !! long	! short !! long	! short !! long
Close vowel>High
Mid vowel	Mid
Open vowel	Low

Japanese long vowels are analyzed as either two same vowels or a vowel + the pseudo-phoneme , and the number of vowels is five.

+ Japanese vowels	rowspan="2"		! colspan="2"	! colspan="2"	! colspan="2"
! short !! long	! short !! long	! short !! long
Close vowel>High		or			or
Mid vowel	Mid		or			or
Open vowel	Low			or

Estonian has three distinctive lengths, but the third is suprasegmental, as it has developed from the allophonic variation caused by now-deleted grammatical markers. For example, half-long 'aa' in ''saada'' comes from the agglutination *''saata+ka'' "send+(imperative)", and the overlong 'aa' in ''saada'' comes from *''saa+ta'' "get+(infinitive)". One of the very few languages to have three lengths, independent of vowel quality or syllable structure, is Mixe. An example from Mixe is "guava", "spider", "knot". Similar claims have been made for Yavapai and Wichita.

Four-way distinctions have been claimed, but these are actually long-short distinctions on adjacent syllables. For example, in kiKamba, there is , , , "hit", "dry", "bite", "we have chosen for everyone and are still choosing".

Long vowels in English

Vowel length (i.e., "long" and "short"), when applied to English, has several different related meanings.

Traditional long and short vowels in English orthography

Traditionally, the vowels (as in ''bait beet bite boat beauty'') are said to be the "long" counterparts of the vowels (as in ''bat bet bit bot but'') which are said to be "short". This terminology reflects their pronunciation before the Great Vowel Shift.

Traditional English phonics teaching, at the preschool to first grade level, often used the term "long vowel" for any pronunciation that might result from the addition of a silent E (e.g., like) or other vowel letter as follows:

{| class=wikitable ! Letter !! "Short" !! "Long" !! Example |- align=center ! A a | || || "mat" / "mate" |- align=center ! E e | || || "pet" / "Pete" |- align=center ! I i | || || "twin" / "twine" |- align=center ! O o | || || "not" / "note" |- align=center ! U u | || || "cub" / "cube" |}

A mnemonic was that each vowel's long sound was its name.

In Middle English, the long vowels were generally written ''i..e, e..e, ea, a..e, o..e, oo, u..e.'' With the Great Vowel Shift, they came to be pronounced . Because ''ea'' and ''oo'' are digraphs, they are not called long vowels today. Under French influence, the letter ''u'' was replaced with ''ou'' (or final ''ow),'' so it is no longer considered a long vowel either. Thus the so-called "long vowels" of Modern English are those vowels written with the help of a silent ''e.''

Allophonic vowel length

In certain dialects of the modern English language, for instance General American and, to some extent, British Received Pronunciation, there is allophonic vowel length: vowel phonemes are realized as longer vowel allophones before voiced consonant phonemes in the coda of a syllable. For example, the vowel phoneme in ‘bat’ is realized as a short allophone in , because the phoneme is unvoiced, while the same vowel phoneme in ‘bad’ is realized as a slightly long allophone (which could be transcribed as ), because is voiced. (Incidentally, the final consonant allophones in these syllables also have different relative lengths; the of ''bat'' is longer than the of ''bad.'')

Symbolic representation of the two allophonic rules:

{| style="margin-left: 1em;" | || → || || $|\; \_\{\_-\}\; \backslash begin\{bmatrix\}\; +\; consonant\; \backslash \backslash \; +\; voiced\; \backslash end\{bmatrix\}$ |- | || → || |- | || → || || $|\; \_\{\_-\}\; \backslash begin\{bmatrix\}\; +\; consonant\; \backslash \backslash \; -\; voiced\; \backslash end\{bmatrix\}$ |- | || → || |}

In addition, the vowels of Received Pronunciation are commonly divided into short and long, as obvious from their transcription. The short vowels are (as in ''kit''), (as in ''foot''), (as in ''dress''), (as in ''strut''), (as in ''trap''), (as in ''lot''), and (as in the first syllable of ''ago'' and in the second of ''sofa''). The long vowels are (as in ''fleece''), (as in ''goose''), (as in ''nurse''), as in ''north'' and ''thought'', and (as in ''father'' and ''start''). While a different degree of length is indeed present, there are also differences in the ''quality'' (lax vs tense) of these vowels, and the currently prevalent view tends to emphasise the latter rather than the former.

Contrastive vowel length

In Australian English, there is contrastive vowel length in closed syllables between long and short and sometimes . The following can be minimal pairs of length for many speakers:

{| style="margin-left: 1em;" cellspacing="3" |- | ''bid'' || vs || as in ''beard'' |- | ''ferry'' || vs || ''fairy'' |- | ''can'' meaning ''able to'' || vs || as in ''tin can'' |- | ''cut'' || vs || ''cart'' |}

Origin

The long vowel may often be traced to assimilation. In Australian English, the second element of a diphthong has assimilated to the preceding vowel, giving the pronunciation of ''bared'' as , creating a contrast with ''bed'' . Another etymology is the vocalization of a fricative such as the voiced velar fricative or voiced palatal fricative, e.g. Finnish illative case, or even an approximant, as the English 'r'.

Estonian, of Finnic languages, exhibits a rare phenomenon, where allophonic length variation becomes phonemic following the deletion of the suffixes causing the allophony. Estonian already distinguishes two vowel lengths, but a third one has been introduced by this phenomenon. For example, the Finnic imperative marker *''-k'' caused the preceding vowels to be articulated shorter, and following the deletion of the marker, the allophonic length became phonemic, as shown in the example below. Similarly, the Australian English phoneme was created by the incomplete application of a rule extending before certain voiced consonants, a phenomenon known as the bad-lad split.

Many long vowels in the Indo-European languages were formed from short vowels and one of the laryngeal sounds, conventionally written h₁, h₂ and h₃. If a laryngeal followed a vowel in Proto-Indo-European, it was usually lost in its later descendants and the preceding vowel became long. However, Proto-Indo-European itself already possessed long vowels as well, usually as the result of older sound changes such as Szemerényi's law and Stang's law.

Notations in the Latin alphabet

IPA

In the International Phonetic Alphabet the sign (not a colon, but two triangles facing each other in an hourglass shape; Unicode ) is used for both vowel and consonant length. This may be doubled for an extra-long sound, or the top half () used to indicate a sound is "half long". A breve is used to mark a short vowel or consonant.

Estonian has a three-way phonemic contrast: :''saada'' "to get" :''saada'' "send!" :''sada'' "hundred"

Although not phonemic, the distinction can also be illustrated in certain accents of English: :''bead'' :''beat'' :''bid'' :''bit''

Diacritics

Macron (ā), used to indicate a long vowel in Maori, Latvian and many transcription schemes, including romanizations for Sanskrit and Arabic, the Hepburn romanization for Japanese, and Yale for Korean. While not part of their standard orthography, the macron is also used as a teaching aid in modern Latin and Ancient Greek textbooks.

* Breves (ă) are used to mark short vowels in several linguistic transcription systems, as well as in Vietnamese.

Acute accent (á), used to indicate a long vowel in Czech, Slovak, Old Norse, Hungarian and Irish.

Circumflex (â), used for example in Welsh. The circumflex is occasionally used as a surrogate for the macrons, particularly in the Kunrei-shiki romanization of Japanese.

Grave accent (à) is used in Scottish Gaelic.

Ogonek (ą), used in Lithuanian to indicate long vowels.

Umlaut mark (ä), used in Aymara to indicate long vowels.

Additional letters

Vowel doubling, used consistently in Estonian, Finnish, Lombard and in closed syllables in Dutch. Example: Finnish ''tuuli'' 'wind' vs. ''tuli'' 'fire'.

* Estonian also has a rare "overlong" vowel length, but does not distinguish this from the normal long vowel in writing; see the example below.

Consonant doubling after short vowels is very common in Swedish and other Germanic languages, including English. The system is somewhat inconsistent, especially in loan-words, around consonant clusters and with word final nasal consonants. Examples:

: Consistent use: ''byta'' 'to change' vs ''bytta'' 'tub' and ''koma'' 'coma' vs ''komma'' 'to come' : Inconsistent use: ''fält'' 'a field' and ''kam'' 'a comb' (but the verb 'to comb' is ''kamma'') Classical Milanese orthography uses consonant doubling in closed short syllables, e.g., ''lenguagg'' 'language' and ''pubblegh'' 'public'. ''ie'' is used to mark the long sound in German. This is due to the preservation and generalization of a historical ''ie'' spelling that originally represented the sound . In northern German, a following ''e'' letter lengthens other vowels as well, e.g., in the name Kues .

A following ''h'' is frequently used in German and older Swedish spelling, e.g., German ''Zahn'' [tsaːn] 'tooth'.

In Czech, the additional letter ů is used for the long U sound, where the character is known as a kroužek, e.g., ''kůň'' "horse". (This actually developed from the ligature "uo", which signified the diphthong /uo/, which later shifted to /uː/.)

Other signs

Apostrophe, used in Mi'kmaq, as evidenced by the name itself. This is the convention of the Listuguj orthography (Mi'gmaq), and a common substitution for the official acute accent (Míkmaq) of the Francis-Smith orthography.

Colon (punctuation), commonly used as an approximation of the IPA phonetic transcription, and in a few orthographies based on the IPA.

Interpunct, commonly used in non-IPA phonetic transcription, such as the Americanist system developed by linguists for transcribing the indigenous languages of the Americas. Example: Americanist = IPA .

No distinction

Some languages make no distinction in writing. This is particularly the case with ancient languages such as Latin and Old English. Modern edited texts often use macrons with long vowels, however. Australian English does not distinguish the vowels from in spelling, with words like ‘span’ or ‘can’ having different pronunciations depending on meaning.

Notations in other writing systems

In non-Latin writing systems, a variety of mechanisms have also evolved.

In abjads derived from the Aramaic alphabet, notably Arabic and Hebrew, long vowels are written with consonant letters (mostly approximant consonant letters) in a process called ''mater lectionis'', while short vowels are typically omitted entirely. Most of these scripts also have optional diacritics that can be used to mark short vowels when needed.

In South-Asian abugidas, such as Devanagari or the Thai alphabet, there are different vowel signs for short and long vowels.

In the Japanese hiragana syllabary, long vowels are usually indicated by adding a vowel character after. For vowels , , and , the corresponding independent vowel is added. Thus: (a), , "okaasan", mother; (i), にいがた "Niigata", city in northern Japan (usu. , in kanji); (u), "ryuu" (usu. ), dragon. The mid-vowels and may be written with (e) (rare) ( (), neesan, "elder sister") and (o) [ (usu ), ookii, big] , or with (i) ( (), "meirei", command/order) and (u) ( (), ousama, "king") depending on etymological, morphological, and historic grounds.

Most long vowels in the katakana syllabary are written with a special bar symbol (vertical in vertical writing), called a chōon, as in ''mēkā'' "maker" instead of ''meka'' "mecha". However, some long vowels are written with additional vowel characters, as with hiragana, with the distinction being orthographically significant.

In the Korean Hangul alphabet, vowel length is not distinguished in normal writing. Some dictionaries use a double dot, , for example “Daikon radish”.

References

Some Features of the Vernacular Finnish of Jyväskylä

Category:Phonetics Category:Vowels

br:Hirder vogalennek de:Vokalquantität fr:Quantité vocalique ko:모음의 길이 it:Quantità vocalica ms:Kepanjangan vokal ja:長母音 pl:Iloczas pt:Quantidade vocálica zh:元音長度

Coordinates	32.30°′″N72.34°′″N
name	Mark D
birth name	Mark Randall
nationality	British
field	Painting
movement	Stuckism }}

Mark D, born Mark Randall, is a British artist and punk musician (guitarist and songwriter). He is also associated with the Stuckist group of artists.

Life and work

Mark D was born and spent his childhood in Peterborough. He now lives in Nottingham. From university onwards, Mark D (D standing for "degenerate") played in various bands including the Fat Tulips, Confetti (when he was known as David), the Pleasure Heads (when he was known as Mark Randyhead), Oscar, Servalan and Sundress, and appeared on dozens of releases. He published and edited fanzines, including the underground C86 fanzine ''Two Pint Take Home''. He is a co-owner of Heaven Records.

The Fat Tulips were formed in 1987 and have been described as "incredibly skilled in the art of buzzing electric guitars, ferocious tempos, pristine pop melodies and lyrics that weren’t nearly as sweet as they sounded at first listen."

A few years after the Fat Tulips broke up in the mid-1990s, he started a dealership in art and antiques with his wife, Tully, focusing on work from the 1960s and 1970s, including John Piper, Stig Lindberg, Lucienne Day and John Clappison.

An interest in the music of Billy Childish led onto Childish's paintings, which he acquired, and subsequently also the work of other artists in the Stuckist group. He contacted two artists who had been exhibited by the Stuckists, Stella Vine and Gina Bold, both of whom refused to sell him work, because of his connection with Childish. Vine responded with an email, which said, "Go fuck yourself".

Frustrated at not being able to acquire that work for his collection and inspired by an Andy Warhol quote, "If you want to sell paintings you have to make paintings", Mark D began in May 2005 to make his own paintings, for which he had no formal training or qualifications ("my only qualification is a love of art"). He was encouraged and given advice by Stuckist co-founder, Charles Thomson, without whom Mark D said, "I could easily have given up on doing my own work."

His paintings make visual and verbal comments on well-known figures in the art world, starting with Billy Childish, Tracey Emin, Stella Vine and Damien Hirst. He describes Emin as "without doubt a very talented artist whose work I greatly admire." In response to the controversy over the Tate's purchase of its trustee Chris Ofili's work, ''The Upper Room'', he painted a picture of the Tate Chairman, Paul Myners—who had defended the purchase—called ''The Hypocrisy of Myners''. A reproduction of this work was featured on a placard outside the Turner Prize in December 2005 during a Stuckist demonstration against the purchase.

Mark D first exhibited in September 2005 with the Stuckists at La Viande gallery, Shoreditch, in a show ''''Painting Is the Medium of Yesterday"—Paul Myners CBE, Chairman of Tate Gallery, Chairman of Marks and Spencer, Chairman of Aspen Insurance, Chairman of Guardian Media, Director of Bank of England, Director of Bank of New York. A Show of Paintings by the Stuckists, as Refused by the Tate Gallery. Guaranteed 100% Free of Elephant Dung.''

His solo show, ''Mark D and the Stuckists v Tracey Emin and Damien Hirst'', was at the Art Organisation gallery in March 2007. It included a display of material about Stuckist demonstrations. As well as his own paintings he showed paintings by other Stuckist artists from his collection, which he jointly owns with his wife, Tully, and states is "the world's largest collection of Stuckist paintings".

In February 2008, he staged a show of his paintings, which satirise Stella Vine's images of Princess Diana and Kate Moss, replacing the former with Victoria Beckham and showing Moss eating slugs. The exhibition, held jointly with Abby Jackson at La Viande gallery in Shoreditch, London, was called ''Disney Heroines Committing Suicide''.

He names Alfred Wallis, John Bellany, Bryan Pearce, and Stella Vine as influences, and sums up his artistic and musical philosophy with a derivation from punk:

Some outstanding musicians have proved that all you need are 3 chords and a cheap guitar to come up with a classic. I find it much more interesting to listen to some low budget production record full of life and energy with lots of good ideas, (e.g. early Clash and Velvet Underground, The Vaselines, The White Stripes and, of course, Billy Childish with the Buff Medways etc.) than some over-produced bland pomp like Athlete, Coldplay or U2.

Charles Thomson described his work as "brilliant punk paintings".

Gallery

See also

Stuckism

The Upper Room (paintings)

Fat Tulips

Confetti (band)

References

External links

Mark D paintings on the Stuckism International site

The Fat Tulips official site

The Fat Tulips discography

Category:Living people Category:English painters Category:Contemporary painters Category:Stuckism Category:English male singers Category:English guitarists