Jewish languages

, showing (right to left) Yiddish-Hebrew-Latin-German translations.]] Jewish languages are the various languages and dialects that developed in Jewish communities around the world.

Although Hebrew was the daily speech of the Jewish people for centuries, by the fifth century BCE, the closely related Aramaic joined Hebrew as the spoken language in Judea and by the third century BCE Jews of the diaspora were speaking Greek, and soon afterwards Hebrew was no longer used as a mother tongue - for over sixteen centuries being used almost exclusively as a liturgical language until revived as a spoken language by Eliezer ben Yehuda in the Palestine of the late 1880s and eventually becoming the official language of the state of Israel.

For centuries Jews worldwide spoke the local or dominant languages of the regions they migrated to, often developing distinctive dialectal forms or branching off as independent languages.

The usual course of development for these languages was through the addition of Hebrew words and phrases used to express uniquely Jewish concepts and concerns. Often they were written in Hebrew letters, including the block letters used in Hebrew today and Rashi script. Due to the insular nature of many Jewish communities, many Jewish languages retained archaic vocabulary and linguistic structures of the language from which they descended long after they were been lost or changed in later forms of the parent language.

Among the most widely spoken Jewish languages to develop in the diaspora are Yiddish, Ladino, and the Judæo-Arabic group of languages. Yiddish is the Judeo-German language developed by Ashkenazi Jews who migrated to Central Europe, and Ladino, also called Judezmo and Muestra Spanyol, is the Judeo-Spanish language developed by Sephardic Jews who lived in the Iberian peninsula.

Many ancient and distinct Jewish languages, including Gruzinic, Judeo-Arabic, Judeo-Berber, Krymchak and Judeo-Malayalam have largely fallen out of use due the impact of the Holocaust on European Jewry, the Jewish exodus from Arab lands, the assimilation policies of Israel in its early days and other factors.

Yiddish is the language spoken by the largest number of Jews in history, followed closely by English and then Hebrew, but today the three most commonly spoken languages among Jews are English, modern Hebrew, and Russian—in that order.

Background

, a 10th century CE Hebrew Bible originating from the Middle East. The page shown is from the Book of Deuteronomy. ]]

The oldest and most treasured books of the Jewish people have been the Torah and Tanakh (i.e. the Hebrew Bible) written almost entirely in Biblical Hebrew, with a small amount of Biblical Aramaic, and widely used by Jews during their history. Jews zealously studied these detailed Hebrew texts, observed the commandments formulated in them, based their prayers on them, and spoke its language. Jews maintained a belief that Hebrew was God's "language" as well (as it was the language God uses in the Torah itself), hence its name "lashon hakodesh" ("Holy language" or "tongue").

The earliest surviving Hebrew inscription, the Gezer calendar, dates from the 10th century BCE; it was written in the so-called Paleo-Hebrew alphabet (ktav ivrit), which continued to be used through the time of Solomon's Temple until changed to the new "Assyrian lettering" (ktav ashurit), the "square-script", by Ezra the Scribe following the Babylonian Exile. During this time there were also changes in the language, as it developed towards Mishnaic Hebrew. Until then, most Jews had spoken Hebrew in Israel and Judea, however, by the destruction of the Second Temple, most had already shifted to speaking Aramaic, with a significant number in the large diaspora speaking Koine Greek. To cater for their needs, the Bible had been translated into the Aramaic Targum and the Greek Septuagint. As Jews emigrated to far-flung countries, and as the languages of the countries they were in changed, they often adopted the local languages, and thus came to speak a great variety of languages. During the early Middle Ages, Aramaic continued to be the principal Jewish language. Most of the Talmud is written in Aramaic. Rashi wrote in Hebrew with references to the French language of his day. Later in the Middle Ages, most Jewish literary activity was carried out in Judeo-Arabic, which was Arabic written in the Hebrew alphabet; this is the language Maimonides wrote in.

Hebrew itself remained in vigorous use for religious and official uses such as for all religious events, Responsa, for writing Torah scrolls, and along with Aramaic, retained a position of importance for the writing of marriage contracts and other literary purposes. with targum, an Aramaic translation alongside the Hebrew.]] As time passed, these Jewish dialects often became so different from the parent languages as to constitute new languages, typically with a heavy influx of Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords and other innovations within the language. Thus were formed a variety of languages specific to the Jewish community; perhaps the most notable of these are Yiddish in Europe (mainly from German) and Ladino (from Spanish), originally in al-Andalus but spreading to other locations, mainly around the Mediterranean, due to the 1492 expulsion of practicing Jews from Spain and the persecution by the Inquisition of the conversos.

Jews in the diaspora have tended to live in segregated communities. This segregation was partly enforced on them by the wider communities, and partly by choice in an endeavor to maintain their own culture. These sociological factors contributed to the formation of dialects that often developed and diverged to form separate languages.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Yiddish was the main language of Jews in Eastern Europe (thus making it the language spoken by the majority of Jews in the world), while Ladino was widespread in the Maghreb, Turkey, Bulgaria and Greece; smaller groups in Europe spoke such languages as Judeo-Italian, Yevanic, or Karaim. The Jews of the Arab world spoke Judeo-Arabic varieties, while those of Iran spoke Dzhidi (Judeo-Persian); smaller groups spoke Judeo-Berber, Judeo-Tat or even, in Kurdistan, Judeo-Aramaic. The Beta Israel were abandoning their Kayla language for Amharic, while the Cochin Jews continued to speak Malayalam.

Contemporary trends

, showing directions in Hebrew, Arabic and transliterated into the Latin alphabet.]] This broad picture was substantially modified by major historical shifts beginning in the late nineteenth century. The immigration of millions of European Jews to North America caused a dramatic increase in the number of Jewish English-speakers; colonialism in the Maghreb led most of its Jews to shift to French or Spanish; Zionism revived Hebrew as a spoken language, giving it a substantially increased vocabulary and a simplified sound system; the Holocaust eradicated the vast majority of Yiddish- and German-speaking European Jews; and the Arab-Israeli conflict led many Jews to leave the Arab world for other countries (mainly Hebrew-speaking Israel and French-speaking France), whose languages they largely adopted.

Jews today speak a large variety of languages, typically adopting the languages of their countries of residence. The largest single language spoken by Jews is English: The second largest Jewish population in the world is in the United States, and there are also large, substantial communities in Canada (a majority of Canadian Jews speak English, not French), the United Kingdom, Australia, and South Africa. Ireland, New Zealand, and some islands of the Caribbean, also have small Jewish communities which speak predominantly English.

English is closely followed by Modern Hebrew, the spoken language in Israel, and by Israeli emigrants who live in other countries. Hebrew is the language of daily life in Israel, though a substantial proportion of the country's citizens are immigrants who speak it as their second language.

After English and Hebrew, the next largest language spoken by large populations of Jews is Russian, with perhaps two million speakers from the former Soviet Union, a majority of whom now live in Israel. Approximately 1 million Israelis speak Russian fluently. and transliterated English (in Yiddish orthography) in the predominantly Hasidic area of Kiryas Joel, New York. ]] French, Spanish, Portuguese and Yiddish constitute the final "tier" of languages spoken by major Jewish populations. French is spoken by hundreds of thousands of Jews in France and Quebec, most of them immigrants from North Africa who originally spoke Maghrebi Arabic or Ladino; however, most of them had already switched language before leaving North Africa. Spanish and Portuguese are spoken by large Jewish communities in Central and South America; Buenos Aires has a large Jewish community. A substantial number of current immigrants to Israel speak French or Spanish as their mother tongue.Yiddish continues to be spoken by older generations of Jews, as well as by four to six hundred thousand individuals in Haredi communities. Although the number of older speakers is continually decreasing, there is revived interest in Yiddish in academia and the arts; and the populations of Yiddish-speaking Hasidic communities are growing, especially among younger generations.

Thus Yiddish, once the language of the majority of the world's Jews, continues to be spoken, as are nearly all the languages discussed in the preceding section. However, some of these languages, notably Judeo-Arabic and Ladino, are considered to be gravely endangered.

Radio Broadcasts

Kol Israel (Israel's public service broadcaster) has long maintained daily short news and features programming in many Jewish languages and dialects. For domestic audiences it broadcast in Iraqi Jewish Arabic (Yahudi) on its Arabic network. While producing: Yiddish, Ladino, Moroccan Jewish Arabic (Mughrabi or Marocayit), Bukharian (Central Asian Dialect) and Judeo-Tat for both to domestic and overseas shortwave audiences in relevant areas. In addition, for over two decades from the late 1970s a daily 30 minute shortwave transmission was made to Yemen in Yemenite Jewish Arabic.

Radio Exterior de España the Spanish International Public broadcaster provides programming in Ladino, which they refer to as Sefardi.

In the United States there are some local radio programs in Yiddish as there are also in Birobidzhan in Russia.

Alphabets

The Hebrew alphabet has also been used to transcribe a number of languages including Arabic, English, French, Spanish (as opposed to Ladino), German (as distinct from Yiddish) and Greek. While not common, such practice has occurred intermittently over the last two thousand years, and probably was part of the basis of such languages as Ladino and Yiddish.

Conversely, Ladino, formerly written in Rashi script, since the 1920 is usually written in Turkey in the Latin alphabet with a spelling similar to that of Turkish, and has been occasionally printed in the Greek and Cyrillic alphabets. Soviet authorities tried to promote the Cyrillic alphabet for Yiddish in the Jewish Autonomous Oblast.

Also, some Yiddish-speakers have adopted the use of the Latin alphabet, in place of the Hebrew alphabet. This is predominantly to enable communications over the internet, without the need for special Hebrew keyboards.

List of Jewish languages

Afro-Asiatic languages

Semitic: Hebrew, Amharic, Aramaic (referred to as Jewish Aramaic or Talmudic Aramaic), Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, Neo-Aramaic (dialects include: Lishanid Noshan, Lishanid Janan, Lishana Noshan, Lishana Deni, Lishan Didan), Judeo-Arabic (many dialects, including: Judeo-Iraqi all are qeltu Arabic dialects), Judeo-Moroccan, Judeo-Yemenite, Judeo-Libyan, Judeo-Algerian, also several Judeo-Arabic dialects spoken in northern Syria and Iraq.

Berber: Judeo-Berber

Cushitic: Kayla (Qwara), Kaïliña

Indo-European languages

Germanic: Yiddish, Yinglish, Yeshivish, Klezmer-loshn, Judendeutsch (German in Hebrew characters which the Rothschilds communicated with), "Scots Yiddish"

Italic: Judeo-Latin and its putative descendants, the Judeo-Romance languages: Ladino, Shuadit (Judeo-Provençal), Zarphatic (Judeo-French), Judeo-Portuguese, Judeo-Italian, Judæo-Piedmontese, Bagitto (Jewish Livornese dialect), Catalanic (Judeo-Catalan), Judeo-Aragonese

Slavic: Knaanic (Judeo-Czech)

Greek: Yevanic (Judeo-Greek)

Indo-Iranian (Judeo-Persian languages and Indo-Aryan languages): Dzhidi (Judeo-Persian), Bukhori, Judeo-Golpaygani, Judeo-Yazdi, Judeo-Kermani, Judeo-Shirazi, Judeo-Esfahani, Judeo-Hamedani, Judeo-Kashani, Judeo-Borujerdi, Judeo-Nehevandi, Judeo-Khunsari, Juhuri language(Judeo-Tat), Judeo-Marathi

Turkic

Krymchak (Judeo-Tartar)

Karaim language (Spoken by the Karaites of Crimea and Lithuania)

Kartvelian

Gruzinic

Dravidian

Judeo-Malayalam

Alphabetical list

Bukhori (Judeo-Tajiki-Persian)

Catalanic

Dzhidi (Judeo-Persian)

Gruzinic (Judeo-Georgian)

Hulaula

Judeo-Italian (Italian)

Judeo-Arabic

Judeo-Aramaic

Judeo-Berber

Judeo-Portuguese

Judeo-Malayalam

Juhuri (Judeo-Tat)

Kayla

Karaim

Knaanic (Judeo-Czech)

Krymchak (Judeo-Crimean-Tatar)

Ladino (Judeo-Spanish)

Lishán Didán

Lishana Deni

Lishanid Noshan

Shuadit (Judeo-Provençal)

Tigrinya (Judeo-Tigray)

Yevanic (Judeo-Greek)

Yiddish (Judeo-German)

Zarphatic (Judeo-French)

References

External links

Jewish Language Research Website from Jewish-languages.org

* Links to individual languages

The Lily Center for Jewish Languages and Literatures at Harvard University

WW2 propaganda leaflets: A website about airdropped, shelled or rocket fired propaganda leaflets. Allied propaganda leaflet for Moroccan Jews in Judeo-Arabic language.

Jewish languages dying out

Jewish Languages of Europe

Hebrew (Jewish) languages: Ivrit, Yiddish