An unembellished Western mitre with gold lappets.

An elaborately decorated Western Mitre.

Bishops of the Armenian Catholic Church in Jerusalem wearing mitres.

The mitre ( /ˈmaɪtər/; Greek: μίτρα, "headband" or "turban"), also spelled miter, is a type of headgear now known as the traditional, ceremonial head-dress of bishops and certain abbots in the Roman Catholic Church, as well as in the Anglican Communion, some Lutheran churches, and also bishops and certain other clergy in the Eastern Orthodox churches, Eastern Catholic Churches and the Oriental Orthodox Churches.

Origin[link]

Etymology[link]

The word μίτρα, mítra, (or, in its Ionic form, μίτρη, mítrē) first appears in Greek and signifies either of several garments: a kind of waist girdle worn under a cuirass, as mentioned in Homer's Iliad; a headband used by women for their hair; a sort of formal Babylonian head dress, as mentioned by Herodotus (Histories 1.195 and 7.90). The former two meanings have been etymologically connected with the word μίτος, mítos, "thread", but the connection is tenuous at best; the latter word is probably a loan from Old Persian.

Jewish High Priest wearing the mitznefet

Judaism[link]

In ancient Israel, the Kohen Gadol (High Priest) wore a headdress called the Mitznefet (Hebrew: מצנפת, often translated into English as "mitre"), which was wound around the head so as to form a broad, flat-topped turban. Attached to it was the Tzitz (Hebrew: ציץ), a plate of solid gold bearing the inscription "Holiness to YHWH"^[1] (Exodus 39:14, 39:30). Lesser priests wore a smaller, conical turban.

Byzantine empire[link]

The camelaucum (Greek: καμιλαύκιον, kamilaukion), the headdress both the mitre and the Papal tiara stem from, was originally a cap used by officials of the Imperial Byzantine court. "The tiara [from which the mitre originates] probably developed from the Phrygian cap, or frigium, a conical cap worn in the Graeco-Roman world. In the 10th century the tiara was pictured on papal coins."^[2] Other sources claim the tiara developed the other way around, from the mitre. In the late Empire it developed into the closed type of Imperial crown used by Byzantine Emperors (see illustration of Michael III, 842-867).

In Western Europe, the mitre was first used in ancient Rome by the Salii and other priests, and outside of Rome about the year 1000. Worn by a bishop, the mitre is depicted for the first time in two miniatures of the beginning of the eleventh century. The first written mention of it is found in a Bull of Pope Leo IX in the year 1049. By 1150 the use had spread to bishops throughout the West; by the 14th century the tiara was decorated with three crowns.

Christian clergy[link]

The evolution of the mitre, from the Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)

Western Christianity[link]

In its modern form in Western Christianity, the mitre is a tall folding cap, consisting of two similar parts (the front and back) rising to a peak and sewn together at the sides. Two short lappets always hang down from the back.

In the Catholic Church, the right to wear the mitre is confined by Canon law to bishops and to abbots, as it appears in the ceremony of consecration of a bishop and blessing of an abbot. Cardinals are now normally supposed to be bishops (since the time of Pope John XXIII), but even cardinals who are not bishops and who have been given special permission by the pope to decline consecration as bishops may wear the mitre. Other prelates have been granted the use of the mitre by special privilege, but this is no longer done, except in the case of an Ordinary of a Personal Ordinariate (even if he is a priest only). Former distinctions between "mitred abbots" and "non-mitred abbots" have been abolished.

Mitre simplex traditional style: White damask with its white lappets ending in red fringes.

Three types of mitres are worn by Roman Catholic clergy for different occasions:

• The simplex ('simple', referring to the materials used) is made of undecorated white linen or silk and its white lappets traditionally end in red fringes. It is worn most notably at funerals, on Good Friday and by concelebrant bishops at a Mass. Cardinals in the presence of the Pope wear a mitre of white linen damask.
• The pretiosa ('precious') is decorated with precious stones and gold and worn on Sundays and feast days. This type of mitre is rarely decorated with precious stones today, and the designs have become more varied, simple and original, often merely being in the liturgical colour of the day.
• The auriphrygiata is of plain gold cloth or white silk with gold, silver or coloured embroidered bands; when seen today it is usually worn by bishops when they preside at the celebration of the sacraments.

The proper colour of a mitre is always white, although in liturgical usage white also includes vestments made from gold and silver fabrics. The embroidered bands and other ornaments which adorn a mitre and the lappets may be of other colours and often are. Although coloured mitres are sometimes sold and worn at present, this is probably due to the maker’s or wearer’s lack of awareness of liturgical tradition.

On all occasions, an altar server may wear a shawl-like veil, called a vimpa, around the shoulders when holding the bishop's mitre. The vimpa is used to hold the mitre so as to avoid the possibility of it being soiled by the natural oils in a person's hand as well as symbolically showing that the person does not own the mitre, but merely holds it for the prelate. The person wearing a vimpa is also occasionally referred to as a vimpa. When a vimpa holds the crosier, he holds the crook facing inward, as another sign that the person does not hold the authority of the crosier.

Pope Benedict XVI wearing a pretiosa: elaborately embroidered mitre.

Papal Arms of Pope Benedict XVI. The papal tiara was replaced with a bishop's mitre.

With his inauguration as pope, Benedict XVI broke with tradition and replaced the papal tiara even on his papal coat of arms with a papal mitre (containing still the three levels of 'crowns' representing the powers of the Papacy in a simplified form) and pallium. Prior to Benedict XVI, each pope's coat of arms always contained the image of the papal tiara and St. Peter's crossed keys, even though the tiara had fallen into disuse, especially under popes John Paul I and John Paul II. Pope Paul VI was the last pope to date to begin his papal reign with a formal coronation in June 1963. However, as a sign of the need for greater simplification of the papal rites, as well as the changing nature of the papacy itself, he abandoned the use of his tiara in a dramatic ceremony in Saint Peter's Basilica during the second session of Vatican II in November 1963. However his 1975 Apostolic Constitution made it clear the tiara had not been abolished: in the constitution he made provision for his successor to receive a coronation. Pope John Paul I, however, declined to follow Paul VI's constitution and opted for a simpler papal inauguration, a precedent followed by his two successors. Pope John Paul II's 1996 Apostolic Constitution left open several options by not specifying what sort of ceremony was to be used, other than that some ceremony would be held to inaugurate a new pontificate.

Pope Paul VI donated his tiara (a gift from his former archdiocese of Milan) to the efforts at relieving poverty in the world. Later, Francis Cardinal Spellman of New York received the tiara and took it on tour of the United States to raise funds for the poor. It is on permanent view in the Crypt Church in the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception in Washington, D.C.

In the Church of England the mitre fell out of use after the Reformation, but was restored in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a result of the Oxford Movement, and is now worn by most bishops of the Anglican Communion on at least some occasions.

The mitre has always been used in ecclesiastical heraldry to surmount the coats of arms of bishops in the Church of England (instead of a crest, which is not used by clergy). In 1969 the mitre was suppressed in all personal arms of bishops in the Catholic Church, and is since only found on diocesan coats of arms. In heraldry the lappets are depicted with red lining.

Eastern Christianity[link]

Mitre of Orthodox Metropolitan Chrysostomos of Smyrna, killed when the Turks captured the city in 1922.

The most typical mitre in the Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic churches is based on the closed Imperial crown of the late Byzantine Empire. Therefore, it too is ultimately based on the older καμιλαύκιον although it diverged from the secular headdress at a much later date, after it had already undergone further development. The crown form was not used by bishops until after the fall of Constantinople (1453).

The Eastern mitre is made in the shape of a bulbous crown, completely enclosed, and the material is of brocade, damask or cloth of gold. It may also be embroidered, and is often richly decorated with jewels. There are normally four icons attached to the mitre (often of Christ, the Theotokos, John the Baptist and the Cross), which the bishop may kiss before he puts it on. Eastern mitres are usually gold, but other liturgical colours may be used.

The mitre is topped by a cross, either made out of metal and standing upright, or embroidered in cloth and lying flat on the top. In Greek practice, the mitres of all bishops are topped with a standing cross. The same is true in the Russian tradition. Mitres awarded to priests will have the cross lying flat. Sometimes, instead of the flat cross, the mitre may have an icon on the top.

Elaborately embroidered Eastern Orthodox mitre, 1715.

As an item of Imperial regalia, along with other such items as the sakkos (Imperial dalmatic) and epigonation, the mitre came to signify the temporal authority of bishops (especially that of the Patriarch of Constantinople) within the administration of the Rum millet (i.e., the Christian community) of the Ottoman Empire. The mitre is removed at certain solemn moments during the Divine Liturgy and other services, usually being removed and replaced by the protodeacon.

The use of the mitre is a prerogative of bishops, but it may be awarded to archpriests, protopresbyters and archimandrites. The priestly mitre is not surmounted by a cross, and is awarded at the discretion of a synod of bishops.

Oriental Orthodox Christianity[link]

Oriental Orthodox bishops sometimes use mitres, either of the Western or Eastern style. In the past, Coptic bishops have worn the ballin, an omophorion wound around the head like a turban. The Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria will often wear an Eastern-style mitre. Coptic priests frequently wear a mitre, similar to a Western bishop's mitre.

Syriac Orthodox bishops wear the maşnaphto (literally, 'turban') when presiding at the Divine Liturgy. This is a large, richly embroidered hood, often depicting the Holy Spirit as a dove.

Armenian Apostolic bishops wear tall and distinctively tapered Western-style mitres. The Armenian bishop's mitre differs from its Western counterpart in that the points at the top are usually joined together. Armenian priests regularly wear Byzantine-style mitres (symbolizing the sovereignty of Christ). On certain solemn occasions, Armenian deacons will wear the mitre also, although the deacon's mitre is somewhat narrower than that of the priest.

Grenadiers[link]

A Russian grenadier mitre.

During the 18th Century (an in some few cases the 19th), soldiers serving as grenadiers in various northern European armies wore a mitre (usually called a "mitre cap") similar to those worn by Western bishops, but made out of metal rather than fabric. This was worn instead of a wider tricorne to avoid the hat being knocked off when the soldier threw a grenade. The mitre survived as parade dress in a few Prussian and Russian grenadier regiments until World War I. Militarily, they would come in different styles. The "German" style being a cone shaped structure completely embroidered with cloth, the "Russian" style consisting of a tall brass plate atop of a leather cap with a peak at the rear and the "British" style (usually simply called a "grenadier cap" instead of a mitre) being a tall cloth front-plate forward of a smaller red cap, lined in white. Towards the end of the 18th century in most armies, bar the Russian, the mitre gave way to the bearskin. Some fusilier regiments also donned a mitre with a smaller brass front-plate.

Other uses[link]

The bishop in the board game chess is represented by a stylized Western mitre.

The crowns of the Austrian Empire and Imperial Russia incorporated a mitre of precious metal and jewels into their design. The Austrian imperial crown was originally the personal crown of the Holy Roman Emperor Matthias II (1612–19) and has the form proper to that of a Holy Roman Emperor. At their coronations as Roman Emperors in Rome the pope placed a mitre on their heads before placing the crown over it. Their empress consorts also received both a mitre and crown on their heads from a cardinal bishop at the same ceremony. The form of the Russian imperial crown dates back to the time of Peter the Great’s early attempts to westernize Russian and was probably inspired by the crowns worn by Habsburg emperors of the Holy Roman Empire but also from orthodox mitre.

Abbesses of certain very ancient abbeys in the West also wore mitres, but of a very different form than that worn by male prelates.

The mitral valve of the human heart, which is located between the left atrium and the left ventricle, is named so because of its similarity in shape to the mitre. Andreas Vesalius, the father of anatomy, noted the striking similarity between the two while performing anatomic dissections in the sixteenth century.

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10404a.htm. 
• The Philippi Collection
• Noonan, Jr., James-Charles (1996). The Church Visible: The Ceremonial Life and Protocol of the Roman Catholic Church. Viking. pp. 191. ISBN 0-670-86745-4. 
• Philippi, Dieter (2009). Sammlung Philippi - Kopfbedeckungen in Glaube, Religion und Spiritualität,. St. Benno Verlag, Leipzig. ISBN 978-3-7462-2800-6. 

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Mitres

• "Mitre" article from the Classic Encyclopedia
• Mitres Photographs and descriptions of the different types of mitres
• Episcopal Mitre from Kavsokalyvia, Mount Athos
• Information, pictures and literature about clerical headgear in German language
• [1] Mitre worn by the Archbishop of Esztergom, the Primate of Hungary, at coronations of Kings of Hungary.
• [2] Mitre worn by Pope John Paul I at his papal inauguration Mass. From the National Geographic book Inside the Vatican, 1991.

v t e Papal symbols and rituals Apostolic Palace Camauro Coat of arms Conclave Coronation Fanon Flabellum Holy See Inauguration Mitre Mozzetta Papal Basilicas Papal Cross Pallium Popemobile Regalia and insignia Ring of the Fisherman Archbasilica of St. John Lateran St. Peter's Basilica Saint Peter's Square Sedia gestatoria Sistine Chapel Tiara Vatican City

Scott Cam (born 25 November 1962) is an Australian television personality appearing on several lifestyle programmes on the Nine Network.

Early career[link]

Scott is a qualified carpenter who did a three-year apprenticeship with his brother’s business.

Scott grew up in Sydney's Bondi and, after completing school at Waverley College and his carpentry apprenticeship, set off in an old four-wheel drive to explore Australia. He worked on sheep and cattle stations, at a remote coastal resort at Exmouth in Western Australia, built boats and worked in Fremantle's docklands.

In 1990, after a five-year stint working and travelling around Australia, he set up his own building business, which now employs four people.

Television (and media) career[link]

Cam first appeared on Nine's Backyard Blitz in 2000 alongside Jamie Durie doing building segments until the show's cancellation in 2006. In between, he appeared on the successful Renovation Rescue (2004–present) before appearing in his own live lifestyle program Our Place, however this was cancelled after just five episodes in 2005. Since 2008 he appears on Domestic Blitz.

Cam hosted the 2010 series of The Block^[1] and returned for the 2011 series.^[2] Cam also appeared as himself on a send-up of The Block on the comedy program The Joy of Sets in 2011.^[3]

In addition to his television work, he has written two books on building and renovating: Out The Back and the follow-up, Home Maintenance For Knuckleheads. He is also a presenter on the Triple M Saturday morning breakfast show Wrong Side of the Bed.

Personal life[link]

He enjoys camping and fishing and on spare weekends manages to escape with his family to their farm at Mudgee, New South Wales.

Scott Cam met his wife Ann on what was supposed to be a brief visit home to Sydney while travelling and working around Australia. He decided to stay in Sydney. Three years later they married and now have three children, Charlie, 15, and twins Sarah and Bill, 12.

His Kelpie cross, Lizzie, was seen in each episode of Backyard Blitz until she died in 2004. She had the title of 'Site Manager'. He currently has a Red Cattle mix, called Rosie.^[4]

Scott Cam is a passionate supporter of the Sydney Roosters rugby league club, and in 2010 appeared on the photographic image on the club's plastic season ticket card, handed out to season seat holders.

In June, 2011, during a radio interview with The Kyle & Jackie O Show Cam revealed that he had nearly severed his right-hand index finger during a bandsaw accident. Although the saw cut through to Cam's bone, he was still able to drive himself to hospital. Cam required 24-stitches. ^[5].

References[link]

External links[link]

• Scott Cam at the Internet Movie Database
• IMG Talent Profile

Guru Gobind Singh Ji (born: Gobind Rai^[1]) (Punjabi: ਗੁਰੂ ਗੋਬਿੰਦ ਸਿੰਘ [ɡʊɾu ɡobɪnd sɪ́ŋɡ], Marathi: गुरु गोबिंद सिंघ; 22 December 1666 - 7 October 1708^[2]) is the Tenth of Eleven Sikh Guru Ji'. Born in Patna, Bihar in India, He was also a Warrior, Poet and Philosopher. He succeeded His Father Guru Tegh Bahadur Sahib Ji as the Leader of Sikhs at a young age of nine. He contributed much to Sikhism; notable was His contribution to the continual formalisation of the faith which the First Sikh Guru Ji Guru Nanak Dev Ji had founded, as a religion, in the 15th century.^[3][4] Guru Gobind Singh transformed Sikhs into Khalsa (pure) in 1699.^[5]

Education and Family[link]

Guru Gobind Singh's birthplace

Gobind Singh was born to Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Sikh guru, and Mata Gujri in Patna. He was born while his father was on a tour of a neighbouring state Assam, spreading God's word. He learned Persian and Sanskrit when he was a child and was also trained to become a warrior.^[5]

Gobind Singh married three times^[6][7][8] and had four children.^[9] He was married off to Mata Jito in 1677, when he was only 11-years-old.^[10] They had three children together Zorawar Singh, Jujhar Singh and Fateh Singh.^[9] He married Mata Sundari in 1684, and the couple had one child, Sahibzada Ajit Singh.^[9][11] His third wife was Mata Sahib Dewan.^[9]

Early life[link]

Shri Guru Tegh Bahadur Sahib Ji had found the city of Anandpur Sahib in 1665, on land purchased from the ruler of Bilaspur (Kahlur). After His tour of eastern parts of India ended, He asked His Family to come to Anandpur. Gobind Rai reached Anandpur (then known as Chakk Nanaki), on the foothills of the Sivalik Hills, in March 1672. Gobind Rai's early education included study of languages and training as a Soldier. He had started studying Hindi and Sanskrit while at Patna. In Anandpur, He started studying Punjabi under Sahib Chand, and Persian under Qazi Pir Mohammad.

In April 1685, Guru Gobind Singh Ji shifted His residence to Paonta in Sirmur State at the invitation of Raja Mat Prakash of Sirmur. According to the Gazetteer of the Sirmur State, the Guru Ji was compelled to quit Anandpur due to differences with Bhim Chand, and went to Toka.^[12] From Toka, he was brought to Nahan (the capital of Sirmur) by Mat Prakash. From Nahan, he proceeded to Paonta. Mat Prakash invited the Guru to his kingdom in order to strengthen his position against Raja Fateh Shah of Garhwal. At the request of Raja Mat Prakash, the Guru constructed a fort at Paonta with help of his followers, in a short time. The Guru remained at Paonta for around three years, and composed several texts.

The hostility between Nahan king and Fateh Shah, the Garhwal king continued to increase during the latter's stay at Paonta, ultimately resulting in the Battle of Bhangani near Paonta. Fateh Shah attacked on the 18th of September 1688; the battle resulted in the Guru's victory.

In the Battle of Nadaun in 1687, the armies of Alif Khan and his aides were defeated by the allied forces of Bhim Chand, Guru Gobind Singh and other hill Rajas. According to Bichitra Natak and the Bhatt Vahis, Guru Gobind Singh remained at Nadaun, on the banks of the River Beas, for eight days, and visited the places of all the chiefs. Sometime after the Battle of Bhangani, Rani Champa, the dowager queen of Bilaspur requested the Guru to return to Chakk Nanaki (Anandpur), the Guru agreed. He reached Anandpur in November 1688.

In 1695, Dilawar Khan, the Mughal chief of Lahore, sent his son with an army of one thousand men to Anandpur, to check the rising power of the Guru. As Khanzada crossed the Satluj river, Guru's scout Alam Chand (aka Alam Singh) alerted the Guru's forces. The Ranjit Nagara was beaten, and the Guru's men quickly marched to the river, forcing the Mughal army to retreat back. After Hussain's death, Dilawar Khan sent his men Jujhar Hada and Chandel Rai to Sivalik Hills. However, they were defeated by Gaj Singh of Jaswal. The developments in the hill area caused anxiety to the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, who sent forces under the command of his son, to restore Mughal authority in the region.

Founding of the Khalsa[link]

In 1699, the Guru sent hukmanamas (letters of authority) to his followers, requesting them to congregate at Anandpur on 30 March 1699, the day of Vaisakhi (the annual harvest festival).^[13] He addressed the congregation from the entryway of a small tent pitched on a small hill (now called Kesgarh Sahib). He first asked everyone who he was for them? Everyone answered - "You are our Guru." He then asked them who were they, to which everyone replied - "We are your Sikhs." Having reminded them of this relationship, He then said that today the Guru needs something from his Sikhs. Everyone said, "Hukum Karo, Sache Patshah" (Order us, True Lord). Then drawing his sword he asked for a volunteer who was willing to sacrifice his head. No one answered his first call, nor the second call, but on the third invitation, Daya Ram (later known as Bhai Daya Singh) came forward and offered his head to the Guru. Guru Gobind Rai took the volunteer inside the tent. The Guru returned to the crowd with blood dripping from his sword. He then demanded another head. One more volunteer came forward, and entered the tent with him. The Guru again emerged with blood on his sword. This happened three more times. Then the five volunteers came out of the tent in new clothing unharmed.

Guru Gobind Singh then poured clear water into an iron bowl and adding Patashas (Punjabi sweeteners) into it, he stirred it with double-edged sword accompanied with recitations from Adi Granth. He called this mixture of sweetened water and iron as Amrit ("nectar") and administered it to the five men. These five, who willingly volunteered to sacrifice their lives for their Guru, were given the title of the Panj Piare ("the five beloved ones") by their Guru.^[13] They were the first (baptized) Sikhs of the Khalsa: Daya Ram (Bhai Daya Singh), Dharam Das (Bhai Dharam Singh), Himmat Rai (Bhai Himmat Singh), Mohkam Chand (Bhai Mohkam Singh), and Sahib Chand (Bhai Sahib Singh).

Guru Gobind Singh then recited a line which has been the rallying-cry of the Khalsa since then: 'Waheguru ji ka Khalsa, Waheguru ji Ki Fateh' (Khalsa belongs to God; victory belongs to God). He gave them all the name "Singh" (lion), and designated them collectively as Khalsa (the Pure Ones), the body of baptized Sikhs. The Guru then astounded the five and the whole assembly as he knelt and asked them to in turn initiate him as a member, on an equal footing with them in the Khalsa, thus becoming the sixth member of the new order. His name became Gobind Singh.

Today members of the Khalsa consider Guru Gobind as their father, and Mata Sahib Kaur as their mother.^[13] The Panj Piare were thus the first baptised Sikhs, and became the first members of the Khalsa brotherhood. Women were also initiated into the Khalsa, and given the title of kaur ("princess").^[13] Guru Gobind Singh then addressed the audience -

A result of the Guru's actions is arguably that the strength of Sikhi in the 18th and 19th centuries was based on the third, fourth, and fifth orders of Indian society, even though some of its leaders still came from the Kshatriya varna. An interesting representation of the first amrit ceremony is found in the paintings that show two dead hawks, lying on their backs on the ground, while their killers, two doves, sit upon the bowls of amrit. Symbolically, the Sikhs, the doves, had gained the strength of hawks, the strong, militant people who lived on all sides of them.^[15]

Guru Gobind Singh's respect for the Khalsa is best represented in one of his poems:^[16]

Pilgrimage from Anandpur Sahib to Talwandi Sabo[link]

Conflicts with the Rajas of Sivalik Hills[link]

The formation of the military order Khalsa did not go well with the Rajas of the Sivalik Hills, who in turn got united to evict the Guru from the region. However their expeditions during 1700-04 were unsuccessful.

Balia Chand and Alim Chand - two of the hill chieftans - made a surprise attack on the Guru, while he was on a hunting expedition.^[17] In the ensuing combat, Alim Chand managed to escape, while Balia Chand was killed by Guru's aide Ude Singh.

After several failed attempts to check the rising power of the Sikhs, the hill chiefs petitioned the Mughal rulers for help. The Mughal emperor of Delhi sent his generals Din Beg and Painda Khan, each with an army of five thousand men.^[18] The Mughal forces were joined by the armies of the hill chiefs. However, they failed to defeat the Guru's forces, and Painda Khan was killed in the First Battle of Anandpur (1701).

Alarmed at the Guru's rising influence, the Rajas of several hill states assembled at Bilaspur to discuss the situation. The son of Bhim Chand, Raja Ajmer Chand of Kahlur, suggested forming an alliance to curb the Guru's rising power. Accordingly, the Rajas formed an alliance, and marched towards Anandpur. They sent a letter to the Guru, asking him to pay the arrears of rent for Anandpur (which lay in Ajmer Chand's territory), and leave the place. The Guru insisted that the land was bought by his father, and is therefore, his own property. A battle, dated from 1701 to 1704, followed. The hill Rajas were joined by a large number of Gujjars, under the command of Jagatullah. Duni Chand led five hundred men from Majha region to assist the Guru. Reinforcements from other areas also arrived to help the Guru. The conflict, known as the Second Battle of Anandpur, resulted in retreat of the hill Rajas.^[19]

Later, the hill Rajas negotiated a peace agreement with the Guru, asking him to leave Anandpur. Accordingly, the Guru left for Nirmoh village.^[20] Seeing that Nirmoh was not fortified, Raja Ajmer Chand and the Raja of Kangra launched an attack on the Guru's camp. However, they were not able to defeat the Guru. Meanwhile, Raja Ajmer Chand had sent his envoys to the Mughal viceroys in Sirhind and Delhi, seeking their help against the Guru. The army of Sirhind viceroy Wazir Khan arrived to assist the hill Rajas. The assault by Wazir Khan's army forced the Guru to retreat to Basoli, whose Raja was on good terms with the Guru.

After staying for a few days at Basoli, the Guru marched back to Anandpur, and the local Rajas decided to make peace with him. However, after two years the hostilities between the Rajas and the Guru reappeared. Raja Ajmer Chand allied with the Rajas of Hindur, Chamba and Fatehpur, and attacked Anandpur in 1703-04. They failed to oust the Guru in the Third Battle of Anandpur, and retreated.

After repeated pleas for assistance from the hill Rajas, the Mughal emperor sent an army under Saiyad Khan's command. Saiyad Khan was a brother-in-law of Pir Budhu Shah, and defected to the Guru's side, after the Pir spoke highly of him. Ramzan Khan then took the command of the imperial army, and allied with the hill Rajas to attack Anandpur in March 1704. It was the crop-cutting time of the year, and the majority of the Guru's followers had dispersed to their homes. Guru was assisted by two of his Muslim admirers, Maimun Khan and Saiyad Beg, however his men were outnumbered, and decided to vacate Anandpur.^[21] The Mughal army plundered the city, and then proceeded to Sirhind. On their way back, they were caught in a surprise attack by the Guru's forces, who recovered the booty captured from Anandpur. The Guru then returned to Anandpur.

Evacuation from Anandpur[link]

The hill chiefs then decided to approach the Mughal Emperor, Aurangzeb, through his Governor in Punjab, Wazir Khan, to help them subdue the Sikhs. Their memorandum spoke of his establishing the new order of Khalsa

At the plea of Raja Ajmer Chand, the Mughal emperor ordered the viceroys of Sirhind, Lahore and Kashmir to proceed against the Guru. The Mughal forces were joined by the armies of the hill Rajas, the Ranghars and the Gurjars of the area. The Guru also made preparations for the battle, and his followers from Majha, Malwa, Doaba and other areas assembled at Anandpur.

The imperial forces attacked Anandpur in 1705, and laid a siege around the city. After a few days of the commencement of the siege, Raja Ajmer Chand sent his envoy to the Guru, offering withdrawal of the siege, in return for Guru's evacuation from Anandpur. The Guru refused to accept the offer, but many of his followers, suffering from lack of food and other supplies, asked him to accept the proposal. As more and more followers pressured the Guru to accept Ajmer Chand's offer, he sent a message to Ajmer Chand offering to evacuate Anandpur, if the allied forces would first allow his treasury and other property to be taken outside the city. The allied forces accepted the proposal. The Guru, in order to test their sincerity, sent a caravan of loaded bullocks outside the fort. However, the allied forces attacked the caravan to loot the treasure. To their disappointment, they found out that the caravan carried no treasure. The Guru then decided not to vacate Anandpur, and refused to accept any further proposals from the allied forces.

Finally, the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb sent a signed letter to the Guru, swearing in name of Quran, that the Guru and his followers would be allowed a safe passage if he decided to evacuate Anandpur. The Guru, hard pressed by his followers and his family, accepted the offer, and evacuated Anandpur on 20–21 December 1705.

On the first night after they left Anandpur, the Guru's contingent was attacked by the imperial forces. Following a few skirmishes, the Guru and his followers reached the banks of Sirsa river. The group could not keep together while crossing the flooded Sirsa (or Sarsa) river. The Guru's mother, and his two younger sons, Fateh Singh and Zorawar Singh, strayed away from the main group. Guru's old servant, Gangu, escorted them to his village, Kheri. His wife Mata Jito, was in another group that also included Mata Sahib Kaur; this group was escorted to Delhi by Jawahar Singh. The floods in the river resulted in loss of several of the Guru's followers.

The Guru, with his two elder sons, and some other Sikhs, managed to cross the river, and reached the Ghanaula village. He instructed a band of hundred followers under Bachitar Singh to march to Rupar. The Guru, with the remaining followers, marched towards Kotla Nihang near Rupar, to stay with his trusted acquaintance Pathan Nihang Khan. From there, he proceeded to Machhiwara and Raikot, halting at Bur Majra. He was informed that a large body of troops from Sirhind was chasing him. He decided to face the enemy troops at the fortress of Chamkaur.

The imperial troops besieged the fortress at Chamkaur in December 1705, leading to the battle of Chamkaur. The two elder sons of Guru Gobind Singh, Ajit Singh and Jujhar Singh, died in the battle. The Guru asked the remaining disciples to get ready for the final charge, and die fighting. However, his disciples insisted that the his survival was necessary for the survival of the Khalsa, and planned his escape from Chamkaur. It was decided that Sant Singh and Sangat Singh would stay in the fortress, while Daya Singh, Dharam Singh, and Man Singh would accompany the Guru out of Chamkaur. The Guru gave his kalghi (plume used to decorate headgear) and his armor to Bhai Sangat Singh, a Sikh who resembled him. Sangat Singh was seated in the upper room where Guru was stationed. The Guru marched out of Chamkaur in the night, along with some followers. Next day, the Mughal army, which still believed that the Guru was inside the fortress, attacked the fortress, and killed all the Sikhs inside the fortress.

The Guru separated from his companions, and reached Machhiwara, after passing through Jandsar and Behlolpur. There, his three companions, Daya Singh, Dharam Singh and Man Singh rejoined him. Gulaba, an old masand of Machhiwara, gave them shelter, but feared for his own safety. Two Pathan horse merchants, Nabi Khan and Ghani Khan, decided to help him. The Khans, who were old acquaintances of the Guru, disguised him as the Pir (Sufi saint) of Uchh village, and carried him to safety, in a palanquin. At Alam Gir, Nand Lal, a zamindar decided to help the Guru. From Alam Gir, the Guru proceeded to Raikot. At Silaoni, Rai Kalha III, the Muslim chief of Raikot state, received him warmly. The Guru stayed there for some time.

Meanwhile, Guru's mother Mata Gujri and the his two younger sons were captured by Wazir Khan, the governor of Sirhind. The two boys were executed after refusing to convert to Islam, and Mata Gujri died soon after hearing of her grandsons' death. Rai Kalha's servant Noora Mahi brought this news to the Guru from Sirhind.Mata Sundari and Mata Sahib kaur escaped towards Delhi escorted by bhai Mani Singh .

Later travels[link]

Stay at Dina[link]

Realizing that Rai Kot was not a suitable place to stage resistance against the Mughals, Guru Gobind Singh left Raikot, and spent two days at Hehar with Mahant Kirpal Das (who had earlier participated in the Battle of Bhangani). He then marched to Lamma Jatpura, where his companion Rai Kalla took leave. The Guru moved southwards, accompanied by three Sikhs. On the way he passed through the villages of Manuke, Mehdiana, Chakkar, Takhtupura and Madhe and finally reached Dina (now in Moga district) in Malwa (Punjab). The people had heard that the Guru had been killed at Chamkaur, but the truth began to be known when he reached Dina. He was received warmly at Dina by Shamira, Lakhmira and Takht Mal, the three grandsons of Rai Jodh, a devotee of Guru Har Gobind.^[24]

While at Dina, the Guru received a concilatory letter from Aurangzeb, asking him to come to Deccan to discuss the situation. The Guru was wary of Aurangzeb, who had beheaded his father. The Guru rejected the emperor's offer, and wrote a famous letter in Persian, titled 'Zafarnamah (the Epistle of Victory). In the letter, the Guru reminded Aurangzeb of his misdeeds, and condemened the treacherous acts of the Mughals. He sent a group of Sikhs, consisting of Daya Singh, Dharam Singh, and some guards, to despatch the letter to Aurangzeb, who was camping in Ahmednagar.

Guru Gobind Singh moved onto Talwandi Sabo and was at place called Rohi when a group of forty Sikhs from Majha area of Punjab region accompanied by Mata Bhag Kaur, also known as Mai Bhago, visited him. They had come to offer their condolences over the death of his four sons and his mother, and also offered to effect a compromise between the Guru and Mughal authorities. The Guru narrated to them the atrocities of Mughals from the time of martyrdom of Guru Arjan to the laying of the siege of Anandpur. He rebuked them for their behaviour and put them to shame for talking like that. One of the leaders of the Jatha (group), Bhag Singh Jabhalia, said that it was not in their means to have more faith in the Guru. The Guru said that he had not called for them and they should write a disclaimer, which was signed by Bhag Singh Jabhalia and another four. The remaining thirty five did not sign the disclaimer.^[25] The Guru at the moment got the information of advancing Mughal forces led by Wazir Khan. He along with those acompanying him moved on to take positions by the side of a mound, which incidentally was also the only water source in the area.

At this stage Mata Bhag Kaur criticised the forty Sikhs for deserting Guru Gobind Singh at such a crucial stage. Her challenge made the forty to face the oncoming Mughal force led by Wazir Khan. In the action that occurred on 30 poh 1972 (29 December 1705), beside the forty Sikhs and Mata Bhag Kaur from Majha, Guru Gobind Singh and those accompanying him also participated. By sunset most of warriors were killed or seriously injured. Of the forty only three sikhs (Rai Singh, Sunder singh and Mahan singh) were in their last breath, while Bhag Kaur lay seriously injured. At their request Guru Gobind Singh tore the disclaimer and blessed them as Muktas (emanicipated). He also changed the name of the place, Ishar sar or Khidrana, to Muktsar in their honour.

Stay at Talwandi Sabo[link]

Illuminated Adi Granth folio with nisan of Guru Gobind Singh

From Muktsar, the Guru moved to Rupana, Bhander, Gurusar, Thehri Bambiha, Rohila, Jangiana and Bhai Ka Kot. At Chatiana, the Brars who had fought for him at Muktsar, threatened to block his march as the Guru had failed to disburse pay arrears to them. A Sikh from the neighborhood area brought enough money, which enabled the Guru to pay off all the arrears. However, the leader of the Brars, Chaudhri Dana apologized the Guru on behalf of his people, and refused to accept any payment for himself. At his request, the Guru visited his native place Mehma Swai. The Guru continued his travel, passing through Lakhi Jungle (Lakhisar). From Lakhi, he visited nearby areas and initiated large number of people into Khalsa.

A landowner called Chaudhari Dalla welcomed the Guru to his estate, and took him to Talwandi Sabo (aka Talwandi Sabo Ki). On his way he passed through Chatiana, Kot Sahib Chand, Kot Bhai, Giddarbaha, Rohila, Jangirana, Bambiha, Bajak, Kaljhirani, Jassi Bagwali, Pakka Kalan and Chak Hira Singh. Guru Gobind Singh arrived at Talwandi Sabo on 20 January 1706, and stayed there for several months. The place is now called Damdama Sahib (the resting place). The Guru made a tour of the neighbouring villages, and initiated several people into the Khalsa.

When Wazir Khan learned that the Guru was at Sabo Ki Talwandi, he sent a letter to Chaudhri Dalla asking him to hand over Guru Gobind Singh to him. However, the Chaudhari refused, in spite of Wazir Khan's threats and promises of reward. Wazir Khan complained to the Emperor, who was in the Deccan. The Emperor received Dalla's letter written to Wazir Khan and also the Guru's Zafarnamah at about the same time. He ordered Wazir Khan to remove all restrictions imposed on the Guru and stop harassing him.

The Guru's literature had been destroyed as he crossed the river after evacuating Anandpur. He dictated the Guru Granth Sahib to Bhai Mani Singh. A number of poets and scholars gathered around the Guru at Talwandi Sabo, and the place came to be known as Guru's Kashi (Varanasi). The Guru's wife, who had separated from him at Anandpur, also reunited with him at Damdama Sahib. The Guru also reorganized his forces at this place, and took many Dogras, Rathores and Brars into his service.

After Aurangzeb's death[link]

In response to the Guru's Zafarnamah, Aurangzeb expressed his wish for a personal meeting with the Guru. The Guru left for Deccan in October 1706 to meet Aurangzeb. He passed through what is now Rajasthan, on his way to Ahmednagar, where the Emperor was encamped. At Baghaur (or Baghor), he received the news of Aurangzeb's death in March 1707, and decided to return to Punjab, via Shahjahanabad.

After the emperor's death, a war of succession broke out between his sons. The third son, Mohammad Azam (or Azim), declared himself the Emperor. The second son Muazzam (later Emperor Bahadur Shah) set out from Peshawar to claim the throne. The Guru's follower Bhai Nand Lal (who had earlier served in the Muazzam 's court) brought him a letter written by Muazzam. Muazzam had sought Guru's help in securing the throne, and had promised to pursue a policy of religious tolerance towards the non-Muslims. The Guru sent a band of his followers under the command of Bhai Dharam Singh, to help Muazzam.^[26][27] Muazzam's forces defeated Azam Shah's forces in the Battle of Jajau on 12 June 1707.

Muazzam ascended the throne as Bahadur Shah. He invited Guru Gobind Singh for a meeting which took place at Agra on 23 July 1707. The Guru was received with honour and was given the title of Hind Ka Pir (the Saint of India). The Guru stayed with the Emperor in Agra till November 1707. He made Dholpur a center of his missionary activities, and toured nearby areas for many days, before proceeding to Deccan. In November 1707, the Emperor had to march into Rajputana against the rebel Kachwahas. He requested the Guru to accompany him. From Rajputana, the emperor marched to the Deccan to suppress the rebellion of his brother Kam Bakhsh, and the Guru accompanied him.

Guru Gobind Singh was not happy with Bahadur Shah's friendly attitude towards Wazir Khan of Sirhind. He parted ways with the Emperor at Hingoli, and reached Nanded in July 1708. At Nanded, the Guru camped on the banks of the river Godavari. Saiyad Khan, the former general of the imperial forces, resigned from his post and came to Nanded from Kangra, to see the Guru.

During a trip, the Guru met a bairagi (hermit) called Madho Das, whom he initiated into Khalsa as Gurbakhsh Singh. Gurbakhsh Singh, popularly known as "Banda Singh" or "Banda Bahadur", soon became his most trusted general.

While in Nanded, the Guru received in a letter from Saiyad Khan's sister Nasiran, the wife of Pir Budhu Shah of Sadhaura. The letter informed him that the Emperor's army had ransacked Sadhaura and hanged Pir Budhu Shah as a rebel, for having faith in Guru Gobind Singh, whom they considered as a Kaffir ("infidel").

The Guru assumed that the Emperor had fallen prey to Wazir Khan's propaganda, and was plotting to kill all of his supporters. He sent a letter to the emperor, demanding an explanation for Pir Budhu Shah's death. There was no reply from the emperor. Instead, the Guru heard rumors that the emperor was planning to wage a battle against him. The Guru appointed Banda Singh as the commander of the Khalsa, and asked him to march towards Punjab.

Final days and death[link]

Takht Sri Hazur Sahib, Nanded, built over the place where Guru Gobind Singh was cremated in 1708, the inner chamber is still called Angitha Sahib.

Wazir Khan, the Nawab of Sirhind, felt uneasy about any conciliation between Guru Gobind Singh and Bahadur Shah I. He commissioned two Pathans, Jamshed Khan and Wasil Beg,^[28] to assassinate the Guru. The two secretly pursued the Guru and got an opportunity to attack him at Nanded.^[29]

According to Sri Gur Sobha by the contemporary writer Senapati, Jamshed Khan stabbed the Guru in the left side below the heart while he was resting in his chamber after the Rehras prayer. Guru Gobind Singh killed the attacker with his Talwar (traditional Sikh curved sword), while the attacker's companion tried to flee but was killed by Sikhs who had rushed in on hearing the noise.

The European surgeon sent by Bahadur Shah stitched the Guru's wound. However, the wound re-opened and caused profuse bleeding, as the Guru tugged at a hard strong bow after a few days. Seeing his end was near, the Guru declared the Granth Sahib as the next Guru of the Sikhs.^[30] He then sang his self-composed hymn:

"Agya bhai Akal ki tabhi chalayo Panth Sabh Sikhan ko hukam hai Guru Maneyo Granth, Guru Granth Ji manyo pargat Guran ki deh Jo Prabhu ko milbo chahe khoj shabad mein le Raj karega Khalsa aqi rahei na koe Khwar hoe sabh milange bache sharan jo hoe."

Translation of the above:

"Under orders of the Immortal Being, the Panth was created. All the Sikhs are enjoined to accept the Granth as their Guru. Consider the Guru Granth as embodiment of the Gurus. Those who want to meet God, can find Him in its hymns. The Khalsa shall rule, and impure will be no more, Those separated will unite and all the devotees shall be saved."

The Guru reportedly left the visible body, along with his horse Dilbagh (aka Neela Ghora) on 7 October 1708 at Nanded, before which he had declared the Guru Granth Sahib as his successor.^[31]

Criticism[link]

Mughal accounts of Guru Govind Singh[link]

Guru Govind Singh, gave the Sikhs their very distinctive symbols—the uncut hair, the steel bangle, the sword. He soon initiated conflict against local Hindu rivals in the Punjab such as: Kirpal Chand, Raja of Kangra and Raja Dayal of Bijarwal. After ceaseless battles local Hindu landlords allied themselves to to the Mughal governor Wazir Khan, who himself requested assistance from the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb when the local Muslim populace was consecutively attacked by the Sikh rebels.^[32][33]

Aurangzeb agreed to send forces to assist them in besieging Govind Singh in his stronghold at Anandpur. The guru himself escaped, but his children were executed. As he fed from the pursuing Mughal Army, Guru Govind Singh addressed their Emperor, Aurangzeb in a long Persian poem, known as Zafarnama. The poem complained against the Mughal Emperor Aurnagzeb, but appealed for peace in the name of humanity and of Islam and its teachings. According to certain Sikh accounts, Aurangzeb invited the guru to visit him in the Deccan and thereafter allowed Guru Govind Singh to live in peace.^[34]

Bahadur Shah I respected Guru Govind Singh and ordered an investagation to the actions of Wazir Khan, and it was during this time period that Guru Govind Singh was assassinated by a renegade loyalist of Wazir Khan.

See also[link]

• List of places named after Guru Gobind Singh
• Guru Gobind Singh Children's Foundation
• Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Singh, Gobind; Jasbir Kaur Ahuja (1996). The Zafarnama of Guru Gobind Singh. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. OCLC 42966940. 
• Singh, Prof. Surinderjit, Guru Gobind Singh's Zafarnamah Transliteration and Poetic Rendering in English. Singh Brothers, Amritsar. 2003. ISBN 81-7205-272-3.
• Deora, Man Singh (1989). Guru Gobind Singh: a literary survey. New Delhi: Anmol Publications. ISBN 978-81-7041-160-4. OCLC 21280295. 
• Chopra, R. M., Glory of Sikhism, Sanbun Publishers, 2001, ISBN 783473471195.

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Gobind Singh

• - Tenets of Guru Gobind Singh by Baldev Singh
• Guru Gobind Singh Ji, Biography of Guru Gobind Singh
• Sri Dasam Granth, the definitive writings on the Sri Dasam Granth
• Sri Guru Gobind Singh Ji Shabad, Read along with Shabad by Guru Gobind Singh in the Sri Dasam Granth
• Dasam Granth, the collection of writings attributed to Guru Gobind Singh