Hazelnuts from the Common Hazel

Chestnuts

A walnut and a walnut core having been removed from the outer pithy fruit. Walnuts are not true nuts.

A nut cracker used to cut hard nuts. Picture from Shimla Museum in Himachal Pradesh, India.

A nut is a hard-shelled indehiscent fruit of some plants. While a wide variety of dried seeds and fruits are called nuts in English, only a certain number of them are considered by biologists to be true nuts. Nuts are an important source of nutrients for both humans and wildlife.

Nuts are a composite of the seed and the fruit, where the fruit does not open to release the seed. Most seeds come from fruits, and the seeds are free of the fruit, unlike nuts such as hazelnuts, hickories, chestnuts and acorns, which have a stony fruit wall and originate from a compound ovary. Culinary usage of the term is less restrictive, and some nuts as defined in food preparation, like pistachios and Brazil nuts,^[1] are not nuts in a biological sense. Everyday common usage of the term often refers to any hard-walled, edible kernel as a nut.^[2]

Botanical definition[link]

A nut in botany is a simple dry fruit with one seed (rarely two) in which the ovary wall becomes very hard (stony or woody) at maturity, and where the seed remains attached or fused with the ovary wall. Most nuts come from the pistils with inferior ovaries (see flower) and all are indehiscent (not opening at maturity). True nuts are produced, for example, by some plant families of the order Fagales.

Order Fagales

• Family Fagaceae
  • Beech (Fagus)
  • Chestnut (Castanea)
  • Oak (Quercus)
  • Stone-oak, Tanoak (Lithocarpus)
• Family Betulaceae
  • Alder (Alnus)
  • Hazel, Filbert (Corylus)
  • Hornbeam

Culinary definition and uses[link]

Korean Pine nuts — unshelled, and shell, above; shelled, below

A nut in cuisine is a much less restrictive category than a nut in botany, as the term is applied to many seeds that are not botanically true nuts. Any large, oily kernel found within a shell and used in food may be regarded as a nut.

Because nuts generally have a high oil content, they are a highly prized food and energy source. A large number of seeds are edible by humans and used in cooking, eaten raw, sprouted, or roasted as a snack food, or pressed for oil that is used in cookery and cosmetics. Nuts (or seeds generally) are also a significant source of nutrition for wildlife. This is particularly true in temperate climates where animals such as jays and squirrels store acorns and other nuts during the autumn to keep from starving during the late autumn, all of winter, and early spring.

Nuts used for food, whether true nut or not, are among the most common food allergens.^[3]

Some fruits and seeds that do not meet the botanical definition but are nuts in the culinary sense:

• Almonds, pecans and walnuts are the edible seeds of drupe fruits — the leathery "flesh" is removed at harvest.
• Brazil nut is the seed from a capsule.
• Candlenut (used for oil) is a seed. Is considered a true nut
• Cashew nut is a seed.^[4]
• Chilean hazelnut or Gevuina
• Horse-chestnut is an inedible capsule.
• Macadamia nut is a creamy white kernel (Macadamia integrifolia and Macadamia tetraphylla).
• Malabar chestnut
• Mongongo
• Peanut is a legume.
• Pine nut is the seed of several species of pine (coniferous trees).
• Pistachio nut is the seed of a thin-shelled drupe.

Nutritional benefits[link]

A graph detailing the nutritional properties of nuts and oily seeds.

Several epidemiological studies have revealed that people who consume nuts regularly are less likely to suffer from coronary heart disease (CHD).^[5] Nuts were first linked to protection against CHD in 1993.^[6] Since then many clinical trials have found that consumption of various nuts such as almonds and walnuts can lower serum LDL cholesterol concentrations. Although nuts contain various substances thought to possess cardioprotective effects, scientists believe that their Omega 3 fatty acid profile is at least in part responsible for the hypolipidemic response observed in clinical trials.^[7]

In addition to possessing cardioprotective effects, nuts generally have a very low glycemic index (GI).^[8] Consequently, dietitians frequently recommend nuts be included in diets prescribed for patients with insulin resistance problems such as diabetes mellitus type 2.^[9]

One study found that people who eat nuts live two to three years longer than those who do not.^[10] However, this may be because people who eat nuts tend to eat less junk food.^[11]

Nuts contain the essential fatty acids linoleic and linolenic acids, and the fats in nuts for the most part are unsaturated fats, including monounsaturated fats.

Many nuts are good sources of vitamins E and B₂, and are rich in protein, folate, fiber, and essential minerals such as magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, copper, and selenium.^[12]

Nuts are most healthy in their raw form.^[13] The reason is that up to 15% of the healthy oils that naturally occur in nuts are lost during the roasting process. Roasting at high temperatures could also cause chemicals that advance the aging process to form.^{[citation needed]}

Raw or unroasted walnuts were found to have twice as many antioxidants as other nuts.^[13] Although initial studies suggested that antioxidants might promote health, later large clinical trials did not detect any benefit and suggested instead that excess supplementation of antioxidant supplements is harmful.^[14][15]

Other uses[link]

The nut of the horse-chestnut tree (Aesculus species, especially Aesculus hippocastanum), is called a conker in the British Isles. Conkers are inedible because they contain toxic glucoside aesculin. They are used in a popular children's game, known as conkers, where the nuts are threaded onto a strong cord and then each contestant attempts to break their opponent's conker by hitting it with their own. Horse chestnuts are also popular slingshot ammunition.

Historical usage[link]

Nuts were a major part of the human diet 780,000 years ago including the wild almond, prickly water lily, acorns, pistachio and water chestnut. Prehistoric humans developed an assortment of tools to crack open nuts during the pleistocene period.^[16] Aesculus californica, was eaten by the Native Americans of California during famines after the toxic constituents were leached out.

See also[link]

Food portal

• List of edible seeds
• Nucifera (disambiguation), a Latin epithet for species bearing nuts

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Nuts

Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on Nuts and Seeds

• Linus Pauling Micronutrient Information Centre Nuts
• American Journal of Clinical Nutrition Nuts and their bioactive constituents: effects on serum lipids and other factors that affect disease risk
• Nut research

Look up nut or nuts in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Nut, NUT, Nuts or NUTS may refer to:

Food and plants[link]

• Nut (fruit)
• Nut grass, (Cyperus rotundus) sometimes known as "the World's worst weed"

Mechanical devices[link]

• Nut (hardware), a fastener used with a bolt
• Nut (climbing), a piece of metal wedged into a rock
• Nut (string instrument), of a string instrument is a small piece of hard material which supports the strings at the end closest to the headstock or scroll
• The moving element of a ball screw

Media and entertainment[link]

• Nuts (play), a 1979 play by Tom Topor
• Nuts (film), a 1987 American drama film directed by Martin Ritt; the screenplay by Tom Topor, Darryl Ponicsan, and Alvin Sargent is based on Topor's 1979 play of the same title
• Nuts (magazine), a weekly UK men's magazine
• Nuts TV, a British television channel related to Nuts magazine
• NUT Container, a multimedia container format
• Nuts, a 1970s comic strip in National Lampoon by Gahan Wilson
• Nuts, a 1990s comic strip in alternative newspapers by M. Wartella
• Nut (movie character) from the 1983 Hong Kong crime comedy, "Oh, My Cops!", and the 1990 Hong Kong crime thriller, Against All
• Nut (Marvel Comics), a fictional character appearing in the Marvel Comics universe, based loosely on Nut, the Egyptian goddess of the sky
• Modesto Nuts, a minor league baseball team in Modesto, California, USA
• NBCUniversal Television Studios
• NUTS (student television), the student television station of the University of Nottingham

In slang[link]

• Slang for a person suffering from insanity
• Slang term for testicle
  • Truck nuts, accessories for pickup trucks and other vehicles
• Slang term for ejaculate
• To headbutt, strike with the head
• Nut hand, a poker term

Science and technology[link]

• NUTS (talker), an Internet communications server
• Network UPS Tools

Other uses[link]

• Nut (goddess), the Egyptian goddess of the sky
• The Nut (disambiguation)
• The Nut, a landmark near Stanley, Tasmania
• NUT Motorcycles, a British motorcycle manufacturer founded in Newcastle Upon Tyne in 1912 by Hugh Mason and Jock Hall
• National Union of Teachers, a British trade union for school teachers
• No U-turn syndrome, a term describing Singaporean culture
• Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics is a standard for referencing the administrative divisions of countries
• Nuclear Utilization Target Selection, a theory regarding nuclear weaponry
• "Nuts!", a quote attributed to General Anthony McAuliffe at the Battle of Bastogne
• Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway, the abbreviation has since changed to NUST
• Niue time, the UTC−11:00 time zone
• En dash or nut, traditionally half the width of an em dash

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Several culinary fruits

Culinary fruits

Fruit basket painted by Balthasar van der Ast

The Medici citrus collection by Bartolomeo Bimbi, 1715

In botany, a fruit is a part of a flowering plant that derives from specific tissues of the flower, mainly one or more ovaries. Fruits are the means by which many plants disseminate seeds. Many plants bearing edible fruits, in particular, have propagated with the movements of humans and animals in a symbiotic relationship as a means for seed dispersal and nutrition, respectively; in fact, humans and many animals have become dependent on fruits as a source of food.^[1] Fruits account for a substantial fraction of the world's agricultural output, and some (such as the apple and the pomegranate) have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings.

The section of a fungus that produces spores is also called a fruiting body.^[2]

In common language usage, fruit normally means the fleshy seed-associated structures of a plant that are sweet and edible in the raw state, such as apples, oranges, grapes, strawberries, and bananas.^[3] On the other hand, the botanical sense includes many structures that are not commonly called "fruits", such as bean pods, corn kernels, wheat grains, and tomatoes.^[4]

Botanic fruit and culinary fruit[link]

Euler diagram representing the relationship between (culinary) vegetables and botanical fruits

In the culinary sense of these words, a fruit is usually any sweet-tasting plant product, especially those associated with seeds; a vegetable is any savoury or less sweet plant product; and a nut is any hard, oily, and shelled plant product.^[5]

These culinary vegetables that are botanically fruit include cucurbits (e.g., squash, pumpkin, and cucumber), tomatoes, peas, beans, corn, eggplant, and sweet pepper. In addition, some spices, such as allspice and chilies, are fruits, botanically speaking.^[6] In contrast, rhubarb is often referred to as a fruit, because it is used to make sweet desserts such as pies, though only the petiole of the rhubarb plant is edible.^[7] Edible gymnosperm seeds are often given fruit names, e.g., pine nuts, ginkgo nuts.

Botanically, a cereal grain, such as corn, wheat or rice, is also a kind of fruit, termed a caryopsis. However, the fruit wall is very thin, and is fused to the seed coat, so almost all of the edible grain is actually a seed.^[8]

Many common terms for seeds and fruit do not correspond to the botanical classifications. In botany, seeds are ripened ovules; fruits are the ripened ovaries or carpels that contain the seeds and a nut is a type of fruit and not a seed.^[6]

Fruit development[link]

The development sequence of a typical drupe, the nectarine (Prunus persica) over a 7.5 month period, from bud formation in early winter to fruit ripening in midsummer (see image page for further information)

A fruit results from maturation of one or more flowers, and the gynoecium of the flower(s) forms all or part of the fruit.^[9]

Inside the ovary/ovaries are one or more ovules where the megagametophyte contains the egg cell.^[10] After double fertilization, these ovules will become seeds. The ovules are fertilized in a process that starts with pollination, which involves the movement of pollen from the stamens to the stigma of flowers. After pollination, a tube grows from the pollen through the stigma into the ovary to the ovule and two sperm are transferred from the pollen to the megagametophyte. Within the megagametophyte one of the two sperm unites with the egg, forming a zygote, and the second sperm enters the central cell forming the endosperm mother cell, which completes the double fertilization process.^[11][12] Later the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to endosperm, a nutritive tissue used by the embryo.

As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, the pericarp, may become fleshy (as in berries or drupes), or form a hard outer covering (as in nuts). In some multiseeded fruits, the extent to which the flesh develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules.^[13] The pericarp is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the exocarp (outer layer, also called epicarp), mesocarp (middle layer), and endocarp (inner layer). In some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an inferior ovary, other parts of the flower (such as the floral tube, including the petals, sepals, and stamens), fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. In other cases, the sepals, petals and/or stamens and style of the flower fall off. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an accessory fruit. Since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms.^[3]

There are three general modes of fruit development:

• Apocarpous fruits develop from a single flower having one or more separate carpels, and they are the simplest fruits.
• Syncarpous fruits develop from a single gynoecium having two or more carpels fused together.
• Multiple fruits form from many different flowers.

Plant scientists have grouped fruits into three main groups, simple fruits, aggregate fruits, and composite or multiple fruits.^[14] The groupings are not evolutionarily relevant, since many diverse plant taxa may be in the same group, but reflect how the flower organs are arranged and how the fruits develop.

Simple fruit[link]

Epigynous berries are simple fleshy fruit. Clockwise from top right: cranberries, lingonberries, blueberries red huckleberries

Simple fruits can be either dry or fleshy, and result from the ripening of a simple or compound ovary in a flower with only one pistil. Dry fruits may be either dehiscent (opening to discharge seeds), or indehiscent (not opening to discharge seeds).^[15] Types of dry, simple fruits, with examples of each, are:

• achene - Most commonly seen in aggregate fruits (e.g. strawberry)
• capsule – (Brazil nut)
• caryopsis – (wheat)
• Cypsela - An achene-like fruit derived from the individual florets in a capitulum (e.g. dandelion).
• fibrous drupe – (coconut, walnut)
• follicle – is formed from a single carpel, and opens by one suture (e.g. milkweed). More commonly seen in aggregate fruits (e.g. magnolia)
• legume – (pea, bean, peanut)
• loment - a type of indehiscent legume
• nut – (hazelnut, beech, oak acorn)
• samara – (elm, ash, maple key)
• schizocarp – (carrot seed)
• silique – (radish seed)
• silicle – (shepherd's purse)
• utricle – (beet)

Lilium unripe capsule fruit

Fruits in which part or all of the pericarp (fruit wall) is fleshy at maturity are simple fleshy fruits. Types of fleshy, simple fruits (with examples) are:

• berry – (redcurrant, gooseberry, tomato, cranberry)
• stone fruit or drupe (plum, cherry, peach, apricot, olive)

Dewberry flowers. Note the multiple pistils, each of which will produce a drupelet. Each flower will become a blackberry-like aggregate fruit.

An aggregate fruit, or etaerio, develops from a single flower with numerous simple pistils.^[16]

• Magnolia and Peony, collection of follicles developing from one flower.
• Sweet gum, collection of capsules.
• Sycamore, collection of achenes.
• Teasel, collection of cypsellas
• Tuliptree, collection of samaras.

The pome fruits of the family Rosaceae, (including apples, pears, rosehips, and saskatoon berry) are a syncarpous fleshy fruit, a simple fruit, developing from a half-inferior ovary.^[17]

Schizocarp fruits form from a syncarpous ovary and do not really dehisce, but split into segments with one or more seeds; they include a number of different forms from a wide range of families.^[14] Carrot seed is an example.

Aggregate fruit[link]

Detail of raspberry flower.

Aggregate fruits form from single flowers that have multiple carpels which are not joined together, i.e. each pistil contains one carpel. Each pistil forms a fruitlet, and collectively the fruitlets are called an etaerio. Four types of aggregate fruits include etaerios of achenes, follicles, drupelets, and berries. Ranunculaceae species, including Clematis and Ranunculus have an etaerio of achenes, Calotropis has an etaerio of follicles, and Rubus species like raspberry, have an etaerio of drupelets. Annona have Etaerio of berries.^[18][19]

The raspberry, whose pistils are termed drupelets because each is like a small drupe attached to the receptacle. In some bramble fruits (such as blackberry) the receptacle is elongated and part of the ripe fruit, making the blackberry an aggregate-accessory fruit.^[20] The strawberry is also an aggregate-accessory fruit, only one in which the seeds are contained in achenes.^[21] In all these examples, the fruit develops from a single flower with numerous pistils.

Multiple fruits[link]

A multiple fruit is one formed from a cluster of flowers (called an inflorescence). Each flower produces a fruit, but these mature into a single mass.^[22] Examples are the pineapple, fig, mulberry, osage-orange, and breadfruit.

In some plants, such as this noni, flowers are produced regularly along the stem and it is possible to see together examples of flowering, fruit development, and fruit ripening.

In the photograph on the right, stages of flowering and fruit development in the noni or Indian mulberry (Morinda citrifolia) can be observed on a single branch. First an inflorescence of white flowers called a head is produced. After fertilization, each flower develops into a drupe, and as the drupes expand, they become connate (merge) into a multiple fleshy fruit called a syncarpet.

Berries[link]

Berries are another type of fleshy fruit; they are simple fruit created from a single ovary. The ovary may be compound, with several carpels. Type include (examples follow in the table below):

• Pepo – Berries where the skin is hardened, cucurbits
• Hesperidium – Berries with a rind and a juicy interior, like most citrus fruit

Aggregate fruit[link]

Aggregate fruit are formed from the merger of different ovaries of a single flower.

Accessory fruit[link]

Some or all of the edible part of accessory fruit is not generated by the ovary.

Table of fruit examples[link]

Seedless fruits[link]

An arrangement of fruits commonly thought of as vegetables, including tomatoes and various squash

Seedlessness is an important feature of some fruits of commerce. Commercial cultivars of bananas and pineapples are examples of seedless fruits. Some cultivars of citrus fruits (especially navel oranges), satsumas, mandarin oranges, table grapes, grapefruit, and watermelons are valued for their seedlessness. In some species, seedlessness is the result of parthenocarpy, where fruits set without fertilization. Parthenocarpic fruit set may or may not require pollination but most seedless citrus fruits require stimulus from pollination to produce fruit.

Seedless bananas and grapes are triploids, and seedlessness results from the abortion of the embryonic plant that is produced by fertilization, a phenomenon known as stenospermocarpy which requires normal pollination and fertilization.^[23]

Seed dissemination[link]

Variations in fruit structures largely depend on the mode of dispersal of the seeds they contain. This dispersal can be achieved by animals, wind, water, or explosive dehiscence.^[24]

Some fruits have coats covered with spikes or hooked burrs, either to prevent themselves from being eaten by animals or to stick to the hairs, feathers or legs of animals, using them as dispersal agents. Examples include cocklebur and unicorn plant.^[25][26]

The sweet flesh of many fruits is "deliberately" appealing to animals, so that the seeds held within are eaten and "unwittingly" carried away and deposited at a distance from the parent. Likewise, the nutritious, oily kernels of nuts are appealing to rodents (such as squirrels) who hoard them in the soil in order to avoid starving during the winter, thus giving those seeds that remain uneaten the chance to germinate and grow into a new plant away from their parent.^[6]

Other fruits are elongated and flattened out naturally and so become thin, like wings or helicopter blades, e.g. maple, tuliptree and elm. This is an evolutionary mechanism to increase dispersal distance away from the parent via wind. Other wind-dispersed fruit have tiny parachutes, e.g. dandelion and salsify.^[24]

Coconut fruits can float thousands of miles in the ocean to spread seeds. Some other fruits that can disperse via water are nipa palm and screw pine.^[24]

Some fruits fling seeds substantial distances (up to 100 m in sandbox tree) via explosive dehiscence or other mechanisms, e.g. impatiens and squirting cucumber.^[27]

Uses[link]

Nectarines are one of many fruits that can be easily stewed.

Oranges, bananas, pears, apples, and a watermelon

Fruit bowl containing pomegranate, pears, apples, bananas, an orange and a guava

Many hundreds of fruits, including fleshy fruits like apple, peach, pear, kiwifruit, watermelon and mango are commercially valuable as human food, eaten both fresh and as jams, marmalade and other preserves. Fruits are also used in manufactured foods like cookies, muffins, yogurt, ice cream, cakes, and many more. Many fruits are used to make beverages, such as fruit juices (orange juice, apple juice, grape juice, etc.) or alcoholic beverages, such as wine or brandy.^[28] Apples are often used to make vinegar. Fruits are also used for gift giving, Fruit Basket and Fruit Bouquet are some common forms of fruit gifts.

Many vegetables are botanical fruits, including tomato, bell pepper, eggplant, okra, squash, pumpkin, green bean, cucumber and zucchini.^[29] Olive fruit is pressed for olive oil. Spices like vanilla, paprika, allspice and black pepper are derived from berries.^[30]

Nutritional value[link]

Fruits are generally high in fiber, water, vitamin C and sugars, although this latter varies widely from traces as in lime, to 61% of the fresh weight of the date.^[31] Fruits also contain various phytochemicals that do not yet have an RDA/RDI listing under most nutritional factsheets, and which research indicates are required for proper long-term cellular health and disease prevention. Regular consumption of fruit is associated with reduced risks of cancer, cardiovascular disease (especially coronary heart disease), stroke, Alzheimer disease, cataracts, and some of the functional declines associated with aging.^[32]

Diets that include a sufficient amount of potassium from fruits and vegetables also help reduce the chance of developing kidney stones and may help reduce the effects of bone-loss. Fruits are also low in calories which would help lower one's calorie intake as part of a weight-loss diet.^[33]

Nonfood uses[link]

Because fruits have been such a major part of the human diet, different cultures have developed many different uses for various fruits that they do not depend on as being edible. Many dry fruits are used as decorations or in dried flower arrangements, such as unicorn plant, lotus, wheat, annual honesty and milkweed. Ornamental trees and shrubs are often cultivated for their colorful fruits, including holly, pyracantha, viburnum, skimmia, beautyberry and cotoneaster.^[34]

Fruits of opium poppy are the source of opium which contains the drugs morphine and codeine, as well as the biologically inactive chemical theabaine from which the drug oxycodone is synthysized.^[35] Osage orange fruits are used to repel cockroaches.^[36] Bayberry fruits provide a wax often used to make candles.^[37] Many fruits provide natural dyes, e.g. walnut, sumac, cherry and mulberry.^[38] Dried gourds are used as decorations, water jugs, bird houses, musical instruments, cups and dishes. Pumpkins are carved into Jack-o'-lanterns for Halloween. The spiny fruit of burdock or cocklebur were the inspiration for the invention of Velcro.^[39]

Coir is a fibre from the fruit of coconut that is used for doormats, brushes, mattresses, floortiles, sacking, insulation and as a growing medium for container plants. The shell of the coconut fruit is used to make souvenir heads, cups, bowls, musical instruments and bird houses.^[40]

Fruit is often used as a subject of still life paintings.

Safety[link]

For food safety, the CDC recommends proper fruit handling and preparation to reduce the risk of food contamination and foodborne illness. Fresh fruits and vegetables should be carefully selected. At the store, they should not be damaged or bruised and pre-cut pieces should be refrigerated or surrounded by ice. All fruits and vegetables should be rinsed before eating. This recommendation also applies to produce with rinds or skins that are not eaten. It should be done just before preparing or eating to avoid premature spoilage. Fruits and vegetables should be kept separate from raw foods like meat, poultry, and seafood, as well as utensils that have come in contact with raw foods. Fruits and vegetables, if they are not going to be cooked, should be thrown away if they have touched raw meat, poultry, seafood or eggs. All cut, peeled, or cooked fruits and vegetables should be refrigerated within two hours. After a certain time, harmful bacteria may grow on them and increase the risk of foodborne illness.^[41]

Storage[link]

The plant hormone ethylene causes ripening of many types of fruit. Maintaining most fruits in an efficient cold chain is optimal for post harvest storage, with the aim of extending and ensuring shelf life. All fruits benefit from proper post harvest care.^[42]

See also[link]

• Fruit tree
• Fruitarianism
• List of culinary fruits

References[link]

Further reading[link]

Books

• Gollner, Adam J. (2010). The Fruit Hunters: A Story of Nature, Adventure, Commerce, and Obsession. Scribner. ISBN 978-0-7432-9695-3
• Watson, R.R. / Preedy, V.R. (2010, eds.). Bioactive Foods in Promoting Health: Fruits and Vegetables. Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-374628-3

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Fruit

Look up Fruit in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Fruit

Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on Fruit

• Images of fruit development from flowers at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu
• Fruit and seed dispersal images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu
• Fruit Facts from California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc.
• Encyclopædia Britannica 1911 on Fruit
• Photo ID of Fruits by Capt. Pawanexh Kohli

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