The Mergui Archipelago

The Ksamil Archipelago in Albania

The archipelago of Fernando de Noronha

An archipelago ( /ɑrkɨˈpɛləɡoʊ/ ark-i-PEL-ə-goh), sometimes called an island group, is a chain or cluster of islands. The word archipelago is derived from the Greek ἄρχι- – arkhi- ("chief") and πέλαγος – pélagos ("sea") through the Italian arcipelago. In Italian, possibly following a tradition of antiquity, the Arcipelago (from medieval Greek *ἀρχιπέλαγος) was the proper name for the Aegean Sea and, later, usage shifted to refer to the Aegean Islands (since the sea is remarkable for its large number of islands). It is now used to refer to any island group or, sometimes, to a sea containing a large number of scattered islands such as the Aegean Sea.^[1]

Types of archipelago[link]

Archipelagos may be found isolated in bodies of water or neighboring a large land mass. For example, Scotland has more than 700 islands surrounding its mainland which constitute an archipelago. Archipelagos are often volcanic, forming along island arcs generated by subduction zones or hotspots, but may also be the result of erosion, deposition and land elevation.

By its geological origin, islands forming archipelagos can be referred to as oceanic islands, continental fragments and continental islands^[2]. Oceanic islands are mainly of volcanic origin. Continental fragments correspond to land masses that have separated from a continental mass due to tectonic displacement. Finally, sets of islands formed close to the coast of a continent are considered continental archipelagos when they form part of the same continental shelf so islands are just exposed continental shelf.

The five largest modern countries that are mainly archipelagos are Indonesia, Japan, the Philippines, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. The largest archipelagic state in the world, by area and population, is Indonesia.^[3] The archipelago with the most islands is the Archipelago Sea in Finland.

See also[link]

Geography portal

• Island arc
• Geography
• Earth science
• Geomorphology
• List of landforms
• Plate tectonics
• Island country
• Earthsea
• The World (archipelago)
• List of archipelagos by number of islands
• List of archipelagos
• List of islands

References[link]

External links[link]

Look up archipelago in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Archipelagoes

•  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Archipelago". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 
• 30 Most Incredible Island Archipelagos

Spratly Islands

Disputed islands
Spratly Islands
Geography
Location	South China Sea
Coordinates	10°N 114°E / 10°N 114°E / 10; 114Coordinates: 10°N 114°E / 10°N 114°E / 10; 114
Total islands	over 750
Major islands	Taiping Island Namyit Island Northeast Cay Sin Cowe Island Southwest Cay Spratly Island Swallow Reef Thitu Island West York Island
Area	less than 5 square kilometres (1.9 sq mi)
Coastline	926 kilometres (575 mi)
Highest point	on Southwest Cay 4 metres (13 ft)
Administered by
Claimed by
Brunei
EEZ	Brunei zone
Malaysia
State	Sabah
Philippines
Municipality	Kalayaan
People's Republic of China
County	Administration Office for Xisha Islands, Zhongsha Islands and Nansha Islands
Republic of China (Taiwan)
Municipality	Kaohsiung
Vietnam
Province	Khanh Hoa
Demographics
Population	no indigenous population
Ethnic groups	various

The Spratly Islands are a group of more than 750 reefs,^[1] islets, atolls, cays and islands in the South China Sea. The archipelago lies off the coasts of the Philippines and Malaysia (Sabah), about one third of the way from there to southern Vietnam. They contain less than four square kilometers of land area spread over more than 425,000 square kilometers of sea. The Spratlys are one of three archipelagos of the South China Sea which comprise more than 30,000 islands and reefs and which complicate governance and economics in that region of Southeast Asia. Such small and remote islands have little economic value in themselves, but are important in establishing international boundaries. There are no native islanders but there are, at least for now, rich fishing grounds; and initial surveys indicate the islands may contain significant reserves of oil and natural gas.

About 45 islands are occupied by relatively small numbers of military forces from Vietnam, the People's Republic of China, the Republic of China (Taiwan), Malaysia and the Philippines. Brunei has also claimed an EEZ in the southeastern part of the Spratlys encompassing just one area of small islands above mean high water (on Louisa Reef.)

Geographic and economic overview[link]

• Coordinates: 10°N 114°E / 10°N 114°E / 10; 114 (Spratly Island)
• Area (land based): less than 5 km² - includes 148 or so islets, coral reefs, and seamounts.

(sea surface): 410,000 km² of the central South China Sea

• Coastline: 926 km
• Political divisions: (in alphabetic order of claimants)
  • Brunei: Part of Brunei's Exclusive Economic Zone;^[2]
  • People's Republic of China: Part of Hainan province;
  • Malaysia: Part of the state of Sabah;
  • Philippines: Part of Palawan province;
  • Republic of China (Taiwan): Part of Kaohsiung municipality;
  • Vietnam: Part of Khánh Hòa Province.

• Climate: tropical
• Terrain: flat
• Elevation extremes:
  • lowest point: South China Sea (0 m)
  • highest point: unnamed location on Southwest Cay (4 m)
• Natural hazards: serious maritime hazards because of numerous banks, reefs and shoals

The islands are most likely volcanic in origin.^[3] The islands themselves contain almost no significant arable land and have no indigenous inhabitants, although twenty of the islands, including Taiping Island, the largest, are considered to be able to sustain human life. Natural resources include fish, guano, undetermined oil and natural gas potential. Economic activity includes commercial fishing, shipping, and tourism. The proximity to nearby oil- and gas-producing sedimentary basins suggests the potential for oil and gas deposits, but the region is largely unexplored, and there are no reliable estimates of potential reserves. Commercial exploitation of hydrocarbons has yet to be developed. The Spratly Islands have at least three fishing ports, several docks and harbors, at least three heliports, at least four territorial rigging style outposts (especially due west of Namyit Island),^[4] and six to eight airstrips.These islands are strategically located near several primary shipping lanes.

Ecology[link]

Coral reefs[link]

Coral reefs are the predominant structure of these islands; the Spratly group contains over 600 coral reefs in total.^[1]

Vegetation[link]

Little vegetation grows on these islands, which are subject to intense monsoons.^[1] Larger islands are capable of supporting tropical forest, scrub forest, coastal scrub and grasses.^[1] It is difficult to determine which species have been introduced or cultivated by humans.^[1] Taiping Island was reportedly covered with shrubs, coconut, and mangroves in 1938; pineapple was also cultivated here when it was profitable.^[1] Other accounts mention papaya, banana, palm, and even white peach trees growing on one island.^[1] A few islands which have been developed as small tourist resorts have had soil and trees brought in and planted where there were none.^[1]

Wildlife[link]

The islands that do have vegetation provide important habitats for many seabirds and sea turtles.^[1]

Both the Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas, endangered) and the Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata, critically endangered) formerly occurred in numbers sufficient to support commercial exploitation.^[1] These species reportedly continue to nest even on islands inhabited by military personnel (such as Pratas) to some extent, though it is believed that their numbers have declined.^[1]

Seabirds use the islands for resting, breeding, and wintering sites.^[1] Species found here include Streaked Shearwater (Calonectris leucomelas), Brown Booby (Sula leucogaster), Red-Footed Booby (S. sula), Great Crested Tern (Sterna bergii), and White Tern (Gygis alba).^[1] Little information is available regarding current status of the islands’ seabird populations, though it is likely that birds may divert nesting site to smaller, less disturbed islands. Bird eggs cover the majority of Song Tu, a small island in the eastern Danger Zone.^[1]

Unfortunately, this ecoregion is still largely a mystery.^[1] Scientists have focused their research on the marine environment, while the ecology of the terrestrial environment remains relatively unknown.^[1]

Ecological hazards[link]

Political instability, tourism and the increasing industrialization of neighboring countries has led to serious disruption of native flora and fauna, over-exploitation of natural resources, and environmental pollution.^[1] Disruption of nesting areas by human activity or by introduced animals, such as dogs, has reduced the number of turtles nesting on the islands.^[1] Sea turtles are also slaughtered for food on a significant scale.^[1] The sea turtle is a symbol of longevity in Chinese customs and at times the military personnel are given orders to protect the turtles.^[1]

Heavy commercial fishing in the region incurs other problems. Though it has been outlawed, fishing methods continue to include the use of bottom trawls fitted with chain rollers.^[1] In addition, during a recent routine patrol, more than 200 kg of Potassium cyanide solution was confiscated from fishermen who had been using it for fish poisoning. These activities have a devastating impact on local marine organisms and coral reefs.^[1]

Some interest has been taken in regard to conservation of these island ecosystems.^[1] J.W. McManus has explored the possibilities of designating portions of the Spratly Islands as a marine park.^[1] One region of the Spratly Archipelago, called Truong Sa, was proposed by Vietnam’s Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment (MOSTE) as a future protected area.^[1] The 160 km² site is currently managed by the Khanh Hoa Provincial People’s Committee of Vietnam.^[1]

Military groups in the Spratlys have engaged in environmentally damaging activities such as shooting turtles and seabirds, raiding nests, and fishing with explosives.^[1] The collection of rare medicinal plants, collecting of wood and hunting for the wildlife trade are common threats to the biodiversity of the entire region, including these islands.^[1] Coral habitats are threatened by pollution, over-exploitation of fish and invertebrates, and the use of explosives and poisons as fishing techniques.^[1]

History[link]

Early cartography[link]

The first possible human interaction with the Spratly Islands dates back between 600 BCE to 3 BCE. This is based on the theoretical migration patterns of the people of Nanyue (southern China and northern Vietnam) and Old Champa kingdom who may have migrated from Borneo, which may have led them through the Spratly Islands.^[5]

Ancient Chinese maps record the "Thousand Li Stretch of Sands"; Qianli Changsha (千里長沙) and the "Ten-Thousand Li of Stone Pools"; Wanli Shitang (萬里石塘),^[6] which China today claims refers to the Spratly Islands. The Wanli Shitang have been explored by the Chinese since the Yuan Dynasty and may have been considered by them to have been within their national boundaries. ^[7][8] They are also referenced in the 13th century,^[9] followed by the Ming Dynasty.^[10] When the Ming Dynasty collapsed, the Qing Dynasty continued to include the territory in maps compiled in 1724,^[11] 1755,^[12] 1767,^[13] 1810,^[14] and 1817.^[15] A Vietnamese map from 1834 also includes the Spratly Islands clumped in with the Paracels (a common occurrence on maps of that time) labeled as "Wanli Changsha".^[16]

According to Hanoi, old Vietnamese maps record Bãi Cát Vàng (Golden Sandbanks, referring to both Paracels and the Spratly Islands) which lay near the Coast of the central Vietnam as early as 1838.^[17] In Phủ Biên Tạp Lục (Frontier Chronicles) by the scholar Le Quy Don, Hoàng Sa and Trường Sa were defined as belonging to Quảng Ngãi District. He described it as where sea products and shipwrecked cargoes were available to be collected. Vietnamese text written in the 17th century referenced government-sponsored economic activities during the Le Dynasty, 200 years earlier. The Vietnamese government conducted several geographical surveys of the islands in the 18th century.^[17]

Despite the fact that China and Vietnam both made a claim to these territories simultaneously, at the time, neither side was aware that their neighbor had already charted and made claims to the same stretch of islands.^[17]

The islands were sporadically visited throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries by mariners from different European powers (including Richard Spratly, after whom the island group derives its most recognizable English name).^[18] However, these nations showed little interest in the islands.

British naval captain James George Meads in the 1870s laid claim to the islands proclaiming a micronation called Republic of Morac-Songhrati-Meads. Descendants of Meads have continued to claim legitimacy over the islands, and continue to attempt to claim ownership of the island's resources.^[19][20][21]

In 1883, German boats surveyed the Spratly and Paracel Islands but withdrew the survey eventually after receiving protests from Guangdong government representing Qing Dynasty. Many European maps before the 20th century do not even make mention of this region.^[22]

Military conflict and diplomatic dialogues[link]

Map depicting China's territory in South China Sea, by Ministry of the Interior, ROC, 1947

A european colonies map depicting Spratly islands as colonial Vietnam's territory

In 1933, France asserted its claims from 1887^[23] to the Spratly and Paracel Islands on behalf of its then-colony Vietnam.^[24] It occupied a number of the Spratly Islands, including Taiping Island, built weather stations on two, and administered them as part of French Indochina. This occupation was protested by the Republic of China government because France admitted finding Chinese fishermen there when French warships visited the nine islands.^[25] In 1935, the ROC government also announced a sovereignty claim on the Spratly Islands. Japan occupied some of the islands in 1939 during World War II, and used the islands as a submarine base for the occupation of Southeast Asia. During the occupation, these islands were called Shinnan Shoto (新南諸島), literally the New Southern Islands, and put under the governance of Taiwan together with the Paracel Islands (西沙群岛). In 1945, The Republic of China sent its Naval ships to take control of the islands after the surrender of Japan. It had chosen the largest and perhaps the only inhabitable island, Taiping Island, as its base, and renamed the island under the name of the naval vessel as Taiping. The KMT force of Republic Of China briefly abandoned the islands after its defeat in China's civil war in 1949, but re-established the base in 1956. Today, Taiping Island is still administered by the Republic of China.

Following the defeat of Japan at the end of World War II, China re-claimed the entirety of the Spratly Islands (including Taiping Island), accepting the Japanese surrender on the islands based on the Cairo and Potsdam Declarations. The ROC government withdrew from most of the Spratly and Paracel Islands after they retreated to Taiwan from the opposing Communist Party of China, which founded the People's Republic of China in 1949.^[24] ROC quietly withdrew troops from Taiping Island in 1950, but reinstated them in 1956 in response to Tomas Cloma's sudden claim to the island as part of Freedomland.^[26]

Japan renounced all claims to the islands in the 1951 San Francisco Peace Treaty, together with the Paracels, Pratas & other islands captured from China, upon which China reasserted its claim to the islands.

It was unclear whether France continued its claim to the islands after WWII, since none of the islands other than Taiping Island is habitable. The South Vietnamese government took over the Trường Sa administration after the defeat of the French at the end of the First Indochina War. In 1958, the People's Republic of China issued a declaration defining its territorial waters, which encompassed the Spratly Islands. North Vietnam's prime minister, Pham Van Dong, sent a formal note to Zhou Enlai, stating that the Government of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam respects the decision by China regarding the 12 nautical mile limit of territorial waters.^{[citation needed]} One important fact is that the letter while accepting the 12 nautical mile principal for the limit of territorial waters of China, has never mentioned a word about how the territorial boundary was defined and thus leaving the dispute on South China Sea islands as its status quo for later settlement. In an interview with BBC, Dr. Balazs Szalontai provided an insight into this issue:

"The general context of the Chinese declaration was the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, held in 1956, and the resulting treaties signed in 1958, such as the Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone. Understandably, the PRC government, though not being a member of the U.N., also wanted to have a say in how these issues were dealt with. Hence the Chinese declaration of September 1958. In these years, North Vietnam could hardly afford to alienate Communist comrad China. The Soviet Union did not give any substantial support to Vietnamese reunification, and neither South Vietnamese leader Ngo Dinh Diem nor the U.S. government showed readiness to give consent to the holding of all-Vietnamese elections as stipulated by the Geneva Agreements. On the contrary, Diem did his best to suppress the Communist movement in the South. This is why Pham Van Dong felt it necessary to take sides with China, whose tough attitude toward the Asian policies of the U.S. offered some hope. And yet he seems to have been cautious enough to make a statement that supported only the principle that China was entitled for 12-mile territorial seas along its territory but evaded the issue of defining this territory. While the preceding Chinese statement was very specific, enumerating all the islands (including the Paracels and the Spratlys) for which the PRC laid claim, the DRV statement did not say a word about the concrete territories to which this rule was applicable. Still, it is true that in this bilateral territorial dispute between Chinese and Vietnamese interests, the DRV standpoint, more in a diplomatic than a legal sense, was incomparably closer to that of China than to that of South Vietnam".^{[27][unreliable source?]}

Some international scholars argued that, Pham Van Dong who represented North Vietnam at that time has no legal right to comment on a territorial part which belonged to the South Vietnam represented by Ngo Dinh Diem. Therefore, the letter has no legal value and is considered as a diplomatic document to show the support of the government of North Vietnam to the PRC at that time.^{[verification needed]} In 2004, Vietnam issued a white paper saying, in part,

Vietnam has sufficient historical evidence and legal basis to assert its indisputable sovereignty over the territorial waters and islands of Vietnam in the East Sea, among them the Paracels and Spratlys. Nevertheless, for the common security interests of the parties concerned, Vietnam is ready to enter into peaceful negotiations to settle the problem, first and foremost by reaching an agreement on the "Code of Conduct" pending the final solution.^[28]

On May 23, 2011, Philippine President Benigno Aquino III warned the Chinese defense minister of a possible arms race in the region if tensions worsened over disputes in the South China Sea. Aquino said he told visiting Chinese Defense Minister Liang Guanglie in their meeting that such an arms race could result if there were more encounters in the disputed and potentially oil-rich Spratly islands.^[29]

In May 2011, Chinese naval vessels opened fire on Vietnamese fishing vessels operating off East London Reef (Da Dong Island). Three military vessels were numbered 989, 27 and 28. They showed up with a small group of Chinese fishing vessels. Another Vietnamese fishing vessel was fired on near Cross (Chu Thap) Island. The Chief Commander of Border Guards in Phu Yen Province, Vietnam reports that a total of four Vietnamese vessels were fired upon by Chinese naval vessels.^{[verification needed]} This attack by Chinese forces sparked mass protests in Vietnam, especially in the capital Hanoi and Saigon^[30], and in various Vietnamese communities in the West (namely in Westminster, California in the U.S. and Paris, France over attacks on Vietnamese citizens and intrusion into what Vietnam claims as part of their territory. ^[31]

In June 2011, the Philippines renamed the South China Sea and the Reed Bank as the West Philippine Sea and the Recto Bank.^{[32][verification needed]}

Telecommunications[link]

In 2005, a cellular phone base station was erected by the Philippines' Smart Communications on Pag-asa Island.^[33]

On 18 May 2011, China Mobile announced that its mobile phone coverage has expanded to the Spratly Islands. The extended coverage would allow soldiers stationed on the islands, fishermen, and merchant vessels within the area to use mobile services, and can also provide assistance during storms and sea rescues. The service network deployment over the islands took nearly one year.^[34]

Gallery[link]

• 

  An ancient Heliotropium foertherianum on Spratly Island

• 

  Spratly Island

• 

  Military cemetery on Central London Reef

• 

  View from Amboyna Cay

• 

  The dock on Pearson Reef

See also[link]

• Administration Office for Xisha Islands, Zhongsha Islands and Nansha Islands
• List of islands in the South China Sea
• Khanh Hoa province, Vietnam
• Johnson South Reef Skirmish
• South China Sea Islands
• Paracel Islands
• Kingdom of Humanity
• Junk Keying
• Zheng He
• Kalayaan, Palawan, Philippines
• SSN, a computer game set during a conflict over the Spratly Islands.

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Dzurek, Daniel J. and Clive H.Schofield. The Spratly Islands dispute: who's on first?. IBRU; 1996. ISBN 978-1-897643-23-5
• C.Michael Hogan (2011) South China Sea Topic ed. P.Saundry. Ed.-in-chief C.J.Cleveland. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC
• Mike Spick. Dangerous Ground!, Air Forces Monthly, December 1993

External links[link]

• Spratly Islands travel guide from Wikitravel
• Mariner's page of the Spratly Islands
• Taiwanese List with ~170 entries
• List of atolls with areas
• Satellite images of all islands and reefs of the Spratly Islands.
• Flags of the World (FOTW) entry with various micronations on the Spratly Islands.
• Map showing the claims
• A tabular summary about the Spratly and Paracel Islands
• Another overview table of the Spratly Islands
• CIA World Factbook for Spratly Islands
• Vietnamese claimsPDF (1.70 MiB), from Vietnam Ministry of Foreign Affairs
• The Dotted Line on the Chinese Map of the South China Sea: A NotePDF (150 KiB)
• Third Party Summary of the Dispute
• Google Map of Spratly Islands
• Wikimedia Atlas of the Spratly Islands
• Ji Guoxing (October 1995) (PDF), Maritime Jurisdiction in the Three China Seas: Options For Equitable Settlement, Institute on Global Conflict and Cooperation, http://repositories.cdlib.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1051&context=igcc. 
• A collection of documents on Spratly and Paracel Islands by Nguyen Thai Hoc Foundation