Ganja Gəncə
Seal
Ganja
Coordinates: 40°40′58″N 46°21′38″E / 40.68278°N 46.36056°E / 40.68278; 46.36056
Country	Azerbaijan
Government
• Mayor	Elmar Valiyev
Area
• Total	110 km2 (40 sq mi)
Elevation	+408 m (1,339 ft)
Population (2009)census data[1]
• Total	313,300
• Density	2,848/km2 (7,380/sq mi)
Time zone	GMT+4 (UTC+4)
• Summer (DST)	GMT+5 (UTC+5)
Website	www.ganca.net

Ganja (Azerbaijani: Gəncə) is Azerbaijan's second-largest city with a population of around 313,300.^[1][2][3] It was named Yelizavetpol (Russian: Елизаветполь) in the Russian Empire period. The city regained its original name—Ganja—from 1920–1935 during the first part of its incorporation into the Soviet Union. However, its name was changed again and called Kirovabad (Russian: Кировабад) during the later Soviet Union period from 1935 to 1991. Finally, the city regained the original name after Azerbaijan's independence in 1991.

History[link]

Origin of the name[link]

Modern historians believe that the name Ganja (گنجه / Ganjeh) derives from the New Persian ganj (گنج: "treasure, treasury") and suggests that the city existed in pre-Islamic times and was likely founded in the 5th century A.D.^[4] The area in which Ganja is located was known as Arran from the 9th to 12th century; its urban population spoke mainly in the Persian language.^[5][6]

Pre-1500[link]

Shah Abbas Mosque.

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Elisavetpol (town).

According to medieval Arab sources, the city of Ganja was founded in 859-60 by Mohammad b. Khaled b. Yazid b. Mazyad, the Arab governor of the region in the reign of the caliph Al-Mutawakkil, and so-called because of a treasure unearthed there. According to the legend, the Arab governor had a dream where a voice told him that there was a treasure hidden under one of the three hills around the area where he camped. The voice told him to unearth it and use the money to found a city. He did so and informed the caliph about the money and the city. Caliph made Mohammad the hereditary governor of the city on a condition that he would give the money he found to the caliph.^[7]

Foundation of the city by Arabs is confirmed by the medieval historian Movses Kagankatvatsi, who mentions that the city of Ganja was founded in 846-47 in the canton of Arshakashen by the son of Khazr Patgos, “a furious and merciless man”.^[8]

Historically an important city of the South Caucasus, Ganja has been part of Sassanid empire, Great Seljuk Empire, Atabegs of Azerbaijan, Khwarezmid Empire, Il-Khans,^[9] Timurids,^[10] Jalayirids,^[11] Qara Qoyunlu,^[12] Ak Koyunlu,^[13][14] and the Ganja Khanate. Ganja is also the birthplace of the famous poet Nizami Ganjavi

The people of Ganja experienced a temporary cultural decline after an earthquake in 1139, when the city was taken by king Demetrius I of Georgia and its gates taken as trophies, and again after the Mongol invasion in 1231. The city was revived after the Safavids came to power. City was also managed by Ottomans between 1578–1603 and 1724-1735.

16th-19th centuries[link]

For a short period, Ganja was renamed Abbasabad by Shah Abbas after war against the Ottomans. He build a new city 8 km to the southwest of the old one, but the name changed back to Ganja during the time^[15] During the Safavid rule, it was the capital of the Karabakh (Ganja) beylerbey,^[16] one of the four such administrative units and principalities.^[17] In 1747, Ganja became the center of the Ganja Khanate.

Russian expansion into the South Caucasus met strong opposition in Ganja. In contrast with spreading suzerainty over Christian Georgia and Sunni Daghestan, military attack on the khanate in 1804 led by Pavel Tsitsianov was seen as a direct challenge to Iran being an incursion into a mainly Shia-populated territory. The capture of the city was followed by a massacre of up to 3,000 inhabitants of Ganja by the Russians.^[18] 500 of them were slaughtered in a mosque where they had taken refuge, after an Armenian told the Russian soldiers that there might have been "Daghestani robbers" among them.^[19] Thosaunds of Azeris left Ganja and fled to Iran following the capture.

According to the October 1813 Gulistan Treaty, the Ganja Khanate, together with most of Azerbaijan, was recognized as part of the Russian Empire after Persia's defeat in the Persia-Russia wars except Persian occupation between 1826-1827.^[20] It was renamed Elisabethpol (Russian: Елизаветполь) after the wife of Alexander I of Russia, Elisabeth, and in 1868 became the capital of Elisabethpol Governorate.^[21] Elizavetpol was an uyezd of Tiflis Governorate before 1868.^{[citation needed]} The Russian name was not accepted by Azerbaijanis who continued to call the city Ganja.^[22]

20th century[link]

In 1918, Ganja became the temporary capital of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, at which point it was renamed Ganja again, until Baku was recaptured from the British backed Centrocaspian Dictatorship. In April 1920, the Red Army occupied Azerbaijan. In May 1920, Ganja was the scene of an abortive anti-Soviet rebellion, during which the city was heavily damaged by fighting between the insurgents and the Red Army.^[23] In 1935, Joseph Stalin renamed the city Kirovabad after Sergei Kirov.^[24] In 1991, Azerbaijan re-established its independence, and the ancient name of the city was given back.^[25] For many years the 104th Guards Airborne Division of the Soviet Airborne Troops was based in the town.

Climate[link]

Administrative organization[link]

This section requires expansion.

Ganja is divided into:

• Kəpəz Rayon, with about 160,000 people
• Nizami Rayon, with about 140,000 people

Economy[link]

The economy of Ganja is partially agricultural, partially tourist based, with some industries in operation. Ore minerals extracted from nearby mines supply Ganja's metallurgical industries, which produces copper and alumina.^[27] There are porcelain, silk and footwear industries. Other industries process food, grapes and cotton from the surrounding farmlands.

The city has one of the largest textile conglomerates in Azerbaijan and is famous for a fabric named Ganja silk, which received the highest marks in the markets of neighboring countries and the Middle East.^[25][28]

Demography[link]

Ganja is the second largest city of Azerbaijan after Baku with about 313,300 residents. The city is also inhabited by large number of Azerbaijani refugees from Armenia and forcibly displaced people from the Azerbaijani community of Nagorno-Karabakh and surrounding areas. Their number is estimated to be 33,000 in 2011.^[41]

Historic Armenian community[link]

In addition to Persian- and Turkic-speaking Muslims, the city has had a numerically, economically and, culturally significant Armenian community.^[42][43] Among the Armenians, the city is known as Gandzak (Գանձակ)^[44][45][46] The name Gandzak derives from gandz (Arm. - գանձ), the loan word from Old Iranian, which means treasure or riches.^[47][48] The city's historically important Christian figures include Kirakos Gandzaketsi, author of the History of the Armenians^[49]), Armenian^[50] philosopher Mkhitar Gosh^[51] author of the Code of Laws that was used in Armenia, Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia and Armenian diasporan groups in Europe,^[52] 13th century polymath Vardan Areveltsi^[53] and Grigor Paron-Ter, Armenian Patriarch of Jerusalem. Among the modern time's prominent Armenian person's of the city were Russian-Armenian architect Karo Halabyan,^[54] secretary of the Armenian SSR Communist Party Askanaz Mravyan,^[55] and the Olympic champion Albert Azaryan.^[56]

The founder of the Hethumid dynasty, Oshin of Lampron was an Armenian nakharar and lord of a castle near Ganja who fled to Cilicia in 1075 during the Seljuk invasion of Armenia.^[57]

Buildings, landmarks and museums[link]

Fairy fountain in Javad Khan street

Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences.

In the 11th century, a local blacksmith named Ibrahim produced the well known the Gates of Ganja.^[25]

• Nizami Mausoleum, built in honor of Nizami Ganjavi, stands just outside the city of Ganja, Azerbaijan. It attracts nearly 35000 visitors per year.^[58]
• Shah Abbas Caravanserai, At present it is in use of the Ganja State Humanitarian college
• Juma (Shah Abbas) Mosque, the mosque was under construction in 1606 under the project of Sheikh Baahaddin Mahammad Amilin mosque and currently is biggest mosque of the city.
• Khan Bagi. The 17th century built garden
• Chokak Bath, center of the applied art
• The European bath of 19th century.
• The Armenian Church. Built in the 17th century.
• The Armenian Church. Built in the 18th century and currently, it is in use of the Ganja State Philharmonic Chamber.
• Russian Orthodox church.

Education[link]

This section requires expansion.

Ganja is home to four major institutes for post-secondary education.

• Ganja State University
• Azerbaijan State Agricultural Academy
• Azerbaijan Technological University
• Azerbaijan Teachers Institute, Ganja Branch

Transportation[link]

This section requires expansion.

Air[link]

Ganja International Airport is the only airport in the city.^[59] The airport is connected by bus to the city center. There are domestic flights to Baku and international service to Russia, Ukraine, Turkey.

Rail[link]

Ganja sits on one of the Azerbaijani primary rail lines running East-West connecting the capital, Baku, with the rest of the country. The railway provides both human transportation and transport of goods and commodities such as oil and gravel.

Languages[link]

Most of the population in Ganja speaks Azerbaijani.

Sports[link]

The city has one professional football team competing in the top-flight of Azerbaijani football - FC Kəpəz currently playing in the Azerbaijan Premier League.^[60] It has three Azerbaijani league and four cup titles.

International relations[link]

Twin towns — Sister cities[link]

City	Country
Ankara	Turkey
Olomouc	Czech Republic
Derbent	Russia
Rustavi	Georgia
Newark, New Jersey	United States
Izmir	Turkey
Moscow	Russia
Dnipropetrovsk	Ukraine
Kars	Turkey
Dushanbe	Tajikistan

^[61]

Notable natives[link]

• Albert Azaryan - 3-time Olympic champion (1956, 1960), four-time world champion (1954, 1958), 2-time European champion (1955), 11-time champion of the USSR (1952-1962 ) by Gymnastics, President of the Gymnastics Federation of Armenia.
• Hakob Hakobyan - Soviet Armenian writer, the national poet of Armenian SSR and Georgian SSR.
• Karo Halabyan (1897-1959) - architect, academician, president, vice-president of the Academy of Architecture of the USSR, the Secretary of the Union of Architects of the USSR (1932-1950).
• Abraham Alikhanov - Armenian Soviet physicist, Academy USSR.
• Yuri Harutyunyan (born March 25, 1944) - Soviet Armenian composer, People's Artist of USSR (1970) .
• Vardan Areveltsi (Vardan the Great) - Armenian historian, geographer, philosopher, educator and social activist church of XIII century.
• Vorobyev, Vsevolod Mikhailovich - outstanding Soviet and Ukrainian pianist and teacher.
• Gandzaketsi, Kirakos - Armenian historian of the XIII century., The author of "History of Armenia".
• Gosh, Mkhitar - Armenian philosopher, literary and social activist, theologian and priest XII - XIII centuries.^[62]
• Suren Kazumian - Armenian and Russian businessman ^[63]
• Kevorkov, Sergei Nikitich - Armenian Soviet ballet dancer and choreographer, Honored Artist of the RSFSR (1936), Honored Artist of Azerbaijan SSR (1943).
• Martirosyan, Vilen Arutyunovich - Armenian Soviet soldier and statesman, Major-General Armed Forces of Ukraine People's Deputy of the USSR (from Rivne constituency, 1989-1991), Chairman of the "Fatherland" (Ukraine). <! - [1]
• Askanaz Mravyan - Armenian Soviet state and party leader, secretary of the Communist Party of Armenia (1920-1922).
• Adil Isgandarov — director, actor, People's Artist of USSR (1959).^[64]
• Artur Rasizade — Prime Minister of Azerbaijan (1996–2003 and since 2003)).^[65]
• Elbrus Allahverdiyev — National Hero of Azerbaijan.^[66]
• Enver Arazov — National Hero of Azerbaijan.^[67]
• Eyyub Khanbudagov — chief of the Azerbaijani Extraordinary Commission (Azerbaijani Cheka) (1920–1921).^[68]
• Fikret Amirov — composer, People's Artist of USSR (1965), Hero of Socialist Labor.^[69]
• Javad Khan — khan of Ganja Khanate (1786–1803).
• Igor Makeyev — National Hero of Azerbaijan.^[70]
• Khalil Zeinal — Azerbaijani poet and playwright, Honored Art Worker of Azerbaijan SSR.^[71]
• Madat Guliyev — National Hero of Azerbaijan.^[72]
• Mahsati Ganjavi — poetess.
• Mammadbaghir Sheikhzamanly — 1st chief of the "Organization to struggle against counterrevolution" of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (1919).^[73]
• Mammadrza Sheikhzamanov — film and theater actor, People's Artist of Azerbaijan SSR (1974).^[74]
• Mirza Shafi Vazeh — Azerbaijani poet.^[75]
• Murtuz Alasgarov — Speaker of the National Assembly of Azerbaijan (1996–2005).^[76]
• Museib Baghirov — Hero of the Soviet Union.^[77]
• Nagi Sheikhzamanly — chief of the "Organization to struggle against counterrevolution" of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (1919–1920).^[78]
• Nasib Yusifbeyli — Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (1919–1920).^[79]
• Nigar Rafibeyli — writer.
• Nizami Ganjavi — famous poet.
• Parviz Samadov — National Hero of Azerbaijan.^[80]
• Rafael Asadov — National Hero of Azerbaijan.^[81]
• Surat Huseynov — Prime Minister of Azerbaijan (1993–1994).
• Namiq Sheikhzamanov — surgeon, MD, Ph.D.
• Tamerlan Sheikhzamanov — lawyer-politician, сounsellor in the National Assembly of Azerbaijan Republic.

Pictures of Ganja[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Ganja

• Ganja - The memories of stones
• Ganja Automobile Factory
• Ganja at the Azerbaijan Development Gateway
• Historical Monuments of Ganja
• Nizami Ganjavi Museum of History and Ethnography of Ganja
• Ganja (as Gəncə) at GEOnet Names Server
• World Gazetteer: Azerbaijan – World-Gazetteer.com

Coordinates: 40°40′58″N 46°21′38″E / 40.68278°N 46.36056°E / 40.68278; 46.36056

v t e Ganja Capital: Ganja Bagbanlar Krasnoye Selo Oktyabr Sary-Kaya

v t e Administrative divisions of Azerbaijan Districts (Raions) Absheron Agdam Agdash Aghjabadi Agstafa Agsu Astara Babek Balakan Barda Beylagan Bilasuvar Dashkasan Fizuli Gadabay Goranboy Goychay Goygol Hajigabul Imishli Ismailli Jabrayil Jalilabad Julfa Kalbajar Kangarli Khachmaz Khizi Khojali Khojavend Kurdamir Lachin Lankaran Lerik Masally Neftchala Oghuz Ordubad Qabala Qakh Qazakh Gobustan Quba Qubadli Qusar Saatly Sabirabad Sadarak Salyan Samukh Shabran Shakhbuz Shaki Shamakhi Shamkir Sharur Shusha Siazan Tartar Tovuz Ujar Yardymli Yevlakh Zangilan Zaqatala Zardab Cities Baku Ganja Khankendi Lankaran Mingachevir Naftalan Nakhchivan City Shaki Shirvan Sumqayit Shusha Yevlakh Names in italics indicate parts of the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic

vep:Gändž

Republic of Azerbaijan Azərbaycan Respublikası
Flag Emblem
Anthem: Azərbaycan marşı (English: March of Azerbaijan)
Location of Azerbaijan
Capital (and largest city)		Baku 40°25′N 49°50′E / 40.417°N 49.833°E / 40.417; 49.833
Official language(s)		Azerbaijani
Ethnic groups		91.60% Azerbaijani 2.02% Lezgian 1.35% Armenian 1.34% Russian 1.26% Talysh 2.43% other
Demonym		Azerbaijani
Government		Unitary presidential constitutional republic
-	President	Ilham Aliyev
-	Prime Minister	Artur Rasizade
Legislature		National Assembly
Statehood formation
-	Caucasian Albania	4th century BC
-	Atabegs of Azerbaijan	1135
-	Azerbaijan Democratic Republic	28 May 1918
-	Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic	28 April 1920
-	Independence from the Soviet Union Declared Completed	30 August 1991 18 October 1991
-	Constitution of Azerbaijan adopted	12 November 1995
Area
-	Total	86,600 km2 (114th) 33,436 sq mi
-	Water (%)	1.6%
Population
-	2011 estimate	9,165,000[1] (89th)
-	1999 census	7,953,438
-	Density	105.8/km2 (103th) 274.1/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$93.055 billion[2]
-	Per capita	$10,201[2]
GDP (nominal)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$62.321 billion[2]
-	Per capita	$6,832[2]
Gini (2008)		33.7[3] (medium)
HDI (2010)		0.713[4] (high) (67th)
Currency		Manat (AZN)
Time zone		AZT (UTC+04)
-	Summer (DST)	(UTC+5)
Drives on the		right
ISO 3166 code		AZ
Internet TLD		.az
Calling code		994

Azerbaijan (ⁱ/ˌæzərbaɪˈdʒɑːn/ AZ-ər-by-JAHN; Azerbaijani: Azərbaycan), officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azerbaijani: Azərbaycan Respublikası) is the largest country in the Caucasus region located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe,^[5] it is bounded by the Caspian Sea to the east, Russia to the north, Georgia to the northwest, Armenia to the west, and Iran to the south. The exclave of Nakhchivan is bounded by Armenia to the north and east, Iran to the south and west, while having a short borderline with Turkey to the northwest.

Azerbaijan has an ancient and historic cultural heritage. Aside from having been the first Muslim-majority country to have operas, theater and plays, Azerbaijan today is among the Muslim-majority countries where support for secularism and tolerance is the highest.^[6] The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, the first democratic and secular republic in the Muslim world,^[7][8][9] was established in 1918, but was incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1920.^[10][11] Azerbaijan regained independence in 1991. Shortly thereafter, during the Nagorno-Karabakh War, neighboring Armenia occupied Nagorno-Karabakh, its surrounding territories and the enclaves of Karki, Yukhary Askipara, Barkhudarly and Sofulu. The Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, which emerged in Nagorno-Karabakh, continues to be not diplomatically recognized by any nation and the region is still considered a de jure part of Azerbaijan, despite being de facto independent since the end of the war.^{[12][13][14][15]} Azerbaijan has come under repeated international criticism for its record on human rights.

Azerbaijan is a secular and a unitary constitutional republic. It is one of the six independent Turkic states as well as an active member of the Turkic Council and the TÜRKSOY community. Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 158 countries and holds membership in 38 international organizations.^[16] It is one of the founding members of GUAM, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)^[17] and Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. On May 9, 2006, Azerbaijan was elected to membership in the newly established Human Rights Council by the United Nations General Assembly (the term of office began on June 19, 2006).^[18] A Special Envoy of the European Commission is present in the country, which is also a member of the United Nations, the OSCE, the Council of Europe, and the NATO Partnership for Peace (PfP) program. Azerbaijan is a correspondent at the International Telecommunication Union and member of the Non-Aligned Movement and holds observer status in World Trade Organization.^[16][19]

The Constitution of Azerbaijan does not declare an official religion but the majority of people adhere to the Shia branch of Islam, although Muslim identity tends to be based more on culture and ethnicity rather than religion and Azerbaijan remains as one of the most liberal majority-Muslim nations.^[20][21] After gaining its independence, Azerbaijan has reached a high level of human development,^[22] economic development^[23] and literacy,^[24] as well as a low rate of unemployment^[25] and intentional homicide^[26][27] compared to other Eastern European and CIS countries. On 1 January 2012, the country started a two-year term as a non-permanent member of the United Nations Security Council.^[28]

Etymology[link]

The name of Azerbaijan derives from that of Atropates,^[29][30] a Persian^[31][32][33] satrap under the Achaemenid Empire, who was later reinstated as the satrap of Media under Alexander the Great.^[34][35] The original etymology of this name is thought to have its roots in the once-dominant Zoroastrian religion. In the Avesta, Frawardin Yasht ("Hymn to the Guardian Angels"), there is a mention of âterepâtahe ashaonô fravashîm ýazamaide, which literally translates from Avestan as "we worship the Fravashi of the holy Atropatene".^[36]

Atropates ruled over the region of Atropatene (present-day Iranian Azerbaijan). The name "Atropates" itself is the Greek transliteration of an Old-Iranian, probably Median, compounded name with the meaning "Protected by the (Holy) Fire" or "The Land of the (Holy) Fire".^[37] The Greek name is mentioned by Diodorus Siculus and Strabo. Over the span of millennia the name evolved to Āturpātākān then to Ādharbādhagān, Ādharbāyagān, Āzarbāydjān and present-day Azerbaycan. The word is translatable as "The Treasury" and "The Treasurer" of fire or "The Land of the Fire"^[37] in Modern Persian.^[38]

History[link]

Antiquity[link]

Petroglyphs in Gobustan dating back to 10,000 BC indicating a thriving culture. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site considered to be of "outstanding universal value"

The earliest evidence of human settlement in the territory of Azerbaijan dates to the late Stone Age and is related to the Guruchay culture of the Azykh Cave.^[39] The Upper Paleolithic and late Bronze Age cultures are attested in the caves of Tağılar, Damcılı, Zar, Yataq-yeri and in the necropolises of Leylatepe and Saraytepe.

Early settlements included the Scythians in the ninth century BC.^[37] Following the Scythians, Iranian Medes came to dominate the area to the south of the Aras.^[35] The Medes forged a vast empire between 900–700 BC, which was integrated into the Achaemenids Empire around 550 BC. The area was conquered by the Achaemenids leading to the spread of Zoroastrianism.^[40] Later it became part of Alexander the Great's Empire and its successor, the Seleucid Empire. Caucasian Albanians, the original inhabitants of the area, established an independent kingdom around the fourth century BC. During this period, Zoroastrianism spread in the Caucasus and Atropatene. Ancient Azerbaijanis spoke the Old Azari language.

Feudal era[link]

The Maiden Tower in Old Baku is a UNESCO World Heritage Site built in the 11th–12th century.

The Sassanids turned Caucasian Albania into a vassal state in AD 252, while King Urnayr officially adopted Christianity as the state religion in the fourth century. Despite numerous conquests by the Sassanids and Byzantines, Albania remained an entity in the region until the ninth century. The Islamic Umayyad Caliphate repulsed both the Sassanids and Byzantines from the region and turned Caucasian Albania into a vassal state after the Christian resistance, led by Prince Javanshir, was suppressed in 667. The power vacuum left by the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate was filled by numerous local dynasties such as the Sallarids, Sajids, Shaddadids, Rawadids and Buyids. At the beginning of the 11th century, the territory was gradually seized by waves of Turkic Oghuz tribes from Central Asia. The first of these Turkic dynasties established was the Ghaznavids, which entered the area now known as Azerbaijan by 1030.

The pre-Turkic Azerbaijani population spoke an Iranian language called the Old Azari language, which was gradually replaced by a Turkic language, now known as the Azerbaijani language from the 11th century onward until it became completely extinct in the 16th century.^[41] To distinguish it from the Turkic Azerbaijani or Azeri language, this Iranian language, is designated as the Azari language (or Old Azari language), because the Turkic language and people are also designated as "Azari" in the Persian language. However some linguists have also designated the Tati dialects of Iranian Azerbaijan and the Republic of Azerbaijan, like those spoken by the Tats, as a remnant of Azari.^[42][43] Locally, the possessions of the subsequent Seljuq Empire were ruled by atabegs, who were technically vassals of the Seljuq sultans, being sometimes de facto rulers themselves. Under the Seljuq Turks, local poets such as Nizami Ganjavi and Khagani Shirvani gave rise to a blossoming of Persian literature on the territory of present-day Azerbaijan. The next ruling state of the Jalayirids was short-lived and fell under the conquests of Timur.

The local dynasty of Shirvanshahs became a vassal state of Timur's Empire and assisted him in his war with the ruler of the Golden Horde Tokhtamysh. Following Timur's death two independent and rival states emerged: Kara Koyunlu and Ak Koyunlu. The Shirvanshahs returned, maintaining a high degree of autonomy as local rulers and vassals from 861 until 1539. During their persecution by the Safavids, the last dynasty imposed Shia Islam upon the formerly Sunni population,^[44][45][46] as it was battling against the Sunni Ottoman Empire.^[47]

Modern era[link]

Territories of Northern and Southern Khanates (and Sultanates) of Azerbaijan in Iran in 18th–19th centuries.^[48]

After the Safavids, the area was ruled by the Iranian dynasties of Afshar and Zand and briefly by the Qajars. However de facto self-ruling khanates^{[49][50][51][52][53]} emerged in the area, especially following the collapse of the Zand dynasty and in the early Qajar era. The brief and successful Russian campaign of 1812 was concluded with the Treaty of Gulistan, in which the shah's claims to some of the Khanates of the Caucasus were dismissed by Russia on the ground that they had been de facto independent long before their Russian occupation.^[54]

The khanates exercised control over their affairs via international trade routes between Central Asia and the West.^[55] Engaged in constant warfare, these khanates were eventually incorporated into the Russian Empire in 1813, following the two Russo-Persian Wars. The area to the North of the river Arax, among which the territory of the contemporary republic of Azerbaijan were Iranian territory until they were occupied by Russia.^{[10][56][57][58][59][60]} Under the Treaty of Turkmenchay, Persia recognized Russian sovereignty over the Erivan Khanate, the Nakhchivan Khanate and the remainder of the Lankaran Khanate.

In 2007, during the construction of a stadium, constructors discovered the Guba mass grave. Studies by Azerbaijani and foreign scientists have confirmed the human remains found there to be of local residents of various nationalities, including Jews and Lezgians who were killed in the 1918 massacre carried out by Armenians.^[61] To date, the remains of 600 people have been found, including about 50 children and 100 women.^[62]

Map of Azerbaijan issued at Paris Peace Conference in 1919.

After the collapse of the Russian Empire during World War I, Azerbaijan, together with Armenia and Georgia became part of the short-lived Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic. When the republic dissolved in May 1918, Azerbaijan declared independence as the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR). The ADR was the first modern parliamentary republic in the Muslim World.^[8][10][63] Among the important accomplishments of the Parliament was the extension of suffrage to women, making Azerbaijan the first Muslim nation to grant women equal political rights with men.^[8] In this accomplishment, Azerbaijan also preceded the United Kingdom and the United States. Another important accomplishment of ADR was the establishment of Baku State University, which was the first modern-type university founded in Muslim East.^[8]

By March 1920, it was obvious that Soviet Russia would attack the much-needed Baku. Vladimir Lenin said that the invasion was justified as Soviet Russia could not survive without Baku's oil.^[64][65] Independent Azerbajian lasted only 23 months until the Bolshevik 11th Soviet Red Army invaded it, establishing the Azerbaijan SSR on April 28, 1920. Although the bulk of the newly formed Azerbaijani army was engaged in putting down an Armenian revolt that had just broken out in Karabakh, Azeris did not surrender their brief independence of 1918–20 quickly or easily. As many as 20,000 Azerbaijani soldiers died resisting what was effectively a Russian reconquest.^[66]