William S. Paley
New York, 1939
Born	(1901-09-28)September 28, 1901 Chicago, Illinois
Died	October 26, 1990(1990-10-26) (aged 89) New York City
Cause of death	Kidney failure
Nationality	American
Education	The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania
Occupation	television executive
Known for	running CBS
Spouse	Dorothy Hart Hearst (m. 1932–1947) «start: (1932)–end+1: (1948)»"Marriage: Dorothy Hart Hearst to William S. Paley" Location: (linkback:http://en-wiki.pop.wn.com/index.php/William_S._Paley) (divorce) Barbara "Babe" Cushing Mortimer (m. 1947–1978) «start: (1947)–end+1: (1979)»"Marriage: Barbara "Babe" Cushing Mortimer to William S. Paley" Location: (linkback:http://en-wiki.pop.wn.com/index.php/William_S._Paley) (her death)
Children	with Hearst: Jeffrey (adopted) Hilary (adopted) by Mortimer: William Kate
Parents	Samuel Paley

William S. Paley (September 28, 1901 – October 26, 1990) was the chief executive who built Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) from a small radio network into one of the foremost radio and television network operations in the United States.^[1]

Early life[link]

Paley's father, Samuel Paley, a Ukrainian Jewish immigrant, ran a cigar company and, as the company became increasingly successful, the new millionaire moved his family to Philadelphia in the early 1920s.^[2] William Paley matriculated at Western Military Academy in Alton, IL then received his college degree from the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania in expectation that he would take an increasingly active role running the family cigar business.^[2]

The younger Paley's career took a fateful turn in 1927 when his father, brother-in-law and some business partners bought a struggling Philadelphia-based radio network of 16 stations called the Columbia Phonographic Broadcasting System.^[3] Paley Senior's intention had been to use his acquisition as nothing more than an advertising medium for promoting the family's cigar business, which included the La Palina brand. Within a year, under William's leadership, cigar sales had more than doubled, and, in 1928, the Paley family secured majority ownership of the network. Within a decade, Paley had expanded the network to 114 affiliate stations with WCAU radio and later WCAU TV as the flagship stations.

Broadcasting pioneer[link]

During World War II, Paley served in the psychological warfare branch in the Office of War Information, under General Dwight Eisenhower, and held the rank of colonel. It was while based in London, England, during the war when Paley came to know and befriend Edward R. Murrow, CBS's head of European news.

Paley quickly grasped the earnings potential of radio and recognized that good programming was the key to selling advertising time and, in turn, bringing in profits to the network and to affiliate owners. Before Paley, most businessmen viewed radio stations as stand-alone outlets or, in other words, as the broadcast equivalent of local newspapers. Individual stations originally bought programming from the network and, thus, were considered the network's clients.

Paley changed broadcasting's business model not only by being a genius at developing successful and lucrative programming but also by viewing the advertisers (sponsors) as the most significant element of the broadcasting equation. Paley provided network programming to affiliate stations at nominal cost, thereby ensuring the widest possible distribution for both the programming and the advertising. The advertisers then became the network's primary clients and, because of the wider distribution brought by the growing network, Paley was able to charge more for the ad time. Affiliates were required to carry programming offered by the network for part of the broadcast day, receiving a portion of the network's fees from advertising revenue. At other times in the broadcast day, affiliates were free to offer local programming and sell advertising time locally.

Paley's recognition of how to harness the potential reach of broadcasting was the key to his growing CBS from a tiny chain of stations into what was eventually one of the world's dominant communication empires. During his prime, Paley was described as having an uncanny sense for popular taste^[4] and exploiting that insight to build the CBS network. As war clouds darkened over Europe in the late 1930s, Paley recognized Americans' desire for news coverage of the coming war and built the CBS news division into a dominant force just as he had previously built the network's entertainment division.

In 1946, Paley promoted Frank Stanton to president of CBS. CBS expanded into TV and rode the post-World War II boom to surpass NBC, which had dominated radio.

CBS has owned the Columbia Record Company and its associated CBS Laboratories since 1939. In 1948, Columbia Records introduced the 33-1/3-rpm long-playing vinyl disc to successfully compete with RCA Victor's 45-rpm vinyl disc. Also, CBS Laboratories and Peter Goldmark developed a method for color television. After lobbying by RCA President David Sarnoff and Paley in Washington, D.C., the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) approved the RCA color system as the standard, and CBS sold the patents to its system to foreign broadcasters as PAL SECAM. CBS was the last of the three broadcast networks to adopt color television, having to buy and license RCA equipment and technology. PAL or Phase Alternating Line, an analogue TV-encoding system, is today a television-broadcasting standard used in large parts of the world.

"Bill Paley erected two towers of power: one for entertainment and one for news," 60 Minutes creator Don Hewitt claimed in his autobiography, Tell Me a Story. "And he decreed that there would be no bridge between them.... In short, Paley was the guy who put Frank Sinatra and Edward R. Murrow on the radio and 60 Minutes on television."

The relationship between Paley and his news staff was not always smooth. His friendship with Ed Murrow, one of the leading lights in the CBS news division (and by then a vice president of CBS), suffered during the 1950s over the hard-hitting tone of the Murrow-hosted See It Now series. The implication was that the network's sponsors were uneasy about some of the controversial topics of the series, leading Paley to worry about lost revenue to the network as well as unwelcome scrutiny during the era of McCarthyism. In 1955, Alcoa withdrew its sponsorship of See It Now, and eventually the program's weekly broadcast on Tuesdays was stopped, though it continued as a series of special segments until 1958.

In 1959, James T. Aubrey, Jr., became the president of CBS. Under Aubrey, the network became the most popular on television with shows like The Beverly Hillbillies and Gilligan's Island. However, Paley's personal favorite was Gunsmoke; in fact, he was such a fan of Gunsmoke that, upon its threatened cancellation in 1967, he demanded that it be reinstated, a dictum that led to the abrupt demise of Gilligan's Island, which had already been renewed for a fourth season.

During the 1963–1964 television season, 14 of the top 15 shows on prime-time and the top 12 shows of daytime television were on CBS. Aubrey, however, fought constantly with Fred W. Friendly of CBS News, and Paley did not like Aubrey's taste in low-brow programming. Aubrey and Paley bickered to the point that Aubrey approached Frank Stanton to propose a take-over of CBS. The takeover never materialized and, when CBS's ratings began to slip, Paley fired Aubrey in 1965.

In 1972, Paley ordered the shortening of a second installment of a two-part CBS Evening News series on the Watergate, based on a complaint by Charles Colson, an aide to President Richard M. Nixon. And later, Paley briefly ordered the suspension of instant and often negatively critical analyses by CBS news commentators, which followed the Presidential addresses.

Over the years, Paley sold portions of his family stockholding in CBS. At the time of his death, he owned less than nine percent of the outstanding stock. In 1995, five years after Paley's death, CBS was bought by Westinghouse Electric Corporation and, in 1999, by Viacom, which itself was once a subsidiary of CBS. Today, CBS is owned by the CBS Corporation, after being spun off from Viacom in 2006. National Amusements is the majority owner of the CBS Corporation and the "new" Viacom.

Other interests[link]

In the 1940s, William Paley and Dr. Leon Levy formed Jaclyn Stable, which owned and raced a string of thoroughbred race horses. Paley formed a modern art collection with as many as 40 major works, and he enjoyed photographing Picasso in Cap d'Antibes. Like Picasso, Paley drove an exotic French Facel Vega Facel II, the fastest four-seater car in the world in the early 1960s.^[5]

In 1964, CBS purchased the New York Yankees from the Del Webb Company. Subsequently, the storied baseball team fell into mediocrity, not making the postseason for the next ten years. In 1973, Paley sold the team at its low ebb for $8.7 million to Cleveland shipbuilder George Steinbrenner and a group of investors. In April 2006, Forbes Magazine estimated that the Yankees were worth $1.26 billion.

Philanthropy[link]

Encouraged by Paley's avid interest in modern art and his outstanding collection, Paley became a trustee of the Rockefeller family's Museum of Modern Art in the 1930s and, in 1962, was tapped by then-chairman David Rockefeller to be its president. In 1968, he joined a syndicate with Rockefeller and others to buy six works by Picasso for the museum from the notable Gertrude Stein collection. He subsequently became chairman, stepping down from the museum post in 1985.^[6]

The Paley Center for Media in Los Angeles and New York City was founded by Paley in 1976, when it was known as the Museum of Broadcasting. From 1991 to 2007, it was known as The Museum of Television and Radio; its new location was known as the Paley Building.

In 1974, Paley dedicated the second building at the S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications at Syracuse University. He also personally dedicated the library at Temple University named in honor of his father, Samuel L. Paley.

Personal life[link]

Marriage to Dorothy Hart Hearst[link]

Paley met Dorothy Hart Hearst (1908–1998) while she was married to John Randolph Hearst, the third son of William Randolph Hearst. Paley fell in love with her, and, after her Las Vegas divorce from Hearst, she and Paley married on May 12, 1932, in Kingman, Arizona.^[7]

Dorothy called on her extensive social connections acquired during her previous marriage to introduce Paley to several top members of President Franklin Roosevelt's government. She also exerted a considerable influence over Paley's political views. She later said: "I can’t believe he would have voted Democrat without me."^[4]

Dorothy began to become estranged from Paley during the early 1940s because of his constant womanizing. They divorced on July 24, 1947, in Reno, Nevada, and she retained custody of their two adopted children, Jeffrey Paley and Hilary Paley. In 1953, Dorothy married stockbroker Walter Hirshon; they divorced in 1961.^[7]

Marriage to Barbara Cushing Mortimer[link]

Paley married divorcée, socialite and fashion icon Barbara "Babe" Cushing Mortimer (1915–1978) on July 28, 1947. She was the daughter of renowned neurosurgeon Harvey Cushing. Paley and his second wife, in spite of their successes and social standing, were barred from being members of country clubs on Long Island because he was Jewish. As an alternative, the Paleys built a summer home, "Kiluna North," on Squam Lake in New Hampshire and spent the summers there for many years, routinely entertaining their many friends, including Lucille Ball, Grace Kelly and David O. Selznick. The house was later donated to Dartmouth College and converted to use as a conference center. The couple had two children, William and Kate.

Other affairs[link]

As noted, Paley was a notorious ladies' man who was adored by women his whole life. Indeed, his first marriage to Dorothy ended when a newspaper published the suicide note written to Paley by a former girlfriend. Resulting from another relationship, he provided a stipend to a former lover, actress Louise Brooks, for the rest of her life. In his later years, he enjoyed keeping company with a coterie of devoted lady friends. Paley was included in a list of the ten most eligible bachelors compiled by Cosmopolitan magazine in 1985; the irony of the octogenarian Paley being on the list was an inspiration for Late Night with David Letterman's nightly Top Ten lists.^[8]

Death[link]

Paley died of kidney failure on October 26, 1990. He was 89.^[1]

Works[link]

• As It Happened: A Memoir (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1979)

Awards and honors[link]

• Croix de Guerre with Palm, 1946
• Legion of Honor
• Legion of Merit, 1946
• Peabody Award, 1958 and 1961
• Inducted into the Junior Achievement U.S. Business Hall of Fame, 1984

In popular culture[link]

In the 1986 television movie Murrow, Paley is played by Dabney Coleman, while in the 2005 film Good Night, and Good Luck, he is played by Frank Langella. In the 2006 film Infamous, Paley is played by Lee Ritchey.

See also[link]

Biography portal

• History of television

References[link]

Notes

Further reading

• Museum of Broadcast Communication's page on William Paley
• Business Week article about William Paley, June 1, 2004
• Paper, Lewis J. Empire: William S. Paley and the Making of CBS (New York, St. Martin's Press, 1987)
• Sally Bedell Smith (1948- ), In All His Glory: the Life and Times of William S. Paley and the Birth of Modern Broadcasting (New York, Simon and Schuster, 1990) 782 pages

External links[link]

• Papers of William S. Paley (1944, 1969), Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
• William S. Paley at Find a Grave
• Booknotes interview with Sally Bedell Smith on In All His Glory: The Life of William Paley, December 9, 1990.

William Paley
William Paley (1743-1805)
Born	July 1743 Peterborough, England
Died	25 May 1805 Bishopwearmouth, England
Residence	England
Nationality	English
Fields	Theology, philosophy, natural history
Institutions	Giggleswick Grammar School, Christ's College (Cambridge University), Giggleswick Parish, Carlisle Cathedral, Lincoln Cathedral, Durham Cathedral
Alma mater	Christ's College, Cambridge
Known for	Contributions to moral philosophy, political philosophy, ethics and philosophy of religion
Notable awards	Members' Prize, Cambridge, 1765

William Paley (July 1743 – 25 May 1805) was an English Christian apologist, philosopher, and utilitarian. He is best known for his exposition of the teleological argument for the existence of God in his work Natural Theology, which made use of the watchmaker analogy (also see natural theology).

Life[link]

Paley was Born in Peterborough, England, and was educated at Giggleswick School, of which his father was headmaster, and at Christ's College, Cambridge. He graduated in 1763 as senior wrangler, became fellow in 1766, and in 1768 tutor of his college.^[1] He lectured on Samuel Clarke, Joseph Butler and John Locke in his systematic course on moral philosophy, which subsequently formed the basis of his Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy; and on the New Testament, his own annotated copy of which is in the British Library. The subscription controversy was then agitating the university, and Paley published an anonymous defence of a pamphlet in which the Master of Peterhouse and Bishop of Carlisle Edmund Law had advocated the retrenchment and simplification of the Thirty-nine Articles; he did not, however, sign the petition (called the "Feathers Tavern" petition, from being drawn up at a meeting at the Feathers Tavern) for a relaxation of the terms of subscription. He was also a strong supporter of the American colonies during the revolutionary war, partly because he thought it would lead to the destruction of slavery. He studied philosophy.

In 1776 Paley was presented to the rectory of Musgrave in Westmorland, which was exchanged soon after for Appleby. He was subsequently made vicar of Dalston in 1780, near the bishop's palace at Rose Castle. In 1782 he became the Archdeacon of Carlisle. Paley was intimate with the Law family throughout his life, and the Bishop and his son John Law (who was later an Irish bishop) were instrumental during the decade after he left Cambridge in pressing him to publish his revised lectures and in negotiating with the publisher. In 1782 Edmund Law, otherwise the mildest of men, was most particular that Paley should add a book on political philosophy to the moral philosophy, which Paley was reluctant to write. The book was published in 1785 under the title of The Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy, and was made a part of the examinations at the University of Cambridge the next year. It passed through fifteen editions in the author's lifetime. Paley strenuously supported the abolition of the slave trade, and his attack on slavery in the book was instrumental in drawing greater public attention to the evil trade. In 1789 a speech he gave on the subject in Carlisle was published.

Some of his other political, social and economic ideas are remarkably advanced. He defends the right of the poor to steal, particularly if they are in need of food, and proposes a graduated income tax in order to limit excessive accumulations of wealth in few hands. He was also an advocate of enabling women to take up careers, rather than perpetually to depend on the property owned and inherited by male relations. (He was well aware of the fact that women lower in the social scale worked - his argument was with the system which prevented talented and capable middle-class women from taking a role in the economy.)

Paley's famous, and controversial, fable of the pigeons, which has a strong criticism of the system of property ownership and of the draconian means used to defend it - the Bloody Code - is found in Book III of Principles. John Law tried to get Paley to remove the passage, because it would prevent him becoming a bishop. Paley refused.

His political views are said to have debarred him from the highest positions in the Church, the King, George III, at one point saying, Pigeon Paley? Not sound, not sound. Even so, he was offered the Mastership of Jesus College, Cambridge, in 1789, by the Bishop of Ely, but he turned it down, being content with his life in Carlisle, and not wishing to disrupt his children's education. John Law observed at this time that "Paley has missed a mitre".

The Principles was followed in 1790 by his first essay in the field of Christian apologetics, Horae Paulinae, or the Truth of the Scripture History of St Paul which compared the Paul's epistles with the Acts of the Apostles, making use of "undesigned coincidences" to argue that these documents mutually supported each other's authenticity. Some have said this book was the most original of Paley's works. It was followed in 1794 by the celebrated View of the Evidences of Christianity, which was also added to the examinations at Cambridge, remaining on the syllabus until the 1920s.

For his services in defence of the faith, with the publication of the Evidences, the Bishop of London gave him a stall in St Paul's; the Bishop of Lincoln made him subdean of that cathedral, and the Bishop of Durham conferred upon him the rectory of Bishopwearmouth. The income he drew from these positions alone would have made him one of the wealthiest clergymen in England - wealthier than many bishops, and even some noblemen. But he also inherited several thousand pounds from his father-in-law, a commercial magnate, in the same year.^[2] This was quite a transformation from his poverty stricken life in Greenwich, of which time he once said he would have educated the bastards of a nobleman and married his cast-off mistress into the bargain.^[3] He wrote to his sister at this time that he thought the bishops had "all gone mad". The world had indeed gone mad on Paley. The King now wondered why he never saw Paley at Court (Paley persistently refused to attend, despite his former pupil Henry Majendie repeatedly asking him to meet the King), and "would not be without" a copy of the Evidences, of which he kept copies in all of his residences. During the remainder of Paley's life his time was divided between Bishopwearmouth and Lincoln, during which time he wrote Natural Theology, despite his increasingly debilitating illness. He died on 25 May 1805.

Thought[link]

Paley's Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy was one of the most influential philosophical texts in late Enlightenment Britain. It was cited in several Parliamentary debates over the corn laws in Britain, and in debates in the US Congress. The book remained a set textbook at Cambridge well into the Victorian era. Even Charles Darwin was required to read it when he studied at Christ's College. But it was Natural Theology that Darwin was most impressed with, though it was not a book undergraduates were required to read.

Paley is also remembered for his contributions to the philosophy of religion, utilitarian ethics and Christian apologetics. In 1802 he published Natural Theology; or, Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity, his last book. As he states in the preface, he saw the book as a preamble to his other philosophical and theological books; in fact, he suggests that Natural Theology should be read first, so as to build a systematic understanding of his arguments. The main thrust of his argument was that God's design of the whole creation could be seen in the general happiness, or well-being, that was evident in the physical and social order of things. Such a book fell within the broad tradition of natural theology works written during the Enlightenment; and this explains why Paley based much of his thought on Ray (1691) and Derham (1711) and Nieuwentyt (1750).

Although Paley devotes a chapter of Natural Theology to astronomy, written by his old friend John Law and the Dublin Astronomer Royal John Brinkley, they did not consider astronomy to provide sound evidence of "designedness." Paley's argument is built mainly around anatomy and natural history. "For my part," he says, "I take my stand in human anatomy"; elsewhere he insists upon "the necessity, in each particular case, of an intelligent designing mind for the contriving and determining of the forms which organized bodies bear." In making his argument, Paley employed a wide variety of metaphors and analogies. Perhaps the most famous is his analogy between a watch and the world. Historians, philosophers and theologians often call this the Watchmaker analogy. The germ of the idea is to be found in ancient writers who used sundials and Ptolemaic epicycles to illustrate the divine order of the world. These types of examples can be seen in the work of the ancient philosopher Cicero, especially in his De natura deorum, ii. 87 and 97 (see Hallam, Literature of Europe, ii. 385, note.). The watch analogy was widely used in the Enlightenment, by deists and Christians alike. Thus, Paley's use of the watch (and other mechanical objects like it) continued a long and fruitful tradition of analogical reasoning that was well received by those who read Natural Theology when it was published in 1802.

Legacy[link]

Since Paley is often read in university courses that address the philosophy of religion, the timing of his design argument has sometimes perplexed modern philosophers. Earlier in the century David Hume had argued against notions of design with counter examples drawn from monstrosity, imperfect forms of testimony and probability, and it has been assumed that Paley could not have read Hume. However, in both published works and in manuscript letters, you find that Paley was engaged directly with Hume from his time as an undergraduate to his last works. Hume's examples ring true with many 21st century readers, and they appealed to some of Paley's 18th-century contemporaries as well. Paley adopted a number of Hume's points, although he rejected most (but not all) of those aspects of his arguments which were considered to be inconsistent with Christian theology. Notably, Paley and Hume both rejected Scottish moral sense theory, on the grounds that one could not know with certainty that there was such a thing as a moral sense. Both based their philosophical hermeneutic in probability theory. Notions of evidence and probability were different then, being based in legal thought rather than statistics. Hume was trained as a lawyer, and Paley was regarded by his peers, some of whom were prominent lawyers themselves, as having one of the most acute legal minds of his age. Hume's arguments were only accepted gradually by the reading public, and his philosophical works sold poorly until agnostics like T H Huxley championed Hume's philosophy in the 19th century.

Scientific norms have changed greatly since Paley's day, and are inclined to do less than justice to his arguments and ways of reasoning. But his style is lucid and was willing to present transparently the evidence against his own case. His subject matter was central to Victorian anxieties, which might be one reason Natural Theology continued to appeal to the reading public, making his book a best seller for most of the 19th century, even after the publication of Darwin's Origin of Species. Natural Theology and the Evidences of Christianity appealed to Victorian Evangelicals, although not so much to adherents of the Oxford Movement - and both found his utilitarianism objectionable. Paley's views influenced (both positively and negatively) theologians, philosophers and scientists, then and since.

In addition to Moral and Political Philosophy and the Evidences Charles Darwin read Natural Theology during his student years and later stated in his autobiography that he was initially convinced by the argument. His views changed with time. By the 1820s and 1830s, well-known liberals like Thomas Wakley and other radical editors of The Lancet were using Paley's aging examples to attack the establishment's control over medical and scientific education in Durham, London, Oxford and Cambridge. It also inspired the Earl of Bridgewater to commission the Bridgewater Treatises and the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge to issue cheap reprints for the rising middle class.

Today, Paley's name evokes both reverence and revulsion and his work is cited accordingly by authors seeking to frame the history of human thought. Even Richard Dawkins, an opponent of the design argument, described himself as a neo-paleyan in The Blind Watchmaker. Today, as in his own time (though for different reasons), Paley is a controversial figure, a lightning rod for both sides in the contemporary "war between science and religion". Consequently, it is difficult to read him with objectivity, as his writings reflect the thought of his time, but as Dawkins observed, his was a strong and logical approach to evidence, whether human or natural. The Oxford constitutional theorist A.V. Dicey had his pupils read the Evidences to teach them about legal reasoning. It is for such reasons that Paley's writings, Natural Theology included, stand as a notable body of work in the canon of Western thought.

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Brown, Miracles and the Critical Mind, Paternoster, Exeter UK/William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, 1984.
• Brooke, John H. Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1991.
• Clarke, M.L., Paley: Evidences for the Man, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1974.
• Dodds, G. L. Paley, Wearside and Natural Theology, Sunderland, 2003.
• Eddy, Matthew D., 'The Science and Rhetoric of Paley's Natural Theology', Literature and Theology, 18 (2004), 1-22.
• Fyfe, A. 'Publishing and the classics: Paley's Natural Theology and the nineteenth-century scientific canon', Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science, 33 (2002), 433-55.
• Gascoigne, J., 'Rise and Fall of British Newtonian Natural Theology', Science in Context, 2 (1988), 219-256.
• Gillespie, N. C. 'Divine Design and the Industrial Revolution. William Paley's Abortive Reform of Natural Theology', Isis, 81 (1990), 214-229.
• Gilson, E., From Aristotle to Darwin and Back again: A Journey in Final Causality, Species, and Evolution, John Lyon (trans), Notre Dame University Press, London 1984.
• Hodder and Sloughton, Philosophy of Religion
• Knight, David. Science and Spirituality: The Volatile Connection, Routledge, London, 2004.
• LeMahieu, D.L. The Mind of William Paley, Lincoln, Nebraska, 1976.
• McAdoo, H. R., The Spirit of Anglicanism: A Survey of Anglican Theological Method in the Seventeenth Century (London, 1965).
• McGrath, A. E., A Scientific Theology: Volume I, Nature, Continuum, Edinburgh, 2001.
• Meadley, G. W. Memoirs of William Paley, to which is Added an Appendix, London, 1809.
• Ospovat, D. The Development of Darwin's Theory: Natural History, Natural Theology and Natural Selection, 1838-1859, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995.
• Paley, E. An Account of the Life and Writings of William Paley, [1825], Farnborough: Gregg, 1970; originally, this was the first volume of The Works of William Paley, London, 1825.
• Paley, William, Natural Theology, with an introduction and notes by Matthew D. Eddy and David M. Knight, Oxford University Press, 2006.
• Pelikan, J. Christianity and Classical Culture: The Metamorphosis of Natural Theology in the Christian Encounter with Hellenism, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1993.
• Philipp, W. 'Physicotheology in the Age of Enlightenment: Appearance and History', Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, 57 (1967), 1233-1267.
• Porter, R. 'Creation and Credence', in Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin (eds), Natural Order: Historical Studies of Scientific Culture, Sage Press, Beverly Hills, 1979.
• Raven, C. Natural Religion and Christian Theology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1953.
• Richards, R. J. The Romantic Conception of Life: Science and Philosophy in the Age of Goethe, Chicago University Press, Chicago, 2002.
• Rose, J. The Intellectual Life of the British Working Classes, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2002.
• Rosen, Frederick, Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill (Routledge Studies in Ethics & Moral Theory), 2003. ISBN 0-415-22094-7
• Rousseau, G. S. and Roy Porter (eds), The Ferment of Knowledge – Studies in the Historiography of Eighteenth Century Science, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1980.
• St Clair, W. The Reading Nation in the Romantic Period, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2004.
• Topham, J. R. 'Science, natural theology, and evangelicalism in the early nineteenth century: Thomas Chalmers and the evidence controversy', in D. N. Livingstone, D. G. Hart and M. A. Knoll, Evangelicals and Science in Historical Perspective (Oxford: 1999), 142-174.
• Topham, J. R. 'Beyond the "Common Context": the Production and Reading of the Bridgewater Treatises', Isis, 89 (1998), 233-62.
• Viner, J. The Role of Providence in the Social Order, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, 1972.
• Von Sydow, M. 'Charles Darwin: A Christian undermining Christianity?', in David M. Knight and Matthew D. Eddy, Science and Beliefs: From Natural Philosophy to Natural Science, Ashgate, Aldershot, 2005

External links[link]

• Works by William Paley at Project Gutenberg
• William Paley entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/paley.html
• http://williampaley.com
• Paley, William (1809), Natural Theology: or, Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity (12th ed.), London: Printed for J. Faulder, http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A142&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 
• Excerpt from William Paley's 1802 book Natural Theology [1]

Zoe McLellan (born November 6, 1974 in La Jolla, California) is an American actress who is mostly recognized for her roles as Petty Officer Jennifer Coates on JAG and as Lisa George on ABC's Dirty Sexy Money.

Biography[link]

Born in La Jolla, she was raised in Washington state. Her parents divorced, and she has a half brother, Nathan, on her father's side; a step brother, Jeremy and a younger half-sister, Cassie, on her mother's side (from Minnesota). Zoe was Homecoming queen at South Kitsap High School in Port Orchard, Washington.

Career[link]

McLellan made a guest appearances on Diagnosis: Murder, (the episode "Blood Ties"), which was filmed as a pilot episode for a spin off series called Whispers which would have starred her and Kathy Evison. Ultimately the show was not picked up by the network.

Previously to her role in Dirty Sexy Money, she was best known for her role in JAG, as Navy Petty Officer Jennifer Coates from 2001 to 2005. At first, she was only a recurring character but as her character made more and more appearances she was eventually added to the opening credits for what turned out to be the final season.

In 2008, Zoe posed nude for Allure Magazine.^[1]

Filmography[link]

Films[link]

• 1994 - Imaginary Crimes ~ Edgemont Girl #4
• 1995 - Mr. Holland's Opus ~ Girl 4
• 1997 - Home Invasion (TV Movie) ~ Gia
• 1997 - Inventing the Abbotts ~ Sandy
• 1999 - Stranger in My House (aka Total Stranger) ~ Lara Lewis
• 1999 - The Wrong Girl (TV Movie) ~ Kelly Garner
• 1999 - Stonebrook (aka Web of Lies) ~ Londyn
• 2000 - Dungeons & Dragons ~ Marina Pretensa
• 2005 - Bitter Sweet (TV Movie) ~ Elizabeth
• 2006 - Conversations with God
• 2010 - Deadly Honeymoon - Agent Gwen Merced
• 2011 - One Fall as Julie Gardner

Television appearances[link]

• Under Suspicion ~ as Martha Swail
  • Episode 1.13 - Holy Suspect
• Medicine Ball ~ as
  • Episode 1.02 - Wizard of Bras
• Nowhere Man ~ as Mary
  • Episode 1.15 - Forever Jung
• Sliders ~ as Logan St. Claire
  • Episode 3.02 - Double Cross
• Silk Stalkings ~ as Marin Kennedy
  • Episode 6.18 - Pink Elephants
• Diagnosis: Murder ~ as Detective Taylor Lucas
  • Episode 6.21 - Blood Ties
• Star Trek: Voyager ~ as Tal Celes
  • Episode 6.20 - "Good Shepherd"
  • Episode 6.25 - "The Haunting of Deck Twelve"
• The Invisible Man (2000) (aka. I-Man) ~ as Kate Easton
  • Episode 1.08 - The Value of Secrets
  • Episode 1.18 - Frozen in Time
• JAG ~ as Petty Officer Jennifer Coates (2001–2005)
  • Episode 07.11 - Answered Prayers (First Appearance)
  • Episode 10.22 - Fair Winds and Following Seas (Last Appearance)
• Dirty Sexy Money ~ as Lisa George (2007)
  • Episode 1.01 - Pilot (First Appearance)
• House ~ as Sidney (2010)
  • Episode 6.21 - Baggage
• The Mentalist ~ as Marie Jarret Bajoran (2010)
  • Episode 3.7 - Red Hot

References[link]

External links[link]

• Zoe McLellan at the Internet Movie Database
• Zoe McLellan at FilmSpot.com
• Zoe McLellan at Memory Alpha (a Star Trek wiki)

Anastasia Griffith
Griffith in January 2008
Born	(1978-03-23) 23 March 1978 (age 34) Paris, France
Years active	2004 – present

Anastasia Griffith (born 23 March 1978) is a British actress known for her roles on the FX legal drama Damages and the NBC series Trauma.

Career[link]

Griffith's on-screen acting debut was in a minor role in the 2004 made-for-television movie She's Gone. Also in 2004, she appeared in more prominent roles in the television movie Dirty Filthy Love, the comedy film Alfie and the short film Turn, as well as featuring in The Headsman and guest-starring on the British comedy The Worst Week of My Life in 2005.

Griffith won her role as Katie Connor on the 2007 television series Damages after taking a last-minute audition a month after she moved to New York City. The role saw her with an imitated American accent; she says "[the producers] were a little concerned at first about a Brit playing an American, especially because they already had an Australian (Rose Byrne) playing an American,"^[1] and so she addressed them in an American accent from beginning to end of the audition.^[2] Griffith returned to the series as a main cast member for the second season, which aired in 2009.

She guest-starred in an episode of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, and also in the television series New Amsterdam's second episode, "Golden Boy".^[3] She was later cast in the NBC medical drama Trauma, which began airing in September 2009. In May 2010, after 18 episodes, the show was officially cancelled by NBC. She returned on 17 June 2010, at the end from episode 3 season 2 from Royal Pains, as Dr. Emily Peck.

Griffith appeared in the 2011 Lifetime television movie And Baby Will Fall as Ivy Rose.

Personal life[link]

Born in Paris, France to an Irish mother and an American father, Griffith was brought up in west London with six older brothers, one of whom is actor Jamie Bamber.^[2]

She completed a degree in the History of Art at the University of Bristol, and later trained at the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art before moving into acting.^[3]

She dated Welsh actor Michael Sheen for a number of months in 2004, after meeting on the set of Dirty Filthy Love.^[4]

Filmography[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Anastasia Griffith at the Internet Movie Database

Julianne Hough
Hough performing in Los Angeles in March 2009
Background information
Birth name	Julianne Alexandra Hough
Born	(1988-07-20) July 20, 1988 (age 23) Sandy, Utah, United States
Origin	Los Angeles, California
Genres	Country
Occupations	Dancer, singer, songwriter, actress
Years active	2006–present
Labels	Mercury Nashville
Associated acts	Jim Collins, Derek Hough, Chuck Wicks, Mark Ballas
Website	Official website

Julianne Alexandra Hough ( /ˈhʌf/; born July 20, 1988) is an American professional ballroom dancer, country music singer and actress. She is most widely known for being a two-time champion of ABC's Dancing with the Stars.^[1] She earned a Creative Arts Primetime Emmy nomination in 2007 for choreography. Hough was signed to Mercury Nashville Records in December 2007. Her self-titled debut album was released May 20, 2008, debuting at No. 1 on the Billboard Country Album chart and No. 3 on the Billboard 200. It sold 67,000 copies its first week, and has sold over 320,000 total copies. On October 12, 2008, she released a holiday album, Sounds of the Season: The Julianne Hough Holiday Collection, which as of January 5, 2009, had sold 157,000 copies. She starred in the 2011 film remake of Footloose.

Early life[link]

Hough was born and raised in Sandy, Utah, a suburb of Salt Lake City, the last of five children in a Latter-day Saint (Mormon) family.^[2][3][4] Her parents are Mari Anne (née Heaton) and Bruce Robert Hough, who was twice chairman of the Utah Republican Party.^[2][5] Her brother, Derek Hough, is also a professional dancer. She also has three older sisters, Sharee, Marabeth, and Katherine.^[6] All four of Hough's grandparents were dancers,^[7] and her parents met while on a ballroom dancing team in college, in Idaho.^{[citation needed]}

Her formal training began at the Center Stage Performing Arts Studio in Orem, Utah, where she danced with Josh Murillo, among others, in Latin Ballroom; she began dancing competitively at nine.^{[citation needed]} Her parents sent her and brother Derek to London a year later to live and study with their coaches, Corky and Shirley Ballas, and to spare them the strife of divorce.^[8] The Ballases helped tutor the two Hough children alongside their own son, Mark, schooling them at the Italia Conti Academy. They received training in song, theatre, gymnastics and many forms of dance, including jazz, ballet, and tap.^[8][9] The three children formed their own pop music trio 2B1G ("2 Boys, 1 Girl") when Hough was twelve,^[10] performed at dance competitions in the UK and the U.S., and showcased in a UK television show.^[11] At fifteen, Julianne Hough became the youngest dancer, and only American, to win both Junior World Latin Champion and International Latin Youth Champion at the Blackpool Dance Festival.^[12] After five years in London, Hough returned to the U.S., first living with her mother for a year and attending Las Vegas Academy.^{[citation needed]} She also spent a year at Park City High, in Park City, Utah, then returned to Sandy, Utah to live with her father and graduate from Alta High.^[13] She then moved on her own to Los Angeles to begin her career.^{[citation needed]}

Dancing[link]

She was featured in two television commercials and was an extra in an episode of Cold Case.^{[citation needed]} She was one of the "Million Dollar Dancers" in the short-lived network television game show Show Me the Money.

Hough won the season four of Dancing with the Stars (US) with her partner Olympic gold medal-winning speed skater Apolo Ohno, making Hough the youngest professional dancer to win on the program.^[14] On November 27, 2007, Hough and her partner, three-time Indianapolis 500 champion Hélio Castroneves, became the winners of season five. Hough returned for season six with radio host/comedian Adam Carolla, but they were eliminated in week four. In July 2008, Hough was nominated at the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards in the category of "Outstanding Choreography" for her Mambo "Para Los Rumberos" (performed with partner Hélio Castroneves) on Dancing with the Stars.^[15]

On August 25, 2008, the cast of season seven was announced, and Hough was partnered with Hannah Montana actor Cody Linley. She felt abdominal pains during their jitterbug performance on October 27, 2008 and was immediately rushed to a hospital following the encore performance.^[16] She subsequently had surgery to have her appendix removed, causing her to miss several performances; Edyta Śliwińska stood in for her. Hough returned to the show, although the pair were ultimately eliminated in the Semifinals Competition. She appeared on the November 12 results show dancing the jive to "Great Balls of Fire" with her brother for the "Design-A-Dance" contest. Hough and brother Derek were selected the favorite pros on the show by an online vote at ABC.com and won the honor of doing this special audience designed dance.^{[citation needed]}

On November 20, 2008, Hough told Ryan Seacrest on his radio show she would not be returning to Dancing with the Stars, for the foreseeable future, in order to further her country music career.^[17] However, she did return for season eight, partnering with boyfriend at the time, country singer Chuck Wicks. They were voted off in week eight of the competition and came in sixth place.^{[citation needed]} On October 11, 2011, Julianne returned to Dancing With The Stars and danced with her Footloose costar Kenny Wormald twice, as well as her brother. She returned again on May 15, 2012 in a dance performance to promote her movie Rock of Ages.

Music[link]

Hough's first country music single "Will You Dance With Me" was released to iTunes and Wal-Mart in May 2007 to raise money for the American Red Cross. The song placed at #100 on the Billboard Pop 100 chart.^[18] She later signed with Universal Music Group Nashville's Mercury Nashville division.

Her self-titled debut album was recorded in Nashville and produced by David Malloy, who has worked with Reba McEntire, Eddie Rabbitt, among others. Hough's album, which met with mixed reviews,^[19][20] debuted at No. 1 on the Top Country Albums chart on May 31, and also peaked at No. 3 on the Billboard 200.^[21] Hough's second single, and the first to be released to country radio, "That Song in My Head" debuted on the Country charts in March.^{[citation needed]}

Hough joined Brad Paisley's 2008 Tour, along with Jewel and Chuck Wicks. Hough, Paisley and Willie Nelson appeared in the video for the Snoop Dogg song "My Medicine".^[22] Hough appeared in a Juicy Fruit commercial in the fall of 2008.^[23] and released an EP of Christmas music called Sounds of the Season: The Julianne Hough Holiday Collection. Hough performed her second single "My Hallelujah Song" on Dancing With the Stars on November 18, 2008, with her brother, Derek Hough, Mark Ballas and Lacey Schwimmer dancing.

Hough, LeAnn Rimes, Jessica Simpson, and Kellie Pickler announced the 2009 Academy of Country Music Award nominees in February 2009. Hough was nominated for the Top New Female Vocalist award, a fan voted award, which she subsequently won.^[24] Hough won the Top New Artist award at the 44th Annual Academy of Country Music Awards on April 5, 2009.

During 2009, Hough headlines some of her own shows. Her first concert as the headlining act was in Green Bay, Wisconsin at the Meyer Theatre on January 15, 2009.^{[citation needed]} She was the opening act for two shows on Toby Keith's Tour as well as the opening act for George Strait's Summer 2009 Tour.^{[citation needed]}

Hough did not get the chance to write on her first record because the whole process was so quick. For her next record, she plans to write more.^[25]

Hough recently finished work on her second studio album for Mercury Nashville and the first single, "Is That So Wrong", was released to radio on June 21, 2010. The album is set for release in 2012.^[26]

Acting[link]

Hough's first role was in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone (released as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone in the United States), the film adaptation of British author J. K. Rowling's bestselling novel. She appeared in an uncredited role as a "Hogwarts schoolgirl".^[27]

Hough appeared in the 2010 musical Burlesque, starring Cher and Christina Aguilera. In the film, which chronicles a small-town girl (Christina Aguilera) who finds success at a Los Angeles burlesque club, Hough played a dancer named Georgia.^[28]

Hough starred as Ariel in the 2011 remake of the Paramount film Footloose, opposite Kenny Wormald as Ren McCormack. Filming began in September, 2010.^[29]

It was confirmed on March 13, 2011 that she will be playing the role of Sherrie Christian in the film adaptation of the Broadway musical Rock of Ages, alongside Tom Cruise and Mary J. Blige. The film is due for release in 2012.^{[30][clarification needed]}

[edit] Dancing with the Stars performances

This biographical section of an article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (September 2011)

With Apolo Anton Ohno[link]

(average 27.53)

Week #	Dance/Song	Judges' score			Result
		Inaba	Goodman	Tonioli
1	Cha Cha/ "Let's Hear It for the Boy"	7	7	7	No elimination
2	Quickstep/ "Two Hearts"	8	9	9	Safe
3	Jive/ "You Never Can Tell"	7	8	8	Safe
4	Waltz/ "If You Don't Know Me By Now"	9	8	9	Safe
5	Samba/ "I Like to Move It"	10	10	10	Safe
6	Rumba/ "Cool" Swing/"Rock This Town"	9 N/A	9 N/A	10 N/A	Safe
7	Foxtrot/ "Steppin' Out With My Baby" Mambo/ "Dr. Beat"	9 9	8 9	9 10	Safe
8	Tango/ "Jessie's Girl" Paso Doble/ "Carnaval de Paris"	10 10	8 10	10 10	Safe
9 Semi-finals	Quickstep/ "Mr. Pinstripe Suit" Cha Cha/ "Push It[disambiguation needed ]"	10 10	10 9	10 10	Bottom 2
10 Finals	Rumba/ "Midnight Train to Georgia" Freestyle/ "Bust a Move" Paso Doble/ "Carnaval de Paris"	9 10 10	9 10 10	10 10 10	Won

With Hélio Castroneves[link]

(average 27.13)

• The choreography for their Week 2 Mambo was later Emmy-nominated.

With Adam Carolla[link]

(average 18.5)

With Cody Linley[link]

(average 23.56)