- published: 12 May 2012
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- author: MrSuicideSheep
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- Alabama
- Albuquerque, NM
- American Civil War
- Andrew Jackson
- Anglicisation
- Anglo-Cherokee War
- Ani-kutani
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- Anthropologist
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- Athens, Georgia
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- Ball Ground, Georgia
- Battle of Pea Ridge
- Battle of Taliwa
- Beadwork
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- Black drink
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- Bob Benge
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- Calhoun, Georgia
- Catawba (tribe)
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-
Alabama
Alabama (
i/ˌæləˈbæmə/) is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama is the 30th-most extensive and the 23rd-most populous of the 50 United States. Alabama ranks second in the area of its inland waterways.
From the American Civil War until World War II, Alabama, like many Southern states, suffered economic hardship, in part because of continued dependence on agriculture. Despite the growth of major industries and urban centers, white rural interests dominated the state legislature until the 1960s, while urban interests and African Americans were under-represented. Following World War II, Alabama experienced growth as the economy of the state transitioned from agriculture to diversified interests in heavy manufacturing, mineral extraction, education, and technology. In addition, the establishment or expansion of multiple military installations, primarily those of the U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force, added to state jobs.
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Albuquerque, NM
Albuquerque (
/ˈælbəkɜrkiː/) is the largest city in the state of New Mexico, United States. It is the county seat of Bernalillo County and is situated in the central part of the state, straddling the Rio Grande. The city population was 545,852 as of the 2010 Census and ranks as the 32nd-largest city in the U.S. As of June 2007, the city was the sixth fastest-growing in America. It has a metropolitan population of 887,077 as of the 2010 Census. Albuquerque is the 57th-largest United States metropolitan area. The Albuquerque MSA population includes the city of Rio Rancho.
Albuquerque is home to the University of New Mexico (UNM), Kirtland Air Force Base, Sandia National Laboratories, Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, and Petroglyph National Monument. The Sandia Mountains run along the eastern side of Albuquerque, and the Rio Grande flows through the city, north to south.
It is generally believed that the growing village that was to become Albuquerque was named by the provincial governor Don Francisco Cuervo y Valdes in honor of Don Francisco Fernández de la Cueva y Enríquez de Cabrera, viceroy of New Spain from 1653 to 1660. One of de la Cueva's aristocratic titles was Duke of Alburquerque, referring to the Spanish town of Alburquerque.
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Appalachia
Appalachia is a term used to describe a cultural region in the eastern United States that stretches from the Southern Tier of New York state to northern Alabama, Mississippi, and Georgia. While the Appalachian Mountains stretch from Belle Isle in Canada to Cheaha Mountain in the U.S. state of Alabama, the cultural region of Appalachia typically refers only to the central and southern portions of the range. As of 2005, the region was home to approximately 23 million people.
Since its recognition as a distinctive region in the late 19th century, Appalachia has been a source of enduring myths and distortions regarding the isolation, temperament, and behavior of its inhabitants. Early 20th-century writers focused on sensationalistic aspects of the region's culture, such as moonshining and clan feuding, and often portrayed the region's inhabitants as uneducated and prone to impulsive acts of violence. Sociological studies in the 1960s and 1970s helped to re-examine and dispel these stereotypes, although popular media continue to perpetuate the image of Appalachia as a culturally backward region into the 21st century.
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Arkansas
Arkansas (i/ˈɑrkənsɔː/ AR-kən-saw) is a state located in the Southern region of the United States. Its name is an Algonquian name of the Quapaw Indians. Arkansas shares borders with six states (N: Missouri; E: Tennessee, Mississippi; S: Louisiana; SW: Texas; W: Oklahoma), and its eastern border is largely defined by the Mississippi River. Its diverse geography ranges from the mountainous regions of the Ozarks and the Ouachita Mountains, which make up the U.S. Interior Highlands, to the eastern lowlands along the Mississippi River. Arkansas is the 29th most extensive and the 32nd most populous of the 50 United States. The capital and most populous city is Little Rock, located in the central portion of the state.
The name “Arkansas” derives from the same root as the name for the state of Kansas. The Kansa tribe of Native Americans are closely associated with the Sioux tribes of the Great Plains. The word “Arkansas” itself is a French pronunciation (“Arcansas”) of a Quapaw (a related “Kaw” tribe) word, akakaze, meaning “land of downriver people” or the Sioux word akakaze meaning “people of the south wind”. The pronunciation of Arkansas was made official by an act of the state legislature in 1881, after a dispute between two U.S. Senators from Arkansas. One wanted to pronounce the name /ɑrˈkænzəs/ ar-KAN-zəs and the other wanted /ˈɑrkənsɔː/ AR-kən-saw.
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Athens, Georgia
Athens-Clarke County is a consolidated city–county in U.S. state of Georgia, in the northeastern part of the state, comprising the former City of Athens proper (the county seat) and Clarke County. The University of Georgia is located in this college town and is responsible for the initial growth of the city. In 1991, after a vote the preceding year, the original city abandoned its charter in order to form a unified government with Clarke County, referred to collectively as Athens-Clarke County. As of the 2010 census, the consolidated city-county (including all of Athens-Clarke County except Winterville and a portion of Bogart) had a total population of 115,452; all of Clarke County had a population of 116,714. Athens-Clarke County is the fifth-largest city in Georgia and the principal city of the Athens-Clarke County, Georgia Metropolitan Statistical Area, which had a population of 192,541 as of the 2010 Census.
In the late 18th century, a trading settlement on the banks of the Oconee River called Cedar Shoals stood where Athens is located today. On January 27, 1785, the Georgia General Assembly granted a charter by Abraham Baldwin for the University of Georgia as the first state-supported university. Sixteen years later, in 1801, a committee from the university's board of trustees selected a site for the university on a hill above Cedar Shoals in what was then Jackson County. On July 25, John Milledge, one of the trustees and later governor of Georgia, bought 633 acres (2.6 km²) from Daniel Easley and donated it to the university. Milledge named the surrounding area Athens after the city that was home to the academy of Plato and Aristotle in Greece.
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Ball Ground, Georgia
Ball Ground is a city in Cherokee County, Georgia, United States. The As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 1,433. Ball Ground is at the northernmost end of Georgia Interstate 575, north of Canton at exit 20 on I-575, and ending seven miles (11 km) north at exit 27. The Cherokee County Airport is located between Ball Ground and Canton.
Ball Ground is located just north of Canton, Georgia and south of Nelson, Georgia.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.2 square miles (3.1 km2), all of it land. The city's elevation averages around 1,100 feet (340 m) above sea level, ranging from just over 1,000 feet (300 m) in the valleys to around 1,200 feet (370 m) on several hilltops within the city.
As of the census of 2010, there were 1433 people, 601 households, and 532 families residing in the city. The population density was 589.1 people per square mile (227.3/km²). There were 601 housing units at an average density of 92.8 persons/km² (240.5 persons/sq mi). The racial makeup of the city was 97.4% White, 0.7% African American, and 0.3% Asian. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.5% of the population.
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Battle of Pea Ridge
The Battle of Pea Ridge (also known as Elkhorn Tavern) was a land battle of the American Civil War, fought on March 6–8, 1862, at Pea Ridge in northwest Arkansas, near Garfield. Union forces led by Brig. Gen. Samuel R. Curtis moved south from central Missouri, driving Confederate forces into northwestern Arkansas. Maj. Gen. Earl Van Dorn reorganized the Confederate army and launched a counter-offensive, hoping that a victory would enable the Confederates to recapture northern Arkansas and Missouri. In a two–day battle, Curtis held off the Confederate attack on the first day and drove Van Dorn's force off the field on the second day. The outcome of the battle essentially cemented Union control of Missouri and northern Arkansas. The battle was one of the few during the war in which a Confederate army outnumbered its Union opponent.
Union forces in Missouri during the latter part of 1861 and early 1862 had effectively pushed the Missouri State Guard under Maj. Gen. Sterling Price out of the state. By the spring of 1862, Union Brig. Gen. Samuel R. Curtis determined to pursue the Confederates back into Arkansas with his Army of the Southwest.
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Calhoun, Georgia
Calhoun is a city in Gordon County, Georgia, United States. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 15,650. The city is the county seat of Gordon County.
Calhoun is located at 34°30′0″N 84°56′33″W / 34.5°N 84.9425°W / 34.5; -84.9425 (34.499898, -84.942584), along the Oostanaula River. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 11.7 square miles (30 km2), of which 11.6 square miles (30 km2) is land and 0.04 square miles (0.10 km2) (0.17%) is water. Calhoun is located along U.S. Interstate 75, approximately 70 miles (110 km) north of Atlanta, and 50 miles (80 km) south of Chattanooga, Tennessee.
Calhoun was a part of the Cherokee Nation (including New Echota, capital of the Cherokee Nation) until December 29, 1835. When the Cherokees refused to give up their lands, the U.S. Army was sent by President Jackson to the northern region of Georgia to force them to move to Oklahoma (see more information on Trail of Tears).
After the Cherokees left their lands, Georgia claimed the Cherokee lands that became Gordon County and other counties. A small town called Dawsonville was created and founded in the Gordon County, named for the owner of an early general store. Dawsonville was later renamed Calhoun to honor U.S. Senator John C. Calhoun, following his death in 1850.
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Cherokee Nation
The Cherokee Nation (ᏣᎳᎩᎯ ᎠᏰᎵ or Tsalagihi Ayeli) is the largest of three Cherokee federally recognized tribes in the United States. It was established in the 20th century, and includes people descended from members of the old Cherokee Nation who relocated voluntarily from the Southeast to Indian Territory and Cherokees who were forced to relocate on the Trail of Tears. The tribe also includes descendents of Cherokee Freedmen and Natchez Nation. Over 299,862 people are enrolled in the Cherokee Nation, with 189,228 living within the state of Oklahoma. According to Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) head Larry EchoHawk, the Cherokee Nation is not the historical Cherokee tribe but instead a "successor in interest."
Headquartered in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, the Cherokee Nation has a tribal jurisdictional area spanning 14 counties in the northeastern corner of Oklahoma. These are Adair, Cherokee, Craig, Delaware, Mayes, McIntosh, Muskogee, Nowata, Ottawa, Rogers, Sequoyah, Tulsa, Wagoner, and Washington Counties.
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Connecticut
Connecticut (i/kəˈnɛtɨkət/) is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It is bordered by Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, and the state of New York to the west and the south (with which it shares a water boundary in Long Island Sound).
Connecticut is named for the Connecticut River, the major U.S. river that approximately bisects the state. Its capital city is Hartford. Much of southern and western Connecticut (along with the majority of the state's population) is part of the New York metropolitan area; three of Connecticut's eight counties are statistically included in the New York City combined statistical area, the same area is widely referred to as the Tri-State area. Connecticut's center of population is in Cheshire, New Haven County, which is also located within the Tri-State area.
Connecticut is the 3rd least extensive, the 29th most populous, and 4th most densely populated of the 50 United States. Called the Constitution State, Nutmeg State, and "The Land of Steady Habits", Connecticut was influential in the development of the federal government of the United States.
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Covelo, California
Covelo is a census-designated place (CDP) in Mendocino County, California, United States. Covelo is located 14 miles (23 km) east-northeast of Laytonville, at an elevation of 1398 feet (426 m). The population was 1,255 at the 2010 census, up from 1,175 at the 2000 census.
Covelo is located at 39°47′35″N 123°14′53″W / 39.79306°N 123.24806°W / 39.79306; -123.24806.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 7.1 square miles (18 km2), 99.40% of it land, 0.60% of it water.
Covelo is the location of the Covelo American Viticultural Area.
Covelo began in 1860, with the opening of the town's first store. The post office opened in 1870. The town was named after a village in Switzerland.
The 2010 United States Census reported that Covelo had a population of 1,255. The population density was 175.8 people per square mile (67.9/km²). The racial makeup of Covelo was 611 (48.7%) White, 14 (1.1%) African American, 475 (37.8%) Native American, 10 (0.8%) Asian, 0 (0.0%) Pacific Islander, 49 (3.9%) from other races, and 96 (7.6%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 163 persons (13.0%).
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Dahlonega, Georgia
Dahlonega is a city in Lumpkin County, Georgia, United States, and is its county seat. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 5,242.
Dahlonega is located at the north end of Georgia 400, which connects Atlanta to many affluent suburbs to the north. It is consistently named as a best place to retire by many different publications[citation needed] due to its low cost of living, vibrant activities, continuing education for seniors, festivals, and beautiful setting.
In 1828 Dahlonega was the site of the first major gold rush in the United States. The Dahlonega Gold Museum Historic Site stands in the middle of the town square, housed in the old Lumpkin County Courthouse built in 1836. From its steps in 1849, Dahlonega Mint assayor Dr. M. F. Stephenson tried to persuade miners to stay in Dahlonega instead of joining the California Gold Rush, saying, "There's millions in it," famously misquoted as "There's gold in them thar hills."[citation needed]Corey Smith wrote a song about the town of Dahlonega. It is the first track on his second album "In the Mood."[citation needed]
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Fort Smith, Arkansas
Fort Smith is the second-largest city in Arkansas and one of the two county seats of Sebastian County. With a population of 86,209 in 2010, it is the principal city of the Fort Smith, Arkansas-Oklahoma Metropolitan Statistical Area, a region of 298,592 residents which encompasses the Arkansas counties of Crawford, Franklin, and Sebastian, and the Oklahoma counties Le Flore and Sequoyah.
Fort Smith has a sister city relationship with Cisterna, Italy, site of the World War II Battle of Cisterna fought by the United States Army Rangers commanded by Fort Smith native William O. Darby.
Fort Smith lies on the Arkansas-Oklahoma state border, situated at the junction of the Arkansas and Poteau Rivers, also known as Belle Point. The city began as a western frontier military post in 1817 and would later become well known for its role in the settling of the "Wild West" and its law enforcement heritage.
In 2007, Fort Smith was selected by the United States Department of the Interior to be the location of the new United States Marshals Service National Museum.
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Georgia (U.S. state)
Georgia (i/ˈdʒɔrdʒⁱə/) is a state located in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1732, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies. Named after King George II of Great Britain, Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2, 1788. It declared its secession from the Union on January 21, 1861, and was one of the original seven Confederate states. It was the last state to be restored to the Union, on July 15, 1870. Georgia is the 24th most extensive and the 9th most populous of the 50 United States. From 2007 to 2008, 14 of Georgia's counties ranked among the nation's 100 fastest-growing, second only to Texas. Georgia is known as the Peach State and the Empire State of the South.Atlanta is the state's capital and its most populous city.
Georgia is bordered on the south by Florida; on the east by the Atlantic Ocean and South Carolina; on the west by Alabama; and on the north by Tennessee and North Carolina. The northern part of the state is in the Blue Ridge Mountains, a mountain range in the Appalachian Mountains system. The central piedmont extends from the foothills to the fall line, where the rivers cascade down in elevation to the continental coastal plain of the southern part of the state. The highest point in Georgia is Brasstown Bald, 4,784 feet (1,458 m); the lowest point is the Atlantic Ocean.
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Great Lakes
The Great Lakes are a collection of freshwater lakes located in northeastern North America, on the Canada–United States border which connect to the Atlantic Ocean through the Saint Lawrence Seaway and the Great Lakes Waterway. Consisting of Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, they form the largest group of freshwater lakes on Earth comprising 21% of the world's surface fresh water. The total surface is 94,250 square miles (244,106 km2), and the total volume (measured at the low water datum) is 5,439 cubic miles (22,671 km3). The lakes are sometimes referred to as the North Coast or "Third Coast" by some citizens of the United States.
The lakes have been a major source of trade through this area, and they are home to a large number of aquatic species. Many invasive species have been introduced due to trade in the area, and some threaten the biodiversity of the area.
Though the five lakes reside in separate basins, they form a single, naturally interconnected body of fresh water. The lakes form a chain connecting the east-central interior of North America to the Atlantic Ocean. From the interior to the outlet at the St. Lawrence River, water flows from Superior to Michigan-Huron (in the hydrological sense, a single body of water), southward to Erie, and finally northward to Lake Ontario. The lakes drain a large watershed via many rivers, and are studded with approximately 35,000 islands. The Great Lakes region contains not only the five themselves but also many thousands of smaller lakes, often called inland lakes. Of the five lakes, Lake Michigan is the only one that is located entirely within the United States; the others form a water border between the United States and Canada.
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Hayfork, California
Hayfork is a census-designated place (CDP) in Trinity County, California, United States. The population was 2,368 at the 2010 census, up from 2,315 at the 2000 census. Originally named Nor'el pom, after the native Indian tribe that lived in the area.
Hayfork is located at 40°34′17″N 123°8′48″W / 40.57139°N 123.14667°W / 40.57139; -123.14667 (40.571406, -123.146619).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 72.1 square miles (187 km2), of which, 72.1 square miles (187 km2) of it is land and 0.02 square miles (0.052 km2) of it (0.03%) is water.
The 2010 United States Census reported that Hayfork had a population of 2,368. The population density was 32.8 people per square mile (12.7/km²). The racial makeup of Hayfork was 1,999 (84.4%) White, 4 (0.2%) African American, 162 (6.8%) Native American, 8 (0.3%) Asian, 2 (0.1%) Pacific Islander, 38 (1.6%) from other races, and 155 (6.5%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 189 persons (8.0%).
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Illinois
Illinois (i/ˌɪlɨˈnɔɪ/ IL-i-NOY) is the 25th most extensive and the 5th most populous of the 50 United States, and is often noted as a microcosm of the entire country. With Chicago in the northeast, small industrial cities and great agricultural productivity in central and northern Illinois, and natural resources like coal, timber, and petroleum in the south, Illinois has a broad economic base. Illinois is a major transportation hub. The Port of Chicago connects the state to other global ports from the Great Lakes, via the Saint Lawrence Seaway, to the Atlantic Ocean; as well as the Great Lakes to the Mississippi River, via the Illinois River. For decades, O'Hare International Airport has ranked as one of the world's busiest airports. Illinois has long had a reputation as a bellwether both in social and cultural terms and politics.
Although the state's largest population centers today are in northern Illinois, originally the state's population grew from south to north, with settlers arriving from Kentucky in the 1810s. In 1818, Illinois achieved statehood. Chicago was founded in the 1830s on the banks of the Chicago River, one of the few natural harbors on southern Lake Michigan. Railroads and John Deere's invention of the self-scouring steel plow turned Illinois' rich prairie into some of the world's most productive and valuable farmlands, attracting immigrant farmers from Germany and Sweden. By 1900, the growth of industrial jobs in the northern cities and coal mining in the central and southern areas attracted immigrants from Eastern and Southern Europe. Illinois was an important manufacturing center during both world wars. The Great Migration established a large community of African Americans in Chicago that created the city's famous jazz and blues cultures.
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Kentucky
Kentucky (i/kɨnˈtʌki/), officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the Upper South of the United States. Kentucky is one of four U.S. states constituted as a commonwealth (the others being Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts). Originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States.
Kentucky is known as the "Bluegrass State", a nickname based on the fact that bluegrass is present in many of the pastures throughout the state, because of the fertile soil. It made possible the breeding of high-quality livestock, especially thoroughbred racing horses. It is a land with diverse environments and abundant resources, including the world's longest cave system, Mammoth Cave National Park; the greatest length of navigable waterways and streams in the contiguous United States; and the two largest man-made lakes east of the Mississippi River. It is also home to the highest per capita number of deer and turkey in the United States, the largest free-ranging elk herd east of Montana, and the nation's most productive coalfield. Kentucky is also known for horse racing, bourbon distilleries, bluegrass music, automobile manufacturing, tobacco and college basketball.
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Kituwa
The Cherokee believe the ancient settlement of Kituwa (also spelled Kituwah, Keetoowah, Kittowa, and other similar variations) or giduwa (Cherokee:ᎩᏚᏩ), on the Tuckasegee River is their original settlement and is one of the "seven mother towns" in the Southeast. It is in Swain County, North Carolina, in the Great Smoky Mountains, near present-day Bryson City.
Cherokee oral traditions tell that all Cherokee migrated to Kituwa after the migration from the Great Lakes region of the United States and southern Canada as early as 4,000 years ago. Cultural and archaeological evidence support the people's accounts of their migration, but there is no consensus about when they arrived in the Southeast.
The ancient Cherokee had a hereditary priesthood, called the Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni, a structure which may have been adopted from another tribe. According to research by the early 20th century ethnographer James Mooney, the Cherokee held the Ah-ni-ku-ta-ni "in awe" and "greatly feared them." They were not the regular chiefs. These were known as the ugus (owls), known as "white" chiefs (sometimes identified as those who worked for peace or during times of peace), and the colona (ravens), or "red" chiefs (identified as those who led in times of war.)
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Knoxville, Tennessee
Knoxville is a city in the U.S. state of Tennessee, and the county seat of Knox County. As of 2010, the city had a population of 178,874 residents, making it the state's third largest city. Knoxville is the principal city of the Knoxville Metropolitan Statistical Area, which in 2000 had a population of 655,400. The KMSA is in turn the central component of the Knoxville-Sevierville-La Follette Combined Statistical Area, which in 2000 had a population of 1,029,155.
First settled in 1786, Knoxville was the first capital of Tennessee. The city struggled with geographic isolation throughout the early 19th century, though the arrival of the railroad in 1855 led to an economic boom. During the Civil War, the city was bitterly divided over the secession issue, and was occupied alternately by both Confederate and Union armies. Following the war, Knoxville grew rapidly as a major wholesaling and manufacturing center. The city's economy stagnated after the 1920s as the manufacturing sector collapsed, the Downtown area declined, and city leaders became entrenched in highly-partisan political fights. Hosting the 1982 World's Fair helped reinvigorate the city, and revitalization initiatives by city leaders and private developers have had some success.
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Mississippi
Mississippi (i/ˌmɪsɨˈsɪpi/) is a U.S. state located in the Southern United States. Jackson is the state capital and largest city. The name of the state derives from the Mississippi River, which flows along its western boundary, whose name comes from the Ojibwe word misi-ziibi ("Great River"). Mississippi is the 32nd most extensive and the 31st most populous of the 50 United States. The state is heavily forested outside of the Mississippi Delta area, which was cleared for cotton cultivation in the 19th century. Today, its catfish aquaculture farms produce the majority of farm-raised catfish consumed in the United States. The state symbol is the magnolia grandiflora tree.
Mississippi is bordered on the north by Tennessee, on the east by Alabama, on the south by Louisiana and a narrow coast on the Gulf of Mexico and on the west, across the Mississippi River, by Louisiana and Arkansas.
In addition to its namesake, major rivers in Mississippi include the Big Black River, the Pearl River, the Yazoo River, the Pascagoula River, and the Tombigbee River. Major lakes include Ross Barnett Reservoir, Arkabutla Lake, Sardis Lake and Grenada Lake. The largest lake in Mississippi is Grenada Lake.
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Missouri
Missouri (i/mɨˈzʊəri/) (nickname The Show Me State) is a U.S. state located in the Midwestern United States, bordered by Iowa, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Kansas and Nebraska. Missouri is the 21st most extensive and the 18th most populous of the 50 United States. Missouri comprises 114 counties and the independent city of St. Louis. The four largest urban areas are St. Louis, Kansas City, Springfield, and Columbia. Missouri's capital is Jefferson City. The land that is now Missouri was acquired from France as part of the Louisiana Purchase and became known as the Missouri Territory. Part of the Territory was admitted into the union as the 24th state on August 10, 1821.
Missouri generally mirrors the demographic, economic and political makeup of America and has long been considered a political bellwether state. With the exceptions of the Presidential elections of 1956 and 2008, Missouri's results have accurately predicted the next President of the United States in every election since 1904. It has both Midwestern and Southern cultural influences, reflecting its history as a border state. It is also a transition between the Eastern and Western United States, as St. Louis is often called the "western-most Eastern city" and Kansas City the "eastern-most Western city". Missouri's geography is highly varied. The northern part of the state lies in dissected till plains while the southern part lies in the Ozark Mountains (a dissected plateau), with the Missouri River dividing the two. The state lies at the intersection of the three greatest rivers of North America, with the confluence of the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers near St. Louis, and the confluence of the Ohio River with the Mississippi north of the Bootheel. The starting points of the Pony Express Trail and Oregon Trail were both in Missouri. The mean center of United States population as of the 2010 Census is at the town of Plato in Texas County, Missouri.
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Nacogdoches, Texas
Nacogdoches ( /ˌnækəˈdoʊtʃɨs/ NAK-ə-DOH-chəs) is a city in Nacogdoches County, Texas, in the United States. The 2010 census recorded the city's population to be 32,996. It is the county seat of Nacogdoches County and is situated in East Texas. Nacogdoches is a sister city of Natchitoches, Louisiana.
Nacogdoches is the home of Stephen F. Austin State University and of the Association for Business Communication.
The town made international headlines in February 2003, after receiving much of the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster debris.
Nacogdoches is located at 31°36′32″N 94°39′3″W / 31.60889°N 94.65083°W / 31.60889; -94.65083 (31.608855, -94.650862). Its location is approximately 140 miles (225 km) NNE of Houston, 180 miles (290 km) SE of Dallas and 90 miles (145 km) SW of Shreveport.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 25.3 square miles (66 km2), of which, 25.2 square miles (65 km2) of it is land and 0.1 square miles (0.26 km2) of it (0.24%) is water. The city center is located just to the north of the fork of two creeks, the LaNana and Banita.
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Narragansett tribe
The Narragansett tribe are an Algonquian Native American tribe from Rhode Island. In 1983 they regained federal recognition as the Narragansett Indian Tribe of Rhode Island.
In 2009, the United States Supreme Court ruled against their request that the Department of Interior take land into trust which they had acquired in 1991. The ruling prohibited tribes that achieved federal recognition after the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act to have newly acquired lands taken into trust and removed from state control.
Recognized by the federal government in 1983, the Narragansett tribe controls the Narragansett Indian Reservation, 1,800 acres (7.3 km2) of trust lands in Charlestown, Rhode Island. A small portion of the tribe resides on or near the reservation, whose population is 60, according to the 2000 U.S. Census. Additionally, they own several hundred acres in Westerly.
In 1991 the Narragansett purchased 31 acres (130,000 m2) in Charlestown for development of elderly housing. In 1998 they requested that the Department of Interior take the property into trust on behalf of the tribe, to remove it from state and local control. The case went to the Supreme Court, as the state challenged the removal of new lands from state oversight by tribes recognized after the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act. Rhode Island was joined in its appeal by twenty-one other states.
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Nashville
Nashville is the capital of Tennessee and the county seat of Davidson County. It is located on the Cumberland River in the north-central part of the state. The city is a center for the health care, publishing, banking and transportation industries, and is home to a large number of colleges and universities. It is most notably known as a center of the music industry, earning it the nickname "Music City".
Nashville has a consolidated city–county government which includes seven smaller municipalities in a two-tier system. As of the 2010 census the population of the city of Nashville, not including the semi-independent municipalities, stood at 601,222. The population of Davidson County as a whole, including all municipalities, was 626,681. Nashville is the second largest city in Tennessee, after Memphis, and the fourth largest city in the Southeastern United States. The 2010 population of the entire 13-county Nashville metropolitan area was 1,589,934, making it the largest Metropolitan Statistical Area in the state. The 2010 population of the Nashville-Davidson–Murfreesboro–Columbia combined statistical area, a larger trade area, was 1,670,890.
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New Jersey
New Jersey (i/nuː ˈdʒɜrzi/) is a state in the Northeastern and Middle Atlantic regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by the U.S. state of New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania, and on the southwest by Delaware. New Jersey is the 4th least extensive, but the 11th most populous and the most densely populated of the 50 United States. New Jersey lies mostly within the sprawling metropolitan areas of New York City and Philadelphia. It is also the third wealthiest by 2009–2010 median household income.
The area was inhabited by Native Americans for more than 2,800 years, with historical tribes such as the Lenape along the coast. In the early 17th century, the Dutch and the Swedes made the first European settlements. The British later seized control of the region, naming it the Province of New Jersey. It was granted as a colony to Sir George Carteret and John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton. At this time, it was named after the largest of the British Channel Islands, Jersey, Carteret's birthplace. New Jersey was the site of several decisive battles during the American Revolutionary War.
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New Orleans
New Orleans ( /nuː ˈɔrliənz/ or /ˈnuː ɔrˈliːnz/, locally /nuː ˈɔrlənz/ or /ˈnɔrlənz/; French: La Nouvelle-Orléans [la nuvɛlɔʁleɑ̃] (
listen)) is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana. The population of the city proper was 343,829 as of the 2010 U.S. Census. The New Orleans metropolitan area (New Orleans–Metairie–Kenner Metropolitan Statistical Area) had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States. The New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area, a larger trading area, had a 2010 population of 1,214,932.
The city is named after Philippe d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans, Regent of France, and is well known for its distinct French Creole architecture, as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage. New Orleans is also famous for its cuisine, music (particularly as the birthplace of jazz), and its annual celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The city is often referred to as the "most unique" in America.
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Nikwasi
Nikwasi (also spelled Nequasee, Nequassee, Nucassee, Noucassih, etc.) is a prehistoric archaeological site and was also the site of an important Cherokee town located on the Little Tennessee River at the location of present-day Franklin, North Carolina.
A large platform mound is still visible, marking the location of the Cherokee period townhouse. The mound itself has remained intact, but its age is uncertain as it has never been excavated. It is similar to other nearby mounds built by the peoples of the South Appalachian Mississippian culture (a regional variation of the Mississippian culture) at about 1000 CE.
Scholars believe the platform mound at Nikwasi was constructed about 1000 CE by Mississippian culture peoples. During the Late South Appalachian Mississippian period, a succeeding people known as Lamar culture became widespread in western North Carolina and associated areas, from about 1350 CE until the historic Cherokee peoples migrated into the area.
In 1730, the English colonist Alexander Cuming called for a council at the town of Nikwasi, which thousands of Cherokee attended. He arranged for seven Cherokee, including Moytoy of Tellico, to accompany him to England. In 1761 during the Seven Years War with France and its Native allies, English colonial forces destroyed the houses and fields of Nikwasi, worried that the people were allied with the French. They used the townhouse on top of Nikwasi Mound as a field hospital.
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North Carolina
North Carolina (i/ˌnɔrθ kærəˈlaɪnə/) is a state in the Southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina is the 28th most extensive and the 10th most populous of the 50 United States.
North Carolina is comprised of 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte. In the past five decades, North Carolina's economy has undergone a transition from heavy reliance upon tobacco and furniture making to a more diversified economy with engineering, biotechnology, and finance sectors.
North Carolina has a wide range of elevations, from sea level on the coast to 6,684 feet (2,037 m) at Mount Mitchell, the highest point in the Eastern US. The climate of the coastal plains is strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the state falls in the humid subtropical climate zone. More than 300 miles (500 km) from the coast, the western, mountainous part of the state has a subtropical highland climate.
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Oklahoma
Oklahoma (i/ˌoʊkləˈhoʊmə/) (Pawnee: Uukuhuúwa , Cayuga: Gahnawiyoˀgeh ) is a state located in the South Central region of the United States of America. Oklahoma is the 20th most extensive and the 28th most populous of the 50 United States. The state's name is derived from the Choctaw words okla and humma, meaning "red people", and it is known informally by its nickname, The Sooner State. Formed by the combination of Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory on November 16, 1907, Oklahoma was the 46th state to enter the union. Its residents are known as Oklahomans or, informally "Okies", and its capital and largest city is Oklahoma City.
A major producer of natural gas, oil, and agriculture, Oklahoma relies on an economic base of aviation, energy, telecommunications, and biotechnology. It has one of the fastest growing economies in the nation, ranking among the top states in per capita income growth and gross domestic product growth. Oklahoma City and Tulsa serve as Oklahoma's primary economic anchors, with nearly 60 percent of Oklahomans living in their metropolitan statistical areas.
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Oklahoma Territory
Coordinates: 35°24′N 97°00′W / 35.4°N 97°W / 35.4; -97
The Territory of Oklahoma was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from May 2, 1890, until November 16, 1907, when it was joined with the Indian Territory under a new constitution and admitted to the Union as the State of Oklahoma.
Oklahoma Territory's history began with the Indian Intercourse Act of 1834 when the United States Congress set aside land for Native Americans. At the time, the land was unorganized territory that consisted of all the federal land "west of the Mississippi and not within the states of Missouri and Louisiana, or the territory of Arkansas..." By 1856, the territory had been reduced to the modern-day borders of the State of Oklahoma. These lands quickly became known as Indian Territory, as they had been granted to certain Indian nations under the Indian Removal Act, in exchange for their historic territories east of the Mississippi River.
Until this point, Native Americans had exclusively used the land. In 1866, after the American Civil War, the federal government required new treaties with the tribes that had supported the Confederacy, and forced them into land and other concessions. As a result of the Reconstruction Treaties, The Five Civilized Tribes were required to emancipate their slaves and offer them full citizenship in the tribes if they wanted to stay in the Nations. This forced many of the tribes in Indian Territory into making concessions. The US officials forced the cession of some 2,000,000 acres (8,100 km2) of land in the center of the Indian Nation Territory.
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Oostanaula River
The Oostanaula River (pronounced "oo-stuh-NA-luh") is a principal tributary of the Coosa River, about 49 miles (79 km) long, in northwestern Georgia in the United States. Via the Coosa and Alabama rivers, it is part of the watershed of the Mobile River, which flows to the Gulf of Mexico. Its name is said to come from a Cherokee Indian term meaning "rock that bars the way". Other proposed meanings include "shoally river", and "a rock ledge across a stream".
The Oostanaula River is formed in northern Gordon County, Georgia, by the confluence of the Conasauga and Coosawattee rivers, and flows generally south-southwestwardly through Gordon and Floyd counties, past the towns of Resaca and Calhoun. It joins the Etowah River at Rome to form the Coosa River.
According to the GNIS, the river has also been known as:
On this 1796 map the river is labelled "Eastanallee R."
Coordinates: 34°15′14″N 85°10′36″W / 34.25389°N 85.17667°W / 34.25389; -85.17667
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Oregon
Oregon (i/ˈɔrɨɡən/ ORR-ə-gən) is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is located on the Pacific coast, with Washington to the north, California to the south, Nevada on the southeast and Idaho to the east. The Columbia and Snake rivers delineate much of Oregon's northern and eastern boundaries, respectively. The area was inhabited by many indigenous tribes before the arrival of traders, explorers, and settlers who formed an autonomous government in Oregon Country in 1843. The Oregon Territory was created in 1848, and Oregon became the 33rd state on February 14, 1859.
Oregon is the 9th most extensive and the 27th most populous of the 50 United States. Salem is the state's capital and third-most-populous city; Portland is the most populous. Portland is the 29th-largest U.S. city, with a population of 583,776 (2010 US Census) and a metro population of 2,241,841 (2009 estimate), the 23rd-largest U.S. metro area. The valley of the Willamette River in western Oregon is the state's most densely populated area and is home to eight of the ten most populous cities.
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Park City, Utah
Park City is a town in Summit and Wasatch counties in the U.S. state of Utah. It is considered to be part of the Wasatch Back. The city is 32 miles (51 km) southeast of downtown Salt Lake City and 19.88 miles (31.99 km) from Salt Lake City's east edge of Sugar House along Interstate 80. The population was 7,558 at the 2010 census. On average, the tourist population greatly exceeds the number of permanent residents.
After a population decline following the shutdown of the area's mining industry, the city rebounded during the 1980s and 1990s through an expansion of its tourism business. The city currently brings in a yearly average of $529,800,000 to the Utah Economy as a tourist hot spot. The city has three major ski resorts: Park City Mountain Resort, Deer Valley Resort, and Canyons Resort. The Park City and Deer Valley ski resorts were the major locations for ski and snowboarding events at the 2002 Winter Olympics. Although they receive less snow and have a shorter ski season than do their counterparts in Salt Lake County, such as Snowbird resort, they are much easier to access.
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Park Hill, Oklahoma
Park Hill is a census-designated place (CDP) in southwestern Cherokee County, Oklahoma in the United States. The population was 3,936 at the 2000 census. It lies near Tahlequah, east of the junction of U.S. Route 62 and State Highway 82.
Park Hill was the "home base" for many of the Cherokee after coming from the East on the "Trail of Tears". In 1829 the Park Hill Mission was established. The mission had one of the earliest presses in Oklahoma, the Park Hill Publishing House. The first post office was established at Park Hill on May 18, 1838, with Samuel Newton as postmaster. It was in Park Hill that Chief John Ross made his home in 1839, as well as his brother-in-law George Murrell, whose home still stands. On May 6, 1847, the post office was moved to Tahlequah. The Cherokee Female Seminary was also built here in 1849.
Park Hill was the center of culture for the Cherokees for many years and as such in 1940 the National Society of the Colonial Dames of America in Oklahoma erected a marker at Park Hill declaring it the "Center of Cherokee culture".
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Philadelphia
Philadelphia ( /ˌfɪləˈdɛlfiə/) is the largest city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and the county seat of Philadelphia County, with which it is coterminous. The city is located in the Northeastern United States along the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers. It is the fifth-most-populous city in the United States, with a population of 1,526,006 as of the 2010 U.S. Census. Philadelphia is also the commercial, cultural, and educational center of the Delaware Valley, home to 6 million people and the country's fifth-largest metropolitan area. The Philadelphia metropolitan division consists of five counties in Pennsylvania and has a population of 4,008,994. Popular nicknames for Philadelphia are Philly and The City of Brotherly Love, the latter of which comes from the literal meaning of the city's name in Greek (Greek: Φιλαδέλφεια ([pʰilaˈdelpʰeːa], Modern Greek: [filaˈðelfia]) "brotherly love", compounded from philos (φίλος) "loving", and adelphos (ἀδελφός) "brother").
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Richmond, Virginia
Richmond ( /ˈrɪtʃmənd/) is the capital of the Commonwealth of Virginia, in the United States. It is an independent city and not part of any county. Richmond is the center of the Richmond Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) and the Greater Richmond area. The population within the city limits was 204,214 in 2010, with an estimated population of 1,258,251 for the Richmond Metropolitan Area — making it the third largest in Virginia.
Geographically, Richmond is located at the fall line of the James River, 108 miles (174 km) south of Washington DC, 71 miles (114 km) east of Charlottesville, and 54 miles (87 km) west of Williamsburg. Surrounded by Henrico and Chesterfield counties, the city is located at the intersections of Interstate 95 and Interstate 64, and encircled by Interstate 295 and Virginia State Route 288.
The site of Richmond, at the fall line of the James River, had been an important village of the Powhatan Confederacy, and was briefly settled by English colonists from Jamestown in 1609, and in 1610–1611. The present city of Richmond was founded in 1737. It became the capital of the Colony and Dominion of Virginia in 1780. During the Revolutionary War period, several notable events occurred in the city, including Patrick Henry's "Give me liberty or give me death" speech in 1775 at St. John's Church, and the passage of the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom written by Thomas Jefferson. During the American Civil War, Richmond served as the capital of the Confederate States of America. The city entered the 20th century with one of the world's first successful electric streetcar systems, as well as a national hub of African-American commerce and culture, the Jackson Ward neighborhood.
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Rusk County, Texas
Rusk County is a county located in the U.S. state of Texas. Originally a part of Nacogdoches County, Rusk was established as its own county by the Congress of the Republic of Texas on January 16, 1843. By 1850, it was the second most populous county in Texas out of the 78 counties that had been organized at that time, according to the 1850 census. Rusk County's population was 8,148 at this time; it was surpassed only by Harrison County with 11,822 people.
As of the 2010 census, its population was 53,330. Its seat is Henderson and it is part of the Longview Metropolitan Statistical Area as well as the Longview–Marshall Combined Statistical Area. Rusk County is named for Thomas Jefferson Rusk, a secretary of war of the Republic of Texas.
Rusk County was one of twenty-five entirely dry counties in the State of Texas, until January 2012. Henderson, in Rusk County opted to sell and serve beer and wine products.
Chuck Hopson, a pharmacist from Jacksonville, is the Republican member of the Texas House of Representatives whose District 11 includes Rusk County.
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Savannah, Georgia
Savannah is the largest city and the county seat of Chatham County, in the U.S. state of Georgia. Established in 1733, the city of Savannah was the colonial capital of the Province of Georgia and later the first state capital of Georgia. Today Savannah is an industrial center and an important Atlantic seaport. It is Georgia's fourth largest city and third largest metropolitan area.
Each year Savannah attracts millions of visitors, who enjoy the city's architecture and historic buildings: the birthplace of Juliette Gordon Low (founder of the Girl Scouts of the United States of America), the Georgia Historical Society (the oldest continually operating historical society in the South), the Telfair Academy of Arts and Sciences (one of the South's first public museums), the First African Baptist Church (one of the oldest African American Baptist congregations in the United States), Temple Mickve Israel (the third oldest synagogue in America), and the Central of Georgia Railway roundhouse complex (the oldest standing antebellum rail facility in America).
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Scottish Highlands
The Highlands (Scottish Gaelic: A' Ghàidhealtachd, "the place of the Gaels"; Scots: the Hielands) are an historic region of Scotland. The area is sometimes referred to as the "Scottish Highlands". It was culturally distinguishable from the Lowlands from the later Middle Ages into the modern period, when Lowland Scots replaced Scottish Gaelic throughout most of the Lowlands. The term is also used for the area north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault, although the exact boundaries are not clearly defined, particularly to the east. The Great Glen divides the Grampian Mountains to the southeast from the Northwest Highlands. The Scottish Gaelic name of A' Ghàidhealtachd literally means "the place of the Gaels" and traditionally, from a Gaelic-speaking point of view, includes both the Western Isles and the Highlands.
The area is very sparsely populated, with many mountain ranges dominating the region, and includes the highest mountain in the British Isles, Ben Nevis. Before the 19th century the Highlands was home to a much larger population, but due to a combination of factors including the outlawing of the traditional Highland way of life following the Jacobite Rising of 1745, the infamous Highland Clearances, and mass migration to urban areas during the Industrial Revolution, the area is now one of the most sparsely populated in Europe. The average population density in the Highlands and Islands is lower than that of Sweden, Norway, Papua New Guinea and Argentina.
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South Carolina
South Carolina (i/ˌsaʊθ kærəˈlaɪnə/) is a state in the Southeastern United States. It is bordered to the north by North Carolina; to the south and west by Georgia, located across the Savannah River; and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. Originally part of the Province of Carolina, the Province of South Carolina was one of the 13 colonies that declared independence from the British Crown during the American Revolution. The colony was originally named by King Charles II of England in honor of his father Charles I (Carolus being Latin for Charles). South Carolina was the 8th state to ratify the US Constitution and become a state which it did on May 23, 1788. South Carolina later became the first state to vote to secede from the Union which it did on December 20, 1860. It was readmitted to the United States on June 25, 1868.
South Carolina is the 40th most extensive and the 24th most populous of the 50 United States. South Carolina comprises 46 counties. The capital and largest city of the state is Columbia.
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State of Sequoyah
The State of Sequoyah was a proposed state to be established in the eastern part of present-day Oklahoma. In 1905, faced by proposals to end their tribal governments, Native Americans of the Five Civilized Tribes in Indian Territory proposed such a state as a means to retain some control of their land. Their intention was to have a state under Native American constitution and rule. The proposed state was named in honor of Sequoyah, the Cherokee who created a writing system in 1825 for the Cherokee language.
From 1890 onward, the land that now forms the State of Oklahoma was made up of the Oklahoma Territory (to the west), and the Indian Territory (to the east). The Indian Territory, as its name suggests, had a large Native American population, but European-American settlers had also continued to arrive. The territory had been reduced by required land cessions after the Civil War and through other treaties with the United States. In the 1900 US Census, Native Americans composed 13.4 percent of the population in the future state. In 1905, the Five Civilized Tribes had a total of about 60,000 persons in the Indian Territory; the total population was 600,000.
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Tahlequah, Oklahoma
Tahlequah (/ˈtælɨkwɑː/ TAL-ə-kwah; Cherokee: ᏓᎵᏆ) is a city in Cherokee County, Oklahoma, United States located at the foothills of the Ozark Mountains. It was founded as a capital of the original Cherokee Nation in 1838 to welcome those Cherokee forced west on the Trail of Tears. The city's population was 15,753 at the 2010 census, an increase of 8.96 percent from 14,458 at the 2000 census. It is the county seat of Cherokee County. The main campus of Northeastern State University is located in the city. Tahlequah is also the capital of the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians and the modern Cherokee Nation.
Many linguists believe the word 'Tahlequah' (Tah-le-quah) and the word 'Teh-li-co' are the same as 'di li gwa,' the Cherokee word for grain or rice. (See Cherokee Nation Lexicon (dikaneisdi) at cherokee.org under culture/language. Scholars report the Cherokee word 'di li gwa' describes a type of native grain, with a red hue that grew in the flat open areas of east Tennessee. One particular area, Great Tellico (Tellico Plains TN), was named for the grass with the red seed tops that grew in the flat open areas. Others interpret a word 'tel-i-quah' as 'plains;' however, there is no word for 'plains' in the Cherokee lexicon and the word 'tel-i-quah' is not found in the lexicon. The idea that 'tahlequah' means 'plains' lends weight to the belief that the name refers to the wide open grassy areas of Great Tellico (Tellico Plains TN). When the Cherokees first arrived in the Tahlequah OK area, they viewed the native grasses that grew in the open areas around the foothills of the Ozarks. It reminded them of the grassy open ‘Overhill’ areas of Tellico, so they called their new home 'di li gwa' (tah-le-quah or teh-li-co), the open place where the grass grows.
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Tennessee
Tennessee (i/tɛnɨˈsiː/) (Cherokee: ᏔᎾᏏ) is a U.S. state located in the Southeastern United States. Tennessee is the 36th most extensive and the 17th most populous of the 50 United States. Tennessee is bordered by Kentucky and Virginia to the north, North Carolina to the east, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi to the south, and Arkansas and Missouri to the west. The Appalachian Mountains dominate the eastern part of the state, and the Mississippi River forms the state's western border. Tennessee's capital and second largest city is Nashville, which has a population of 626,144.Memphis is the state's largest city, with a population of 670,902.
The state of Tennessee is rooted in the Watauga Association, a 1772 frontier pact generally regarded as the first constitutional government west of the Appalachians. What is now Tennessee was initially part of North Carolina, and later part of the Southwest Territory. Tennessee was admitted to the Union as the 16th state on June 1, 1796. Tennessee was the last state to leave the Union and join the Confederacy at the outbreak of the U.S. Civil War in 1861, and the first state to be readmitted to the Union at the end of the war.
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Ulster
Ulster (Irish: Ulaidh or Cúige Uladh, Ulster Scots: Ulstèr or Ulster) is one of the four provinces of Ireland, located in the north of the island. In ancient Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a "king of over-kings" Irish: rí ruirech. In modern times, clusters of counties have been attributed to certain provinces but these clusters have no legal status. The province itself, while enjoying common usage and forming a strong part of local identity, has no official function for local government purposes.
Ulster is composed of nine counties. Six of these (almost 57% of the land area) make up Northern Ireland: Antrim, Armagh, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry and Tyrone. The three remaining counties (about 43% of the land area) are in the Republic of Ireland: Cavan, Donegal and Monaghan.
The name Ulster derives from the Irish Cúige Uladh (IPA: [ˈkuːɟ ˈʌlˠu, ˈʌlˠi]) meaning "The fifth of Uladh", a reference to the five regions into which ancient Ireland was divided. In the English language, the first part of the name ("Ul")refers to the Ulaidh tribes inhabiting this northernmost region. The latter part of the name ("ster") derives either from the Irish tír or the Old Norse staðr, both of which translate as "land" or "territory".
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United States
The United States of America (commonly abbreviated to the United States, the U.S., the USA, America, and the States) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west, across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Pacific and Caribbean.
At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2) and with over 312 million people, the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area, and the third largest by both land area and population. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The U.S. economy is the world's largest national economy, with an estimated 2011 GDP of $15.1 trillion (22% of nominal global GDP and over 19% of global GDP at purchasing-power parity). Per capita income is the world's sixth-highest.
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Vermont
Vermonti/vɜrˈmɒnt/ is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Vermont is the 6th least extensive and the 2nd least populous of the 50 United States. It is the only New England state not bordering the Atlantic Ocean. Lake Champlain forms half of Vermont's western border, which it shares with the state of New York. The Green Mountains are within the state. Vermont is bordered by Massachusetts to the south, New Hampshire to the east, New York to the west, and the Canadian province of Quebec to the north.
Originally inhabited by two major Native American tribes (the Algonquian-speaking Abenaki and the Iroquois), much of the territory that is now Vermont was claimed by France during its early colonial period. France ceded the territory to the Kingdom of Great Britain after being defeated in 1763 in the Seven Years' War (also called the French and Indian War). For many years, the nearby colonies, especially New Hampshire and New York, disputed control of the area (then called the New Hampshire Grants). Settlers who held land titles granted by these colonies were opposed by the Green Mountain Boys militia, which eventually prevailed in creating an independent state, the Vermont Republic. Founded in 1777 during the Revolutionary War, the republic lasted for fourteen years. Vermont is one of seventeen U.S. states (along with Texas, Hawaii, the brief California Republic, and each of the original Thirteen Colonies) to have had a sovereign government in the past. In 1791, Vermont joined the United States as the 14th state, the first outside the original 13 Colonies. It abolished slavery while still independent, and upon joining the Union became the first state to have done so.
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Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, "the District", or simply D.C., is the capital of the United States. On July 16, 1790, the United States Congress approved the creation of a federal district to become the national capital as permitted by the U.S. Constitution. The District is therefore not a part of any U.S. state. It was formed from land along the Potomac River donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia; however, the Virginia portion was returned by Congress in 1846.
A new capital city named after George Washington was founded in 1791 to the east of the preexisting port of Georgetown. Congress consolidated the City of Washington, Georgetown, and the remaining unincorporated area within the District under a single municipal government in 1871. The city shares its name with the U.S. state of Washington, located on the country's Pacific coast.
Washington, D.C., had an estimated population of 617,996 in 2011. The city was the 24th most populous place in the United States as of 2010. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the city's population to over one million during the workweek. The Washington Metropolitan Area, of which the District is a part, has a population of nearly 5.6 million, the seventh-largest metropolitan area in the country.
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Andrew Jackson
Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845) was the seventh President of the United States (1829–1837). Based in frontier Tennessee, Jackson was a politician and army general who defeated the Creek Indians at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814), and the British at the Battle of New Orleans (1815). A polarizing figure who dominated the Second Party System in the 1820s and 1830s, as president he destroyed the national bank and relocated most Indian tribes from the Southeast to west of the Mississippi River. His enthusiastic followers created the modern Democratic Party. The 1830–1850 period later became known as the era of Jacksonian democracy.
Jackson was nicknamed "Old Hickory" because of his toughness and aggressive personality; he fought in duels, some fatal to his opponents. He was a rich slaveholder, who appealed to the common men of the United States, and fought politically against what he denounced as a closed, undemocratic aristocracy. He expanded the spoils system during his presidency to strengthen his political base.
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Ani-kutani
The Ani-kutani (English pronunciation: /ɑˈniːkuˈtɑːniː/) were the ancient priesthood of the Cherokee people. According to Cherokee legend, the Ani-Kutani were slain during a mass uprising by the Cherokee people approximately 300 years prior to European contact. This uprising was sparked by the fact that the Ani-Kutani had become corrupt and conducted sexual improprieties. The ancient structure of Cherokee Society and the Cherokee Clans were closely linked to the beliefs of the Ani-Kutani.
The Ani-Kutani might be connected to the Longhair Clain, or Anigilohi, or "fire priests" that existed in historic times. They were either a clerical class and/or a hereditary clan. "Aní-" is a prefix referring to a group of individuals, while the meaning of "kutáni" is unknown.
From the writings of James Mooney, Myths of the Cherokee, section 108 "The Massacre of the Ani'-Kuta'ni. "Among other perishing traditions is that relating to the Ani'Kuta'ni or Ani'Kwata'ni, concerning whom the modern Cherokee know so little that their very identity is now a matter of dispute, a few holding that they were an ancient people who preceded the Cherokee and built the mounds, while others, with more authority, claim that they were a clan or society in the tribe and were destroyed long ago by pestilence or other calamity."
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Attakullakulla
Attakullakulla or Atagulkalu (Cherokee, Ata-gul' kalu, meaning Little Carpenter)(ca. 1708–ca. 1777), adopted as an infant into the Cherokee tribe, became their First Beloved Man, serving from 1761 to around 1775. His son Dragging Canoe became the war leader of the Cherokee during the Chickamauga wars.
According to the anthropologist James Mooney, Attakullakulla's Cherokee name could be translated "leaning wood", from ada meaning "wood", and gulkalu, a verb that implies something long, leaning against some other object. His name "Little Carpenter" derived from the English meaning of his Cherokee name along with a reference to his physical stature.
Attakullakulla was born to a subtribe of the Algonquian-speaking Nipissing to the North. He was captured as an infant during a raid and adopted by a minor Cherokee chief, making him a member of the Cherokee. He married Nionne Ollie, a Natchez captive adopted as the daughter of his cousin Oconostota. The marriage was permissible because they were of different clans; he was Wolf Clan and she was Paint Clan.
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Benjamin Hawkins
Benjamin Hawkins (August 15, 1754 – June 6, 1816) was an American planter, statesman, and United States Indian agent . He was a delegate to the Continental Congress and a United States Senator from North Carolina, having grown up among the planter elite. Appointed by George Washington as General Superintendent for Indian Affairs (1796–1818), he had responsibility for the territory of the Southeast south of the Ohio River, and was principal Indian agent to the Creek Indians.
Hawkins established the Creek Agency and his plantation in present-day Georgia, where he lived in what became Crawford County. He learned the Muscogee language, was adopted by the tribe and married Lavinia Downs, a Creek woman, with whom he had seven children. He wrote extensively about the Creek and other Southeast tribes: the Choctaw, Cherokee and Chickasaw. He eventually built a large complex with African slave labor, including mills, and raised considerable livestock in cattle and hogs.
Hawkins was born to Philemon and Delia Martin Hawkins on August 15, 1754, the third of four sons. The family farmed and operated a plantation in what was then Granville County, North Carolina, but is now Warren County. He attended the College of New Jersey, later to become Princeton, but left in his last year to join the Continental Army. Hawkins was commissioned a Colonel and served for several years on George Washington's staff as his main interpreter of French.
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Catawba (tribe)
The Catawba (also known as Issa or Esaw, but most commonly Iswa) are a federally recognized tribe of Native Americans, known as the Catawba Indian Nation. They live in the Southeast United States, along the border between North and South Carolina near the city of Rock Hill. The Catawba were once considered one of the most powerful Southeastern Siouan-speaking tribes. The Catawba and other Siouan peoples are believed to have coalesced as individual tribes in the Southeast.
Primarily involved in agriculture, the Catawba were friendly toward early European colonists. They were at almost constant war with tribes of other major language families: the Iroquois, the Algonquian Shawnee and Delaware, and the Iroquoian Cherokee, who fought for control over the large Ohio Valley (including what is now in present-day West Virginia). They served during the American Revolutionary War with the colonists against the British. Decimated by earlier smallpox epidemics, tribal warfare and social disruption, the Catawba declined markedly in number in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The people ceded their homeland to South Carolina in 1840 by a treaty that was not approved by the United States and was automatically invalid.
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Charles R. Hicks
Charles Renatus Hicks (December 23, 1767 – January 20, 1827) was one of the most important Cherokee leaders in the early 19th century; together with James Vann and Major Ridge, he was one of a triumvirate of younger chiefs urging the tribe to acculturate to European-American ways and supported a Moravian mission school to educate the Cherokee. In 1827, he succeeded to the office of Principal Chief when his predecessor, Pathkiller, died in office, only to die himself two weeks later.
He was born December 23, 1767 in the town of Tomotley near the Hiwassee River at its confluence with the Tennessee River in present-day eastern Tennessee. Hicks was the son of Nan-Ye-Hi, a half-blood Cherokee woman, and a white trader named Nathan Hicks. As the Cherokee were a matrilineal culture, the children of Nan-Ye-Hi like her belonged to the Paint Clan, the . They were fully assimilated, as they grew up within the Nation. At the time, both the Cherokee and European traders thought that such strategic alliances benefited them.
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Cherokee
The Cherokee (/ˈtʃɛrəkiː/; Cherokee: ᏣᎳᎩ Tsalagi) are a Native American people historically settled in the Southeastern United States (principally Georgia, the Carolinas and East Tennessee). Linguistically, they are part of the Iroquoian language family. In the 19th century, historians and ethnographers recorded their oral tradition that told of the tribe having migrated south in ancient times from the Great Lakes region, where other Iroquoian-speaking peoples were located. They began to have contact with European traders in the 18th century.
In the 19th century, white settlers in the United States called the Cherokee one of the "Five Civilized Tribes", because they had assimilated numerous cultural and technological practices of European American settlers. The Cherokee were one of the first, if not the first, major non-European ethnic group to become U.S. citizens. Article 8 in the 1817 treaty with the Cherokee stated Cherokees may wish to become citizen of the United States. According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the Cherokee Nation has more than 300,000 members, the largest of the 565 federally recognized Native American tribes in the United States.
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Cherokee flag
Cherokee flag may refer to the Flag of the Cherokee Nation (Oklahoma), the Flag of the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians (Oklahoma), or to the Flag of the Eastern Band of the Cherokee nation (North Carolina).
A common element of the Cherokee flags is the seven pointed star, which symbolizes the sacred fire of the Cherokee people, and the seven clans.
Flag of the Cherokee Nation
Flag of the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians
Flag of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians
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Cherokee Nation
The Cherokee Nation (ᏣᎳᎩᎯ ᎠᏰᎵ or Tsalagihi Ayeli) is the largest of three Cherokee federally recognized tribes in the United States. It was established in the 20th century, and includes people descended from members of the old Cherokee Nation who relocated voluntarily from the Southeast to Indian Territory and Cherokees who were forced to relocate on the Trail of Tears. The tribe also includes descendents of Cherokee Freedmen and Natchez Nation. Over 299,862 people are enrolled in the Cherokee Nation, with 189,228 living within the state of Oklahoma. According to Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) head Larry EchoHawk, the Cherokee Nation is not the historical Cherokee tribe but instead a "successor in interest."
Headquartered in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, the Cherokee Nation has a tribal jurisdictional area spanning 14 counties in the northeastern corner of Oklahoma. These are Adair, Cherokee, Craig, Delaware, Mayes, McIntosh, Muskogee, Nowata, Ottawa, Rogers, Sequoyah, Tulsa, Wagoner, and Washington Counties.
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Chickamauga wars
The Chickamauga wars (1776–1794) were a series of raids, campaigns, ambushes, minor skirmishes, and several full-scale frontier battles which were a continuation of the Cherokee (Ani-Yunwiya, Ani-Kituwa, Tsalagi, Talligewi) struggle during and after the American Revolutionary War against encroachment by American frontiersmen from the former British colonies. Until the end of the Revolution, the Cherokee fought in part as British allies. After 1786, they also fought along with and as members of the Western Confederacy, organized by the Shawnee chief Tecumseh, in an effort to repulse European-American settlers from the area west of the Appalachian Mountains.
Open warfare broke out in the summer of 1776 between the Cherokee led by Dragging Canoe and frontier settlers along the Watauga, Holston, Nolichucky, and Doe rivers in East Tennessee. (The colonials first referred to these Cherokee as the "Chickamauga" or "Chickamauga-Cherokee," and later as the "Lower Cherokee".) The warfare spread to settlers along the Cumberland River in Middle Tennessee and in Kentucky, as well as to the colonies (later states) of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
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Chickamauga Wars
The Chickamauga wars (1776–1794) were a series of raids, campaigns, ambushes, minor skirmishes, and several full-scale frontier battles which were a continuation of the Cherokee (Ani-Yunwiya, Ani-Kituwa, Tsalagi, Talligewi) struggle during and after the American Revolutionary War against encroachment by American frontiersmen from the former British colonies. Until the end of the Revolution, the Cherokee fought in part as British allies. After 1786, they also fought along with and as members of the Western Confederacy, organized by the Shawnee chief Tecumseh, in an effort to repulse European-American settlers from the area west of the Appalachian Mountains.
Open warfare broke out in the summer of 1776 between the Cherokee led by Dragging Canoe and frontier settlers along the Watauga, Holston, Nolichucky, and Doe rivers in East Tennessee. (The colonials first referred to these Cherokee as the "Chickamauga" or "Chickamauga-Cherokee," and later as the "Lower Cherokee".) The warfare spread to settlers along the Cumberland River in Middle Tennessee and in Kentucky, as well as to the colonies (later states) of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.
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Chickasaw
The Chickasaw are Native American people originally from the region that would become the Southeastern United States (Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee). They are of the Muskogean language family and are federally recognized as the Chickasaw Nation.
Sometime prior to the first European contact, the Chickasaw migrated from western regions and moved east of the Mississippi River, where they settled mostly in present-day northeast Mississippi. That is where they encountered European explorers and traders, having relationships with French, English and Spanish during the colonial years. The Chickasaw were considered by the United States (US) as one of the Five Civilized Tribes, as they adopted numerous practices of European Americans. Resisting European-American settlers encroaching on their territory, the Chickasaw were forced by the US to sell their country in 1832 and move to Indian Territory (Oklahoma) during the era of Indian Removal in the 1830s.
Most Chickasaw now live in Oklahoma. The Chickasaw Nation in Oklahoma is the 13th largest federally recognized tribe in the United States. They are related to the Choctaw and share a common history with them. The Chickasaw are divided in two groups (moities): the Impsaktea and the Intcutwalipa. They traditionally had a matrilineal system, in which children were considered to be part of the mother's clan, where they gained their status. Some property was controlled by women, and it and hereditary leadership among the tribe passed through the maternal line.
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Clem Rogers
Clement Vann Rogers (1839–1911) was a Cherokee senator and judge in Indian Territory. Rogers was a Confederate veteran and served as a delegate to the Oklahoma Constitutional Convention. Rogers was the father of entertainer Will Rogers.
Rogers County, Oklahoma is named in honor of Clement Rogers.
Clement Vann Rogers's parents, Robert Rogers and Sallie Vann, "came from Georgia before the main removal of the Cherokees in 1838." Sallie Vann was a sister of David Vann, who was related to the Cherokee chief James Vann. "Clem became associated with the brilliant Cherokee leader, William Penn Adair", and named his son William Penn Adair Rogers after him. Clem served as a member of the Cherokee Senate during the years 1862-63. In 1891 Clem was President of the Cherokee Livestock Association. "Clem's political activities began in 1877 when he ran successful as Judge of Cooweescoowee District ... . He was Senator from his district five terms for the following years : 1879, 1881, 1883, 1899, 1903." "In 1890 he was President of the Vinita Fair Board ... . In 1894 ... Clem Rogers became Vice President of the First National Bank of Claremore, a position he held until his death in 1911." "In 1899, he was elected President of the Claremore School Board. ... That part of his beloved Cooweescoowee District where he lived was re-named "Rogers County" in his honor."
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Cornstalk
Cornstalk (Shawnee: Hokoleskwa) (ca. 1720 - November 10, 1777) was a prominent leader of the Shawnee nation just prior to the American Revolution. His name, Hokoleskwa, translates loosely into "stalk of corn" in English, and is spelled Colesqua in some accounts. He was also known as Keigh-tugh-qua and Wynepuechsika.
Cornstalk opposed European settlement west of the Ohio River in his youth, but he later became an advocate of peace after the Battle of Point Pleasant. His murder by American militiamen at Fort Randolph during a diplomatic visit in November 1777 outraged both American Indians and Virginians.
Historians believe he may have been born in present-day Pennsylvania, and with his sister, Nonhelema, moved to the Ohio Country, near present day Chillicothe, when the Shawnee fell back before expanding white settlement. Stories tell of Cornstalk's participation in the French and Indian War, though these are probably apocryphal. His alleged participation in Pontiac's Rebellion is also unverified, though he did take part in the peace negotiations.
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Daniel Boone
Daniel Boone (November 2, 1734 [O.S. October 22] – September 26, 1820) was an American pioneer, explorer, and frontiersman whose frontier exploits made him one of the first folk heroes of the United States. Boone is most famous for his exploration and settlement of what is now the Kentucky, which was then part of Virginia but on the other side of the mountains from the settled areas. Despite some resistance from American Indian tribes such as the Shawnee, in 1775 Boone blazed his Wilderness Road through the Cumberland Gap in the Appalachian Mountains from North Carolina and Tennessee into Kentucky. There he founded the village of Boonesborough, Kentucky, one of the first American settlements west of the Appalachians. Before the end of the 18th century, more than 200,000 European people migrated to Kentucky/Virginia by following the route marked by Boone.
Boone was a militia officer during the Revolutionary War (1775–83), which in Kentucky was fought primarily between the American settlers and the British-aided Native Americans. Boone was captured by Shawnee warriors in 1778, who after a while adopted him into their tribe. Later, he left the Indians and returned to Boonesborough to help defend the European settlements in Kentucky/Virginia.
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Daniel Webster
Daniel Webster (January 18, 1782 – October 24, 1852) was a leading American statesman and senator from Massachusetts during the period leading up to the Civil War. He first rose to regional prominence through his defense of New England shipping interests. Webster's increasingly nationalistic views, and his effectiveness as a speaker, made him one of the most famous orators and influential Whig leaders of the Second Party System. He was one of the nation's most prominent conservatives, leading opposition to Democrat Andrew Jackson and the Democratic Party. He was a spokesman for modernization, banking and industry, but not for the common people who composed the base of his enemies in Jacksonian Democracy. "He was a thoroughgoing elitist, and he reveled in it," says biographer Remini. During his 40 years in national politics, Webster served in the House of Representatives for 10 years (representing New Hampshire), in the Senate for 19 years (representing Massachusetts), and was appointed the Secretary of State under three presidents.
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Delaware languages
The Delaware languages, also known as the Lenape languages, are Munsee and Unami, two closely related languages of the Eastern Algonquian subgroup of the Algonquian language family. Munsee and Unami were spoken aboriginally by the Lenape people in the vicinity of the modern New York City area in the United States, including western Long Island, Manhattan Island, Staten Island, as well as adjacent areas on the mainland: southeastern New York State, eastern Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and coastal Delaware.
Munsee and Unami are assigned to the Algonquian language family, and are analysed as members of Eastern Algonquian, a subgroup of Algonquian.
The languages of the Algonquian family constitute a group of historically related languages descended from a common source language, Proto-Algonquian. The Algonquian languages are spoken across Canada from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic coast; on the American Plains; south of the Great Lakes; and on the Atlantic coast. Many of the Algonquian languages are now extinct.
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Dorothea Lange
Dorothea Lange (May 26, 1895 – October 11, 1965) was an influential American documentary photographer and photojournalist,best known for her Depression-era work for the Farm Security Administration (FSA). Lange's photographs humanized the consequences of the Great Depression and influenced the development of documentary photography.
Born of second generation German immigrants on May 26, 1895, in Hoboken, New Jersey, Dorothea Lange was named Dorothea Margaretta Nutzhorn at birth. She dropped her middle name and assumed her mother's maiden name after her father abandoned the family when she was 12 years old, one of two traumatic incidents in her early life. The other was her contraction of polio at age seven which left her with a weakened right leg and a permanent limp. "It formed me, guided me, instructed me, helped me and humiliated me," Lange once said of her altered gait. "I've never gotten over it, and I am aware of the force and power of it."
Lange was educated in photography at Columbia University in New York City, in a class taught by Clarence H. White. She was informally apprenticed to several New York photography studios, including that of the famed Arnold Genthe. In 1918, she moved to San Francisco, and by the following year she had opened a successful portrait studio. She lived across the bay in Berkeley for the rest of her life. In 1920, she married the noted western painter Maynard Dixon, with whom she had two sons. One, born in 1925, was named Daniel Rhoades Dixon. The second child, born in 1929, was named John Eaglesfeather Dixon.[citation needed]
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Dragging Canoe
Tsiyu Gansini (ᏥᏳ ᎦᏅᏏᏂ), "He is dragging his canoe", known to whites as Dragging Canoe, (c. 1738 – March 1, 1792) was a Cherokee war chief who led a band of Cherokee against colonists and United States settlers. Beginning during the American Revolution, his forces were sometimes joined by Upper Muskogee, Chickasaw, Shawnee, and Indians from other tribes/nations, along with British Loyalists, French and Spanish agents. The series of conflicts, lasting for a decade after the American Revolutionary War, were known as Chickamauga Wars. Dragging Canoe became the pre-eminent war leader among the Indians of the Southeast of his time. He served as principal chief of the Lower Cherokee from 1777 until his death in 1792, when he was succeeded by his pick, John Watts.
He was the son of Attakullakulla ("Little Carpenter" in English), who was born to the Nipissing and captured and adopted as an infant by the Cherokee, making him one of the tribe. His mother was Nionne Ollie, born to the Natchez and adopted as a captive by Oconostota's household.
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Elias Boudinot
Elias Boudinot (ee-LIE-as boo-DIN-ot;[needs IPA] May 2, 1740 – October 24, 1821) was a lawyer and statesman from Elizabeth, New Jersey who was a delegate to the Continental Congress and a U.S. Congressman for New Jersey. He also served as the second president under the Articles of Confederation, the President of the Continental Congress from 1782 to 1783 and Director of the United States Mint from 1795 until 1805.
Elias Boudinot was born in Philadelphia on May 2, 1740. His father, Elias Boudinot III, was a silversmith; he was a neighbor and friend of Benjamin Franklin. His mother, Mary Catherine Williams, was from the British West Indies; her father was from Wales. Elias' paternal grandfather, Elie (sometimes called Elias) Boudinot, was the son of Jean Boudinot and Marie Suire of Marans, Aunis, France. They were a Huguenot (French Protestant) family who fled to New York about 1687 to avoid the religious persecutions of King Louis XIV. Mary Catherine Williams and Elias Boudinot, Sr. were married on Aug 8, 1729. Over the next twenty years, they had nine children. The first, John, was born in the British West Indies-Antigua. Of the others, only the younger Elias and his siblings Annis, Mary, and Elisha reached adulthood. Elisha Boudinot became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of New Jersey.
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Ely S. Parker
Ely Samuel Parker (1828 – August 31, 1895), (born Hasanoanda, later known as Donehogawa) was a Seneca attorney, engineer, and tribal diplomat. He was commissioned a lieutenant colonel during the American Civil War, when he served as adjutant to General Ulysses S. Grant. He wrote the final draft of the Confederate surrender terms at Appomattox. Later in his career, Parker rose to the rank of Brevet Brigadier General, one of only two Native Americans to earn a general's rank during the war (the other being Stand Watie, who fought for the Confederacy). President Grant appointed him as Commissioner of Indian Affairs, the first Native American to hold that post.
Parker was born in 1828 as the sixth of seven children to William and Elizabeth Parker, of prominent Seneca families, at Indian Falls, New York (then part of the Tonawanda Reservation). He was named Ha-sa-no-an-da and later baptized Ely Samuel Parker. His father was a miller and a Baptist minister. The Seneca were one of the Six Nations of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy). Ely had a classical education at a missionary school, was fully bilingual, and went on to college. He spent his life bridging his identities as Seneca and a resident of the United States.
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George Catlin
George Catlin (July 26, 1796 – December 23, 1872) was an American painter, author and traveler who specialized in portraits of Native Americans in the Old West.
Catlin was born in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. As a child growing up in Pennsylvania, Catlin had spent many hours hunting, fishing, and looking for American Indian artifacts. His fascination with Native Americans was kindled by his mother, who told him stories of the western frontier and how she was captured by a tribe when she was a young girl. Years later, a group of Native Americans came through Philadelphia dressed in their colorful costumes and made quite an impression on Catlin.
His early work included engravings drawn from nature of sites along the route of the Erie Canal in New York State. Several of his renderings were published in one of the first printed books to use lithography, Cadwallader D. Colden's Memoir, Prepared at the Request of a Committee of the Common Council of the City of New York, and Presented to the Mayor of the City, at the Celebration of the Completion of the New York Canals, published in 1825, with early images of the City of Buffalo.
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George Troup
George Michael Troup (September 8, 1780–April 26, 1856) was an American politician from the U.S. state of Georgia. He served in the Georgia General Assembly, U.S. House of Representatives, and Senate before becoming the 32nd Governor of Georgia for two terms and then returning to the Senate. A believer in expansionist Manifest Destiny policies and a supporter of Indian removal, Troupe was born to plantation owners and supported slavery throughout his career. Later in his life, he was known as "the Hercules of states' rights."
Troup was born during the American Revolution at McIntosh Bluff, on the Tombigbee River in what is now Alabama (then a part of the Province of Georgia). He was the son of George Troup and Catherine McIntosh, the Georgia-born daughter of Captain John McIntosh, a British military officer and the chief of the McIntosh clan. (Catherine McIntosh was of the Chiefs of the MacGillivary clan lineage—she was a first cousin to Creek Chief Alexander McGillivray and aunt of Creek Chief William McIntosh.)
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George Washington
George Washington (February 22, 1732 [O.S. February 11, 1731] – December 14, 1799) was the first President of the United States of America, serving from 1789 to 1797, and the dominant military and political leader of the United States from 1775 to 1799. He led the American victory over Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army from 1775 to 1783, and presided over the writing of the Constitution in 1787. Washington became the first president, by unanimous choice, and oversaw the creation of a strong, well-financed national government that maintained neutrality in the wars raging in Europe, suppressed rebellion, and won acceptance among Americans of all types. His leadership style established many forms and rituals of government that have been used since, such as using a cabinet system and delivering an inaugural address. Washington is universally regarded as the "Father of his country."
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Haudenosaunee
The Iroquois ( /ˈɪrəkwɔɪ/ or /ˈɪrəkwɑː/), also known as the Haudenosaunee or the "People of the Longhouse", are a league of several nations and tribes of indigenous people of North America. After the Iroquoian-speaking peoples of present-day central and upstate New York coalesced as distinct tribes, by the 16th century or earlier, they came together in an association known today as the Iroquois League, or the "League of Peace and Power". The original Iroquois League was often known as the Five Nations, as it was composed of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga and Seneca nations. After the Tuscarora nation joined the League in 1722, the Iroquois became known as the Six Nations. The League is embodied in the Grand Council, an assembly of fifty hereditary sachems. Other Iroquian peoples lived along the St. Lawrence River, around the Great Lakes and in the American Southeast, but they were not part of the Haudenosaunee and often competed and warred with these tribes.
When Europeans first arrived in North America, the Haudenosaunee were based in what is now the northeastern United States, primarily in what is referred to today as upstate New York west of the Hudson River and through the Finger Lakes region. Today, the Iroquois live primarily in New York, Quebec, and Ontario.
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Henry Clay
Henry Clay, Sr. (April 12, 1777 – June 29, 1852), was a lawyer, politician and skilled orator who represented Kentucky separately in both the Senate and in the House of Representatives. He served three different terms as Speaker of the United States House of Representatives and was also Secretary of State from 1825 to 1829.
Clay was a dominant figure in both the First and Second Party systems. As a leading war hawk, he favored war with Britain and played a significant role in leading the nation to war in 1812. Later he was involved in the "Corrupt Bargain" of 1824, after which he was appointed Secretary of State by newly elected President John Quincy Adams, earning the scorn of Andrew Jackson. He was the foremost proponent of the American System, fighting for an increase in tariffs to foster industry in the United States, the use of federal funding to build and maintain infrastructure, and a strong national bank. He opposed the annexation of Texas, fearing it would inject the slavery issue into politics. Clay also opposed the Mexican-American War and the "Manifest Destiny" policy of Democrats, which cost him votes in the close 1844 election.
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Henry Timberlake
Henry Timberlake (1730 – September 30, 1765) was a colonial Anglo-American officer, journalist, and cartographer. He was born in Virginia in 1730 and died in England. He is best known for his work as an emissary to the Overhill Cherokee during the 1760s.
Timberlake's account of his journeys to the Cherokee, published as his memoirs in 1765, became a primary source for later studies of their eighteenth-century culture. His detailed descriptions of Cherokee villages, townhouses, weapons, and tools have helped historians and anthropologists identify Cherokee structures and cultural objects uncovered at modern archaeological excavation sites throughout the southern Appalachian region. During the Tellico Archaeological Project, which included a series of salvage excavations conducted in the Little Tennessee River basin in the 1970s, archaeologists used Timberlake's "Draught of the Cherokee Country" to help locate major Overhill village sites.
Henry Timberlake was probably born in Hanover County, Virginia in 1730. Although he inherited a small fortune when his father died, Timberlake still had to support himself, and sought a military career. In 1756, at the outset of the French and Indian War, he joined a Virginia militia company known as the "Patriot Blues." It had embarked on a campaign to expel French and Native American raiders in the western part of the colony. Shortly thereafter, he applied for a commission in the Virginia regiment—then commanded by George Washington—but was denied due to a lack of vacancies.
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Iroquois
The Iroquois ( /ˈɪrəkwɔɪ/ or /ˈɪrəkwɑː/), also known as the Haudenosaunee or the "People of the Longhouse", are a league of several nations and tribes of indigenous people of North America. After the Iroquoian-speaking peoples of present-day central and upstate New York coalesced as distinct tribes, by the 16th century or earlier, they came together in an association known today as the Iroquois League, or the "League of Peace and Power". The original Iroquois League was often known as the Five Nations, as it was composed of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga and Seneca nations. After the Tuscarora nation joined the League in 1722, the Iroquois became known as the Six Nations. The League is embodied in the Grand Council, an assembly of fifty hereditary sachems. Other Iroquian peoples lived along the St. Lawrence River, around the Great Lakes and in the American Southeast, but they were not part of the Haudenosaunee and often competed and warred with these tribes.
When Europeans first arrived in North America, the Haudenosaunee were based in what is now the northeastern United States, primarily in what is referred to today as upstate New York west of the Hudson River and through the Finger Lakes region. Today, the Iroquois live primarily in New York, Quebec, and Ontario.
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James Vann
James Vann (ca. 1765–68 – February 19, 1809) was an influential Cherokee leader, one of the triumvirate with Major Ridge and Charles R. Hicks, who led the Upper Towns of East Tennessee and North Georgia. As the son of Wah-Li Vann, a mixed-race Cherokee woman, and a Scots fur trader, he belonged to his mother's Wild Potato clan (also called Blind Savannah clan).
Vann was among the younger leaders of the Cherokee who thought its people needed to acculturate to deal with the European Americans and the United States government. He encouraged the Moravians to establish a mission school on Cherokee land, and became a wealthy planter and slaveholder.
James Vann was born the oldest of three children of Wah-Li Vann and a Scots trader, at Spring Place (in present-day Georgia) in February 1765 or 1766. Wah-li was of the Anigategawi or Wild Potato People clan. James had younger sisters Nancy and Jennie.
The children grew up within the Cherokee culture and clan of their mother. As the Cherokee had a matrilineal system of property and hereditary leadership, the children traditionally gained their status in the tribe from their mother's people. Their maternal uncles were more important to the rearing of the children, especially the boy James, within the Cherokee nation than was their father.
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John Howard Payne
John Howard Payne (June 9, 1791 – April 10, 1852) was an American actor, poet, playwright, and author who had most of his theatrical career and success in London. He is today most remembered as the creator of "Home! Sweet Home!", a song he wrote in 1822 that became widely popular in the United States, Great Britain, and the English-speaking world. After his return to the United States, Payne spent time with the Cherokee Indians. He published accounts that suggested their origin as one of the Ten Lost Tribes of ancient Israel.
In 1842, Payne was appointed American Consul to Tunis, where he served for nearly 10 years until his death. Payne was a distant cousin of the American parlor song composer Carrie Jacobs-Bond, born 10 years after Payne's death.
John Howard Payne was born in New York City on June 9, 1791, one of the eldest of nine children and seven sons. Soon after his birth, his father moved the family to Boston, where he headed a school. The family also spent time at his grandfather's colonial-era house in East Hampton, New York, which was later preserved in honor of Payne. As a youth, Payne showed precocious dramatic talent, but his father tried to discourage that path. After the death of an older brother, his father installed young Payne, age 13, in the brother's position at the same accountants' firm in New York, but the boy did not have a mind for commerce.
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John Rollin Ridge
John Rollin Ridge (Cherokee name: Cheesquatalawny, or Yellow Bird, March 19, 1827–October 5, 1867), a member of the Cherokee Nation, is considered the first Native American novelist.
Born in New Echota, Georgia, he was the son of John Ridge, and the grandson of Major Ridge, both of whom were signatories to the Treaty of New Echota, which Congress affirmed in early 1836, ceding Cherokee lands east of the Mississippi River and ultimately leading to the Trail of Tears. At the age of 12, Ridge witnessed both their deaths at the hands of supporters of Cherokee leader John Ross, who had vehemently opposed the treaty. His mother, a white woman, took him and fled to Fayetteville, Arkansas. In 1843, he was sent to the Great Barrington School in Great Barrington, Massachusetts for two years, after which he returned to Fayetteville to study law. He himself married a white woman, Elizabeth Wilson, in 1847 and they had one daughter, Alice, in 1848.
In 1849, he killed Ross sympathizer David Kell, whom he thought had been involved with his father's assassination, over a horse dispute. Despite having a good argument for self-defense, he fled to Missouri to avoid prosecution. The next year, he joined in the California Gold Rush, but disliked being a miner. While there, he was reunited with his wife and daughter.
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Joseph J. Clark
Admiral Joseph James "Jocko" Clark, USN (November 12, 1893 – July 13, 1971) was an admiral in the United States Navy, who commanded aircraft carriers during World War II. A native of Oklahoma, Clark was a member of the Cherokee tribe. He was the first Native American to graduate from the United States Naval Academy, in 1917.
During World War II, he commanded the carriers Suwannee (ACV-27) and Yorktown (CV-10). In 1944 he was promoted to Rear Admiral and given a task group of Task Force 58, which he commanded in the Marianas campaign, including the Battle of the Philippine Sea. His flagship was the Hornet (CV-12). On the second day of the battle, with his planes returning after sundown, Clark ordered his ships to light up, allowing most planes to land safely.
During the Korean War, Clark commanded the Fast Carrier Task Force (TF 77), and later, as Vice Admiral, the entire 7th Fleet.
Clark retired on December 1, 1953 with the rank of Admiral. His awards included the Navy Cross, the Navy Distinguished Service Medal, the Silver Star, the Legion of Merit, the Navy Commendation Medal and the Korean Order of Military Merit. Admiral Clark died on July 13, 1971 at St. Albans, New York. He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery.
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Joseph Vann
Joseph H. Vann (11 February 1798 – 23 October 1844) was a Cherokee leader who owned Diamond Hill (now known as the Chief Vann House), many slaves, taverns, and steamboats that he operated on the Arkansas, Mississippi, Ohio, and Tennessee Rivers. He born at Spring Place, Georgia on February 11, 1798. Joseph and his sister Mary were children of James Vann and Nannie Brown, both mixed-blood Cherokees. James Vann had several other wives and children. The grandparents were Joseph Vann, a Scottish trader who came from the Province of South Carolina, and Cherokee Mary Christiana (Wah-Li or Wa-wli Vann). Young Joseph was his father's favorite child and primary recipient of his father's estate and wealth.
Joseph, 11 years old, was in the room when his father, James, was murdered, in Buffington’s Tavern in 1809 near the site of the family-owned ferry. Before he was killed, James Vann was a powerful chief in the Cherokee Nation and wanted Joseph to inherit the wealth that he had built instead of his wives, but Cherokee law stipulated that the home go to his wife, Peggy, while his possessions and property were to be divided among his children.
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Junaluska
Junaluska, or Tsunu’lahun’ski in Cherokee (c. 1775 – November 20, 1858), was a leader of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians who reside in and around western North Carolina.
Junaluska was born around 1775, approximately 15 miles (24 km) south of Franklin, North Carolina near present day Dillard, Georgia. A few days after his birth, he was given his first name when the cradle board holding him fell over.[citation needed] He was called in the Cherokee language Gu-Ka-Las-Ki (also spelled Gulkalaski), which in English, translates to "One who falls from a leaning position".[citation needed] Later, after an unsuccessful military venture he was named Tsu-Na-La-Hun-Ski (also spelled Tsunulahunski) or, "One who tries but fails." Other spellings of his name included Chunaluska, in the diaries of Col. William Holland Thomas, Ja-ne-lus-kee in the Siler rolls, and Junoluskee by the North Carolina General Assembly. Junaluska's own description of the event that gave him the name was "Detsinulahungu," meaning "I tried, but could not".
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Lenape
The Lenape ( /ˈlɛnəpiː/ or /ləˈnɑːpi/) are Native American people in Canada and the United States. They are also called Delaware Indians. As a result of the American Revolutionary War and later Indian removals from the eastern United States, the main groups now live in Ontario (Canada), Oklahoma, and Wisconsin. In Canada, they are enrolled in the Munsee-Delaware Nation 1, the Moravian of the Thames First Nation, and the Delaware of Six Nations; in the United States, they are enrolled in three federally recognized tribes, that is, the Delaware Nation and the Delaware Tribe of Indians, both located in Oklahoma, and the Stockbridge-Munsee Community, located in Wisconsin.
At the time of European contact in the 16th and 17th centuries, the Lenape inhabited a region on the North Atlantic coast in what anthropologists call the Northeastern Woodlands. Although never politically unified, it is frequently referred to as Lenapehoking ("Lenape country"). It roughly comprised the area around and between the Delaware and lower Hudson rivers. Lenapehoking hosted over two dozen Lenape polities. Some of their names, such as Manhattan, Raritan, and Tappan, remain inscribed on the landscape. Based on the historical record of the mid-seventeenth century, it has been estimated that most Lenape polities consisted of several hundred people. It is conceivable that some had been considerably larger prior to contact. Even regions at a distance from European settlement, such as Iroquoia, had been devastated by smallpox by the 1640s.
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Little Turkey
Little Turkey was elected First Beloved Man by the general council of the Cherokee upon the move of the council's seat to Ustanali on the Conasauga River following the murder of Corntassel in 1788. The United States acknowledged his rival, Hanging Maw of Coyatee, as the Cherokee leading headman, but the larger part of the Cherokee themselves, including the Lower Cherokee following Dragging Canoe, recognized Little Turkey. After the end of the Chickamauga wars in 1794 and the subsequent organization of national government, his title became Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation, which he held until his death in 1801. He was born in 1758 and died at the age of 43.
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Major Ridge
Major Ridge, The Ridge (and sometimes Pathkiller II) (c. 1771 – June 22, 1839) (also known as Nunnehidihi, and later Ganundalegi) was a Cherokee Indian member of the tribal council, a lawmaker, and a leader. He was a veteran of the Chickamauga Wars, the Creek War, and the First Seminole War.
Along with Charles R. Hicks and James Vann, Ridge was part of the "Cherokee triumvirate," a group of younger chiefs in the early nineteenth century Cherokee Nation who supported changes in how the people dealt with the United States. He became a wealthy plantation owner, slave owner and ferryman.
Ridge signed the controversial Treaty of New Echota of 1835, supported by the minority Treaty Party. It required the remaining Cherokee inhabiting tribal lands in the southeastern United States to cede the lands to the US and relocate to the Indian Territory. Opponents protested to the US government and negotiated a new treaty the following year. After Indian Removal to what is now Oklahoma, in 1839 Major Ridge was assassinated by tribal members under Cherokee Blood Law for alienating the land, as a majority had opposed removal.
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Martin Van Buren
Martin Van Buren (Dutch: Maarten van Buren; December 5, 1782 – July 24, 1862) was the eighth President of the United States (1837–1841). Before his presidency, he was the eighth Vice President (1833–1837) and the tenth Secretary of State, under Andrew Jackson (1829–1831).
Van Buren was a key organizer of the Democratic Party, a dominant figure in the Second Party System, and the first president not of British or Irish descent—his family was Dutch. He was the first president to be born an American citizen, his predecessors having been born British subjects before the American Revolution. He is also the only president not to have spoken English as his first language, having grown up speaking Dutch, and the first president from New York.
As Andrew Jackson's Secretary of State and then Vice President, Van Buren was a key figure in building the organizational structure for Jacksonian democracy, particularly in New York State. As president, he did not want the United States to annex Texas, an act which John Tyler would achieve eight years after Van Buren's initial rejection. Between the bloodless Aroostook War and the Caroline Affair, relations with Britain and its colonies in Canada also proved to be strained.
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Medicine man
"Medicine man" or "medicine woman" are English terms used to describe traditional healers and spiritual leaders among Native American and other indigenous or aboriginal peoples. Anthropologists tend to prefer the term "shaman," a specific term for a spiritual mediator from the Tungusic peoples of Siberia.
The primary function of these "medicine elders" (who are not always male) is to secure the help of the spirit world, including the Great Spirit (Wakan Tanka in the language of the Lakota Sioux), for the benefit of the entire community.
Sometimes the help sought may be for the sake of healing disease, sometimes it may be for the sake of healing the psyche, sometimes the goal is to promote harmony between human groups or between humans & nature. So the term "medicine man/woman" is not entirely inappropriate, but it greatly oversimplifies and also skews the depiction of the people whose role in society complements that of the chief. These people are not the Native American equivalent of the Chinese "barefoot doctors", herbalists, nor of the emergency medical technicians who ride rescue vehicles.
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Mirabeau Lamar
Mirabeau Buonaparte Lamar (1798–1859) was a Texas politician, poet, diplomat and soldier who was a leading Texas political figure during the Texas Republic era. He was the second President of the Republic of Texas preceded by David G. Burnet (1836 as ad-interim president) and Sam Houston.
Lamar grew up at Fairfield, his father's plantation near Milledgeville, Georgia. As a child, he loved to read and educated himself through books. Although he was accepted to Princeton University, Lamar chose not to attend. Instead, he worked as a merchant and then ran a newspaper, but both of those enterprises failed.
In 1823, Lamar's family connections helped him to gain a position as the private secretary to Georgia Governor George M. Troup. In this position, Lamar issued press releases and toured the country giving speeches on behalf of the governor. On one of his trips, he met Tabatha Jordan, whom he married in 1826.
When Troup lost his reelection bid in 1828 Lamar established a newspaper in Columbus, Georgia, the Columbus Enquirer. This venture was much more successful than his previous business attempts. The year after its establishment Lamar's wife died, and he withdrew his name from consideration for reelection to the Georgia Senate, in which he had served one term, and began to study law. He was admitted to the bar in 1833 and ran an unsuccessful campaign for a seat in the U.S. Congress.
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Moytoy of Tellico
Moytoy of Tellico (d. 1741) was from Great Tellico. Sir Alexander Cumming, a Scots-Anglo trade envoy from the Province of South Carolina, gave him the title "Emperor of the Cherokee", although he is regularly referred to as "King" in official reports. Moytoy's name in Cherokee was Amo-adawehi, or "rainmaker."
In 1730 Cumming, a Scottish adventurer with ties to the colonial government of South Carolina, arranged for Moytoy to be crowned emperor over all of the Cherokee towns in a ceremony intended to appeal to Cumming's colonial sponsors. He was crowned in Nikwasi with a headdress refereed to the "Crown of Tannassy."
Cumming arranged to take Moytoy and a group of Cherokee to England to meet King George II. Moytoy declined to go, saying that his wife was ill. Attakullakulla (Little Carpenter) volunteered to go in his place. The Cherokee laid the "Crown" at King George's feet, along with four scalps.
According to some authorities, Moytoy's wife was a woman named Go-sa-du-isga,. After his death, his son, Amouskositte attempted to succeed him as "Emperor". However, by 1753 Kanagatucko (Old Hop) of Chota in the Overhill Towns had emerged as the dominant leader in the area.
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Nancy Ward
Nanyehi (Cherokee: ᎾᏅᏰᎯ: "One who goes about"), known in English as Nancy Ward (ca. 1738–1822/1824) was a Ghigau, or Beloved Woman of the Cherokee Nation, which meant that she was allowed to sit in councils and to make decisions, along with the other Beloved Women, on pardons. She believed in peaceful coexistence with European-Americans.
Nancy Ward was born in the Cherokee town of Chota and was a member of the Wolf Clan. Her mother, whose actual name is not known, is often called Tame Doe and was a sister of Attakullakulla. Her father was Francis Ward "Fivekiller", a white man living in the Cherokee nation. Nancy's first husband was the Cherokee man Kingfisher. Nanyehi and Kingfisher fought side by side at the Battle of Taliwa against the Creeks in 1755. When he was killed, she took up his rifle and led the Cherokee to victory. This was the action which, at the age of 18, gave her the title of Ghigau.
At age 14, Nancy Ward and her first husband Kingfisher had a daughter, Catherine. When she was 17, their son Littlefellow Fivekiller was born. After her husband and father were killed in the same battle, Nancy, who was then 18, married her father's brother, Bryant Ward, a South Carolina colonist and Indian trader, and their child was Elizabeth Ward, later to become the one-quarter Cherokee wife of General Joseph Martin.
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Narragansett tribe
The Narragansett tribe are an Algonquian Native American tribe from Rhode Island. In 1983 they regained federal recognition as the Narragansett Indian Tribe of Rhode Island.
In 2009, the United States Supreme Court ruled against their request that the Department of Interior take land into trust which they had acquired in 1991. The ruling prohibited tribes that achieved federal recognition after the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act to have newly acquired lands taken into trust and removed from state control.
Recognized by the federal government in 1983, the Narragansett tribe controls the Narragansett Indian Reservation, 1,800 acres (7.3 km2) of trust lands in Charlestown, Rhode Island. A small portion of the tribe resides on or near the reservation, whose population is 60, according to the 2000 U.S. Census. Additionally, they own several hundred acres in Westerly.
In 1991 the Narragansett purchased 31 acres (130,000 m2) in Charlestown for development of elderly housing. In 1998 they requested that the Department of Interior take the property into trust on behalf of the tribe, to remove it from state and local control. The case went to the Supreme Court, as the state challenged the removal of new lands from state oversight by tribes recognized after the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act. Rhode Island was joined in its appeal by twenty-one other states.
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Ned Christie
Ned Christie (December 14, 1852 – November 3, 1892), also known as NeDe WaDe in Cherokee, was a Cherokee statesman. Ned was a member of the executive council in the Cherokee Nation senate, and served as one of three advisers to Chief Bushyhead. He was notable for holding off American lawmen in what was later called Ned Christie's War, after being accused, wrongfully according to testimony in 1918, of murdering a United States Marshal. This gave him notoriety as an outlaw, and he was eventually killed by lawmen.
Christie was born at Wauhillau (located at 35°51′20″N 94°46′27″W / 35.85550°N 94.77426°W / 35.85550; -94.77426), Going Snake District, Cherokee Nation, in the present-day state of Oklahoma. He was the son of the Removal Era, Trail of Tears, survivors, Watt and Lydia (Thrower) Christie. They were of the Keetowah band, the most traditional of Cherokee peoples. As a child and young man, Christie was a marble champion, stick ball player and popular fiddle player.
He was married first to Nannie Dick (about 1871). Next he married Peggy Tucker (1875). Third he married Jennie Scraper (about 1877). Fourth he married Nancy Greece (about 1888).
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Nimrod Jarrett Smith
Nimrod Jarrett Smith (1837–1893), or Tsaladihi, was the fourth Principal Chief of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians. His father was the Valley River landowner Henry Smith, one of the wealthiest men in the Eastern Cherokee Band. Chief Smith was also the great-grandson of David Watie and therefore great-grand-nephew of Major Ridge, first cousin twice-removed of John Ridge, and grand-nephew of Stand Watie and Elias Boudinot through his paternal grandmother, Sarah Susan Watie. He is also known by his Cherokee name, Tsaladihi ("Charlie-killer", or possibly "Lichen-killer"), which was an attempt to render in Cherokee his middle name, Jarrett, by which he was most often addressed. During the American Civil War, he served the Confederacy in the Cherokee Battalion of Thomas' Legion of Cherokee Indians and Highlanders under the command of then Principal Chief William Holland Thomas during the American Civil War.
A well-educated and well-spoken man, he was fluent in both Cherokee and English, although he had learned Cherokee as a second language. He was elected Principal Chief in 1880 upon the death of his immediate predecessor, Lloyd Welch. He exercised unprecedented power over and influence among the Eastern Cherokee. He worked actively for official U.S. government recognition for the band as a tribe under federal law and was successful.
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Oconostota
Oconostota (ca. 1710-1783) was the Warrior (skiagusta) of Chota and the First Beloved Man of the Cherokee from 1775 to 1781.
His Cherokee name, according to Mooney, was Aganstata, which he translated as "groundhog-sausage" (agana = groundhog, and tsistau = "I am pounding it" as in pounding meat in a mortar). It appears as "Oconastota" (with two "a"s) on his grave marker at the site of Chota.
Oconostota may have been a son of Moytoy of Tellico, and was born around 1704, one of eleven children. The identity of Oconostota's first wife is a mystery, although she was of the Paint Clan. Their daughter, Nionne Ollie, was the wife of his predecessor, Attakullakulla.
After the death of his first wife, Oconostota invited Lucy Ward, a former lady-in-waiting to the Queen of England whom he had met in 1730, to join him in Chota. They were married and had one daughter, Lucy Ward II. The identity of Oconostota's third wife (after Lucy's death in 1758) is unknown.
Oconostota became the Principal Chief of the Cherokee following the death of his cousin Attakullakulla, sometime around 1775-1777. (He was sometimes called "Stalking Turkey", a fact which caused confusion in identifying Oconostota versus his uncle Kanagatucko, "Standing Turkey".) His tenure was fraught with warfare and struggle, which culminated in 1780 in the destruction of Chota-Tanasi by the American revolutionary forces. Oconostota was believed to have died in either 1782 or 1783. He was buried with his hands on his chest holding a broadsword pointing down his body.
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Pisgah Phase
The Pisgah Phase (1000 to 1450/1500 CE) is an archaeological phase of the South Appalachian Mississippian culture (a regional variation of the Mississippian culture) in parts of northeastern Tennessee, western North Carolina and northwestern South Carolina.
The phase covered a 14,000 square miles (36,000 km2) region in the South Appalachian geologic province. On the rim of the region during an earlier phase, the sites were occupied for rather short periods, with the interior of the region having sites occupied throughout the phase. Between about 1000 and 1250 CE, the region of northeastern Tennessee, western North Carolina and northwestern South Carolina was a subregional development of a local Woodland period population who incorporated characteristics from the larger Mississippian culture. The villages ranged from about a quarter of an acre to 6 acres (24,000 m2) which complexity and cultural pattern does not compare in size to the Mississippian in the south and west. However, the Mississippian cultural pattern influence was as far north as Lee County, Virginia, and south to Oconee County, South Carolina.Pee Dee culture expresses Pisgah cultural traits.
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Ralph Waldo Emerson
Ralph Waldo Emerson (May 25, 1803 – April 27, 1882) was an American essayist, lecturer, and poet, who led the Transcendentalist movement of the mid-19th century. He was seen as a champion of individualism and a prescient critic of the countervailing pressures of society, and he disseminated his thoughts through dozens of published essays and more than 1,500 public lectures across the United States.
Emerson gradually moved away from the religious and social beliefs of his contemporaries, formulating and expressing the philosophy of Transcendentalism in his 1836 essay, Nature. Following this ground-breaking work, he gave a speech entitled The American Scholar in 1837, which Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. considered to be America's "Intellectual Declaration of Independence".
Emerson wrote most of his important essays as lectures first, then revised them for print. His first two collections of essays – Essays: First Series and Essays: Second Series, published respectively in 1841 and 1844 – represent the core of his thinking, and include such well-known essays as Self-Reliance, The Over-Soul, Circles, The Poet and Experience. Together with Nature, these essays made the decade from the mid-1830s to the mid-1840s Emerson's most fertile period.
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Robert E. Lee
Robert Edward Lee (January 19, 1807 – October 12, 1870) was a career military officer who is best known for having commanded the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia in the American Civil War.
The son of Revolutionary War officer Henry "Light Horse Harry" Lee III and a top graduate of the United States Military Academy, Robert E. Lee distinguished himself as an exceptional officer and combat engineer in the United States Army for 32 years. During this time, he served throughout the United States, distinguished himself during the Mexican-American War, served as Superintendent of the United States Military Academy, and married Mary Custis.
When Virginia declared its secession from the Union in April 1861, Lee chose to follow his home state, despite his personal desire for the Union to stay intact and despite the fact that President Abraham Lincoln had offered Lee command of the Union Army. During the Civil War, Lee originally served as a senior military adviser to President Jefferson Davis. He soon emerged as a shrewd tactician and battlefield commander, winning numerous battles against larger Union armies. His abilities as a tactician have been praised by many military historians. His strategic vision was more doubtful, and both of his invasions of the North ended in defeat. Union General Ulysses S. Grant's campaigns bore down on Lee in 1864 and 1865, and despite inflicting heavy casualties, Lee was unable to force back Grant. Lee would ultimately surrender to Grant at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865. By this time, Lee had been promoted to the commanding officer of all Confederate forces; the remaining armies soon capitulated after Lee's surrender. Lee rejected the starting of a guerrilla campaign against the North and called for reconciliation between the North and South.
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Sam Houston
Samuel "Sam" Houston (March 2, 1793–July 26, 1863), was a nineteenth-century American statesman, politician, and soldier. He was born in Timber Ridge in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, of Scots-Irish descent. Houston became a key figure in the history of Texas and was elected as the first and third President of the Republic of Texas, U.S. Senator for Texas after it joined the United States, and finally as a governor of the state. He refused to swear loyalty to the Confederacy when Texas seceded from the Union in 1861 with the outbreak of the American Civil War, and was removed from office. To avoid bloodshed, he refused an offer of a Union army to put down the Confederate rebellion. Instead, he retired to Huntsville, Texas, where he died before the end of the Civil War.
His earlier life included migration to Tennessee from Virginia, time spent with the Cherokee Nation (into which he later was adopted as a citizen and took a wife), military service in the War of 1812, and successful participation in Tennessee politics. Houston is the only person in U.S. history to have been the governor of two different states (although other men had served as governors of more than one American territory).
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Samuel Worcester
Samuel Austin Worcester (19 January 1798 – 20 April 1859), was a missionary to the Cherokee, translator of the Bible, printer and defender of the Cherokee's sovereignty. He was a party in Worcester v. Georgia (1832), a case that went to the United States Supreme Court, in which Chief Justice John Marshall defined the exclusive relationship of the federal government to the Indian nations and recognized the latter's sovereignty, above state laws.
Worcester was born in Peacham, Vermont on January 19, 1798, to the Rev. Leonard Worcester, a minister. He was the seventh generation of pastors in his family, dating back to ancestors who lived in England. According to Charles Perry of the Peacham Historical Association, his father also worked as a printer in the town. The young Worcester attended common schools and studied printing with his father.
Samuel Worcester became a Congregational minister and decided to become a missionary to the American Indians.
Worcester married and had a family. They accompanied him to New Echota, where he went as a missionary to the Cherokee. Later they accompanied him to Indian Territory before 1835.
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Seminole
The Seminole are a Native American people originally of Florida, who now reside primarily there and in Oklahoma. The Seminole nation emerged in a process of ethnogenesis out of groups of Native Americans, most significantly Creek from what is now Georgia and Alabama, who settled in Florida in the early 18th century. The word Seminole is a corruption of cimarrón, a Spanish term for "runaway" or "wild one", historically used for certain Native American groups in Florida. The Seminole are closely related to the Miccosukee, who were recognized as a separate tribe in 1962.
After an initial period of colonization in Florida, during which they distanced themselves increasingly from other Creek groups, the Seminole established a thriving trade network during the British and second Spanish periods (roughly 1767–1821). The tribe expanded considerably during this time, and was further supplemented from the late 18th century with the appearance of the Black Seminoles – free blacks and escaped slaves who settled in communities near Seminole towns, where they paid tribute to the Native Americans in exchange for protection. However, tensions grew between the Seminole and the United States to the north, leading to a series of conflicts known as the Seminole Wars (1818–1858). Over the course of the wars most Seminoles were forced to relocate west of the Mississippi River in a process of Indian removal. Perhaps fewer than 200 Seminoles remained in Florida, but those who did fostered a resurgence in traditional customs and a culture of staunch independence.
wn.com/Seminole -
Sequoyah
Sequoyah (ᏍᏏᏉᏯ Ssiquoya, as he signed his name, or ᏎᏉᏯ Se-quo-ya, as his name is often spelled today in Cherokee) (c. 1770 – 1843), named in English George Gist or George Guess, was a Cherokee silversmith. In 1821 he completed his independent creation of a Cherokee syllabary, making reading and writing in Cherokee possible. This was the only time in recorded history that a member of a non-literate people independently created an effective writing system. After seeing its worth, the people of the Cherokee Nation rapidly began to use his syllabary and officially adopted it in 1825. Their literacy rate quickly surpassed that of surrounding European-American settlers.
Sequoyah's heroic status has led to several competing accounts of his life that are speculative, contradictory, or fabricated.
James Mooney, a prominent anthropologist and historian of the Cherokee people, quoted a cousin as saying that as a little boy, Sequoyah spent his early years with his mother in the village of Tuskegee. Estimates of his birth year ranged from 1760 to 1776. His name is believed to come from the Cherokee word siqua meaning 'hog'. This is a reference either to a childhood deformity or to a later injury that left Sequoyah disabled.
wn.com/Sequoyah -
Simon Girty
Simon Girty (1741 – February 18, 1818) was an American colonial of Scots-Irish ancestry who served as a liaison between the British and their Native American allies during the American Revolution. He was portrayed as a villain in many early history texts of the United States.
Born in Pennsylvania, Girty and his brothers were taken prisoners when still children by the Senecas and adopted by them. It would be seven years before Girty returned to his family, during which time he had come to prefer the Native American way of life. During the American Revolution, he first sided with the colonial revolutionaries, but later served with the Loyalists and thus was viewed by American frontiersmen as a renegade and turncoat.
On October 1, 1779, Girty and Alexander McKee with the aid of a large force of Native Americans attacked and killed American forces returning from a trip to New Orleans. The ambush occurred near Dayton, Kentucky, opposite Cincinnati. Only a handful of the Americans survived, among them Colonel John Campbell[disambiguation needed
] and Captain Robert Benham.
wn.com/Simon_Girty -
Stomp dance
The Stomp Dance (Caddo: Kaki?tihánnakah) is performed by various Eastern Woodland tribes and Native American communities, including the Muscogee, Yuchi, Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Delaware, Miami, Caddo, Ottawa, Peoria, Shawnee, Seminole,Natchez, and Seneca-Cayuga tribes. Stomp Dance communities are active in North Carolina, Oklahoma, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida.
The Stomp Dance is a ceremony that contains both religious and social meaning. To the Muscogee Creeks, Cherokees, and other Southeastern Indians the Stomp Dance is affiliated with the Green Corn Ceremony.
The term "Stomp Dance" is an English term, which refers to the "shuffle and stomp" movements of the dance. In the native Muskogee language the dance is called Opvnkv Haco, which can mean "drunken," "crazy," or "inspirited" dance. This usually refers to the exciting, yet meditative effect the dance and the medicine have on the participants. In the native Shawnee language, the dance is called Nikanikawe which refers to a dance involving friends or nikane. It is also called the Leading Dance by many Shawnees, but most simply call it the "Stomp Dance."
wn.com/Stomp_dance -
William McIntosh
William McIntosh (1775 – April 30, 1825), also known as Taskanugi Hatke (White Warrior), was one of the most prominent chiefs of the Creek Nation between the turn of the nineteenth century and the time of Creek removal to Indian Territory. He was a leader of the Lower Towns, the Creek who were adapting European-American ways and tools. In 1817 he was implicated with David Brydie Mitchell, former Georgia governor and US Indian agent to the Creek, of smuggling African slaves in from Spanish Florida, in violation of US law against the international slave trade.
For decades, European-American historians attributed McIntosh's achievements and influence to his Scots/European ancestry; more recently, historians have understood how his power related to the Creek matrilineal culture and his heritage.
Taskanugi Hatke (White Warrior) was born in the Lower Towns in present-day Georgia to Senoya (also spelled Senoia and Senoy), a member of the Wind Clan, which was prominent in the Creek Nation. As the Creek had a matrilineal system of property and hereditary leadership, his mother's status determined that of White Warrior. Also called William McIntosh, the boy had a Scots-American father, Captain William McIntosh, connected to a prominent Savannah, Georgia family. Captain McIntosh, a Loyalist, had worked with the Creek to recruit them as allies to the British during the American Revolutionary War. His mother was Jennet (or Janet in some sources) McGillivray, believed to have been a sister of the Scot Lachlan McGillivray, a wealthy fur trader and planter in Georgia, who was of the Clan MacGillivray Chiefs Lineage). After the war, Captain McIntosh moved to Savannah and married his cousin, Barbara McIntosh.
wn.com/William_McIntosh -
William Penn Adair
William Penn Adair (1830–1880) was a Cherokee leader and Confederate colonel.
William Penn Adair was born on April 15, 1830 in the old Cherokee Nation in New Echota, Georgia. His parents were George Washington Adair and Martha Adair. He attended Cherokee schools in Indian Territory, studying law. He was a Freemason, belonging to the Vinita Lodge No. 5, which was chartered in 1875. He was described as being "six foot and two inches in height, magnetic, logical and frankly agreeable, the ablest and most brilliant of all Cherokees.
Adair's first wife was Sarah Ann McNair. His second was Susannah "Sue" McIntosh Drew. He lived on the Grand River in what is now Adair, Oklahoma.
During the civil war he served in the Confederate States Army, first in the First Regiment of Cherokee Mounted Volunteers, under General Stand Watie. Adair rose in rank to colonel and organized the Second Cherokee Mounted Volunteers.
Adair served the Cherokee Nation in many capacities. He was a senator, a justice of the Cherokee Supreme Court, delegate to Washington, DC, and assistant principal chief. He served as the Senator from the Flint District from 1855-1860 and Senator from the Saline District from 1869-1874. In 1879, he was elected as Assistant Chief. Throughout the 1860s and 1870s, Adair served as a delegate to Washington.
wn.com/William_Penn_Adair -
Winfield Scott
Winfield Scott (June 13, 1786 – May 29, 1866) was a United States Army general, and unsuccessful presidential candidate of the Whig Party in 1852.
Known as "Old Fuss and Feathers" and the "Grand Old Man of the Army," he served on active duty as a general longer than any other man in American history, and many historians rate him the best American commander of his time. Over the course of his forty-seven-year career, he commanded forces in the War of 1812, the Mexican-American War, the Black Hawk War, the Second Seminole War, and, briefly, the American Civil War, conceiving the Union strategy known as the Anaconda Plan that would be used to defeat the Confederacy. He served as Commanding General of the United States Army for twenty years, longer than any other holder of the office.
A national hero after the Mexican-American War, he served as military governor of Mexico City. Such was his stature that, in 1852, the United States Whig Party passed over its own incumbent President of the United States, Millard Fillmore, to nominate Scott in the United States presidential election. Scott lost to Democrat Franklin Pierce in the general election, but remained a popular national figure, receiving a brevet promotion in 1856 to the rank of lieutenant general, becoming the first American since George Washington to hold that rank.
wn.com/Winfield_Scott -
Yamasee
The Yamasee were a multiethnic confederation of Native Americans who lived in the coastal region of present-day northern coastal Georgia near the Savannah River and later in northeastern Florida.
The Hernando de Soto expedition of 1540 traveled into Yamasee territory, including the village of Altamaha.
In 1570, Spanish explorers established missions in Yamasee territory. The Yamasee were later included in the missions of the Guale province. Starting in 1675 the Yamasee were mentioned regularly on Spanish mission census records of the missionary provinces of Guale (central Georgia coast) and Mocama (present-day southeastern Georgia and northeastern Florida). The Yamasee usually did not convert to Christianity and remained somewhat separated from the Christian Indians of Spanish Florida.[citation needed]
Pirate attacks on the Spanish missions in 1680 forced the Yamasee to migrate again. Some moved to Florida. Others returned to the Savannah River lands, safer after the destruction of the Westo.[citation needed]
wn.com/Yamasee -
Yamasee War
The Yamasee War (also spelled Yemassee War) (1715–1717) was a conflict between British settlers of colonial South Carolina and various Native American Indian tribes, including the Yamasee, Muscogee, Cherokee, Chickasaw, Catawba, Apalachee, Apalachicola, Yuchi, Savannah River Shawnee, Congaree, Waxhaw, Pee Dee, Cape Fear, Cheraw, and others. Some of the Native American Indian groups played a minor role while others launched attacks throughout South Carolina in an attempt to destroy the colony.
They killed hundreds of colonists and destroyed many settlements. Traders "in the field" were killed throughout what is now southeastern United States. Abandoning settled frontiers, people fled to Charles Town, where starvation set in as supplies ran low. The survival of the South Carolina colony was in question during 1715. The tide turned in early 1716 when the Cherokee sided with the colonists against the Creek, their traditional enemy. The last of South Carolina's major Native American foes withdrew from the conflict in 1717, bringing a fragile peace to the colony.
wn.com/Yamasee_War
Cherokee Filmography
- Dirty School Girls (2011)
- Mommy Got Boobs 8 (2010)
- There Will Be Cum 8 (2010)
- Lexington Loves Katja Kassin (2009)
- Big Tits at School 7 (2009)
- Pass It On (2008)
- Star 69: All Asian (2008)
- MILFS Like It Big 2 (2008)
- Playgirl: Steamy Seduction (2008)
- Kaylani's Favorites (2008)
- Sleazy Riders (2008)
- Finger, Fuck & Suck (2007)
- Flawless (2007)
- Lez B Friends Again (2007)
- Fox Hole (2007)
- Lesbians Gone Wild (2007)
- Lesbian MILFS (2007)
- Young, Hot & Bothered (2007)
- Lesbian Centerfolds 3 (2007)
- Global Warming (2007)
- Big Boob Paradise (2007)
- Hot Lesbo Action (2007)
- Janine Loves Jenna (2007)
- Big Booty Revenge 3 (2007)
- Big Rack Attack 3 (2007)
- Big Tit Nurses (2007)
- Big Tit Pole Dancers (2007)
- The 2007 AVN Awards Show (2007)
- Bouncy (2007)
- Say Goodnight Dick! (2007)
- Ten Ton Tits (2007)
- Romantic Lesbian Encounters (2007)
- Rapture in Blue (2007)
- Queen of the Damned (2007)
- Pussy Lickin' Lesbians 2 (2007)
- Nikki's Lipstick Lesbians (2007)
- Dirty Asian Dykes (2007)
- Double D Babes 4 (2007)
- Mobster's Ball (2007)
- Stiletto (2006)
- Federal Breast Inspectors (2006)
- Ultimate Asses 7 (2006)
- Baby Doll Big Top (2006)
- Lez B Friends (2006)
- Chasey's Lipstick Lesbians (2006)
- Rump Humpers (2006)
- Chick Flick 10 (2006)
- Meet the Twins 6 (2006)
- Red Vinyl Smother (2006)
- 3-Way Divas (2006)
- Culos gigantes 1 (2006)
- Tanya's Lipstick Lesbians (2006)
- Maisie Undercover: Shadow Boxer (2006)
- Lipstick Lesbians (2006)
- All-Girl Pussy Parade 2 (2006)
- I Like Big Tits (2006)
- Joined at the Hip (2006)
- Girl Pirates 2 (2006)
- Ass Masterpiece, Vol. 3 (2006)
- Fantastic 4 on the Floor (2006)
- Big Butt Brotha Lovers 7 (2006)
- Just Like That (2006)
- Bareback Mounting (2006)
- Lickalicious 2 (2006)
- All-Girl Pussy Parade (2006)
- Housewife 1 on 1 #4 (2006)
- Sorority Sex Kittens: Kappa Kappa Sex (2006)
- Very Raw Hide (2006)
- Black Mayhem (2006)
- Bless Their Little Holes (2006)
- Hook-ups 11 (2006)
- Home Schooled 5 (2006)
- No Man's Land 40 (2005)
- 7 Deadly Sins (2005)
- Afterhours 2 (2005)
- All Girls Affair (2005)
- Ass-A-thon (2005)
- Bare Naked (2005)
- Bellisima (2005)
- Best Deep Throat on the Planet (2005)
- Big and Bouncy (2005)
- Big Azz Party (2005)
- Big Booty Revenge (2005)
- Bitches in Heat (2005)
- Blow Pop (2005)
- Blowjob Fantasies 21 (2005)
- Camp Cuddly Pines Powertool Massacre (2005)
- Captured for Cock Tease (2005)
- Coming on Set (2005)
- Deviant Housewives (2005)
- Evil Bitches (2005)
- Filthy Ho's 3 (2005)
- Full Service 2 (2005)
- Getting What They Deserve 2 (2005)
- Gigi (2005)
- Hand Job Hunnies 9 (2005)
- Hot Girls in Heat (2005)
- It Girls (2005)
- Lesbian Centerfolds (2005)
- Naughty Office 2 (2005)
- No Man's Land: Interracial Edition 8 (2005)
- Nurse Cherokee (2005)
- Phat Ass Tits 2 (2005)
- Platinum Angels (2005)
- Porn Star Station 3 (2005)
- Powerhouse Whores (2005)
- Pretty Little Fuck Slaves (2005)
- PROs 3: Big Money Hunnies (2005)
- Puss & Butts (2005)
- Pussy Cocked & Loaded (2005)
- Red Hot Pussy Trot (2005)
- Scorpio Rising (2005)
- Take That! The Biggest Pop Shots of Deep Throat This 2 (2005)
- Teen Scream Virgins (2005)
- The Chronicles of Nectar (2005)
- The Closer (2005)
- The Many Shades of Mayhem 2 (2005)
- The New Royals: Sunrise Adams (2005)
- Titty Titty Bang Bang (2005)
- Top Notch Bitches 4 (2005)
- Unfaithful Secrets (2005)
- Vivid Vegas Party (2005)
- Wedding Thrasshers (2005)
- Wicked Sex Party 7 (2005)
- Women on Top Vol. 2 (2005)
- Big Man's Baby Got Azz (2004)
- Perfect Kiss (2004)
- Strip and Give Me 10 (2004)
- Stripper Academy (2004)
- Sweat (2004)
- Girls Home Alone 24 (2004)
- My First Porn (2004)
- Eroktavision 2 (2004)
- Adore (2004)
- Valley 911 (2004)
- Pink Slip (2004)
- Bad Kitty (2004)
- Matrix Nudes (2004)
- The Adventures of Be the Mask 1 (2004)
- The Best of Cherokee (2004)
- The Big Tease 3 (2004)
- Valley Girls 2 (2004)
- Dark Intent (2004)
- Interracial Anal Teens -n- Toys 2 (2004)
- The Word Man Does Las Vegas (2004)
- Jkp Girls of the Hook (2004)
- Jkp Sex Camp (2004)
- If the Balls Fit, Suck 'Em! (2004)
- The Dark Side of Briana (2004)
- Handjobs 15 (2004)
- Kiss My Ass (2004)
- Lady Ass Lickers 16 (2004)
- This Is the Girl (2004)
- Voluptuous 5 (2004)
- Top Notch Bitches (2004)
- 100% Blowjobs 24 (2004)
- Extreme Behavior 5 (2004)
- Cumstains 5 (2004)
- Double Team Dream (2004)
- Million Dollar Ass 2 (2004)
- Cum on My Latin Tongue and Shy's Ass (2004)
- Trailer Trout 2 (2004)
- Club House (2004)
- $ex Business (2004)
- Round She Goes (2004)
- Chasing Reality (2004)
- Double Decker Sandwich 4 (2004)
- Malibu's Most Hunted 2 (2004)
- The Nastiest Tease (2004)
- Screaming Orgasms 13 (2004)
- Fluff and Fold (2004)
- Nurse Naughty Girl (2004)
- Secrets of the Hollywood Madam (2004)
- Fuckeroos (2004)
- Skin Trade (2004)
- Dirty Fantasies (2004)
- Dearest Diary (2004)
- Mamacitas 4 (2003)
- Nailed (2003)
- Nick Grande: The Lost Girl (2003)
- Deep Throat This 15 (2003)
- Vivid Games (2003)
- One True Chance (2003)
- Wicked Auditions 2 (2003)
- Photo Club (2003)
- The Vault (2003)
- Azz Fest (2003)
- Pussyman's Spectacular Butt Babes 6 (2003)
- Cumstains 2 (2003)
- Chick Flick 4 (2003)
- Busty Beauties 6 (2003)
- School of Hard Knockers 2 (2003)
- Alexis on Fire (2003)
- Secret Suburban Sex Parties (2003)
- Blow Me Sandwich 3 (2003)
- Bill and Stace (2003)
- Beverly Hills 9021-Ho! 4 (2003)
- When the Boyz Are Away the Girlz Will Play 13 (2003)
- Behind the Mask (2003)
- Teen Tryouts Audition 21 (2003)
- Babes Illustrated 13 (2003)
- Jack's Playground 7 (2003)
- Jenna's Harem (2003)
- I Dream of Jenna 2 (2003)
- Latin Amore (2003)
- Lay Me Down (2003)
- Frosted (2003)
- Foot Traffic 10 (2003)
- Flesh Fest 2 (2003)
- Eye Contact 23 (2003)
- Loveless (2003)
- Second Chance (2002)
- Pussy Foot'n 1 (2002)
- Fast Forward (2002)
- North Pole #33 (2002)
- Little Lace Panties 5 (2002)
- Teen Dreams 1 (2002)
- Sweet Cheeks 3 (2002)
- Sex Toys 7 (2002)
- Love Potion 69 (2002)
- Naughty College School Girls 26 (2002)
Cherokee Filmography
- Valley Vixens (2005)
- More Black Dirty Debutantes 30 (2000)
- Afro-Centrix Volume 48: Just Say Blow #2 (1998)
- The Audition (1997)
- Domination Nation (1997)
- My Baby Got Back 9 (1997)
- Domination Nation 2 (1997)
- Vivid Raw (1996)
- Whitey's on the Moon (1996)
- All That 2 (1996)
- Anal Climax 4 (1996)
- Essence (1996)
- My Baby Got Back 8 (1996)
- Up and Cummers 28 (1996)
- Video Adventures of Peeping Tom 2 (1996)
Cherokees, The Filmography
karaoke
(Stephen Stills)
In my short time
I've loved, I've shined
And now I find
All my lovin' just been blind
Southern girl, come on
You and me babe, gotta move on
My fortunes mean nothing
I never cared about fame
The dark eyed Cherokee
Like the raven she knows me
The secret she keeps
Like her soul so deep
Nothin' 'round here get to me
Like the lady from Tennessee
Never knew love like this
The wind, moon, the earth, the sky
Sky so high
Never knew pain like this
Everything die, then die
Never knew love like this
The sun, the sea and I
Never knew pain, never knew shame
Now I know why
Bury me, marry me to the sky
Marry, marry me to the sky
Feels like time is on my time
Bury me upside down
Cherokee, kissing me
When I'm, I'm going down
Feels like time is on my time
Bury me upside down
Cherokee, kissing me
When I'm, I'm going down
Feels like time is on my time
Bury me upside down, down
Cherokee, kissing me
Sweet Indian warrior
Since first I met you
I can't forget you
Cherokee sweetheart
Child of the prairie
Your love keeps calling
My heart enthralling
Ooh Cherokee
Dreams of summertime
Of wintertime gone by
Throng my memory so tenderly and sigh
My sweet Indian warrior
One day I'll hold you
In my arms fold you
Oh Cherokee
Brave Indian warrior
Since I first met you
I can't forget you
Cherokee sweetheart
Child of the prairie
Your love keeps calling
My heart enthralling
Ooh Cherokee
Dreams of summertime
Of wintertime gone by
Throng my memory so tenderly and sigh
My sweet Indian warrior
One day I'll hold you
In my arms enfold you
Mysterious be enough
Aaa, haa, haa, haa haa
Lay lived in peace
Not long ago
A mighty Indian tribe
But the winds of change
Had made them realize
That the promises were lies, ohh
The white man's greed
In search of gold
Made the nation bleed
They had lost their faith
And now they had to learn
There was no place to return
Nowhere they could turn
Cherokee
Oh, marchin' on the trail of tears
Cherokee
Oh, marchin' on the trail of tears
They were driven hard
Across the plains
And walked for many moons
'Cause the winds of change
Had made them realize
That the promises were lies
So much to bear
An' all that pain
Left them in despair
They have lost their faith
And now they had to learn
There was no place to return
Nowhere they could turn
Cherokee
Oh, marchin' on the trail of tears
Cherokee
Oh, marchin' on the trail of tears
Yea yea yaa
Aaa, haa, haa, haa haa
Cherokee
Oh, marchin' on the trail of tears
Cherokee
Oh, marchin' on the trail of tears
Ohh, Cherokee
Oh, marchin' on the trail of tears
Cherokee
Oh, marchin' on the trail of tears
SWEET INDIAN MAIDEN,
SINCE I FIRST MET YOU,
I CAN'T FORGET YOU.
CHEROKEE,SWEETHEART.
CHILD OF THE PRAIRIE,
MY HEART ENTHRALLING,
YOUR LOVE KEEPS CALLING,
SWEET, CHEROKEE.
SWEET INDIAN MAIDEN,
ONE DAY I'LL HOLD YOU.
IN MY ARMS FOLD YOU,
SWEET CHEROKEE.
DREAMS OF SUMMERTIME,
OF LOVER TIME,
GONE BY.
THRONG MY MEMORY,
SO TENDERLY
AND SIGH.
MY SWEET INDIAN MAIDEN,
ONE DAY I'LL HOLD YOU,
IN MY ARMS FOLD YOU,
SWEET CHEROKEE.
You were wild and you were free
You would search your destiny
But the white man came and took your land away
You were fire and you were flame
You were blood inside that (vein)
How he brought you fame the day he came to stay
I hear you howling through the night
The wind is cold the moons are fading
The pride and sorrow curse the light
And wakes a vengeance in your heart
You were young but you were wise
You were smoke that always raised
How they put you down and spit upon your name
You were snow and you were rain
You would walk without a shame
But they changed your life and gave you all the blame
The sound of thunder breaks the arch
10000 riders side by side
The time has come to end the fight
For their freedom, for their right
Cherokee, riding free
You ride into the sky
Where your spirit lives forever
Cherokee, riding free
You ride into the sky
Where all your freedom lasts forever
The fire burns tonight
We all recall the fight
Where blood was shed without a reason
200 years have passed since you stood ashore
And raped your land down to the core
Repeat Ch
Brave Indian warrior
Since first I met you
I can't forget you
Cherokee sweetheart
Child of the prairie
Your love keeps calling
My heart enthralling
Ooh, Cherokee
Dreams of summertime
Of wintertime gone by
Throng my memory
So tenderly and sigh
My sweet Indian warrior
One day I'll hold you
In my arms fold you
Oh, Cherokee
Brave Indian warrior
Since I first met you
I can't forget you
Cherokee sweetheart
Child of the prairie
Your love keeps calling
My heart enthralling
Ooh, Cherokee
Dreams of summertime
Of wintertime gone by
Throng my memory
So tenderly and sigh
My sweet Indian warrior
One day I'll hold you
In my arms enfold you
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Cherokee - Take Care Of You
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:43
- Updated: 02 Dec 2012
Already quite old but my favourite track to chill to at the moment. And I am sure a lot of you haven't heard this yet. Cherokee: www.facebook.com soundcloud.com www.cherokee-music.com www.youtube.com Picture: www.tuomaskorpi.com Facebooobs: www.facebook.com
http://wn.com/Cherokee_Take_Care_Of_You
Already quite old but my favourite track to chill to at the moment. And I am sure a lot of you haven't heard this yet. Cherokee: www.facebook.com soundcloud.com www.cherokee-music.com www.youtube.com Picture: www.tuomaskorpi.com Facebooobs: www.facebook.com
Cat Power - Cherokee
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:48
- Updated: 02 Dec 2012
The first video from the new album "Sun", available at iTunes (bit.ly Target ($7.99 - bit.ly and your local indie retailer (exclusive deluxe vinyl - bit.ly Directed by Chan Marshall Director of Photography: Greg Hunt (www.huntfilmwork.com) Wardrobe stylist Camille Garmendia Assistant Director: Seth Farley www.catpowermusic.com www.facebook.com twitter.com web.stagram.com www.matadorrecords.com Purchase "Sun" from Matador: bit.ly Purchase "Sun" from Best Buy: bit.ly Purchase "Sun" from Amazon: bit.ly
http://wn.com/Cat_Power_Cherokee
The first video from the new album "Sun", available at iTunes (bit.ly Target ($7.99 - bit.ly and your local indie retailer (exclusive deluxe vinyl - bit.ly Directed by Chan Marshall Director of Photography: Greg Hunt (www.huntfilmwork.com) Wardrobe stylist Camille Garmendia Assistant Director: Seth Farley www.catpowermusic.com www.facebook.com twitter.com web.stagram.com www.matadorrecords.com Purchase "Sun" from Matador: bit.ly Purchase "Sun" from Best Buy: bit.ly Purchase "Sun" from Amazon: bit.ly
- published: 17 Sep 2012
- views: 418810
- author: CatPowerVEVO
Cherokee - Sable Doux
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:13
- Updated: 02 Dec 2012
Cherokee - Sable Doux soundcloud.com
http://wn.com/Cherokee_Sable_Doux
Cherokee - Sable Doux soundcloud.com
- published: 13 Jun 2011
- views: 147627
- author: Funkroza
the Cherokee language
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:58
- Updated: 02 Dec 2012
Cherokee language segment from the documentary Voices of North Carolina. www.talkingnc.com
http://wn.com/the_Cherokee_language
Cherokee language segment from the documentary Voices of North Carolina. www.talkingnc.com
- published: 12 Sep 2008
- views: 151064
- author: NCLLP
Cherokee - Mambo Jet
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:53
- Updated: 02 Dec 2012
soundcloud.com
http://wn.com/Cherokee_Mambo_Jet
soundcloud.com
- published: 28 Jul 2011
- views: 98568
- author: earpolicy
Daft Punk - Something About Us (Cherokee Remix)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:42
- Updated: 02 Dec 2012
Something a little different. French house :) Cherokee: soundcloud.com www.facebook.com Daft Punk: www.daftpunk.com www.facebook.com Picture: www.sendspace.com
http://wn.com/Daft_Punk_Something_About_Us_Cherokee_Remix
Something a little different. French house :) Cherokee: soundcloud.com www.facebook.com Daft Punk: www.daftpunk.com www.facebook.com Picture: www.sendspace.com
- published: 03 Apr 2012
- views: 298219
- author: MrSuicideSheep
M.Reck And Streetz - U Nasty Ft. Pinky XXX, Cherokee D'Ass, Tammy Torres, Beauty Dior,
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:09
- Updated: 02 Dec 2012
Courtesy of Forbez DVD
http://wn.com/MReck_And_Streetz_U_Nasty_Ft_Pinky_XXX,_Cherokee_D'Ass,_Tammy_Torres,_Beauty_Dior,
Courtesy of Forbez DVD
- published: 19 Aug 2010
- views: 248847
- author: Keezy Carter
NEW Footage Of Porn Star Cherokee
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:38
- Updated: 02 Dec 2012
http://wn.com/NEW_Footage_Of_Porn_Star_Cherokee
- published: 29 Jan 2010
- views: 238543
- author: Next2BlowAllstars1
Almost Stock Jeep Cherokee Hot Springs Level What?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:13
- Updated: 20 Nov 2012
All I can say is,What did your Jeep today? This one did the imposible!
http://wn.com/Almost_Stock_Jeep_Cherokee_Hot_Springs_Level_What?
All I can say is,What did your Jeep today? This one did the imposible!
- published: 16 Mar 2007
- views: 408123
- author: njberken
Jeep Cherokee XJ climbing the unthinkable - Carnage Canyon (HD)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:10
- Updated: 30 Nov 2012
A sick Jeep Cherokee climbing the exit on Carnage Canyon without a winch. Huge ledges on soft dirt made this something you have to see to believe. Built and driven by TnT Customs
http://wn.com/Jeep_Cherokee_XJ_climbing_the_unthinkable_Carnage_Canyon_HD
A sick Jeep Cherokee climbing the exit on Carnage Canyon without a winch. Huge ledges on soft dirt made this something you have to see to believe. Built and driven by TnT Customs
- published: 20 Nov 2011
- views: 94020
- author: flyier19
JEEP Cherokee XJ off road build UP 35's SICK mud hill climb rock crawl flex washington WATCH!!!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:48
- Updated: 01 Dec 2012
Washington State trails. WATCH THIS VIDEO !!! www.youtube.com
http://wn.com/JEEP_Cherokee_XJ_off_road_build_UP_35's_SICK_mud_hill_climb_rock_crawl_flex_washington_WATCH!!!
Washington State trails. WATCH THIS VIDEO !!! www.youtube.com
- published: 10 Apr 2008
- views: 317524
- author: rockkrawler1
cherokee indian dance
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:19
- Updated: 01 Dec 2012
the cherokee indian dance
http://wn.com/cherokee_indian_dance
the cherokee indian dance
- published: 21 Apr 2008
- views: 73460
- author: rikgeo
Part 1 - Cherokee History As You've Never Heard It
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:10
- Updated: 27 Nov 2012
The story of the Keetoowah Cherokee people
http://wn.com/Part_1_Cherokee_History_As_You've_Never_Heard_It
The story of the Keetoowah Cherokee people
- published: 23 Mar 2009
- views: 65612
- author: UnitedKeetoowahBand
Jeep Grand Cherokee moose test -- the full story
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:00
- Updated: 02 Dec 2012
All performed moose tests with Jeep Grand Cherokee. All failed. The full story and figures at: www.teknikensvarld.se
http://wn.com/Jeep_Grand_Cherokee_moose_test_-_the_full_story
All performed moose tests with Jeep Grand Cherokee. All failed. The full story and figures at: www.teknikensvarld.se
- published: 16 Jul 2012
- views: 947479
- author: teknikensvarld
How to pull a Jeep Cherokee 4.0L Engine briansmobile1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 12:25
- Updated: 30 Nov 2012
How to pull a Jeep Cherokee 4.0L Engine briansmobile1
http://wn.com/How_to_pull_a_Jeep_Cherokee_40L_Engine_briansmobile1
How to pull a Jeep Cherokee 4.0L Engine briansmobile1
- published: 04 Oct 2011
- views: 11840
- author: briansmobile1
Trail of Tears: Cherokee Legacy Native American Indian
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:09
- Updated: 01 Dec 2012
"Trail Of Tears" www.richheape.com - Rich-Heape Films, Inc. Nearly a quarter of the Cherokee Nation froze or starved to death on the trail to Oklahoma Indian Territory. This video explores America's darkest period: President Andrew Jackson's Indian Removal Act of 1830 and the forced removal of the Cherokee Nation to Oklahoma in 1838. Nearly a quarter of the Cherokee National died during the Trail of Tears, arriving in Indian Territory with few elders and even fewer children. Presented by Wes Studi and narrated by James Earl Jones, "Trail of Tears Cherokee Legacy" has already captured an impressive array of awards including a Nammy for best long video. Known worldwide as "The Nammys" - Nama (Native American Music Awards) is an ultimate celebration of music & video honoring the outstanding achievements of today's leading Native American artists.
http://wn.com/Trail_of_Tears_Cherokee_Legacy_Native_American_Indian
"Trail Of Tears" www.richheape.com - Rich-Heape Films, Inc. Nearly a quarter of the Cherokee Nation froze or starved to death on the trail to Oklahoma Indian Territory. This video explores America's darkest period: President Andrew Jackson's Indian Removal Act of 1830 and the forced removal of the Cherokee Nation to Oklahoma in 1838. Nearly a quarter of the Cherokee National died during the Trail of Tears, arriving in Indian Territory with few elders and even fewer children. Presented by Wes Studi and narrated by James Earl Jones, "Trail of Tears Cherokee Legacy" has already captured an impressive array of awards including a Nammy for best long video. Known worldwide as "The Nammys" - Nama (Native American Music Awards) is an ultimate celebration of music & video honoring the outstanding achievements of today's leading Native American artists.
- published: 09 Mar 2007
- views: 546407
- author: buffa1o1
Jeep Grand Cherokee crossing Golden Crack on Golden Spike (Moab, UT)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:04
- Updated: 01 Dec 2012
Raw and unedited clip of a 1997 Jeep Grand Cherokee crossing the golden crack on the golden spike trail (Moab, UT). Lots of flex and no trouble. (June, 2008)Subscribe and stay tuned. I will be posting new video clips each day of my old Grand Cherokee. Join me in remembering the good old days and let this good old Grand live on!
http://wn.com/Jeep_Grand_Cherokee_crossing_Golden_Crack_on_Golden_Spike_Moab,_UT
Raw and unedited clip of a 1997 Jeep Grand Cherokee crossing the golden crack on the golden spike trail (Moab, UT). Lots of flex and no trouble. (June, 2008)Subscribe and stay tuned. I will be posting new video clips each day of my old Grand Cherokee. Join me in remembering the good old days and let this good old Grand live on!
- published: 18 Feb 2011
- views: 178393
- author: flyier19
1989 Jeep Cherokee Laredo 4.0 Start Up, Engine, and In Depth Tour
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:54
- Updated: 30 Nov 2012
In thisvideo I give a full in depth tour of the 1989 Jeep Cherokee Laredo. I take viewers on a close look through the interior and exterior of this suv while showing details, over viewing of features, and noting unique styling cues to the vehicle itself. I also show the engine and the details of it, start it up and see how it sounds under acceleration. A thorough tour/review of this suv designed to give others a greater overall appreciation of the vehicle.
http://wn.com/1989_Jeep_Cherokee_Laredo_40_Start_Up,_Engine,_and_In_Depth_Tour
In thisvideo I give a full in depth tour of the 1989 Jeep Cherokee Laredo. I take viewers on a close look through the interior and exterior of this suv while showing details, over viewing of features, and noting unique styling cues to the vehicle itself. I also show the engine and the details of it, start it up and see how it sounds under acceleration. A thorough tour/review of this suv designed to give others a greater overall appreciation of the vehicle.
- published: 14 Jan 2011
- views: 57973
- author: saabkyle04
Jeep in mud - Grand Cherokee and Cherokee XJ - HD
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:52
- Updated: 02 Dec 2012
Brilliant trip with our fellows from Polish Jeep Forum - more details later.
http://wn.com/Jeep_in_mud_Grand_Cherokee_and_Cherokee_XJ_HD
Brilliant trip with our fellows from Polish Jeep Forum - more details later.
- published: 04 May 2009
- views: 143052
- author: realdevlin
Jeep Grand Cherokee getting stuck in the hot tub. (Moab, UT)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:50
- Updated: 30 Nov 2012
Raw and unedited clip of a 1997 Jeep Grand Cherokee going in and out of Mickey's Hot Tub on Hells Revenge (Moab, UT). It gave me more trouble than I anticipated due to a bad line, and everywhere you look is rock and sky.Subscribe and stay tuned. I will be posting new video clips each day of my old Grand Cherokee. Join me in remembering the good old days and let this good old Grand live on!
http://wn.com/Jeep_Grand_Cherokee_getting_stuck_in_the_hot_tub_Moab,_UT
Raw and unedited clip of a 1997 Jeep Grand Cherokee going in and out of Mickey's Hot Tub on Hells Revenge (Moab, UT). It gave me more trouble than I anticipated due to a bad line, and everywhere you look is rock and sky.Subscribe and stay tuned. I will be posting new video clips each day of my old Grand Cherokee. Join me in remembering the good old days and let this good old Grand live on!
- published: 02 Mar 2011
- views: 129668
- author: flyier19
2001 JEEP CHEROKEE SPORT start up, walk around and review
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:01
- Updated: 23 Nov 2012
2001 JEEP CHEROKEE SPORT start up overview, walk around AUTOMOTIVE REVIEW ON FACEBOOK: www.facebook.com * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *************************************************************** TAGS: 2001 JEEP CHEROKEE SPORT, jeep cherokee...
http://wn.com/2001_JEEP_CHEROKEE_SPORT_start_up,_walk_around_and_review
2001 JEEP CHEROKEE SPORT start up overview, walk around AUTOMOTIVE REVIEW ON FACEBOOK: www.facebook.com * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *************************************************************** TAGS: 2001 JEEP CHEROKEE SPORT, jeep cherokee...
- published: 21 Sep 2011
- views: 45130
- author: AutomotiveReview
4x4TV Project Jeep Cherokee part 2 of 9
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:07
- Updated: 13 Nov 2012
4x4TV Project Jeep Cherokee part 2 of 9 SEE ALL OUR OVER 150 OTHER VIDEOS @ www.4x4TV.TV
http://wn.com/4x4TV_Project_Jeep_Cherokee_part_2_of_9
4x4TV Project Jeep Cherokee part 2 of 9 SEE ALL OUR OVER 150 OTHER VIDEOS @ www.4x4TV.TV
- published: 27 Jan 2011
- views: 18186
- author: 4x4TVTV
cherokee jeep en las dunas de el tambor 29 oct 2011
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 15:00
- Updated: 21 Nov 2012
http://wn.com/cherokee_jeep_en_las_dunas_de_el_tambor_29_oct_2011
- published: 30 Oct 2011
- views: 40520
- author: Gilberto rodriguez aranzubia
photo: AP / Lefteris Pitarakis
30 Nov 2012
- For historians, it represents a treasure trove of boundless rewards and an opportunity to revisit some of the most enduring myths about Britain's colonial past. But for some of those still living with the physical and psychological scars, the release of thousands of previously secret government-held documents offers fresh hope of finally gaining a measure of justice for their suffering under British rule ... 1096 Source.. Al Jazeera ... ;">....(size: 22.4Kb)
photo: USAF / Senior Airman Patrice Clarke
02 Dec 2012
There have been "multiple explosions" near an airfield at a US base in eastern Afghanistan, Nato has said. Afghan intelligence officials told the BBC seven suicide attackers targeted the base in Jalalabad, and witnesses said that gunfire was heard ... Counter claims ... There were no Nato casualties in the attack, officials said ... ....(size: 1.7Kb)
photo: US NARA
30 Nov 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. Staring at the quote on the small granite monument which read. "They said to one another, behold here comes the dreamer...Let us slay him...And we shall see what will become of his dreams," I tried to understand that fateful moment when a shot shattered heaven and earth ... Martin Luther King, Jr. Straining my ears, I tried to hear Rev. Abernathy cry out, "Oh my God, Martin's been shot!" ... Dr....(size: 6.5Kb)
photo: AP / Thomas Hartwell
02 Dec 2012
Egyptian President Mohammed Morsi has called a December 15 referendum on a constitution drafted by the Islamist-led assembly. The decree follows mass protests against the country's new constitutional charter. Morsi called the referendum on Saturday after Egypt's assembly handed its final draft of the planned new constitution to the president for final approval. It is now expected to go to a popular referendum within two weeks ... DW.DE ... ....(size: 3.8Kb)
photo: UN / David Manyua
01 Dec 2012
The conflict in Syria has now reached "new and appalling heights of brutality and violence", according to the UN secretary-general, while the world body's envoy to Syria has said the country is in danger of becoming "a failed state" ... The fighting has killed about 40,000 people, making it the bloodiest of Arab uprisings that have ousted entrenched leaders in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya and Yemen since early last year ... 957 Source.. Agencies ... ....(size: 21.8Kb)
The Salt Lake Tribune
02 Dec 2012
my SA
02 Dec 2012
The show. A few more than 500 people took over the Charline McCombs Empire Theatre on Saturday night for a pair of Nashville-based bands, headliners Old Crow Medicine Show and openers Chuck Mead & His Grassy Knoll Boys ... Which raises the question ... The mass band played a swinging âCherokee Boogieâ and a first-class rendition of Don Santiago Jimenezâs âAy Te Dejo En San Antonio.â Perales has had some serious health problems ... ....(size: 3.2Kb)
Colorado Springs Gazette
02 Dec 2012
5A State Football Championship. Valor 9, Cherokee Trail 0. At Denver. It wasn’t the Valor Christian offense that had smoldered area schools like Fountain Fort-Carson (40-0 on Sept. 28), Doherty (49-7 on Oct. 12) and Palmer (58-7 on Oct. 19) during the season. But it was that same Valor defense. The Eagles scored all of their points in the fourth quarter to lift them to their fourth consecutive title ... ... Monarch 17, Denver South 14....(size: 7.0Kb)
noodls
01 Dec 2012
Dear Cherokee County Business Owner, ... · Business owner (s) or officer (s) must be the same as originally reported to Cherokee County. · The legal entity/legal name must be the same as originally reported to Cherokee County. · Number of employees must be same as originally reported to Cherokee County ... Cherokee County as your place of business!....(size: 2.8Kb)
noodls
01 Dec 2012
Published. 11-30-2012. Plenty of fun activities in historic St. Louis City neighborhoods this weekend. Enjoy!. Holiday Decoration Safety Tips ... Consumer Product Safety Commission. Plan for safety ... When dry, greens burn like tinder ... 1 - Cherokee Print League 5th Annual Holiday Sale, Cherokee Street, 10 a.m. The Cherokee Print League will be hosting the 5th Annual Holiday Print Sale this Saturday from 10 a.m ... at 2800 Cherokee Street ... 9....(size: 10.7Kb)
noodls
01 Dec 2012
November 30, 2012 ... Brian Busey is not pictured ... During this next year, two scholarships will be awarded by the SWOSU Engineering Technology Department ... Philip Busey serves on numerous civic boards and organizations, including the Kiwanis Club of Oklahoma City and on the board of trustees for the Cherokee Nation Heritage Center in Tahlequah ... The brothers are proud citizens of the Cherokee Nation. distributed by ... (noodl. 16806054) ....(size: 4.9Kb)
Review Journal
01 Dec 2012
Editor's note. Listings include the resale home's parcel number. Occasionally, the address listed is the homebuyer's mailing address and not the actual location of the home. Check the parcel number to make sure. Also, a few transactions do not reflect the market value of the homes. HENDERSON. 89002. 232 Patti Ann Woods Drive, $171,000, 179-31-524-004. 751 Yellowtail Way, $167,000, 179-30-211-021 ... 89011 ... Cherokee Ave., $78,000, 138-27-614-018....(size: 14.2Kb)
Newsvine
30 Nov 2012
Adjectives in Cherokee can take bound pronoun prefixes to agree with the subject they modify. They can even be used to express a thought.. ex. tsoduhi - "you are beautiful";. tsoldi - "you're funny". Note. both "A" and "B" Class pronouns are used with adjectives and must be memorized. "B" Class Pronouns.. Singular. agw-(I). ts-(you). uw-(he/she/it). Dual ... disd-(you two) ... Using Adjectives in Cherokee ... 1 ... The teacher says we don't study Cherokee well....(size: 4.3Kb)
Tulsa World
30 Nov 2012
After watching several audition tapes, the real-life Charlie Soap was already leaning toward a certain actor to play him in a new movie, "The Cherokee Word for Water." ... Based on a true story about Soap and his wife, the late Cherokee Nation Principal Chief Wilma Mankiller, the movie will have its public debut Friday night at Tulsa's Circle Cinema ... Some of the Cherokee residents still didn't have indoor plumbing in the early 1980s....(size: 4.9Kb)
Philadelphia Daily News
30 Nov 2012
Phil Anastasia, INQUIRER STAFF WRITER. Posted. Thursday, November 29, 2012, 7.33 PM ... Wilson, a Cherokee senior, accomplished both in the last few weeks of his high school cross-country career ... 17 at Holmdel Park - breaking the mark set in 2001 by Marc Pelerin, now a Cherokee assistant coach ... 8 in San Diego ... Wilson skipped the Nov ... "Shawn's success has come from a combination of talent and hard work," Cherokee head coach Steve Shaklee said ... ....(size: 16.3Kb)
The Oklahoman
30 Nov 2012
. By Michael McNutt .. email. IN BRIEF. Cherokee Turnpike plaza to close. NewsOK Related Articles. At a glance. How to exchange an Oklahoma Pikepass transponder. 11/30/2012 At a glance. How to exchange an Oklahoma Pikepass transponder Oklahoma Turnpike Authority prepares to deactivate old Pikepass units ... About 14 percent of the... email. Show / Hide Comments. Leave a Comment. Thank you for joining our conversation on NewsOK.com ... Nov. 29, 2012....(size: 9.5Kb)
Tulsa World
30 Nov 2012
Mary Fallin has appointed former Cherokee Nation Businesses CEO David Stewart as chief administrative officer of the Oklahoma Ordnance Works Authority, which operates the MidAmerica Industrial Park in Pryor ... Stewart reached a $2.67 million separation agreement with the Cherokee Nation in April, according to the Osage Nation, which in June appointed him to the board of the Osage Nation's business arm....(size: 2.9Kb)
STL Today
30 Nov 2012
FRIDAY. Editor’s pick » David Robertson and the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra. 10.30 a.m. Friday, 8 p.m ... Editor’s pick » Cherokee Street Cookie Spree. Saturday-Sunday • Cherokee Street between Lemp Avenue and Jefferson Boulevard • Free • cherokeeantiquerow.com ➙ Cherokee Street is changing, but one tradition — the annual cookie spree — lives on ... Saturday and the Cherokee Print League sale at various shops and galleries at 11 a.m.-6 p.m....(size: 5.9Kb)
For other uses, see Cherokee (disambiguation).
 |
This article or section contains only non-IPA pronunciation information for some words. It should be expanded with an International Phonetic Alphabet transcription. For assistance, see Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Pronunciation. |
 |
| From the top, L-R:
John Ross or Tsanusdi; Colonel E. C. Boudinot Jr.; Samuel Smith; Lilly Smith: Walini; Marcia Pascal; Lillian Gross; William Penn; Thomas M. Cook |
| Total population |
|---|
| 316,049+ (Eastern Band: 13,000+, Cherokee Nation: 288,749, United Keetoowah Band: 14,300)[1] |
| Regions with significant populations |
 United States(  North Carolina,  Oklahoma) |
| Languages |
|
English, Cherokee |
| Religion |
|
Christianity, Kituhwa, Four Mothers Society,[2] Native American Church[3] |
 |
This article contains Cherokee syllabic characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Cherokee syllabics. |
The Cherokee (/ˈtʃɛrəkiː/; Cherokee: ᏣᎳᎩ Tsalagi) are a Native American people historically settled in the Southeastern United States (principally Georgia, the Carolinas and East Tennessee). Linguistically, they are part of the Iroquoian language family. In the 19th century, historians and ethnographers recorded their oral tradition that told of the tribe having migrated south in ancient times from the Great Lakes region, where other Iroquoian-speaking peoples were located.[4] They began to have contact with European traders in the 18th century.
In the 19th century, white settlers in the United States called the Cherokee one of the "Five Civilized Tribes", because they had assimilated numerous cultural and technological practices of European American settlers. The Cherokee were one of the first, if not the first, major non-European ethnic group to become U.S. citizens. Article 8 in the 1817 treaty with the Cherokee stated Cherokees may wish to become citizen of the United States.[5] According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the Cherokee Nation has more than 300,000 members, the largest of the 565 federally recognized Native American tribes in the United States.[6]
Of the three federally recognized Cherokee tribes, the Cherokee Nation and the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians (UKB) have headquarters in Tahlequah, Oklahoma. The UKB are mostly descendants of "Old Settlers", Cherokee who migrated to Arkansas and Oklahoma about 1817. The Cherokee Nation are related to the people who were forcibly relocated there in the 1830s under the Indian Removal Act. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians is located on the Qualla Boundary in western North Carolina.
In addition, there are Cherokee bands in the Southeast that are recognized as tribes by state governments, such as the Echota Cherokee Tribe of Alabama, but not the U.S. federal government.
Contents |
Name[link]
The Cherokee refer to themselves as Tsalagi (ᏣᎳᎩ) or Aniyvwiyaʔi (ᎠᏂᏴᏫᏯᎢ), which means "Principal People." The Iroquois, who were based in New York, called the Cherokee Oyata’ge'ronoñ (inhabitants of the cave country).
Many theories – though none proven – abound about the origin of the word Cherokee. It may have originally been derived from the Choctaw word Cha-la-kee, which means "those who live in the mountains", or Choctaw Chi-luk-ik-bi, meaning "those who live in the cave country".[7] The earliest Spanish rendering of Cherokee, from 1755, is Tchalaquei.[8] Another theory is that "Cherokee" derives from a Lower Creek word, Ciló-kki, meaning someone who speaks another language.[9] The most likely derivation, however, is an Anglicisation of their autonym, or name for themselves: Tsalagi in their language.[citation needed]
Origins[link]
There are two prevailing views about Cherokee origins. One is that the Cherokee, an Iroquoian-speaking people, are relative latecomers to Southern Appalachia, who may have migrated in late prehistoric times from northern areas, the traditional territory of the later Haudenosaunee five nations and other Iroquoian-speaking peoples. Researchers in the 19th century recorded conversations with elders who recounted an oral tradition of the Cherokee people's migrating south from the Great Lakes region in ancient times.[4] The other theory, which is disputed by academic specialists, is that the Cherokee had been in the Southeast for thousands of years. There is no archeological evidence for this.
Some traditionalists, historians and archaeologists believe that the Cherokee did not come to Appalachia until the 15th century or later. They may have migrated from the north and moved south into Muscogee Creek territory and settled at the sites of mounds built by the Mississippian culture. During early research, archeologists had mistakenly attributed several Mississippian culture sites to the Cherokee, including Moundville and Etowah Mounds. Late 20th-century studies have shown conclusively instead that the weight of archeological evidence at the sites shows they are unquestionably related to ancestors of Muskogean peoples rather than to the Cherokee.
Precontact Cherokee are considered to be part of the later Pisgah Phase of Southern Appalachia, which lasted from circa 1000 to 1500.[10] Despite the consensus among most specialists in Southeast archeology and anthropology, some scholars contend that ancestors of the Cherokee people lived in western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee for a far longer period of time.[11] During the late Archaic and Woodland Period, Indians in the region began to cultivate plants such as marsh elder, lambsquarters, pigweed, sunflowers and some native squash. People created new art forms such as shell gorgets, adopted new technologies, and followed an elaborate cycle of religious ceremonies. During the Mississippian Culture-period (800 to 1500 CE), local women developed a new variety of maize (corn) called eastern flint. It closely resembled modern corn and produced larger crops. The successful cultivation of corn surpluses allowed the rise of larger, more complex chiefdoms with several villages and concentrated populations during this period. Corn became celebrated among numerous peoples in religious ceremonies, especially the Green Corn Ceremony.
Early culture[link]
Much of what is known about pre-18th-century Native American cultures has come from records of Spanish expeditions. The earliest ones of the mid-16th century encountered people of the Mississippian culture, the ancestors to later tribes in the Southeast such as the Creek and Catawba. The Cherokee arrived later, descended from a different people, but they occupied some of the ancient Mississippian sites and were observed by the Spanish. Some of this work was not translated into English and made available to historians until the 20th century. In addition, the dominance of English colonists over the Southeast led to a discounting of Spanish sources for some time.
The American writer John Howard Payne wrote about pre-19th century Cherokee culture and society. The Payne papers describe the account by Cherokee elders of a traditional two-part societal structure. A "white" organization of elders represented the seven clans. As Payne recounted, this group, which was hereditary and priestly, was responsible for religious activities, such as healing, purification, and prayer. A second group of younger men, the "red" organization, was responsible for warfare. The Cherokee considered warfare a polluting activity, and warriors required the purification by the priestly class before participants could reintegrate into normal village life. This hierarchy had disappeared long before the 18th century.
Researchers have debated the reasons for the change. Some historians believe the decline in priestly power originated with a revolt by the Cherokee against the abuses of the priestly class known as the Ani-kutani.[12] Ethnographer James Mooney, who studied the Cherokee in the late 1880s, was the first to trace the decline of the former hierarchy to this revolt.[13] By the time of Mooney, the structure of Cherokee religious practitioners was more informal, based more on individual knowledge and ability than upon heredity.[12]
Another major source of early cultural history comes from materials written in the 19th century by the didanvwisgi (ᏗᏓᏅᏫᏍᎩ), Cherokee medicine men, after Sequoyah's creation of the Cherokee syllabary in the 1820s. Initially only the didanvwisgi adopted and used such materials, which were considered extremely powerful in a spiritual sense.[12] Later, the syllabary and writings were widely adopted by the Cherokee people.
Unlike most other Indians in the American Southeast at the start of the historic era, the Cherokee spoke an Iroquoian language. Since the Great Lakes region was the core of Iroquoian-language speakers, scholars have theorized that the Cherokee migrated South from that region. This is supported by the Cherokee oral history tradition. According to the scholars' theory, the Tuscarora, another Iroquoian-speaking people who inhabited the Southeast in historic times, and the Cherokee broke off from the major group during its northern migration.
Other historians hold that, judging from linguistic and cultural data, the Tuscarora people migrated South from other Iroquoian-speaking people in the Great Lakes region in ancient times. In the 1700s, the Tuscarora left the Southeast and "returned" to the New York area by 1722 because of warfare in the southern region. The Tuscarora were admitted by the Iroquois as the Sixth Nation of their political confederacy.[14]
Linguistic analysis shows a relatively large difference between Cherokee and the northern Iroquoian languages. Scholars posit a split between the groups in the distant past, perhaps 3500–3800 years ago.[15] Glottochronology studies suggest the split occurred between about 1,500 and 1,800 BCE.[16] The Cherokee have claimed the ancient settlement of Kituwa on the Tuckasegee River, formerly next to and now part of Qualla Boundary (the reservation of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians), as the original Cherokee settlement in the Southeast.[15]
History[link]
Main article: Cherokee history
17th century: English contact[link]
In 1654, there was a disturbance in Virginia Colony as the Rechahecrians or Rickahockans, as well as the Siouan Manahoac and Nahyssan, broke through the frontier and settled near the Falls of the James, near present-day Richmond, Virginia. The following year, a combined force of English and Pamunkey drove the newcomers away. The identity of the Rechahecrians has been much debated. Historians noted the name closely resembled that recorded for the Eriechronon or Erielhonan, commonly known as the Erie tribe. The Iroquoian people had been driven away from the southern shore of Lake Erie by the powerful Iroquois Five Nations in 1654. The anthropologist Martin Smith theorized some remnants of the tribe migrated to Virginia after the wars (1986:131–32). Few historians suggest this tribe was Cherokee.[17]
Virginian traders developed a small-scale trading system with the Cherokee before the end of the 17th century; the earliest recorded Virginia trader to visit the Cherokee was a certain Dority, in 1690.[18] The Cherokee sold the traders Indian slaves for use as laborers in Virginia and further north.[19]
18th century[link]
Further information: Cherokee military history
The Cherokees gave sanctuary to a band of Shawnee in the 1660s, but from 1710 to 1715 the Cherokee and Chickasaw, allied with the British, fought Shawnee, who were allied with the French, and forced them to move northward.[20] Cherokees fought with the Yamasee, Catawba, and British in late 1712 and early 1713 against the Tuscarora in the Second Tuscarora War. The Tuscarora War marked the beginning of an English-Cherokee relationship that, despite breaking down on occasion, remained strong for much of the 18th century. With the growth of the deerskin trade, the Cherokee were valuable trading partners, since deer-skins from the cooler country of their mountain hunting-grounds were of a better-quality than those supplied by neighboring tribes.
In January 1716, Cherokee murdered a delegation of Muscogee Creek leaders at the town of Tugaloo, marking their entry into the Yamasee War. It ended in 1717 with peace treaties between South Carolina and the Creek. Hostility and sporadic raids between the Cherokee and Creek continued for decades.[21] These raids came to a head at the Battle of Taliwa in 1755, present-day Ball Ground, Georgia, with the defeat of the Muscogee.
In 1721, the Cherokee ceded lands in South Carolina. In 1730, at Nikwasi, a former Mississippian culture site, a Scots adventurer, Sir Alexander Cumming, crowned Moytoy of Tellico as "Emperor" of the Cherokee. Moytoy agreed to recognize King George II of Great Britain as the Cherokee protector. Cumming arranged to take seven prominent Cherokee, including Attakullakulla, to London, England. The Cherokee delegation signed the Treaty of Whitehall with the British. Moytoy's son, Amo-sgasite (Dreadful Water) attempted to succeed him as "Emperor" in 1741, but the Cherokees elected their own leader, Cunne Shote (Standing Turkey) of Chota.[22]
Political power among the Cherokee remained decentralized and towns acted autonomously. In 1735 the Cherokee were estimated to have sixty-four towns and villages, and 6,000 fighting men. In 1738 and 1739 smallpox epidemics broke out among the Cherokee, who had no natural immunity. Nearly half their population died within a year. Hundreds of other Cherokee committed suicide due to their losses and disfigurement from the disease.
From 1753 to 1755, battles broke out between the Cherokee and Muscogee over disputed hunting grounds in North Georgia. The Cherokee were victorious in the Battle of Taliwa. British soldiers built forts in Cherokee country to defend against the French in the Seven Years War, called the French and Indian War in North America. These included Fort Loudoun near Chota. In 1756 the Cherokee were allies of the British in the French and Indian War. Serious misunderstandings arose quickly between the two allies, resulting in the 1760 Anglo-Cherokee War. King George III's Royal Proclamation of 1763 forbade British settlements west of the Appalachian crest, as his government tried to afford some protection from colonial encroachment to the Cherokee and other tribes. The ruling was difficult to enforce.[23]
In 1771–1772, North Carolinian settlers squatted on Cherokee lands in Tennessee, forming the Watauga Association.[24] Daniel Boone and his party tried to settle in Kentucky, but the Shawnee, Delaware, Mingo, and some Cherokee attacked a scouting and forage party that included Boone’s son. The American Indians used this territory as a hunting ground; it had hardly been inhabited for years. The conflict sparked the beginning of what was known as Dunmore's War (1773–1774).
In 1776, allied with the Shawnee led by Cornstalk, Cherokee attacked settlers in South Carolina, Georgia, Virginia, and North Carolina in the Second Cherokee War. Overhill Cherokee Nancy Ward, Dragging Canoe's cousin, warned settlers of impending attacks. Provincial militias retaliated, destroying over 50 Cherokee towns. North Carolina militia in 1776 and 1780 invaded and destroyed the Overhill towns. In 1777 surviving Cherokee town leaders signed treaties with the states.
Dragging Canoe and his band moved near present-day Chattanooga, Tennessee, where they established 11 new towns. Chickamauga was his headquarters and his entire band became known as the Chickamauga. From here he fought a guerrilla war against settlers, the Chickamauga Wars (1776–1794). The first Treaty of Tellico Blockhouse, signed November 7, 1794, ended the Chickamauga Wars. In 1805, the Cherokee ceded their lands between the Cumberland and Duck rivers (i.e. the Cumberland Plateau) to Tennessee.
Scots (and other Europeans) among the Cherokee in the 18th century[link]
The traders and British government agents dealing with the Southern tribes in general and the Cherokee in particular were nearly all of Scottish extraction, especially from the Highlands, though a few were Scots-Irish, English, French, even German (see Scottish Indian trade). Many of these married women from their host people and remained after the fighting had ended, some fathering children who would later become significant leaders.[25]
Notable traders, agents, and refugee Tories among the Cherokee included John Stuart, Henry Stuart, Alexander Cameron, John McDonald, John Joseph Vann (father of James Vann), Daniel Ross (father of John Ross), John Walker Sr., John McLemore (father of Bob), William Buchanan, John Watts (father of John Watts Jr.), John D. Chisholm, John Benge (father of Bob Benge), Thomas Brown, John Rogers (Welsh), John Gunter (German, founder of Gunter's Landing), James Adair (Irish), William Thorpe (English), and Peter Hildebrand (German), among many others, several attaining the status of minor chiefs and/or members of significant delegations.
In contrast, a large portion of the settlers encroaching on their territories and against whom the Cherokee (and other Indians) took most of their actions were Scots-Irish, Irish from Ulster of Scottish descent, a group which also provided the backbone for the forces of the Revolution (a famous example of a Scots-Irishman doing the reverse is Simon Girty). It is a historical irony that those from a group seen as rebels or "Whigs" back home in the Isles became Tories in the Americas while those from a group now considered one of the most "Tory" in regards to the United Kingdom became Whigs in the Americas.
19th century[link]
Acculturation[link]
The Cherokee lands between the Tennessee and Chattahoochee rivers were remote enough from white settlers to remain independent after the Chickamauga Wars. The deerskin trade was no longer feasible on their greatly reduced lands, and over the next several decades, the people of the fledgling Cherokee Nation began to build a new society modeled on the white Southern United States.
George Washington sought to 'civilize' Southeastern American Indians, through programs overseen by the Indian Agent Benjamin Hawkins. He encouraged the Cherokee to abandon their communal land-tenure and settle on individual farmsteads, facilitated by the destruction of many American Indian towns during the American Revolutionary War. The deerskin trade brought white-tailed deer to the brink of extinction, and as pigs and cattle were introduced, they became the principal sources of meat. The government supplied the tribes with spinning wheels and cotton-seed, and men were taught to fence and plow the land, in contrast to their traditional division in which crop cultivation was woman's labor. Americans instructed the women in weaving. Eventually Hawkins helped them set up blacksmiths, gristmills and cotton plantations.
The Cherokee organized a national government under Principal Chiefs Little Turkey (1788–1801), Black Fox (1801–1811), and Pathkiller (1811–1827), all former warriors of Dragging Canoe. The 'Cherokee triumvirate' of James Vann and his protégés The Ridge and Charles R. Hicks advocated acculturation, formal education, and modern methods of farming. In 1801 they invited Moravian missionaries from North Carolina to teach Christianity and the 'arts of civilized life.' The Moravians and later Congregationalist missionaries ran boarding schools, and a select few students were educated at the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions school in Connecticut.
In 1806 a Federal Road from Savannah, Georgia to Knoxville, Tennessee was built through Cherokee land. Chief James Vann opened a tavern, inn and ferry across the Chattahoochee and built a cotton-plantation on a spur of the road from Athens, Georgia to Nashville. His son 'Rich Joe' Vann developed the plantation to 800 acres (3.2 km2), cultivated by 150 slaves. He exported cotton to England, and owned a steamboat on the Tennessee River.[26]
The Cherokee allied with the U.S. against the nativist and pro-British Red Stick faction of the Upper Creek in the Creek War during the War of 1812, and Cherokee warriors led by Major Ridge played a major role in General Andrew Jackson's victory at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. Major Ridge moved his family to Rome, Georgia, where he built a substantial house, developed a large plantation and ran a ferry on the Oostanaula River. Although he never learned English, he educated his son and nephews in New England mission schools. His interpreter and protégé Chief John Ross, the descendant of several generations of Cherokee women and Scots fur-traders, built a plantation and operated a trading firm and a ferry at Ross' Landing (Chattanooga, Tennessee). During this period, divisions arose between the acculturated elite and the great majority of Cherokee, who clung to traditional ways of life.
Around 1809 Sequoyah began developing a written form of the Cherokee language. He spoke no English, but his experiences, as a silversmith dealing regularly with white settlers and as a warrior at Horseshoe Bend, convinced him the Cherokee needed to develop writing. In 1821, he introduced Cherokee syllabary, the first written syllabic form of an American Indian language outside of Central America. Initially his innovation was opposed by both Cherokee traditionalists and white missionaries who sought to encourage the use of English. When Sequoyah taught children to read and write with the syllabary, he reached the adults and, by the 1820s, the Cherokee had a higher rate of literacy than the whites around them in Georgia.
In 1819, the Cherokee began holding council meetings at New Town, at the headwaters of the Oostanaula (near present-day Calhoun, Georgia). In November 1825, New Town became the capital of the Cherokee Nation, and was renamed New Echota, after the Overhill Cherokee principal town of Chota.[27] Sequoyah's syllabary was adopted. They had developed a police force, a judicial system, and a National Committee.
In 1827, the Cherokee Nation drafted a Constitution modeled on the United States, with executive, legislative and judicial branches and a system of checks and balances. The two-tiered legislature was led by Major Ridge and his son John Ridge. Convinced the tribe's survival required English-speaking leaders who could negotiate with the U.S., the legislature appointed John Ross as Principal Chief. A printing press was established at New Echota by the Vermont missionary Samuel Worcester and Major Ridge's nephew Elias Boudinot, who had taken the name of his white benefactor, a leader of the Continental Congress and New Jersey Congressman. They translated the Bible into Cherokee syllabary. Boudinot published the first edition of the bilingual 'Cherokee Phoenix,' the first American Indian newspaper, in February 1828.[28]
Removal era[link]
See also: Thomas Jefferson and Indian Removal
Before the final removal to present-day Oklahoma, many Cherokees relocated to present-day Arkansas, Missouri and Texas.[29] Between 1775 and 1786 the Cherokee, along with people of other nations such as the Choctaw and Chickasaw, began voluntarily settling along the Arkansas and Red Rivers.[30]
In 1802, the federal government promised to extinguish Indian titles to lands claimed by Georgia in return for Georgia's cession of the western lands that became Alabama and Mississippi. To convince the Cherokee to move voluntarily in 1815, the US government established a Cherokee Reservation in Arkansas.[31] The reservation boundaries extended from north of the Arkansas River to the southern bank of the White River. Di'wali (The Bowl), Sequoyah, Spring Frog and Tatsi (Dutch) and their bands settled there. These Cherokees became known as "Old settlers."
The Cherokee eventually migrated as far north as the Missouri Bootheel by 1816. They lived interspersed among the Delawares and Shawnees of that area.[32] The Cherokee in Missouri Territory increased rapidly in population, from 1,000 to 6,000 over the next year (1816–1817), according to reports by Governor William Clark.[33] Increased conflicts with the Osage Nation led to the Battle of Claremore Mound and the eventual establishment of Fort Smith between Cherokee and Osage communities.[34] In the Treaty of St. Louis (1825), the Osage were made to "cede and relinquish to the United States, all their right, title, interest, and claim, to lands lying within the State of Missouri and Territory of Arkansas..." to make room for the Cherokee and the Mashcoux, Muscogee Creeks.[35] As late as the winter of 1838, Cherokee and Creek living in the Missouri and Arkansas areas petitioned the War Department to remove the Osage from the area.[36]
A group of Cherokee traditionalists led by Di'wali moved to Spanish Texas in 1819. Settling near Nacogdoches, they were welcomed by Mexican authorities as potential allies against Anglo-American colonists. The Texas Cherokees were mostly neutral during the Texas War of Independence. In 1836, they signed a treaty with Texas President Sam Houston, an adopted member of the Cherokee tribe. His successor Mirabeau Lamar sent militia to evict them in 1839.
Trail of Tears[link]
Main articles: Trail of Tears and Cherokee Removal
During the first decades of the 19th century, Georgia focused on removing the Cherokee's neighbors, the Lower Creek. The Georgia Governor George Troup and his cousin William McIntosh, chief of the Lower Creek, signed the Treaty of Indian Springs (1825), ceding the last Muscogee (Creek) lands claimed by Georgia. The state's northwestern border reached the Chattahoochee, the border of the Cherokee Nation. In 1829, gold was discovered at Dahlonega, on Cherokee land claimed by Georgia. The Georgia Gold Rush was the first in U.S. history, and state officials demanded that the federal government expel the Cherokee. When Andrew Jackson was inaugurated as President in 1829, Georgia gained a strong ally in Washington. In 1830 Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, authorizing the forcible relocation of American Indians east of the Mississippi to a new Indian Territory.
Andrew Jackson said the removal policy was an effort to prevent the Cherokee from facing extinction as a people, which he considered the fate that "the Mohegan, the Narragansett, and the Delaware" had suffered.[37] But, there is ample evidence that the Cherokee were adapting modern farming techniques. A modern analysis shows that the area was in general in a state of economic surplus and could have accommodated both the Cherokee and new settlers.[38]
The Cherokee brought their grievances to a US judicial review that set a precedent in Indian Country. John Ross traveled to Washington, D.C., and won support from National Republican Party leaders Henry Clay and Daniel Webster. Samuel Worcester campaigned on behalf of the Cherokee in New England, where their cause was taken up by Ralph Waldo Emerson. In June 1830, a delegation led by Chief Ross defended Cherokee rights before the U.S. Supreme Court in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia.
In 1831 Georgia militia arrested Samuel Worcester for residing on Indian lands without a state permit, imprisoning him in Milledgeville. In Worcester v. Georgia (1832), the US Supreme Court Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that American Indian nations were "distinct, independent political communities retaining their original natural rights," and entitled to federal protection from the actions of state governments that infringed on their sovereignty.[39] Worcester v. Georgia is considered one of the most important dicta in law dealing with Native Americans.
Jackson ignored the Supreme Court's ruling, as he needed to conciliate Southern sectionalism during the era of the Nullification Crisis. His landslide reelection in 1832 emboldened calls for Cherokee removal. Georgia sold Cherokee lands to its citizens in a Land Lottery, and the state militia occupied New Echota. The Cherokee National Council, led by John Ross, fled to Red Clay, a remote valley north of Georgia's land claim. Ross had the support of Cherokee traditionalists, who could not imagine removal from their ancestral lands.
A small group known as the "Ridge Party" or the "Treaty Party" saw relocation as inevitable and believed the Cherokee Nation needed to make the best deal to preserve their rights in Indian Territory. Led by Major Ridge, John Ridge and Elias Boudinot, they represented the Cherokee elite, whose homes, plantations and businesses were confiscated, or under threat of being taken by white squatters with Georgia land-titles. With capital to acquire new lands, they were more inclined to accept relocation. On December 29, 1835, the "Ridge Party" signed the Treaty of New Echota, stipulating terms and conditions for the removal of the Cherokee Nation. In return for their lands, the Cherokee were promised a large tract in the Indian Territory, $5 million, and $300,000 for improvements on their new lands.[40]
John Ross gathered over 15,000 signatures for a petition to the U.S. Senate, insisting that the treaty was invalid because it did not have the support of the majority of the Cherokee people. The Senate passed the Treaty of New Echota by a one-vote margin. It was enacted into law in May 1836.[41]
Two years later President Martin Van Buren ordered 7,000 Federal troops and state militia under General Winfield Scott into Cherokee lands to evict the tribe. Over 16,000 Cherokee were forcibly relocated westward to Indian Territory in 1838–1839, a migration known as the Trail of Tears or in Cherokee ᏅᎾ ᏓᎤᎳ ᏨᏱ or Nvna Daula Tsvyi (The Trail Where They Cried), although it is described by another word Tlo-va-sa (The Removal). Marched over 800 miles (1,300 km) across Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois, Missouri and Arkansas, the people suffered from disease, exposure and starvation, and as many as 4,000 died.[42] As some Cherokees were slaveholders, they took enslaved African Americans with them west of the Mississippi. Intermarried European Americans and missionaries also walked the Trail of Tears. Ross preserved a vestige of independence by negotiating for the Cherokee to conduct their own removal under U.S. supervision.[43]
In keeping with the tribe's "blood law" that prescribed the death penalty for Cherokee who sold lands, Ross's son arranged the murder of the leaders of the "Treaty Party". On June 22, 1839, a party of twenty-five Ross supporters assassinated Major Ridge, John Ridge and Elias Boudinot. The party included Daniel Colston, John Vann, Archibald, James and Joseph Spear. Boudinot's brother Stand Watie fought and survived that day, escaping to Arkansas.
In 1827, Sequoyah had led a delegation of Old Settlers to Washington, D.C. to negotiate for the exchange of Arkansas land for land in Indian Territory. After the Trail of Tears, he helped mediate divisions between the Old Settlers and the rival factions of the more recent arrivals. In 1839, as President of the Western Cherokee, Sequoyah signed an Act of Union with John Ross that reunited the two groups of the Cherokee Nation.
Eastern Band[link]
The Oconaluftee Cherokee of the Great Smoky Mountains were the most conservative and isolated from European-American settlements. They rejected the reforms of the Cherokee Nation. When the Cherokee government ceded all territory east of the Little Tennessee River to North Carolina in 1819, they withdrew from the Nation.[44] William Holland Thomas, a white store owner and state legislator from Jackson County, North Carolina, helped over 600 Cherokee from Qualla Town obtain North Carolina citizenship, which exempted them from forced removal. Over 400 Cherokee either hid from Federal troops in the remote Snowbird Mountains, under the leadership of Tsali (ᏣᎵ),[45] or belonged to the former Valley Towns area around the Cheoah River who negotiated with the state government to stay in North Carolina. An additional 400 Cherokee stayed on reserves in Southeast Tennessee, North Georgia, and Northeast Alabama, as citizens of their respective states. They were mostly mixed-race and Cherokee women married to white men. Together, these groups were the ancestors of the federally recognized Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, and some of the state-recognized tribes in surrounding states.
Civil War[link]
Further information: Cherokee in the American Civil War and Native Americans in the Civil War
The American Civil War was devastating for both East and Western Cherokee. The Eastern Band, aided by William Thomas, became the Thomas Legion of Cherokee Indians and Highlanders, fighting for the Confederacy in the American Civil War.[46] Cherokee in Indian Territory divided into Union and Confederate factions, with most supporting the Confederacy.
Stand Watie, the leader of the Ridge Party, raised a regiment for Confederate service in 1861. John Ross, who had reluctantly agreed to ally with the Confederacy, was captured by Federal troops in 1862. He lived in self-imposed exile in Philadelphia, supporting the Union. In Indian Territory, the national council of those who supported the Union voted to abolish slavery in the Cherokee Nation in 1863, but they were not the majority slaveholders and the vote had little effect on those supporting the Confederacy.
Watie was elected Principal Chief of the pro-Confederacy majority. A master of hit-and-run cavalry tactics, Watie fought those Cherokee loyal to John Ross and Federal troops in Indian Territory and Arkansas, capturing Union supply trains and steamboats, and saving a Confederate army by covering their retreat after the Battle of Pea Ridge in March 1862. He became a Brigadier General of the Confederate States; the only other American Indian to hold the rank in the American Civil War was Ely S. Parker with the Union Army. On June 25, 1865, two months after Robert E. Lee surrendered at Appomattox, Stand Watie became the last Confederate General to stand down.
Reconstruction and late 19th century[link]
After the Civil War, the US government required the Cherokee Nation to sign a new treaty, because of its alliance with the Confederacy. The US required the 1866 Treaty to provide for the emancipation of all Cherokee slaves, and full citizenship to all Cherokee freedmen and all free African Americans who chose to continue to reside within tribal lands, so that they "shall have all the rights of native Cherokees."[47] Both before and after the Civil War, some Cherokee intermarried or had relationships with African Americans, just as they had with whites. Many Cherokee Freedmen have been active politically within the tribe.
The US government also acquired easement rights to the western part of the territory, which became the Oklahoma Territory, for the construction of railroads. Development and settlers followed the railroads. By the late 19th century, the government believed that Native Americans would be better off if each family owned its own land. The Dawes Act of 1887 provided for the breakup of commonly held tribal land into individual household allotments. Native Americans were registered on the Dawes Rolls and allotted land from the common reserve. The US government counted the remainder of tribal land as "surplus" and sold it to non-Cherokee individuals.
The Curtis Act of 1898 dismantled tribal governments, courts, schools, and other civic institutions. For Indian Territory, this meant abolition of the Cherokee courts and governmental systems. This was seen as necessary before the Oklahoma and Indian territories could be admitted as a combined state. In 1905, the Five Civilized Tribes of the Indian Territory proposed the creation of the State of Sequoyah as one to be exclusively Native American, but failed to gain support in Washington, D.C.. In 1907, the Oklahoma and Indian Territories entered the union as the state of Oklahoma.
By the late 19th century, the Eastern Band of Cherokee were laboring under the constraints of a segregated society. In the aftermath of Reconstruction, conservative white Democrats regained power in North Carolina and other southern states. They proceeded to effectively disfranchise all blacks and many poor whites by new constitutions and laws related to voter registration and elections. They passed Jim Crow laws that divided society into "white" and "colored", mostly to control freedmen. Cherokee and other Native Americans were classified on the colored side and suffered the same racial segregation and disfranchisement as former slaves. They also often lost their historical documentation for identification as Indians, when the Southern states classified them as colored. Blacks and Native Americans would not have their constitutional rights as US citizens enforced until after the Civil Rights Movement secured passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-1960s, and the federal government began to monitor voter registration and elections, as well as other programs.
Culture[link]
Marriage[link]
Before the 19th century, polygamy was common among the Cherokee, especially by elite men.[48] The matrilineal culture meant that women controlled property, such as their dwellings, and their children were considered born into their mother's clan, where they gained hereditary status. Advancement to leadership positions were generally subject to approval by the women elders. In addition, the society was matrifocal; customarily, a married couple lived with or near the woman's family, so she could be aided by her women relatives. Her oldest brother was a more important mentor to her boys than was their father, who belonged to another clan. Traditionally, couples, particularly women, can divorce freely.[49]
Intermarriage with European Americans had occurred before the 19th century, generally between male traders and high-status Cherokee women whose families were seeking joint alliances. Some of the mixed-race sons of such high-status women became leading chiefs among the Cherokee; they gained hereditary leadership from their mothers' clans and used what they learned of American culture to benefit their people.
It was unusual for a Cherokee man to marry a European-American woman. The children of such a union were disadvantaged, as they would not belong to the nation. They would be born outside the clans and traditionally were not considered Cherokee citizens. This is because of the matrilineal aspect of Cherokee culture.[48] As the Cherokee began to adopt some elements of European-American culture in the early 19th century, they sent elite young men, such as John Ridge and Elias Boudinot to American schools for education. After Ridge had married a European-American woman from Connecticut and Boudinot was engaged to another, the Cherokee Council in 1825 passed a law making children of such unions full citizens of the tribe, as if their mothers were Cherokee. This was a way to protect the families of men expected to be leaders of the tribe.[50]
In the late nineteenth century, the US government put new restrictions on marriage between a Cherokee and non-Cherokee, although it was still relatively common. A European-American man could legally marry a Cherokee woman by petitioning the federal court, after gaining approval of ten of her blood relatives. Once married, the man had status as an "Intermarried White," a member of the Cherokee tribe with restricted rights; for instance, he could not hold any tribal office. He also remained a citizen of and under the laws of the United States. Common law marriages were more popular. Such "Intermarried Whites" were listed in a separate category on the registers of the Dawes Rolls, prepared for allotment of plots of land to individual households of members of the tribe, in the early twentieth-century federal policy for assimilation of the Native Americans.
Cultural institutions[link]
The Qualla Arts and Crafts Mutual, Inc., of Cherokee, North Carolina is the oldest continuing Native American art co-operative. They were founded in 1940 to provide a venue for traditional Eastern Band Cherokee artists.[51] The Museum of the Cherokee Indian, also in Cherokee, displays permanent and changing exhibits, houses archives and collections important to Cherokee history, and sponsors cultural groups, such as the Warriors of the AniKituhwa dance group.[52]
In 2007, the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians entered into a partnership with Southwestern Community College and Western Carolina University to create the Oconaluftee Institute for Cultural Arts (OICA), to emphasize native art and culture in traditional fine arts education, thus preserving traditional art forms and encouraging exploration of contemporary ideas. Located in Cherokee, OICA currently offers an associate's degree program.[53] In August 2010, OICA acquired a letterpress and had the Cherokee syllabary recast to begin printing one-of-a-kind fine art books and prints in the Cherokee language.[54]
The Cherokee Heritage Center, of Park Hill, Oklahoma hosts a reproduction of an ancient Cherokee Village, Adams Rural Village (including 19th-century buildings), Nofire Farms, and the Cherokee Family Research Center for genealogy.[55] The Cherokee Heritage Center also houses the Cherokee National Archives. Both the Cherokee Nation (of Oklahoma) and the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee, as well as other tribes, contribute funding to the CHC.
Language and writing system[link]
Further information: Cherokee language and Cherokee syllabary
The Cherokee speak a Southern Iroquoian language, which is polysynthetic and is written in a syllabary invented by Sequoyah (ᏍᏏᏉᏯ).[56] For years, many people wrote transliterated Cherokee or used poorly intercompatible fonts to type out the syllabary. However, since the fairly recent addition of the Cherokee syllables to Unicode, the Cherokee language is experiencing a renaissance in its use on the Internet.
Because of the polysynthetic nature of the Cherokee language, new and descriptive words in Cherokee are easily constructed to reflect or express modern concepts. Examples include ditiyohihi (ᏗᏘᏲᎯᎯ), which means "he argues repeatedly and on purpose with a purpose," meaning "attorney." Another example is didaniyisgi (ᏗᏓᏂᏱᏍᎩ) which means "the final catcher" or "he catches them finally and conclusively," meaning "policeman."
Many words, however, have been borrowed from the English language, such as gasoline, which in Cherokee is ga-so-li-ne (ᎦᏐᎵᏁ). Many other words were borrowed from the languages of tribes who settled in Oklahoma in the early 20th century. One example relates to a town in Oklahoma named "Nowata". The word nowata is a Delaware Indian word for "welcome" (more precisely the Delaware word is nu-wi-ta which can mean "welcome" or "friend" in the Delaware Language). The white settlers of the area used the name "nowata" for the township, and local Cherokees, being unaware the word had its origins in the Delaware Language, called the town Amadikanigvnagvna (ᎠᎹᏗᎧᏂᎬᎾᎬᎾ) which means "the water is all gone from here", i.e. "no water".
Other examples of borrowed words are kawi (ᎧᏫ) for coffee and watsi (ᏩᏥ) for watch (which led to utana watsi (ᎤᏔᎾ ᏩᏥ) or "big watch" for clock).
The following table is an example of Cherokee text and its translation:
| ᏣᎳᎩ: ᏂᎦᏓ ᎠᏂᏴᏫ ᏂᎨᎫᏓᎸᎾ ᎠᎴ ᎤᏂᏠᏱ ᎤᎾᏕᎿ ᏚᏳᎧᏛ ᎨᏒᎢ. ᎨᏥᏁᎳ ᎤᎾᏓᏅᏖᏗ ᎠᎴ ᎤᏃᏟᏍᏗ ᎠᎴ ᏌᏊ ᎨᏒ ᏧᏂᎸᏫᏍᏓᏁᏗ ᎠᎾᏟᏅᏢ ᎠᏓᏅᏙ ᎬᏗ.[57] |
| Tsalagi: Nigada aniyvwi nigeguda'lvna ale unihloyi unadehna duyukdv gesv'i. Gejinela unadanvtehdi ale unohlisdi ale sagwu gesv junilvwisdanedi anahldinvdlv adanvdo gvhdi.[57] |
| All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. (Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights)[57] |
Treaties and government[link]
Treaties[link]
See also: Historic treaties of the Cherokee
The Cherokee have participated in at least thirty-six treaties in the past three hundred years.
Government[link]
| 1794 | Establishment of the Cherokee National Council and officers over the whole nation |
| 1808 | Establishment of the Cherokee Lighthorse Guard, a national police force |
| 1809 | Establishment of the National Committee |
| 1810 | End of separate regional councils and abolition of blood vengeance |
| 1820 | Establishment of courts in eight districts to handle civil disputes |
| 1822 | Cherokee Supreme Court established |
| 1823 | National Committee given power to review acts of the National Council |
| 1827 | Constitution of the Cherokee Nation East |
| 1828 | Constitution of the Cherokee Nation West |
| 1832 | Suspension of elections in the Cherokee Nation East |
| 1839 | Constitution of the reunited Cherokee Nation |
| 1868 | Constitution of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians |
| 1888 | Charter of Incorporation issued by the State of North Carolina to the Eastern Band |
| 1950 | Constitution and federal charter of the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians |
| 1975 | Constitution of the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma |
| 1999 | Constitution of the Cherokee Nation drafted[58] |
After being ravaged by smallpox, and pressed by increasingly violent land-hungry settlers, the Cherokee adopted a European-American Representative democracy form of government in an effort to retain their lands. They established a governmental system modeled on that of the United States, with an elected principal chief, senate, and house of representatives. On April 10, 1810 the seven Cherokee clans met and began the abolition of blood vengeance by giving the sacred duty to the new Cherokee National government. Clans formally relinquished judicial responsibilities by the 1820s when the Cherokee Supreme Court was established. In 1825, the National Council extended citizenship to the children of Cherokee men married to white women. These ideas were largely incorporated into the 1827 Cherokee constitution.[59] The constitution stated that "No person who is of negro or mulatto [sic] parentage, either by the father or mother side, shall be eligible to hold any office of profit, honor or trust under this Government," with an exception for, "negroes and descendants of white and Indian men by negro women who may have been set free."[60] This definition to limit rights of multiracial descendants, may have been more widely held among the elite than the general population.[61]
Modern Cherokee tribes[link]
Cherokee Nation[link]
Main article: Cherokee Nation
During 1898–1906 the federal government dissolved the former Cherokee Nation, to make way for the incorporation of Indian Territory into the new state of Oklahoma. From 1906 to 1975, structure and function of the tribal government were not clearly defined. In 1975 the tribe drafted a constitution, which they ratified on June 26, 1976,[62] and the tribe received federal recognition. In 1999, the CNO changed or added several provisions to its constitution, among them the designation of the tribe to be "Cherokee Nation," dropping "of Oklahoma." According to a statement by BIA head Larry Echohawk the Cherokee Nation is not the historical Cherokee tribe but instead a "successor in interest." The attorney of the Cherokee Nation has stated that they intend to appeal this decision.[63]
The modern Cherokee Nation, in recent times, has experienced an almost unprecedented expansion in economic growth, equality, and prosperity for its citizens. The Cherokee Nation, under the leadership of Principal Chief Chad Smith, has significant business, corporate, real estate, and agricultural interests, including numerous highly profitable casino operations. The CN controls Cherokee Nation Entertainment, Cherokee Nation Industries, and Cherokee Nation Businesses. CNI is a very large defense contractor that creates thousands of jobs in eastern Oklahoma for Cherokee citizens.
The CN has constructed health clinics throughout Oklahoma, contributed to community development programs, built roads and bridges, constructed learning facilities and universities for its citizens, instilled the practice of Gadugi and self-reliance in its citizens, revitalized language immersion programs for its children and youth, and is a powerful and positive economic and political force in Eastern Oklahoma.
The CN hosts the Cherokee National Holiday on Labor Day weekend each year, and 80,000 to 90,000 Cherokee Citizens travel to Tahlequah, Oklahoma, for the festivities. It also publishes the Cherokee Phoenix, the tribal newspaper, published in both English and the Sequoyah syllabary. The Cherokee Nation council appropriates money for historic foundations concerned with the preservation of Cherokee Culture.
The Cherokee Nation also supports the Cherokee Nation Film Festivals in Tahlequah, Oklahoma and participates in the Sundance Film Festival in Park City, Utah.
Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians[link]
Main article: Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians
The Eastern Band of the Cherokee Indians in North Carolina, led by Chief Michell Hicks, hosts over a million visitors a year to cultural attractions of the 100-square-mile (260 km2) sovereign nation. The reservation, the "Qualla Boundary", has a population of over 8,000 Cherokee, primarily direct descendants of Indians who managed to avoid “The Trail of Tears”.
Attractions include the Oconaluftee Indian Village, Museum of the Cherokee Indian, and the country’s oldest and foremost Native American crafts cooperative. The outdoor drama Unto These Hills, which debuted in 1950, recently broke record attendance sales. Together with Harrah’s Cherokee Casino and Hotel, Cherokee Indian Hospital and Cherokee Boys Club, the tribe generated $78 million dollars in the local economy in 2005.
United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians[link]
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Main article: United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians
The United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians formed their government under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 and gained federal recognition in 1946. Enrollment into the tribe is limited to people with a quarter or more of Cherokee blood. Many members of the UKB are descended from Old Settlers – Cherokees who moved to Arkansas and Indian Territory before the Trail of Tears.[64] Of the 12,000 people enrolled in the tribe, 11,000 live in Oklahoma. Their chief is George G. Wickliffe. The UKB operate a tribal casino, bingo hall, smokeshop, fuel outlets, truck stop, and gallery that showcases art and crafts made by tribal members. The tribe also issues their own tribal vehicle tags.[65]
Relations among the three federally recognized Cherokee tribes[link]
The Cherokee Nation participates in numerous joint programs with the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians. It also participates in cultural exchange programs and joint Tribal Council meetings involving councilors from both Cherokee Tribes. These are held to address issues affecting all of the Cherokee People.
The administrations of the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians and the Cherokee Nation have a somewhat adversarial relationship. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians interacts with the Cherokee Nation in a unified spirit of Gadugi.[citation needed]
The United Keetoowah Band tribal council unanimously passed a resolution to approach the Cherokee Nation for a joint council meeting between the two Nations, as a means of "offering the olive branch", in the words of the UKB Council. While a date was set for the meeting between members of the Cherokee Nation Council and UKB representative, Chief Smith vetoed the meeting.[citation needed]
Contemporary settlement[link]
Cherokees are most concentrated in Oklahoma and North Carolina, but some reside in the US West Coast, due to economic migrations caused by the Dust Bowl during the Great Depression, job availability during the Second World War, and the Federal Indian Relocation program during the 1950s–1960s. Cherokees constitute over 2% of population of three largely rural communities in California–Covelo, Hayfork and San Miguel, one town in Oregon and one town in Arizona).[citation needed] Destinations for Cherokee diaspora included multi-ethnic/racial urban centers of California (i.e. the Greater Los Angeles and SF Bay areas), and they usually lived in farming communities, by military bases and other Indian reservations.[67]
See also the Albuquerque Cherokee Nation Township (Cherokee Nation) about the Cherokee community of Albuquerque, NM.
Membership controversies[link]
Tribal recognition and membership[link]
Main article: Cherokee Heritage Groups
The three Cherokees tribes have differing requirements for enrollment. The Cherokee Nation determines enrollment by lineal descent from Cherokees listed on the Dawes Rolls and has no minimum blood quantum requirement.[68] Currently, descendents of the Dawes Cherokee Freedman rolls are members of the tribe, pending court decisions. CN has numerous members who also have African-American, Latino, Asian, European-American, and other ancestry. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians requires a minimum one-sixteenth Cherokee blood quantum (genealogical descent, equivalent to one great-great-grandparent) and an ancestor on the Baker Roll. The United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians requires a minimum one-quarter Keetoowah Cherokee blood quantum (equivalent to one grandparent), and the UKB does not allow members that have relinquished their membership to re-enroll in the UKB.[69]
In 2000 the U.S. census reported 875,276 people self-identified as Cherokee Indian;[70] however, only approximately 316,049 people are enrolled in the federally recognized Cherokee tribes.
Over 200 groups claim to be Cherokee nations, tribes, or bands.[71] Cherokee Nation spokesman Mike Miller has suggested that some groups, which he calls Cherokee Heritage Groups, are encouraged.[72] Others, however, are controversial for their attempts to gain economically through their claims to be Cherokee. The three federally recognized groups assert themselves as the only groups having the legal right to present themselves as Cherokee Indian Tribes and only their enrolled members as Cherokee.[73]
One exception to this may be the Texas Cherokees. Prior to 1975, they were considered a part of the Cherokee Nation, as reflected in briefs filed before the Indian Claims Commission. At one time W.W. Keeler served not only as Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation, but at the same time held the position as Chairman of the Texas Cherokee and Associated Bands (TCAB) Executive Committee.
Following the adoption of the Cherokee constitution in 1976, TCAB descendants whose ancestors had remained a part of the physical Mount Tabor Community in Rusk County, Texas were excluded from citizenship. Their ancestors did not appear on the Final Rolls of the Five Civilized Tribes, registered under the Dawes Commission. However, most if not all TCAB descendants did have an ancestor listed on the Guion-Miller or Old setler rolls.
While most Mount Tabor residents returned to the Cherokee Nation following the death of John Ross in 1866, today there is a sizable group that is well documented but outside that body. It is not actively seeking a status clarification. They do have treaty rights going back to the Treaty of Bird’s Fort. From the end of the Civil War until 1975, they were associated with the Cherokee Nation. The TCAB formed as a political organization in 1871 led by William Penn Adair and Clement Neely Vann. Descendants of the Texas Cherokees and the Mount Tabor Community joined together to try to gain redress from treaty violations, stemming from the Treaty of Bowles Village in 1836. Today, most Mount Tabor descendants are in fact members of the Cherokee Nation. Only some 800 are stuck in limbo without status as Cherokees. Many of them still reside in Rusk and Smith counties of east Texas.
Other remnant populations continue to exist throughout the Southeast United States and individually in the states surrounding Oklahoma. Many of these people trace descent from persons enumerated on official rolls such as the Guion-Miller, Drennan, Mullay and Henderson Rolls, among others. Other descendants trace their heritage through the treaties of 1817 and 1819 with the federal government which gave individual allotments to Cherokees. State recognized Tribes require irrefutable genealogical proof that applicants are of Cherokee descent. Current enrollment guidelines of the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma do not allow these descendants admission despite the fact that many current Cherokee citizens have provable relatives ineligible to enroll. Such facts were pointed out by Cherokee citizens of CNO during the Constitutional Convention held to ratify a new governing document. The document that was eventually ratified by a small portion of the electorate has yet to be approved by the Federalgovernment.[74]
Cherokee Freedmen[link]
Main article: Cherokee Freedmen Controversy
The Cherokee freedmen, descendants of African American slaves owned by citizens of the Cherokee Nation during the Antebellum Period, were first guaranteed Cherokee citizenship under a treaty with the United States in 1866. This was in the wake of the American Civil War, when the US emancipated slaves and passed US constitutional amendments granting freedmen citizenship in the United States.
In 1988, the federal court in the Freedmen case of Nero v. Cherokee Nation held that Cherokees could decide citizenship requirements and exclude freedmen. On March 7, 2006, the Cherokee Nation Judicial Appeal Tribunal ruled that the Cherokee Freedmen were eligible for Cherokee citizenship. This ruling proved controversial; while the Cherokee Freedman had historically been recorded as "citizens" of the Cherokee Nation at least since 1866 and the later Dawes Commission Land Rolls, the ruling "did not limit membership to people possessing Cherokee blood".[75] This ruling was consistent with the 1975 Constitution of the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, in its acceptance of the Cherokee Freedmen on the basis of historical citizenship, rather than documented blood relation.
On March 3, 2007 a constitutional amendment was passed by a Cherokee vote limiting citizenship to Cherokees on the Dawes Rolls for those listed as Cherokee by blood, Shawnee and Delaware.[76] The Cherokee Freedmen had 90 days to appeal this amendment vote which disenfranchised them from Cherokee citizenship and file appeal within the Cherokee Nation Tribal Council, which is currently pending in Nash, et al. v. Cherokee Nation Registrar. On May 14, 2007, the Cherokee Freedmen were reinstated as citizens of the Cherokee Nation by the Cherokee Nation Tribal Courts through a temporary order and temporary injunction until the court reached its final decision.[77] On January 14, 2011, the tribal district court ruled that the 2007 constitutional amendment was invalid because it conflicted with the 1866 treaty guaranteeing the Freedmen's rights.[78]
Cherokee in history[link]
This includes only Cherokee documented in history. Contemporary notable Cherokee people are listed in the articles for the appropriate tribe. For self-identified people of Cherokee heritage, see List of Self-identified people of Cherokee ancestry.
- William Penn Adair (1830–1880), Cherokee senator and diplomat, Confederate colonel.
- Attakullakulla (ca. 1708 – ca. 1777), diplomat to Britain, headman of Chota, chief
- Bob Benge (ca. 1762–1794), warrior of the Lower Cherokee during the Chickamauga Wars
- Elias Boudinot (Galagina) (1802–1839), statesman, orator, and editor, founded first Cherokee newspaper, Cherokee Phoenix
- Ned Christie (1852–1892), statesman, Cherokee Nation senator, infamous outlaw[79]
- Admiral Joseph J. Clark (1893–1971), United States Navy, highest ranking Native American in the US military, awarded the Navy Cross.
- Doublehead, Taltsuska (d. 1807), a war leader during the Chicamauga Wars, led the Lower Cherokee, signed land deals with US
- Dragging Canoe, Tsiyugunsini (1738–1792), general the militant Cherokee during the Chickamauga Wars, principal chief of the Chicamauga or Lower Cherokee
- Franklin Gritts, Cherokee artist taught at Haskell Institute and served on the USS Franklin
- Charles R. Hicks (d. 1827), veteran of the Red Stick War, Second Principal Chief to Pathkiller in early 17th century, de facto Principal Chief from 1813–1827
- Junaluska (ca. 1775–1868), veteran of the Creek War, who saved President Andrew Jackson's life
- Oconostota, Aganstata (Beloved Man) (ca. 1710–1783), war chief during the Anglo-Cherokee War,
- Ostenaco, Ustanakwa (ca. 1703–1780), war chief, diplomat to Britain, founded the town of Ultiwa
- Major Ridge Ganundalegi or "Pathkiller" (ca.1771–1839), veteran of the Chickamauga Wars and the Red Stick War, signer of the Treaty of New Echota
- John Ridge, Skatlelohski (1792–1839), son of Major Ridge, statesman, New Echota Treaty signer
- John Rollin Ridge, Cheesquatalawny, or "Yellow Bird" (1827–1867), grandson of Major Ridge, first Native American novelist
- Clement V. Rogers (1839–1911), US Senator, judge, cattleman, member of the Oklahoma Constitutional Convention
- Will Rogers, entertainer, roper, journalist, and author[80]
- John Ross, Guwisguwi (1790–1866), veteran of the Red Stick War, Principal Chief in the east, during Removal, and in the west
- Sequoyah (ca. 1767–1843), inventor of the Cherokee syllabary[81]
- Nimrod Jarrett Smith, Tsaladihi (1837–1893), Principal Chief of the Eastern Band, Civil War veteran
- Redbird Smith (1850–1918), traditionalist, political activist, and chief of the Nighthawk Keetoowah Society
- William Holland Thomas, Wil' Usdi (1805–1893), non-Native but adopted into tribe, founding Principal Chief of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, commanding officer of Thomas Legion of Cherokee Indians and Highlanders
- James Vann (ca. 1765–1809), Scottish-Cherokee, highly successful businessman and veteran of the Chickamauga Wars
- Nancy Ward, Nanye-hi (ca. 1736–1822/4), (Beloved Woman), diplomat
- Stand Watie, Degataga (1806–1871), signer of the Treaty of New Echota, last Confederate general to cease hostilities in the American Civil War as commanding officer of the First Indian Brigade of the Army of Trans-Mississippi
See also[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ "Pocket Pictorial." Oklahoma Indian Affairs Commission. 2010: 6 and 37. (retrieved June 11, 2010)
- ^ Sturtevant and Fogelson, 613
- ^ Minges, Patrick, "Middle and Valley Towns in Western North Carolina." Cherokee Prayer Initiative Journal. 1999 (retrieved June 11, 2010)
- ^ a b Mooney, James (2006) [1900]. Myths of the Cherokee and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees. Kessinger Publishing. p. 393. ISBN 978-1-4286-4864-7. http://books.google.com/?id=9HDbWUX71joC.
- ^ Kappler, Charles (1904). "INDIAN AFFAIRS: LAWS AND TREATIES Vol. II, Treaties". Government Printing Office. http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/vol2/treaties/che0140.htm. Retrieved 2012-5-16.
- ^ "The American Indian and Alaska Native Population: 2000" (PDF). Census 2000 Brief. February 1, 2002. http://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/c2kbr01-15.pdf. Retrieved March 10, 2007.
- ^ Cherokee Indian Tribe. Access Genealogy. (September 21, 2009)
- ^ Charles A. Hanna, The Wilderness Trail, (New York: 1911).
- ^ Sturtevant and Fogelson, 349
- ^ Sturtevant and Fogelson, 132
- ^ Finger, 6–7
- ^ a b c Irwin 1992.
- ^ Mooney, p. 392.
- ^ David Landy, "Tuscarora", Encyclopedia of North American Indians, Cengage Learning Website, Houghton Mifflin Company, accessed January 12, 2010
- ^ a b Mooney, James (1995) [1900]. Myths of the Cherokee. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-28907-9.
- ^ Glottochronology from: Lounsbury, Floyd (1961), and Mithun, Marianne (1981), cited in Nicholas A. Hopkins, The Native Languages of the Southeastern United States.
- ^ Conley, A Cherokee Encyclopedia, p. 3
- ^ Lewis Preston Summers, 1903, History of Southwest Virginia, 1746–1786, p. 40
- ^ Gallay, Alan (2002). The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South 1670–1717. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10193-7.
- ^ Vicki Rozema, Footsteps of the Cherokees (1995), p. 14.
- ^ Oatis, Steven J. (2004). A Colonial Complex: South Carolina's Frontiers in the Era of the Yamasee War, 1680–1730. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-3575-5.
- ^ Brown, John P. "Eastern Cherokee Chiefs", Chronicles of Oklahoma, Vol. 16, No. 1, March 1938. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
- ^ Rozema, pp. 17–23.
- ^ "Watauga Association", North Carolina History Project. . Retrieved September 21, 2009.
- ^ Mooney, James. History, Myths, and Scared Formulas of the Cherokee, p. 83. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900).
- ^ "New Georgia Encyclopedia: Chief Vann House". Georgiaencyclopedia.org. September 23, 2005. http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-2726&hl=y. Retrieved April 17, 2010.
- ^ "New Echota Historic Site". Ngeorgia.com. June 5, 2007. http://ngeorgia.com/ang/New_Echota_Historic_Site. Retrieved April 17, 2010.
- ^ "New Georgia Encyclopedia: Cherokee Phoenix". Georgiaencyclopedia.org. August 28, 2002. http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-611&hl=y. Retrieved April 17, 2010.
- ^ Rollings (1992) pp. 187, 230–255.
- ^ Rollings (1992) pp. 187, 236.
- ^ Logan, Charles Russell. "The Promised Land: The Cherokees, Arkansas, and Removal, 1794–1839." Arkansas Historic Preservation Program. 1997 . Retrieved September 21, 2009.
- ^ Doublass (1912) pp. 40–2
- ^ Rollings (1992) p. 235.
- ^ Rollings (1992) pp. 239–40.
- ^ Rollings (1992) pp. 254–5, Doublass (1912) p. 44.
- ^ Rollings (1992) pp. 280–1
- ^ Wishart, p. 120
- ^ Wishart 1995.
- ^ "New Georgia Encyclopedia: "Worcester v. Georgia (1832)"". Georgiaencyclopedia.org. April 27, 2004. http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-2720. Retrieved April 17, 2010.
- ^ "Treaty of New Echota, Dec. 29, 1835 (Cherokee – United States)". Ourgeorgiahistory.com. http://ourgeorgiahistory.com/documents/treaty_of_new_echota.html. Retrieved April 17, 2010.
- ^ "Cherokee in Georgia: Treaty of New Echota". Ngeorgia.com. June 5, 2007. http://ngeorgia.com/history/cherokeehistory7.html. Retrieved April 17, 2010.
- ^ Georgia Historic Marker, New Echota, 1958
- ^ "Books by Alex W. Bealer". goodreads.com, 1972 and 1996. http://www.goodreads.com/author/show/225917.Alex_W_Bealer. Retrieved March 27, 2011.
- ^ Theda Purdue, Native Carolinians: The Indians of North Carolina, pg. 40
- ^ "Tsali." History and culture of the Cherokee (North Carolina Indians). (March 10, 2007)
- ^ "Will Thomas." History and culture of the Cherokee (North Carolina Indians). (March 10, 2007)
- ^ "Treaty with the Cherokee, 1866." Oklahoma Historical Society: Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties. Vol. 2, Treaties. (retrieved January 10, 2010)
- ^ a b Perdue (1999), p. 176
- ^ Perdue (1999), pp. 44, 57–8
- ^ Yarbough, Fay (2004). "Legislating Women’s Sexuality: Cherokee Marriage Laws". Journal of Social History 38 (2): 385–406 [p. 388]. DOI:10.1353/jsh.2004.0144.
- ^ Qualla History. . Retrieved September 15, 09.
- ^ The Museum of the Cherokee Indian. . Retrieved September 15, 09.
- ^ "Announcement of the founding of the Oconaluftee Institute for Cultural Arts in Cherokee", Southwestern Community College (retrieved Nov 24, 2010)
- ^ "New Letterpress Arrives at OICA", The One Feather (retrieved Nov 24, 2010)
- ^ "Cherokee Heritage Center". http://www.cherokeeheritage.org. Retrieved March 10, 2007.
- ^ Morand, Ann, Kevin Smith, Daniel C. Swan, and Sarah Erwin. Treasures of Gilcrease: Selections from the Permanent Collection. Tulsa, OK: Gilcrease Museum,2003. ISBN 0-9725657-1-X
- ^ a b c "Cherokee syllabary". 1998–2009. http://www.omniglot.com/writing/cherokee.htm. Retrieved May 14, 2009.
- ^ This constitution was approved by Cherokee Nation voters in 2003 but was not approved by the BIA. The Cherokee Nation then amended their 1975 constitution to not require BIA approval. The 1999 constitution has been ratified but the Cherokee Nation Supreme Court is currently deciding what year the 1999 constitution officially went into effect. Constitution of the Cherokee Nation. (pdf file). Cherokee Nation. . Retrieved March 5, 2009.
- ^ Perdue, p. 564.
- ^ Perdue, pp. 564–565.
- ^ Perdue, p. 566.
- ^ Constitution of the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma. University of Oklahoma Law Center. (retrieved January 16, 2010)
- ^ Associated, The (July 13, 2009). "Cherokee Nation likely to appeal BIA decision | Indian Country Today | Archive". Indian Country Today. http://www.indiancountrytoday.com/archive/50644002.html. Retrieved April 17, 2010.
- ^ Leeds, George R. United Keetoowah Band. Oklahoma Historical Society's Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. (retrieved October 5, 2009)
- ^ Oklahoma Office of Indian Affairs. Oklahoma Indian Nations Pocket Pictorial Directory. 2008:36
- ^ "New Times - San Luis Obispo - Cover Story - Photographic license". Archive.newtimesslo.com. http://archive.newtimesslo.com/archive/2004-01-21/archives/cov_stories_2002/cov_01172002.html. Retrieved 2012-01-26.
- ^ "Cherokee Ancestry Search – Cherokee Genealogy by City". ePodunk.com. http://www.epodunk.com/ancestry/Cherokee.html. Retrieved April 17, 2010.
- ^ Cherokee Nation Registration.
- ^ Enrollment. United Keetoowah Band of Cherokees. (retrieved October 5, 2009)
- ^ We the People: American Indians and Alaska Natives in the United StatePDF, Census 2000 Special Reports, United States Census Bureau
- ^ Glenn, Eddie. "A League of Nations?" Tahlequah Daily Press. January 6, 2006 (retrieved October 5, 2009)
- ^ Glenn 2006.
- ^ Official Statement Cherokee Nation 2000, Pierpoint 2000.
- ^
- ^ "Freedman Decision" (PDF). http://www.cherokee.org/docs/news/Freedman-Decision.pdf. Retrieved March 10, 2007.
- ^ Cherokee Constitutional Amendment March 3, 2007.
- ^ "Nash, et al v. Cherokee Nation Registrar" (PDF). http://www.cherokeecourts.com/Portal/5/44%20-%20Motion%20for%20Summary%20Judgment%20and%20Brief%20in%20Support.pdf.
- ^ Gavin Off, "Judge grants Cherokee citizenship to non-Indian freedmen", Tulsa World, January 14, 2011.
- ^ "The Case of Ned Christie", Fort Smith Historic Site, National Park Service. Retrieved February 3, 2009.
- ^ Carter JH. "Father and Cherokee Tradition Molded Will Rogers". Archived from the original on November 10, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20061110060059/http://www.willrogers.com/stories/stories/molded/Molded.html. Retrieved March 10, 2007.
- ^ "Sequoyah", New Georgia Encyclopedia. Retrieved January 3, 2009.
References[link]
- Doublass, Robert Sydney. "History of Southeast Missouri", 1992, pp. 32–45
- Evans, E. Raymond. "Notable Persons in Cherokee History: Dragging Canoe". Journal of Cherokee Studies, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 176–189. (Cherokee: Museum of the Cherokee Indian, 1977).
- Finger, John R. Cherokee Americans: The Eastern Band of Cherokees in the 20th century. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1991. ISBN 0-8032-6879-3.
- Glenn, Eddie. "A league of nations?" Tahlequah Daily Press. January 6, 2006 (Accessed May 24, 2007)
- Halliburton, R., jr.: Red over Black – Black Slavery among the Cherokee Indians, Greenwood Press, Westport, Connecticut 1977 ISBN 0-8371-9034-7
- Irwin, L, "Cherokee Healing: Myth, Dreams, and Medicine." American Indian Quarterly. Vol. 16, 2, 1992, p. 237.
- McLoughlin, William G. Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992).
- Mooney, James. "Myths of the Cherokees." Bureau of American Ethnology, Nineteenth Annual Report, 1900, Part I. pp. 1–576. Washington: Smithsonian Institution.
- Perdue, Theda. "Clan and Court: Another Look at the Early Cherokee Republic." American Indian Quarterly. Vol. 24, 4, 2000, p. 562.
- Perdue, Theda. Cherokee women: gender and culture change, 1700–1835. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999. ISBN 978-0-8032-8760-0.
- Pierpoint, Mary. "Unrecognized Cherokee claims cause problems for nation." Indian Country Today. August 16, 2000 (Accessed May 16, 2007).
- Rollings, Willard H. "The Osage: An Ethnohistorical Study of Hegemony on the Prairie-Plains." (University of Missouri Press, 1992)
- Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Raymond D. Fogelson, volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast. Volume 14. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2004. ISBN 0-16-072300-0.
- Wishart, David M. "Evidence of Surplus Production in the Cherokee Nation Prior to Removal." Journal of Economic History. Vol. 55, 1, 1995, p. 120.
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Cherokee |
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Cherokee edition of Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia |
- Cherokee Nation, official site
- Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, official site
- United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians, official site
- Museum of the Cherokee Indian, Cherokee, NC
- Cherokee Heritage Center, Park Hill, OK
- Smithsonian Institution – Cherokee photos and documents
- Historical Sound Files of Cherokee Stomp Dance
- Cherokee Heritage Documentation Center – Genealogy and Culture
- Cherokee article, Oklahoma Historical Society Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. - Cherokee Indians in FamilySearch Research Wiki for genealogists
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For the professional wrestler, see Catherine Power.
| Cat Power | |
|---|---|
| Performing at All Tomorrow's Parties festival in Somerset, England, 2004. Performing at All Tomorrow's Parties festival in Somerset, England, 2004. |
|
| Background information | |
| Birth name | Charlyn Marie Marshall |
| Also known as | Chan Marshall |
| Born | (1972-01-21) January 21, 1972 (age 40) Atlanta, Georgia, U.S. |
| Genres | Indie rock, folk rock, lo-fi, alternative rock, blues rock |
| Occupations | Singer-songwriter, actress and musician |
| Instruments | Vocals, guitar, piano |
| Years active | 1992–present |
| Labels | Runt, Matador, Smells Like Records, Plain Recordings |
| Associated acts | Beck, Steve Shelley, Appaloosa |
| Website | Official website |
Charlyn Marie Marshall (born January 21, 1972), also known as Chan Marshall or by her stage name Cat Power, is an American singer/songwriter and occasional actress and model. Cat Power was originally the name of Marshall's first band, but has come to refer to her musical projects with various backing bands. Over a twenty year career she has produced eight studio albums, one live album and two EPs.
A native of Atlanta, Georgia, Marshall loved soul, rock 'n' roll and country music from childhood and began to play guitar in experimental bands with friends in her early adult years. After a move to New York at age 20, Marshall recorded two lo-fi, improvised solo albums, Dear Sir (1995) and Myra Lee (1996), collaborating with Sonic Youth drummer Steve Shelley. Cat Power then signed to Matador Records to release her third, more focused album, What Would the Community Think? (1996), which united her with notable indie musicians. She followed with Moon Pix (1998) and The Covers Record (2000), receiving notice for her spare, intense originals and radically stripped down takes on folk songs and familiar songs. You Are Free (2003) was more structured indie rock and brought Cat Power wider attention. Marshall followed it up with the one-take performance film, Speaking for Trees (2004), filmed in a forest. The Greatest (2006), in which she worked with classic R&B and gospel musicians, was her most recent collection of original songs, and her best-selling. A second covers collection, Jukebox (2008), with a horn-led backing band, is her most recent album.
Marshall has been praised for her soulful vocals and raw, minimalist guitar playing. Cat Power's concert appearances were unconventional and unpredictable for many years, and critics often called her an erratic live act. Marshall faced substance abuse problems which she said affected her performances, and recently her act has been notably more polished, although her musical style has also changed significantly. Marshall has also done modelling work. She has been photographed by notable fashion photographers and in 2006 became a spokesperson for Chanel. She has appeared in three films, including Wong Kar-Wai's My Blueberry Nights (2007).
Contents |
Early life[link]
Chan Marshall was born in Atlanta, Georgia. Marshall's father, Charlie, is a blues musician and pianist. Her parents divorced when she was a child and were reconciled at a later date. Her mother remarried to another man, the family travelling around a lot because of her stepfather's job. Marshall attended 10 different schools throughout the Southern United States in places such as Greensboro; Barlett and Memphis and throughout Georgia and South Carolina. At times she was left with her grandmother. In interviews she stated that the constant traveling prepared her for the touring life of a professional musician. She was not allowed to buy records when she was growing up, but she listened to her stepfather's record collection which included such artists as Otis Redding, Creedence Clearwater Revival and The Rolling Stones.[1]
Marshall became estranged from her mother at 16 at the same time she dropped out of high school, having no contact with her until she was 24 and says they are still not close. She went back to live with her father in Atlanta but only stayed with him until she was 18, when she moved out. Marshall claims he never taught her any music, forbidding her to play his piano. Her first instrument was a 1950s Silvertone guitar, which she did not touch for a year after buying it, because “It was art in the corner.”[2]
After leaving home, she started playing in Atlanta with a collective of musicians made up of Glen Thrasher, Marc Moore, Damon Moore and Fletcher Liegerot, who would get together for jam sessions in a basement. The group were booked for a show and had to come up with a name quickly, when a man walked through the door of the pizzeria where Marshall worked, wearing a Caterpillar trucker cap that read: "Cat Diesel Power". Marshall immediately decided on Cat Power as the name of the band.[3] While in Atlanta, Marshall played her first live shows as support to her friends' bands, including Magic Bone and Opal Foxx Quartet. Due to her close relationships with the various people involved, she has stated that her involvement in music at this time was primarily a social interest rather than an artistic one. She also stated in a 2007 interview for Soft Focus[4] that the music itself was more experimental and that playing shows was often an opportunity for her and her friends to get drunk and take drugs.
Career[link]
Early work (1992–1996)[link]
In 1992 she moved to New York City with Glen Thrasher. It was Thrasher who introduced her to New York's free-jazz and experimental music scene. In particular she cites a concert by Anthony Braxton with giving her the confidence to perform in public. Her first New York show was at a warehouse in Brooklyn and she has described her early New York shows as "more improvisational."[5] One of her shows during this period was as the support act to Man or Astro-man? and consisted of her playing a two-string guitar and singing the word "no" for fifteen minutes.[6] Around this time she made the acquaintance of God Is My Co-Pilot, a relationship that resulted in them releasing her first single "Headlights" in a limited run of 500 copies on their Making of Americans label.
In 1994 she opened for Liz Phair in New York. In attendance were Steve Shelley of Sonic Youth and Tim Foljahn of Two Dollar Guitar, who encouraged her to record, and played on her first two albums, 1995's Dear Sir and 1996's Myra Lee, the latter taking its name from Marshall's mother. Both albums were recorded in New York on the same day in December 1994 and display a lack of conventional song structures.
Matador records and hiatus (1996–2002)[link]
In 1996 she was signed to Matador Records and, along with Foljahn and Shelley, recorded her third album, What Would the Community Think, which spawned a single and music video, "Nude as the News". In 1998 Marshall released Moon Pix, composed of new songs that resulted from a sleepless night resulting from a nightmare whilst she was living at a farmhouse in Prosperity, South Carolina. The record was recorded at Sing Sing Studios in Melbourne in eleven days with backing musicians Mick Turner and Jim White of the Dirty Three.[7] The album was well received by critics, and gained her recognition in the indie rock scene. In late 1996, Cat Power completed a three-month tour co-headlining with the band Guv'ner in support of the release of What Would the Community Think.
By 2000 Marshall stated that she had grown tired of touring her own material. This resulted in a series of shows during 1999 where Marshall provided musical accompaniment to the silent movie The Passion of Joan of Arc. The shows combined original material and many covers, many of which would later see release on The Covers Record. The Covers Record was a collection of cover songs by Marshall recorded at various sessions in 1998 and 1999. A selection of covers that didn't make it on to the album were recorded at Peel Acres, home of the British DJ John Peel. The session was broadcast on his BBC Radio 1 show and featured Marshall's own interpretations of Bob Dylan's "Hard Times in New York Town" and Oasis's "Wonderwall", amongst others. Her contract with Matador for 2000's The Covers Album reportedly consisted of a Post-it note signed by herself and the company's founder.[8]
Reemergence (2003–2006)[link]
In 2003 after a long gap Marshall resumed releasing original material with You Are Free, which featured guest musicians such as Eddie Vedder, Dave Grohl, and the Dirty Three's Warren Ellis. A music video directed by Brett Vapnek was released for the song "He War." Marshall toured extensively through 2003 and 2004 on a tour that covered Europe, Brazil, the US and Australia.[9]
Marshall toured through 2005, including an Australian tour supporting Nick Cave and an appearance at the Patti Smith-curated Meltdown festival. The shows largely consisted of material that would appear on her next album.
The Greatest was released in January 2006. This was not a greatest hits record but rather the Matador Records-arranged collaboration with Al Green's guitarist Teenie Hodges and other musicians. She returned to live performance in April 2006, playing with the Memphis Rhythm Band and as a solo performer, including a performance at a Bob Dylan tribute concert in New York, a fund raiser for the charity Music for Youth.
[edit] New band, Jukebox and recent activity (2007–present)
Marshall put together a new band in late 2006 with whom she toured and recorded throughout 2007. The Dirty Delta Blues Band features Judah Bauer (from Blues Explosion), Gregg Foreman (The Delta 72), Erik Paparazzi (Lizard Music), and Jim White (from Dirty Three). The Dirty Delta Blues band recorded an album of covers called Jukebox which was released on January 22, 2008, on Matador Records. On December 9, 2008, an EP entitled Dark End of the Street was released by Matador. The release consists of left-over cover songs from the Jukebox sessions.[10]
In a January 2011 interview, Marshall hinted that new material may not see release until as late as summer 2012, stating "I would like to continue what I'm doing [professionally], but I'd also like to not divert from what I've been creating in my personal life. I don't wanna jeopardize being a mom by working. Because in my work, I have to 'go', y'know?"[11]
Marshall released a new version of What Would the Community Think? album track "King Rides By" for download from her official website on December 25, 2011, with all proceeds from sales of the track being donated to The Festival of Children Foundation and The Ali Forney Center.[12] A music video directed by Giovanni Ribisi and featuring Filipino boxer and politician Manny Pacquiao was released to promote the song.[13] In February 2012, Marshall cancelled a scheduled appearance in Tel Aviv, Israel, citing "much confusion" and "[feeling] sick in [her] spirit." She had faced calls to boycott the Jewish state over its conflict with Palestine.[14] Two months later, she cancelled her appearance at the Coachella Music Festival, claiming that she "didn't think it was fair to play Coachella while my new album is not yet finished," also hinting that her forthcoming record is "almost done" and will see release later in 2012.[15]
In April 2012, it was announced that Marshall's new LP, entitled Sun will be released on September 10, 2012 in the UK.[16]
Collaborations and contributions[link]
Around this time, Marshall collaborated with Mick Collins (of The Dirtbombs) on a recording of Ludwig Rellstab's poem "Auf Dem Strom" for the film Wayne County Ramblin'.[17] Marshall sang the poem in German, though she does not speak the language. Since returning to the stage Marshall has contributed guest vocals to several albums. She performed a duet with model Karen Elson on an English cover of Serge Gainsbourg's "Je t'aime... moi non plus" for the tribute album Monsieur Gainsbourg Revisited. She also sang lead vocal on the Ensemble track "Disown, Delete" and reworked "Revelations" with Yoko Ono for Ono's 2007 album Yes, I'm a Witch. She also performed guest vocals for Faithless and El-P. She also duets on the Dexter Romweber Duo song "Love Letters". In 2007, Marshall contributed songs to the soundtrack of Ethan Hawke's movie The Hottest State, recording with Jesse Harris and Terry Manning, and the Academy Award-winning film Juno. In early 2008, she collaborated with Beck and producer Danger Mouse on the album Modern Guilt. She contributed backing vocals to two tracks, "Orphans" and "Walls". The album was released in July of that year.[18] Chan Marshall provides backup vocals on Marianne Faithfull's cover of "Hold On, Hold On" by Neko Case on the 2009 album Easy Come Easy Go. In 2011 she also featured as guest on "Tonight You Belong To Me" on Eddie Vedder's Ukulele Songs.[19]
Other work[link]
Fashion[link]
In the early 2000s Marshall was embraced by the fashion industry for her "neo grunge" look, and seen as a muse by designers such as Marc Jacobs and Nicolas Ghesquière. She was invited to many high profile fashion shows. In 2001 she modelled in New York Magazine's Fall fashion issue and was photographed by her friends Mark Borthwick and Terry Richardson, who featured her in Purple Magazine alongside Catherine Deneuve.[20]
In October 2006 she became the celebrity spokesperson for a line of jewelry from Chanel, after being seen by Karl Lagerfeld smoking a cigarette outside the Mercer Hotel in New York. Lagerfeld chose Cat Power for the soundtrack to his Spring 2007 fashion show. He also photographed Marshall for a purple magazine feature.[21]
Advertising[link]
In 2007 Marshall's voice could be heard in commercials for Cingular[22] and De Beers[23] in the United States and Garnier in the United Kingdom. Previously Marshall had done advertisements for GAP. In September 2008, Marshall and members of the Dirty Delta Blues (Erik Paparazzi & Gregg Foreman) recorded their version of David Bowie's Space Oddity for a Lincoln car commercial.[24]
Film work[link]
2004 saw the release of the DVD Speaking for Trees, which featured a continuous, nearly 2-hour static shot of Marshall performing in a woodland. The set was accompanied by an audio CD containing the eighteen-minute song "Willie Deadwilder," featuring M. Ward on guitar. She had a small role in the 2007 film My Blueberry Nights opposite Jude Law.[25] She also appeared in Doug Aitken's MOMA installation Sleepwalkers,[26] which followed the nocturnal lives of five city dwellers. Marshall can be seen as a postal worker living in New York, performing with other notable participants such as Tilda Swinton.
Charity work[link]
A live version of the gospel song "Amazing Grace"—culled from a performance with the Dirty Delta Blues band—was released on the charity compilation Dark Was the Night. Released by independent British label 4AD on February 17, 2009, the set benefited the Red Hot Organization, an international charity dedicated to raising funds and awareness for HIV and AIDS.
Performance style[link]
Marshall’s live shows have been known for their unpolished nature, with songs beginning and ending abruptly or blending into one another without clear transitions. She has also cut short performances without explanation.[27] On some occasions this has been attributed to stage fright[28] and the influence of alcohol.
Recently, Marshall's performance style has been said to be much more enthusiastic and professional. An article in Salon[29] called The Greatest "polished and sweetly upbeat", stating that Marshall was "delivering onstage". In the article, Marshall states that her newfound musical collaborators and sobriety are largely responsible for her increased confidence onstage.
Awards[link]
Also in 2006, she became the first female solo act to win the Shortlist Music Prize when The Greatest was voted album of the year in June.[30] Earlier in the year she was nominated in the Best International Female Solo Artist category at the annual BRIT Awards.[31]
Marshall was featured in Maxim's Hot 100 women of 2009, she was placed at number 19.[32]
Personal life[link]
In 1992, Marshall moved into a New York apartment which she maintains to this day, only paying $160 a month in rent. Around 2003 she bought a house in South Beach, Miami from a high school friend.[33] In 2009 Marshall moved to Los Angeles to share a house in Silver Lake, California with her boyfriend. They also have a rental house in Malibu where she has a studio.[34]
Relationships[link]
When Marshall was working as a waitress in Atlanta her boyfriend died, causing her to have a breakdown. She says this coupled with the prevalence of heroin use amongst her friends and the loss of her best friend to AIDS was the impetus for her moving to New York. Her boyfriend in New York helped her get a job in a restaurant, but she realised he was having an affair with the owner, a married woman with two children.[9]
In late 1996, following a three-month tour co-headlining with the band Guv'ner, Marshall disappeared from the music scene, initially working as a baby sitter in Portland, Oregon and then moving to a farmhouse in Prosperity, South Carolina with then boyfriend Bill Callahan. The plan was to permanently retire from public performance but during a sleepless night resulting from a nightmare, Marshall wrote several new songs and returned to recording.
In 2001 Marshall was romantically involved with a runway model named Daniel, who was seven years younger than her. He left her in 2003 at a time when her drink and drug use was out of control. Marshall referred to him as “the ex-love of my life”.[35] Following the release of "The Greatest", Marshall cancelled previously arranged live shows in North America and Europe. She was struggling with a relationship with a young Miami investment banker.[36]
According to an interview in January 2011, Marshall has been in a relationship with actor Giovanni Ribisi since 2009 and lives with Ribisi and his 14 year old daughter in L.A..[34]
Alcohol and mental health difficulties[link]
By the turn of the century, Marshall's live performances had become erratic and unpredictable, with The New Yorker suggesting, "It is foolhardy to describe a Cat Power event as a concert," citing "rambling confessions" and "[talking] to a friend's baby from the stage."[37] Marshall later attributed this period to a drinking problem, telling HARP magazine in 2006 "I didn't know I was messed up."[36] Marshall has admitted abusing alcohol in the past; in a 2006 interview with The New York Times, she declared herself to be sober, which she defined as having had "seven drinks in seven months."[38]
Following the cancellation of the arranged tour of "The Greatest" album in 2006, Marshall used the hiatus to recover from what she described as a "psychotic break," brought on by mental exhaustion and alcohol abuse, which had left her feeling suicidal. As part of her recovery, she was admitted to the psychiatric ward at Miami's Mount Sinai Medical Center but left after a week, stating "being in there wasn't me." She later likened the experience to "a pit of hell."[36] Marshall gave a first person account of her breakdown in an interview for the November 2006 issue of Spin.[39]
Discography[link]
Main article: Cat Power discography
- Dear Sir (1995)
- Myra Lee (1996)
- What Would the Community Think (1996)
- Moon Pix (1998)
- The Covers Record (2000)
- You Are Free (2003)
- The Greatest (2006)
- Jukebox (2008)
- Sun (2012)[16]
Filmography[link]
| Year | Film | Role | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2007 | Sleepwalkers | Dancer working as a FedEx Clerk | Short Credited as Chan Marshall |
| 2007 | My Blueberry Nights | Katya | Credited as Chan Marshall |
| 2009 | American Widow | Singing Woman | Main Role |
References[link]
 |
This article uses bare URLs for citations. Please consider adding full citations so that the article remains verifiable. Several templates and the Reflinks tool are available to assist in formatting. (Reflinks documentation) (March 2012) |
- ^ Hightower, Laura. "Power, Cat, Biography". enotes contemporary musicians. eNotes.com. http://www.enotes.com/contemporary-musicians/power-cat-biography. Retrieved 15 September 2011.
- ^ Van Meter, William. "Cat Power: I'm A Survivor". New York Magazine. New York Media LLC. http://nymag.com/nymetro/arts/music/15528/index1.html. Retrieved 15 September 2011.
- ^ By roberto on February 5, 2010. "Happy Birthday, Chan Marshall: Five Reasons to Celebrate Cat Power:: Blogs:: List of the Day:: Paste". Pastemagazine.com. http://www.pastemagazine.com/blogs/lists/2010/01/happy-birthday-chan-10-things-worth-celebrating-ab.html. Retrieved 2011-09-19.
- ^ Chan Marshall interviewed by Ian Svenonius, 'Soft Focus' show, 5 March-2007, VBS.tv
- ^ Pitchfork Media interview[dead link]
- ^ "Chickfactor interview". Matadorrecords.com. http://www.matadorrecords.com/cat_power/chickfactor.html. Retrieved 2011-09-19.
- ^ Kelley, Trevor (Jan/Feb). "Cat Power: Ordinary People". Harp Magazine. Archived from the original on 2011-09-19. http://web.archive.org/web/20060202222029/http://harpmagazine.com/articles/detail.cfm?article_id=3866. Retrieved 19 September 2011.
- ^ Hodgkinson, Will (2003-05-23). "Southern gothic". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2003/may/23/homeentertainment.features.
- ^ a b Hodgkinson, Will (Friday 23 May 2003). "Southern Gothic". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2003/may/23/homeentertainment.features. Retrieved 16 September 2011.
- ^ "Dark End Of The Street Matador release". matadorrecord.com. http://www.matadorrecords.com/cat_power/. Retrieved 2012-04-14.
- ^ Brandt, Wilfred (2011-01-11). "Cat Power interview". TwoThousand.com.au. Right Angle Studio. http://thethousands.com.au/sydney/hear/cat-power-interview-2/. Retrieved 2012-04-14.
- ^ "Cat Power releases new track". Clash. Clashmusic.com. 2012-01-03. http://www.clashmusic.com/news/cat-power-releases-new-track. Retrieved 2012-04-14.
- ^ Lapatine, Scott (2011-12-24). "Cat Power – "King Rides By" (2011 Version) Video". Sterogum. BuzzMedia. http://stereogum.com/912201/cat-power-king-rides-by-2011-version-video/. Retrieved 2012-04-14.
- ^ "Musician Cat Power cancels Israel show". Associated Press. 2012-02-10. http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-505245_162-57374591/musician-cat-power-cancels-israel-show/. Retrieved 2012-04-14.
- ^ "To my beloved fans". catpowermusic.com. http://www.catpowermusic.com/. Retrieved 2012-04-14.
- ^ a b "Cat Power announces release of brand new album 'Sun'". NME.com. 2012-04-24. http://www.nme.com/news/cat-power/63414. Retrieved 2012-04-24.
- ^ "Wayne County Ramblin' Official Site". Waynecountyramblin.com. http://www.waynecountyramblin.com/soundtrack.asp. Retrieved 2011-09-19.
- ^ Itzkoff, Dave (2008-07-06). "New York Times article". Nytimes.com. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/06/arts/music/06dave.html. Retrieved 2011-09-19.
- ^ "Cat Power guests on Eddie Vedder's ukulele album | News". Nme.Com. 2011-03-22. http://www.nme.com/news/pearl-jam/55608. Retrieved 2011-09-19.
- ^ Larocca, Amy (August 27, 2001). "Folk Heroine". New York Magazine. http://nymag.com/shopping/articles/fallfashion2001/catpower.htm. Retrieved 16 September 2011.
- ^ "Is Cat Power Couture?". Sound on Sound, February 14, 2007. soundonsound.com. http://www.soundonthesound.com/tag/chan-marshall/. Retrieved 16 September 2011.
- ^ Cingular Covers the Hits[dead link]
- ^ Video: Cat Power Covers Cat Stevens, Hawks Bling[dead link]
- ^ "Cat Power Covers David Bowie To Sell Cars". Stereogum.com. http://stereogum.com/?p=018661. Retrieved 2011-09-19.
- ^ My Blueberry Nights (2007)
- ^ "Doug Aitken exhibition". Moma.org. http://www.moma.org/exhibitions/2007/aitken/. Retrieved 2011-09-19.
- ^ Irving Plaza gig review[dead link]
- ^ Rolling Stone article[dead link]
- ^ "The cat comes back". Salon.com. 2006-09-30. http://www.salon.com/ent/feature/2006/09/30/marshall/index.html. Retrieved 2011-09-19.
- ^ Shain, Shapiro. "Mercury Music Prize, worldwide: DiS assesses the awards...". Drowned in sound September 3rd, 2007. drownedinsound.com. http://drownedinsound.com/in_depth/2360419. Retrieved 16 September 2011.
- ^ "Cat Power BRITs proflie". Official BRIT Awards website. BRIT Awards Ltd.. http://www.brits.co.uk/artist/cat-power. Retrieved 16 September 2011.
- ^ "Maxim 2009 Hot 100". Maxim. 05. http://www.maxim.com/amg/girls/hot-100/79081/2009-hot-100-100-91.html. Retrieved 16 September 2011.
- ^ Armisen, Fred. "Interviews: Cat Power". Pitchfork. Pitchfork media. http://pitchfork.com/features/interviews/6482-cat-power/. Retrieved 16 September 2011.
- ^ a b Cat Power interviewed by Wilfred Brandt TwoThousand.com.au. Retrieved 2011-02-19.
- ^ Cairns, Dan (27 January 2008). "Cat Power's nine lives". The Times (London). http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/music/article3241273.ece. Retrieved 16 September 2011.
- ^ a b c Uhelszki, Jaan. "Cat Power:Beauty Secrets". Harp Magazine,December 2006. Guthrie, Inc. Archived from the original on 2011-09-19. http://web.archive.org/web/20090415030955/http://harpmagazine.com/articles/detail.cfm?article_id=4938. Retrieved 19 September 2011.
- ^ [1] New Yorker Magazine, 2003
- ^ "9 Lives and Counting: Cat Power Sobers Up". The New York Times. 2006-09-20. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/20/arts/music/20cat.html. Retrieved 2008-02-07.
- ^ Maerz, Melissa (December 2006). Spin. http://www.spin.com/articles/spin-interview-cat-power.
External links[link]
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Cat Power |
| Alternative names | Marshall, Charlyn Marie; Marshall, Chan |
| Short description | American singer-songwriter and actress |
| Date of birth | January 21, 1972 |
| Place of birth | Atlanta, Georgia |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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