Khoikhoi dismantling their huts, preparing to move to new pastures. Aquatint by Samuel Daniell (1805).

The Khoikhoi ("people people" or "real people") or Khoi, in standardised Khoekhoe/Nama orthography spelled Khoekhoe, are a historical division of the Khoisan ethnic group, the native people of southwestern Africa, closely related to the Bushmen (or San, as the Khoikhoi called them). They had lived in southern Africa since the 5th century AD.^[1] When European immigrants colonized the area in 1652, the Khoikhoi were practising extensive pastoral agriculture in the Cape region, with large herds of Nguni cattle. The European immigrants labeled them Hottentots, in imitation of the sound of the Khoekhoe language,^[2] but this term is today considered derogatory by some.^[3]

Archaeological evidence shows that the Khoikhoi entered South Africa from Botswana through two distinct routes – traveling west, skirting the Kalahari to the west coast, then down to the Cape, and travelling south-east out into the Highveld and then southwards to the south coast.^[4] Most of the Khoikhoi have largely disappeared as a group, except for the largest group, the Namas.

History[link]

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

A Khoikhoi man

Early History[link]

The Khoikhoi were originally part of a pastoral culture and language group found across Southern Africa. Originated in the northern area of modern Botswana, the ethnic group steadily migrated south, reaching the Cape approximately 2,000 years ago. Khoikhoi subgroups include the Korana of mid-South Africa, the Namaqua to the west, and the Khoikhoi in the south. Husbandry of sheep, goats and cattle provided a stable, balanced diet and allowed the related Khoikhoi peoples to live in larger groups than the region's previous inhabitants, the San. Herds grazed in fertile valleys across the region until the 3rd century AD when the advancing Bantu encroached into their traditional homeland. The Khoikhoi were forced into a long retreat into more arid areas. Today, in the southwest country of Namibia, the majority of the Khoikhoi people are mixed with one of the Bantu groups known as the Damara – today, they have a mixed-light skin tone, resulting from the light color of the Khoikhoi people and the darker color of the Bantu people. This people group – known as either Damara or Khoikhoi – live around the Erongo region of Namibia. They speak the language known as "Khoikhoigobab" or simply (the more wide spread term) "Damara".

Migratory Khoi bands living around what is today Cape Town intermarried with San. However the two groups remained culturally distinct as the Khoikhoi continued to graze livestock and the San subsisted as hunter-gatherers.

The Arrival of the Europeans[link]

The Khoi initially came into contact with European explorers and merchants in approximately AD 1500. The ongoing encounters were often violent. Local population dropped when the Khoi were exposed to smallpox by Europeans. Active warfare between the groups flared when the Dutch East India Company enclosed traditional grazing land for farms. Over the following century the Khoi were steadily driven off their land, which effectively ended traditional Khoikhoi life.

Khoikhoi social organization was profoundly damaged and, in the end, destroyed by European colonial expansion and land seizure from the late 17th century onwards. As social structures broke down, some Khoikhoi people settled on farms and became bondsmen or farm workers; others were incorporated into existing clan and family groups of the Xhosa people. The first mission station in southern Africa^[5], Genadendal, was started in 1738 among the Khoi people in Baviaanskloof in the Riviersonderend Mountains by Georg Schmidt a Moravian Brother from Herrnhut, Saxony, now Germany.

Adam Kok, leader of the Griqua nation

The Griqua nation[link]

Early European settlers frequently intermarried with the indigenous Khoi, producing a sizable mixed population known at the time as "Basters", but currently known as the Griqua people.

Like the other Afrikaans-speaking people, the Boers, the Griqua left the Cape Colony en masse and migrated inland. They formed the states of Griqualand West and Griqualand East which, like the two Boer republics, were eventually subsumed within the British Empire.

The Kat River settlement (1829-1856) and the Khoi in the Cape Colony[link]

Khoi marksmen played a key role in the Cape Frontier Wars

By the early 1800s, the remaining Khoi of the Cape Colony were suffering from restricted civil rights and discriminatory laws on land ownership. With this in mind, the powerful Commissioner General of the Eastern Districts, Andries Stockenstrom, facilitated the creation of the "Kat River" Khoi settlement near the eastern frontier of the Cape Colony. The more cynical motives were probably to create a buffer-zone on the Cape's frontier, but the extensive and fertile lands in the region did allow the Khoi to own their land and build their communities in peace. The settlements thrived and expanded, and Kat River quickly became a large and successful region of the Cape that subsisted more or less autonomously. The people were predominantly Afrikaans-speaking Gonaqua Khoi, but the settlement also began to attract numbers from other Khoi, Xhosa and mixed-race groups of the Cape.

The Khoi were known at the time for being remarkably good marksmen, and were frequent and invaluable allies of the Cape Colony in its frontier wars with the neighboring Xhosa. In the Seventh Frontier War (1846–1847) against the Gcaleka Xhosa, the Khoi gunmen from Kat River distinguished themselves under their leader Andries Botha in the assault on the "Amatola fastnesses". (The young John Molteno, later Prime Minister, led a mixed Commando in the assault, and later praised the Khoi as having more bravery and initiative than most of his white soldiers.)^[6]

Harsh laws were still implemented in the Eastern Cape however, to encourage the Khoi to leave their lands in the Kat River region and to work as laborers on white farms. The growing resentment exploded in 1850. When the Xhosa rose against the Cape Government, large numbers of the Khoi, for the first time, joined the Xhosa rebels.

After the war and the defeat of the rebellion, the new Cape Government endeavored to grant the Khoi meaningful political rights to avert any future racial discontent. William Porter, the Attorney General, was famously quoted as saying that he "...would rather meet the Hottentot at the hustings, voting for his representative, than meet him in the wilds with his gun upon his shoulder", and so the beginnings of the multi-racial Cape franchise was born in 1853. This law decreed that all citizens, regardless of colour, had the right to vote and to seek election in Parliament. This non-racial principle of franchise was later eroded in the late 1880s, and then finally abolished by the Apartheid Government. ^[7]

Khoikhoi prisoners of war in German South West Africa, 1904.

Massacres in German South West Africa[link]

From 1904 to 1907, the Germans took up arms against the Khoikhoi group living in what was then German South West Africa, along with the Herero. Over 10,000 Nama, more than half of the total Nama population, perished. This was the single greatest massacre ever witnessed by the Khoikhoi people.

Culture[link]

The religious mythology of the Khoikhoi gives special significance to the moon, which may have been viewed as the physical manifestation of a supreme being associated with heaven. Tsui'goab is also believed to be the creator and the guardian of health, while Gunab is primarily an evil being, who causes sickness or death.^[8] Recently, many Khoikhoi in Namibia have converted to Islam and make up the largest group among Namibia's Muslim community.^[9]

Traditionally, the Khoisan^{[clarification needed]} lived in simple and disposable huts made of long sticks bound at the top with vines or other fiber then covered in grass. Each family would have their own hut. However, children that were older may have lived live in separate huts with others in their age group.

The Khoisan are polygamous (more than one wife). Wives may share or occupy different huts depending on how well they get along. Visitors are entertained outside the home unit around the fire.^[10]

See also[link]

• Herero and Namaqua genocide
• Namaqua
• Khoikhoi mythology
• Griqua people
• History of South Africa
• Hottentot Venus

Publications[link]

• P. Kolben, Present State of the Cape of Good Hope (London, 1731–38);
• A. Sparman, Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope (Perth, 1786);
• Sir John Barrow, Travels into the Interior of South Africa (London, 1801);
• Bleek, Reynard the Fox in South Africa; or Hottentot Fables and Tales (London, 1864);
• Emil Holub, Seven Years in South Africa (English translation, Boston, 1881);
• G. W. Stow, Native Races of South Africa (New York, 1905);
• A. R. Colquhoun, Africander Land (New York, 1906);
• L. Schultze, Aus Namaland und Kalahari (Jena, 1907);
• Meinhof, Die Sprachen der Hamiten (Hamburg, 1912);
• Richard Elphick, Khoikhoi and the Founding of White South Africa (London, 1977)

References[link]

External links[link]

South Africa portal

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Khoikhoi

• Cultural Contact in Southern Africa by Anne Good for the Women in World History website
• An article on the history of the Khoikhoi
• The Khoekhoe People of Southern Africa

Nguyễn Huệ 阮惠
Emperor of Vietnam
Emperor Quang Trung
Reign	1788–1792
Predecessor	Thái Đức Lê Dynasty
Successor	Cảnh Thịnh
Full name
Nguyễn Huệ
House	Tây Sơn Dynasty
Born	1753
Died	1792

This article contains Vietnamese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of chữ Nôm, chữ Hán and chữ Quốc Ngữ.

Nguyễn Huệ, also known as Emperor Quang Trung (光中皇帝; Quang Trung Hoàng đế ), born in Bình Định in 1753, died in Phú Xuân on 16 September 1792, was the second emperor of the Tây Sơn Dynasty of Vietnam, reigning from 1788 until 1792. He was also one of the most successful military commanders in Vietnam's history.^[1]

Nguyễn Huệ and his brothers, together known as the Tây Sơn Brothers,^[2] were the leaders of the famous Tây Sơn Rebellion. As rebels, they conquered Vietnam, overthrowing the imperial Later Lê Dynasty and the two rival feudal houses of the Nguyễn in the south and the Trinh in the north.

After several years of constant military campaigning and rule, Nguyễn Huệ died at the age of 40, possibly due to a stroke.^[3] Prior to his death, he had made plans to continue his march southwards in order to destroy the army of Nguyễn Ánh, a surviving heir of the Nguyễn Lords. Nguyễn Huệ's death led to the downfall of the Tây Sơn Dynasty. His successors were unable to follow the plans he had made for ruling Vietnam. However, his conquests marked the beginning of approximately a century in which Vietnam was both unified and independent until the Western conquest of Vietnam in 1885.

Early life[link]

According to multiple sources, Nguyễn Huệ's ancestors were peasants who lived in Nghệ An.^[4][5][6] They left Nghệ An and moved to southern Vietnam after an attack by the Nguyễn Lords against the Trịnh Lords in Nghệ An. His ancestors' surname was Hồ (胡), but Huệ's great grandfather Hồ Phi Long, who was a servant of the Dinh family of Bằng Chân hamlet, Tuy Viễn district (or An Nhơn), Quy Nhơn province, married a woman from the Dinh family and had a son named Hồ Phi Tiễn, Huệ's grandfather. Hồ Phi Tiễn did not continue farming as his father, but instead traded in betel. Through his work he met and married Nguyễn Thị Đồng, the only daughter of a rich betel tradesman residing in Tây Sơn village. One of their children was Huệ's father Hồ Phi Phúc (also known as Nguyễn Phi Phúc). Some sources say that in taking on the surname Nguyễn, the family followed the surname of Huệ's mother; other sources say that it followed the surname of Nguyễn Lords of southern Vietnam.

Nguyễn Huệ was born in 1753 in Tây Sơn village, Nghia Binh province (now Bình Định). He was the second of three brothers in a family with eight children. His father, Nguyễn Phi Phúc, made the three brothers dedicate themselves to their studies early in life. Their martial arts master was Trương Văn Hiến, a learned guest (môn khách) and friend of Trương Văn Hạnh, who in turn was the teacher of Nguyễn Phúc Luân, the father of Nguyễn Phúc Ánh (or Nguyễn Ánh). Trương Văn Hiến also instructed the brothers in literature, history, and the military arts. He was first man to discover the talents of the Tây Sơn Brothers and to advise them to do great deeds. It is possible that the prophecy ""Tây khởi nghĩa, Bắc thu công" (Revolt in the West, success in the North) is his. Trương Văn Hiến fled to Bình Định after a powerful government official named Trương Phúc Loan killed his friend Trương Văn Hạnh.

Seeking to overthrow the powerful official Trương Phúc Loan and to help the prince Nguyễn Phúc Dương, the eldest of the Tây Sơn Brothers, Nguyễn Nhạc, gathered an army and revolted in 1771. He was aided by his brothers Nguyễn Huệ and Nguyễn Lữ. In the early days of the rebellion, Huệ was the most helpful of Nhạc's generals both in finance and in training the army; with the encouragement of Trương Văn Hiến and his own talent, Huệ rapidly increased his own popularity and that of the Tây Sơn Rebellion.

Quang Trung thông bảo, A coin issued during the reign of Quang Trung Emperor

Due to its popularity, the Tây Sơn Army grew strong and attracted many talented generals, (such as Nguyễn Thung, Bùi Thị Xuân, Võ Văn Dũng, Võ Đình Tú, Trần Quang Diệu, Trương Mỹ Ngọc, and Võ Xuân Hoài). The rebels became famous for their policy: "fair, no corruption, only looting the rich, and help the poor" (công bằng, không tham nhũng, và chỉ cướp của của người giàu, giúp người nghèo).^[7]

War against the Nguyễn Lords[link]

Early time[link]

After 200 years of holding power in southern Vietnam, the government of the Nguyễn Lords had become progressively weaker, due to its poor leadership and internal contradictions. Following the death of Lord Nguyễn Phúc Khoát, the powerful official Trương Phúc Loan began to arrogate to himself control over the Nguyễn government.^[8][9] For the purpose of resisting against the excessive power of Trương Phúc Loan and coming to the assistance of Prince Nguyễn Phúc Dương, the Tây Sơn Brothers gathered an army and revolted against the government of the Nguyễn Lords. The rebel army of the Tây Sơn quickly occupied a large area of land from Quy Nhơn to Bình Thuận, thereby weakening the authority of the Nguyễn government.^[8][9]

In 1774, the government of the Nguyễn Lords sent a large army led by general Tống Phúc Hiệp against the Tây Sơn rebels. From Gia Dinh, the troops marched to northern central Vietnam, and after several battles they recaptured Bình Thuận, Diên Khánh, and Bình Khang. The rebel army of the Tây Sơn now only held the land from Phú Yên to Quảng Ngãi.

Also in 1774, the ruler of northern Vietnam, Trịnh Sâm,sent a massive army of 30,000 soldiers led by general Hoàng Ngũ Phúc southwards with the same purpose as that of the Tây Sơn rebel army, namely to help the Nguyễn Lords fight Trương Phúc Loan. The northern troops were unobstructed in their march to Phú Xuân, the governmental capital of the Nguyễn Lords. The government of the Nguyễn Lords feared the beginning of an unmanageable war on two fronts.^[8][9] Officials of the government arrested Trương Phúc Loan and gave him up to the troops of the Trịnh Lords. The Trịnh Lords, however, continued attacking Phú Xuân under the pretext of helping the Nguyễn Lords suppress the Tây Sơn rebellion. The Nguyễn Lord Nguyễn Phúc Thuần and his officials initially attempted to resist the attack, but ended up fleeing to Quảng Nam.^[9]

Seizing the opportunity, Nguyễn Nhạc led an army (with naval support) against Quảng Nam. Once again, the Nguyễn Lord Nguyễn Phúc Thuần fled, this time by sea to Gia Dinh, accompanied by Nguyễn Phúc Ánh, and leaving behind his nephew Nguyễn Phúc Dương.^[8] Early in 1775, the army of the Trịnh Lords marched on Quảng Nam at the same time as the Tây Sơn troops reached Quảng Nam. Tây Sơn troops searched for and then captured Nguyễn Phúc Dương. The army of the Trịnh Lords crossed the pass at Hai Van gorge, engaged the Tây Sơn troops, and defeated them.^[9]

At the same time, the general of the Nguyễn Lords Tống Phúc Hiệp led his troops against Phú Yên, forcing the Tây Sơn army to withdraw.

Fearing a war on two fronts, Nguyễn Nhạc sent Hoàng Ngũ Phúc a proposal that if the Trịnh Lords recognized the Tây Sơn Rebel Army, the Tây Sơn would help the Trịnh Lords fight against the Nguyễn Lords. The proposal was accepted, and Nguyễn Nhạc was made an official of the Trịnh Lords. Nhac also made peace with the Nguyễn Lords, causing Tống Phúc Hiệp to take off the pressure, and deluded Prince Nguyễn Phúc Dương.^[9] His diplomacy provisionally made Tây Sơn's enemies inactive and bought him valuable time to shore up his army.^[9]

Tây Sơn's counter-attack[link]

Realising that the provisional truce would not last long, Nguyen Nhạc retrained the rebel army, recruited new soldiers, fortified Đồ Bàn castle, and built new bases, preparing for an attack.^[8]

Tống Phúc Hiệp, who had been deceived by Nguyện Nhạc peaceful overtures, did not pay much attention to Nhạc's activities. He did not prepare for either defending or attacking. Nhạc made use of Hiệp's inactivity, and sent troops led by his brother Nguyễn Huệ against him. The Tây Sơn troops swiftly defeated the unprepared troops of the Nguyễn Lords and inflicted heavy losses upon them. Tống Phúc Hiệp and his troops fled to Van Phong.^[8] It was the first great victory achieved by Huệ. Nhạc sent news of the victory to Hoàng Ngũ Phúc. On Phuc's request, the Trinh rewarded Nhạc with a new office.

Because the troops of the Trịnh Lords lacked familiarity with the southern country, Hoàng Ngũ Phúc withdrew the troops to the north. En route, he died of natural causes. Phúc's death marked the end of the Trịnh Lords' interventions in the south.^[8] While the army of the Trịnh Lords withdrew to Thuận Hóa, Tây Sơn moved quickly in sending its troops to take over the abandoned territory and to suppress elements loyal to the Nguyễn Lords.

Southern aggressiveness[link]

Having gained a lot of new rich land without facing much opposition, the Tây Sơn Army grew stronger. Nhạc had a desire to expand Tây Sơn's authority. He sent a large army led by his youngest brother Nguyễn Lữ to launch a sudden attack against Gia Định (now called Ho Chi Minh City) by sea. Lữ's raid was successful: he occupied Sài Côn (hay Sài Gòn) and forced the Nguyễn Lord and his followers to flee to Biên Hòa. His success was short-lived, however, when an army loyal to the Nguyễn Lords and led by a man named Đỗ Thành Nhân rose against him in Đông Sơn. The loyalist army attacked and forced Tây Sơn's troops to withdraw from Sài Côn. Before withdrawing, Lữ seized the local foodstores and took them back to Quy Nhơn.^[9]

Nguyễn Nhạc, due to his power, repaired to Đồ Bàn city and in 1776 proclaimed himself King of Tây Sơn (Vietnamese: Tây Sơn Vương), choosing Đồ Bàn as his capital.^[9] He gave Huệ the title Phụ Chính (Vice National Administrator).

Defeat of the Qing[link]

Late 18th century painting depicting the Emperor Qianlong receiving, Nguyen Quang-Hien, the peace envoy from Nguyen Hue in Beijing.

Emperor Qianlong of the Great Qing Empire sent a massive army south with Lê Chiêu Thống (the last official Lê emperor) in 1788 to restore him to the throne, though under Chinese protection of course. Nguyễn Huệ gathered his forces around Thăng Long (today called Ha Noi) which had been taken by the Qing army. He declared in front of his soldiers:

Fight to keep our hair long,

Fight to keep our teeth black,

Fight to show that the heroic southern country can never be defeated.

In a brilliantly successful battle, Nguyễn Huệ made a surprise attack against the Chinese during Tết, the Vietnamese lunar new year holiday. This was traditionally a time of peace for all sides and the Qing troops were unprepared for battle. In a fierce 5-day battle they were soundly and stunningly defeated and Lê Chiêu Thống was forced to flee for his life back to China. Yet, Nguyễn Huệ showed considerable gallantry to the defeated Chinese, allowing them to return home with honor and encouraging a peaceful relationship in keeping with previous arrangements, with the Qing Emperor. As for himself, Nguyễn Huệ had become the national savior of Vietnam and the most popular figure in the country. He was subsequently proclaimed Emperor of Vietnam with the name Quang Trung.

Rule[link]

This section requires expansion.

Once in power, Emperor Quang Trung fast began instituting massive and unprecedented national reforms in Vietnam. He set up a new system of administration and replaced the traditional Chinese script with the Vietnamese Chữ Nôm as the official written language of the country. His religious toleration won him the support of the growing Christian community and his campaign of the common people against the traditional elites won him the admiration of the peasant majority.

Legacy[link]

Most cities in Vietnam, regardless of the political orientation of the government, have named major streets after him.^[10]

References and notes[link]