Ice hockey
A professional hockey team attempting to prevent the opposing team from scoring a goal. |
| Highest governing body |
IIHF |
| Nickname(s) |
"The fastest game on earth" |
| First played |
19th century Canada |
| Characteristics |
| Contact |
Yes |
| Team members |
6 per side (including goaltender) |
| Mixed gender |
Yes, separate competitions |
| Categorization |
Team sport, winter sport |
| Equipment |
Hockey puck |
| Venue |
Ice hockey arena |
| Olympic |
1920 (summer)
1924 to present (winter) |
| Country or region |
Worldwide |
Ice hockey is a team sport played on ice, in which skaters use wooden or composite sticks to shoot a hard rubber puck into their opponent's net. In regions where it is popular, the game is often referred to simply as hockey. The game is played between two teams with six players on the ice. A team usually consists of four lines of three forwards, three pairs of defencemen and two goalies. Five members of each team skate up and down the ice trying to take the puck and score a goal against the opposing team. Each team has a goaltender who tries to stop the puck from going into the goal or "net".
A fast-paced physical sport, ice hockey is most popular in areas of North America and Europe that are sufficiently cold for natural reliable seasonal ice cover. With the advent of indoor artificial ice rinks ice hockey has become a year-round pastime in some areas. In North America, the National Hockey League (NHL) is the highest level for men, and the most popular. The Canadian Women's Hockey League (CWHL) and the Western Women's Hockey League (WWHL) are the highest levels for women. It is the official national winter sport of Canada,[1] where the game enjoys immense popularity. The first organized game was played on March 3, 1875 in Montreal, Canada.
While there are 68 total members of the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF), 162 of 177 medals at the IIHF World Championships have been taken by these seven nations: Canada, the Czech Republic, Finland, Russia, Slovakia, Sweden and the United States.[2][3] Of the 64 medals awarded in men's competition at the Olympic level from 1920 on, only six medals did not go to the one of those countries. All 12 Olympic and 36 IIHF World Women's Championships medals have gone to one of these seven countries, and every gold medal in both competitions has been won by either Canada or the United States.[4][5]
Winter landscape with skaters playing colf by 17th century Dutch painter.
There are many examples of games throughout history that incorporated hitting a ball on an ice-covered surface that pre-date modern ice hockey. IJscolf, a game resembling Colf with the added element of an ice-covered surface, was popular in the Low Countries between the Middle Ages and the Dutch Golden Age. The game was played with a wooden curved bat (called Colf or Kolf) and a ball made of wood or leather between two poles or simply convenient nearby landmarks, with the object hitting the chosen point with the least number of strokes. A similar game called Knattleikr had been played for thousand years or more by the Vikings as documented in the Icelandic Sagas.
However, most believe that modern ice hockey is evolved from outdoor stick-and-ball games adapted to the icy conditions of Canada in the 19th century.[citation needed] The games of British soldiers and immigrants to Canada, influenced by stick-and-ball games of First Nations, may have influenced the game to be played on ice skates, often played with a puck, and played with sticks made by the Mi'kmaq of Nova Scotia. A competing theory is that the game was introduced by the Icelandic immigrants adapting the Icelandic game Knattleikr. These immigrants moved to Canada and USA after the eruption of a volcano in Iceland in 1875. Immigrants from Iceland then played on behalf of Canada and won the first ever Olympic medal in ice hockey.[6]
Often these games were recreation for British soldiers on postings. In Canada, from oral histories, there is evidence of a tradition of an ancient stick and ball game played among the Mi'kmaq First Nation in Eastern Canada. In Legends of the Micmacs (1894), Silas Rand describes a Mi'kmaq ball game people called tooadijik. Rand also describes a game played (likely after European contact) with hurleys, called wolchamaadijik.[7]
Stick and ball games have a long history dating to pre-Christian times. In Europe, these games included Irish sport of hurling, the closely related Scottish sport of shinty, and versions of field hockey, including "Bandie ball," played in England. European immigrants to Canada brought their games with them and adapted them for icy conditions.
The name of hockey itself has no clear origin, though the first known mention of the word 'hockey' in English dates to 1363.[8]
Early 19th century paintings show "shinney", or "shinny", an early form of ice hockey with no standard rules, played in Nova Scotia, Canada.[citation needed] Thus, many of these early games had also absorbed the physically aggressive aspects of what the Mi'kmaq in Nova Scotia called dehuntshigwa'es (lacrosse). Games of shinney are also known to have been played on the St. Lawrence River at Montreal and Quebec City and in Kingston[10] and Ottawa in Ontario. The number of players on these games was often large. To this day, shinny (or shinney) (derived from Shinty) is a popular Canadian[11] term for an informal type of hockey, either on ice or as street hockey.
In 1825, Sir John Franklin wrote that "The game of hockey played on the ice was the morning sport" while on Great Bear Lake during one of his Arctic expeditions. A watercolor from the mid-1830s portrays New Brunswick Lieutenant Governor Sir Archibald Campbell and his family in the company of British soldiers on skates engaged in stick-on-ice sport. Capt. R.G.A. Levinge, a British Army officer who had been in New Brunswick during Campbell’s time, provides a written account of "hockey on ice" on Chippewa Creek a tributary of the Niagara River in 1839. In 1843, yet another British Army officer in Kingston, Ontario, in Upper Canada, wrote "Began to skate this year, improved quickly and had great fun at hockey on the ice."[10] An article in the Boston Evening Gazette, in 1859, made reference to an early game of hockey on ice occurring in Halifax in that year.[12]
Thomas Chandler Haliburton, in The Attache: Second Series, published in 1844, reminisced about boys from King's College School in Windsor, Nova Scotia, playing "hurly on the long pond on the ice" when he was a student there, no later than 1810.[7][12] Based on Haliburton's writings, there have been claims that modern ice hockey originated in Windsor, Nova Scotia, by King's College students and was named after an individual, as in “Colonel Hockey's game.”[13] Others claim that the origins of ice hockey come from games played in the area of Dartmouth and Halifax in Nova Scotia.
In 1799, William Pierre Le Cocq, in a letter written in Chesham, Buckinghamshire, England, provides a reference to the game hockey: “I must now describe to you the game of Hockey; we have each a stick turning up at the end. We get a bung. There are two sides one of them knocks one way and the other side the other way. If any one of the sides makes the bung reach that end of the churchyard it is victorious.”[14] The actual word hockey was mentioned centuries before, in 1363, when King Edward III of England issued a declaration banning a list of games: "moreover we ordain that you prohibit under penalty of imprisonment all and sundry from such stone, wood and iron throwing; handball, football, or hockey; coursing and cock-fighting, or other such idle games".
From the context, the word "hockey" is a clear corruption of the word "hook" referring to the end of the stick. In 1527 a statute recorded in Galway City in Ireland stated, "At no time to use ne occupy ye hurling of ye litill balle with the hookie sticks or staves, nor use no hand balle to play without the walls, but only the great foot balle." This was referring to the game of hurling and the hook made it likely the stick was like the ones used in shinty.[15]
According to the Austin Hockey Association, the word puck is derived from the Scottish Gaelic word "puc" or the Irish word "poc," meaning to poke, punch or deliver a blow. This definition is explained in a book published in 1910 entitled "English as we Speak it in Ireland" by P. W. Joyce. It defines the word puck as "... The blow given by a hurler to the ball with his caman or hurley is always called a puck."
Ice hockey at McGill University, Montreal, 1901
Ice hockey in Europe; Oxford University vs. Switzerland, 1922. Future Canadian Prime Minister
Lester Pearson is at right front.
While the game's origins may lie elsewhere, Montreal is at the centre of the development of the modern sport of ice hockey. On March 3, 1875, the first organized indoor game was played at Montreal's Victoria Skating Rink between two sides of nine-player teams, including James Creighton and several McGill University students. Instead of a ball, the game featured the use of a puck, the purpose of which was to prevent the puck from exiting the rink, which did not have boards, and hitting spectators. The goals were goal posts 6 feet (1.8 m) apart, and the game lasted 60 minutes.
In 1877, several McGill students, including Creighton, Henry Joseph, Richard F. Smith, W. F. Robertson, and W. L. Murray codified seven ice hockey rules, based on the rules of field hockey. The first ice hockey club, McGill University Hockey Club, was founded in 1877[16] followed by the Montreal Victorias, organized in 1881.[17]
The game became so popular that the first "world championship" of ice hockey was featured in Montreal's annual Winter Carnival in 1883 and the McGill team captured the "Carnival Cup".[18] The number of players per side was reduced to seven, and the games now organized into thirty-minute halves. The positions were now named with left and right wing, centre, rover, point and cover point, and goalkeeper. In 1885, the Montreal City Hockey League was established.[19] In 1886, teams that competed at the Winter Carnival organized the Amateur Hockey Association of Canada (AHAC) league and played a regular season composed of "challenges" to the existing champion.[20]
In Europe, it is believed that in 1885 the Oxford University Ice Hockey Club was formed to play the first Ice Hockey Varsity Match against traditional rival Cambridge in St. Moritz, Switzerland, although this is undocumented. This match was won by the Oxford Dark Blues, 6–0.[21][22] The first photographs and team lists date from 1895.[23] This rivalry continues, claimed to be the oldest hockey rivalry in history. It was not the only game on ice derived from stick-and-ball games played in Europe. In this time period, the game of Bandie ball was adapted to the ice, evolving into bandy, which endured in popularity in Europe into the 20th century, and remains popular today in Sweden, Russia, Finland and Norway.
In 1888, the new Governor General of Canada, Lord Stanley of Preston, whose sons and daughter had become hockey enthusiasts, attended the Montreal Winter Carnival tournament and was impressed with the hockey spectacle. In 1892, recognizing that there was no recognition for the best team in all of Canada (various leagues had championship trophies), he purchased a decorative bowl for use as a trophy. The Dominion Hockey Challenge Cup, which later became more famously known as the Stanley Cup, was first awarded in 1893 to the Montreal HC, champions of the AHAC. It continues to be awarded today to the National Hockey League's championship team.[24] Stanley's son Arthur helped organize the Ontario Hockey Association and Stanley's daughter Isobel was one of the first women to play ice hockey.
By 1893, there were almost a hundred teams in Montreal alone, and leagues throughout Canada. Winnipeg hockey players had incorporated cricket pads to better protect the goaltender's legs. They also introduced the "scoop" shot, later known as the wrist shot. Goal nets became a standard feature of the Canadian Amateur Hockey League (CAHL) in 1900. Left and right defence began to replace the point and cover point positions in 1906 in the OHA.[25]
A similar sport had been popular in the United States (US) during this time called ice polo, but by 1893 the first ice hockey matches were being played at Yale University and Johns Hopkins University.[26] Ice polo, played in the New England area, would die out as Americans adopted ice hockey. In 1896, the first ice hockey league in the US was formed. The U. S. Amateur Hockey League was founded in New York City shortly after the opening of the St. Nicholas Rink and its artificial ice rink.
Lord Stanley's five sons were instrumental in bringing ice hockey to Europe, beating a court team (which included both the future Edward VII and George V) at Buckingham Palace in 1895. By 1903 a five-team league had been founded. The Ligue Internationale de Hockey sur Glace was founded in 1908 to govern international competitions, and the first European championships were won by Great Britain in 1910. In the mid-20th century, the League became the International Ice Hockey Federation.[27]
Most of the early indoor ice rinks have been demolished. The Victoria Rink, built in 1862, was demolished in 1925.[28] The Stannus Street Rink in Windsor, Nova Scotia, built in 1897 may be the oldest still in existence, but is no longer used for ice hockey. The Aberdeen Pavilion, built in 1898 in Ottawa was used for ice hockey in 1904 and is the oldest existing facility that has hosted Stanley Cup games. The oldest indoor ice hockey arena still in use today for ice hockey is Boston's Matthews Arena, built in 1910.[29]
Professional ice hockey has existed from the early 20th century. By 1902, the Western Pennsylvania Hockey League was the first to openly employ professionals. The league joined with teams in Michigan and Ontario to form the first fully professional International Professional Hockey League (IPHL), in 1904. The IPHL hired numerous players from Canada, and Canadian leagues in response started to openly pay players, who played alongside amateurs. The IPHL, cut off from its biggest source of players, disbanded in 1907. By then, several professional hockey leagues were operating in Canada, with leagues in the Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec provinces of Canada.
In 1910, the National Hockey Association (NHA) was formed in Montreal. The NHA would further refine the rules, dropping the rover position, splitting the game into three 20-minute periods and introducing the system of minor and major penalties. After re-organizing as the National Hockey League (NHL) in 1917, the league expanded into the United States in 1924.
Professional ice hockey leagues developed later in Europe. The game of bandy was still popular and amateur leagues leading to national championships were in place. One of the first was the Swiss National League A, founded in 1916. Today, professional leagues have been introduced in most countries of Europe. The top leagues in Europe include the Kontinental Hockey League, the Czech Extraliga, the Finnish SM-liiga and the Swedish Elitserien.
Goaltenders use more protective equipment than other players.
Since ice hockey is a full contact sport and body checks are allowed, injuries can be a common occurrence. Protective equipment is mandatory and is enforced in all competitive situations. This includes a helmet (cage worn if certain age), shoulder pads, elbow pads, mouth guard, protective gloves, heavily padded shorts (also known as hockey pants), athletic cup, shin pads, skates, and (optionally) a neck protector. In addition, goaltenders use different gear, a neck guard, chest/arm protector, blocker, catch glove, and leg pads.
One important piece of equipment is the ice skate itself. Hockey skates are optimized for several factors, some of which increase the effort needed to achieve the highest skating speeds (see Racing Skates). Hockey skates are optimized for physical acceleration (maneuverability). This includes rapid starts, stops, turns, and changes in skating direction. In addition they must be rigid and tough to protect the skater's feet from contact with other skaters, sticks, pucks, the boards, and the ice itself. Rigidity also improves the overall maneuvrability of the skate. Blade length, thickness (width), and curvature (rocker/radius (front to back) and radius of hollow (across the blade width) are quite different from speed or figure skates. Hockey players usually adjust these parameters based on their skill level, position, and body type.
Ice hockey is a full contact sport and carries a high risk of injury.[30] Not only are the players moving at around 20–30 miles an hour (around 30 – 45 km/h), quite a bit of the game revolves around the physical contact between the players. Skate blades, hockey sticks, shoulders, hips, and hockey pucks all contribute. The number of injuries is quite high[citation needed] and includes lacerations, concussions, contusions, ligament tears, broken bones, hyperextensions, and muscle strains.
According to the Hughston Health Alert, "Lacerations to the head, scalp, and face are the most frequent types of injury [in hockey]." (Schmidt 6)[31] Even a shallow cut to the head results in a loss of a large amount of blood. Most concussions occur during player to player contact (49%)[32] rather than when a player is checked into the boards (35%).[32] Not only are lacerations common, “it is estimated that direct trauma accounts for 80% of all [hockey] injuries. Most of these injuries are caused by player contact, falls and contact with a puck, high stick and occasionally, a skate blade.” (Schmidt 3)[31][33] One of the causes of head injury is checking from behind.[34] Due to the danger of delivering a check from behind, many leagues, including the NHL have made this a major and gross misconduct penalty(Boarding). Another type of check that accounts for many of the player to player contact concussions is a check to the head.[35] A check to the head can be defined as delivering a hit while the receiving player’s head is down and their waist is bent and the aggressor is targeting the receiving player's head. Checks to head have accounted for nearly 50% of concussions that players in the National Hockey League have suffered.[36] Concussions that players suffer may go unreported because there are no obvious physical signs if a player is not knocked unconscious. This can prove to be dangerous if a player decides to return to play without receiving proper medical attention. In recent years there has been debate over whether or not a check to head should be deemed an acceptable hit in hockey. In March 2011, the NHL instituted a new concussion testing protocol to help improve detection of concussions during gameplay[37]
While the general characteristics of the game are the same wherever it is played, the exact rules depend on the particular code of play being used. The two most important codes are those of the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF)[38] and of the Canadian founded and North American expanded National Hockey League (NHL).[39]
Typical layout of an ice hockey rink surface
Ice hockey is played on a hockey rink. During normal play, there are six players per side on the ice at any time, one of them being the goaltender, each of whom is on ice skates. The objective of the game is to score goals by shooting a hard vulcanized rubber disc, the puck, into the opponent's goal net, which is placed at the opposite end of the rink. The players may control the puck using a long stick with a blade that is commonly curved at one end.
Players may also redirect the puck with any part of their bodies, subject to certain restrictions. Players may not hold the puck in their hand and are prohibited from using their hands to pass the puck to their teammates, unless they are in the defensive zone. Players are also prohibited from kicking the puck into the opponent's goal, though unintentional redirections off the skate are permitted. Players may not intentionally bat the puck into the net with their hands.
Hockey is an "offside" game, meaning that forward passes are allowed, unlike in rugby. Before the 1930s hockey was an onside game, meaning that only backward passes were allowed. Those rules favored individual stick-handling as a key means of driving the puck forward. With the arrival of offside rules, the forward pass transformed hockey into a truly team sport, where individual performance diminished in importance relative to team play, which could now be coordinated over the entire surface of the ice as opposed to merely rearward players.[40]
The five players other than the goaltender are typically divided into three forwards and two defensemen. The forward positions consist of a centre and two wingers: a left wing and a right wing. Forwards often play together as units or lines, with the same three forwards always playing together. The defencemen usually stay together as a pair generally divided between left and right. Left and right side wingers or defencemen are generally positioned as such, based on the side on which they carry their stick. A substitution of an entire unit at once is called a line change. Teams typically employ alternate sets of forward lines and defensive pairings when shorthanded or on a power play. Substitutions are permitted at any time during the course of the game, although during a stoppage of play the home team is permitted the final change. When players are substituted during play, it is called changing on the fly. A new NHL rule added in the 2005–2006 season prevents a team from changing their line after they ice the puck.
The boards surrounding the ice help keep the puck in play and they can also be used as tools to play the puck. Players are permitted to "bodycheck" opponents into the boards as a means of stopping progress. The referees, linesmen and the outsides of the goal are "in play" and do not cause a stoppage of the game when the puck or players are influenced (by either bouncing or colliding) into them. Play can be stopped if the goal is knocked out of position. Play often proceeds for minutes without interruption. When play is stopped, it is restarted with a faceoff. Two players "face" each other and an official drops the puck to the ice, where the two players attempt to gain control of the puck. Markings on the ice indicate the locations for the "faceoff" and guide the positioning of players.
There are three major rules of play in ice hockey that limit the movement of the puck: offside, icing, and the puck going out of play. The puck goes "out of play" whenever it goes past the perimeter of the ice rink (onto the player benches, over the "glass", or onto the protective netting above the glass) and a stoppage of play is called by the officials using whistles. It also does not matter if the puck comes back onto the ice surface from those areas as the puck is considered dead once it leaves the perimeter of the rink.
Under IIHF rules, each team may carry a maximum of 20 players and two goaltenders on their roster. NHL rules restrict the total number of players per game to 18, plus two goaltenders. In the NHL, the players are usually divided into four lines of three forwards, and into three pairs of defenceman. On occasion, teams may elect to substitute an extra defenceman for a forward; this seventh defenceman might sometimes play on the fourth line as a forward.
Altercations often occur near the goal after a stoppage of play, since defensive players are highly concerned with protecting their
goaltender.
For most penalties, the offending player is sent to the "penalty box" and his team has to play without him for a short amount of time. Minor penalties last for two minutes, major penalties last for five minutes, and a double minor penalty is two consecutive penalties of two minutes duration. A single Minor penalty may be extended by a further two minutes for causing visible injury to the victimized player. This is usually when blood is drawn during high sticking. The team that has been given a penalty is said to be playing shorthanded while the opposing team is on a power play.
A two-minute minor penalty is often charged for lesser infractions such as tripping, elbowing, roughing, high-sticking, delay of the game, too many players on the ice, boarding, illegal equipment, charging (leaping into an opponent or body-checking him after taking more than two strides), holding, holding the stick (grabbing an opponent's stick), interference, hooking, slashing, kneeing, unsportsmanlike conduct (arguing a penalty call with referee, extremely vulgar or inappropriate verbal comments), butt-ending (striking an opponent with the knob of the stick—a very rare penalty), spearing, or cross-checking. As of the 2005–06 season, a minor penalty is also assessed for diving, where a player embellishes or simulates an offence. More egregious fouls may be penalized by a four-minute double-minor penalty, particularly those that injure the victimized player. These penalties end either when the time runs out or when the other team scores during the power play. In the case of a goal scored during the first two minutes of a double-minor, the penalty clock is set down to two minutes upon a score, effectively expiring the first minor penalty. Five-minute major penalties are called for especially violent instances of most minor infractions that result in intentional injury to an opponent, or when a "minor" penalty results in visible injury (such as bleeding), as well as for fighting. Major penalties are always served in full; they do not terminate on a goal scored by the other team. The foul of 'boarding', defined as "check[ing] an opponent in such a manner that causes the opponent to be thrown violently in the boards" by the NHL Rulebook is penalized either by a minor or major penalty at the discretion of the referee, based on the violent state of the hit. A minor or major penalty for boarding is often assessed when a player checks an opponent from behind and into the boards.
Some varieties of penalties do not always require the offending team to play a man short. Concurrent five-minute major penalties in the NHL usually result from fighting. In the case of two players being assessed five-minute fighting majors, both the players serve five minutes without their team incurring a loss of player (both teams still have a full complement of players on the ice). This differs with two players from opposing sides getting minor penalties, at the same time or at any intersecting moment, resulting from more common infractions. In this case, both teams will have only four skating players (not counting the goaltender) until one or both penalties expire (if one penalty expires before the other, the opposing team gets a power play for the remainder of the time); this applies regardless of current pending penalties. However, in the NHL, a team always has at least three skaters on the ice. Thus, ten-minute misconduct penalties are served in full by the penalized player, but his team may immediately substitute another player on the ice unless a minor or major penalty is assessed in conjunction with the misconduct (a two-and-ten or five-and-ten). In this case, the team designates another player to serve the minor or major; both players go to the penalty box, but only the designee may not be replaced, and he is released upon the expiration of the two or five minutes, at which point the ten-minute misconduct begins. In addition, game misconducts are assessed for deliberate intent to inflict severe injury on an opponent (at the officials' discretion), or for a major penalty for a stick infraction or repeated major penalties. The offending player is ejected from the game and must immediately leave the playing surface (he does not sit in the penalty box); meanwhile, if an additional minor or major penalty is assessed, a designated player must serve out of that segment of the penalty in the box (similar to the above-mentioned "two-and-ten"). In some rare cases, a player may receive up to nineteen minutes in penalties for one string of plays. This could involve receiving a four-minute double minor penalty, getting in a fight with an opposing player who retaliates, and then receiving a game misconduct after the fight. In this case, the player is ejected and two teammates must serve the double-minor and major penalties.
A penalty shot is awarded to a player when the illegal actions of another player stop a clear scoring opportunity, most commonly when the player is on a breakaway –A penalty shot allows the obstructed player to pick up the puck on the centre red-line and attempt to score on the goalie with no other players on the ice, to compensate for the earlier missed scoring opportunity. A penalty shot is also awarded for a defender other than the goaltender covering the puck in the goal crease, a goaltender intentionally displacing his own goal posts during a breakaway to avoid a goal, a defender intentionally displacing his own goal posts when there is less than two minutes to play in regulation time or at any point during overtime, or a player or coach intentionally throwing a stick or other object at the puck or the puck carrier and the throwing action disrupts a shot or pass play.
An ice hockey referee is responsible for assessing most penalties during a game.
Officials also stop play for puck movement violations, such as using one's hands to pass the puck in the offensive end, but no players are penalized for these offences. The sole exceptions are deliberately falling on or gathering the puck to the body, carrying the puck in the hand, and shooting the puck out of play in one's defensive zone (all penalized two minutes for delay of game).
A new penalty in the NHL applies to the goalies. The goalies now are unable to play the puck in the "corners" of the rink near their own net. This will result in a two-minute penalty against the goalie's team. The area immediately behind the net (marked by two red lines on either side of the net) is the only area behind the net where the goalie can play the puck.
An additional rule that is not a penalty in the new NHL is the two line offside passes. There are no more two-line offside pass whistles blown. Now players are able to pass to teammates who are more than the blue and centre ice red line away.
The NHL has taken steps to speed the game of hockey up and create a game of finesse, by retreating from the past where illegal hits, fights, and "clutching and grabbing" among players were commonplace. Rules are now more strictly enforced, resulting in more penalties, which in turn provides more protection to the players and facilitates more goals being scored.
There are many infractions for which a player may be assessed a penalty. The governing body for United States amateur hockey has implemented many new rules to reduce the number of stick-on-body occurrences, as well as other detrimental and illegal facets of the game ("Zero Tolerance").
In men's hockey, but not in women's, a player may use his hip or shoulder to hit another player if the player has the puck or is the last to have touched it. This use of the hip and shoulder is called body checking. Not all physical contact is legal — in particular, hits from behind and most types of forceful stick-on-body contact are illegal.
A typical game of ice hockey has two to four officials on the ice, charged with enforcing the rules of the game. There are typically two linesmen who are mainly responsible for calling offside and icing violations, breaking up fights, and conducting faceoffs,[41] and one or two referees,[42] who call goals and all other penalties. Linesmen can, however, report to the referee(s) that a penalty should be assessed against an offending player in some situations.[43] The restrictions on this practice vary depending on the governing rules. On-ice officials are assisted by off-ice officials who act as goal judges, time keepers, and official scorers.
The most widespread system in use today is the 3-man system, that features one referee and two linesmen. Another less commonly used system is the two referee and one linesman system. This system is very close to the regular 3-man system except for a few procedure changes. With the first being the National Hockey League, a number of leagues have started to implement the 4-official system, where an additional referee is added to aid in the calling of penalties normally difficult to assess by one single referee. The system has proven quite successful in the NHL and the IIHF has adopted it for the World Championships, slightly discussed during the 2008 World Championships in Quebec City and Halifax, Canada. Many other leagues are adopting the system for the next season, which only downside at the moment is the increased cost for the leagues.
Officials are selected by the league they work for. Amateur hockey leagues use guidelines established by national organizing bodies as a basis for choosing their officiating staffs. In North America, the national organizing bodies Hockey Canada and USA Hockey approve officials according to their experience level as well as their ability to pass rules knowledge and skating ability tests. Hockey Canada has officiating levels I through VI.[44] USA Hockey has officiating levels 1 through 4.[45]
An important defensive tactic is checking—attempting to take the puck from an opponent or to remove the opponent from play. Stick checking, sweep checking, and poke checking are legal uses of the stick to obtain possession of the puck. The neutral zone trap is designed to isolate the puck carrier in the neutral zone preventing him from entering the offensive zone. Body checking is using one's shoulder or hip to strike an opponent who has the puck or who is the last to have touched it (the last person to have touched the puck is still legally "in possession" of it, although a penalty is generally called if he is checked more than two seconds after his last touch). Often the term checking is used to refer to body checking, with its true definition generally only propagated among fans of the game.
Offensive tactics include improving a team's position on the ice by advancing the puck out of one's zone towards the opponent's zone, progressively by gaining lines, first your own blue line, then the red line and finally the opponent's blue line. NHL rules instated for the 2006 season redefined offside to make the two-line pass legal; a player may pass the puck from behind his own blue line, past both that blue line and the center red line, to a player on the near side of the opponents' blue line. Offensive tactics are designed ultimately to score a goal by taking a shot. When a player purposely directs the puck towards the opponent's goal, he or she is said to "shoot" the puck.
A deflection is a shot that redirects a shot or a pass towards the goal from another player, by allowing the puck to strike the stick and carom towards the goal. A one-timer is a shot struck directly off a pass, without receiving the pass and shooting in two separate actions. Headmanning the puck, also known as cherry-picking or breaking out, is the tactic of rapidly passing to the player farthest down the ice.
A team that is losing by one or two goals in the last few minutes of play will often elect to pull the goalie; that is, remove the goaltender and replace him or her with an extra attacker on the ice in the hope of gaining enough advantage to score a goal. However, it is an act of desperation, as it sometimes leads to the opposing team extending their lead by scoring a goal in the empty net.
A delayed penalty call occurs when a penalty offense is committed by the team that does not have possession of the puck. In this circumstance the team with possession of the puck is allowed to complete the play; that is, play continues until a goal is scored, a player on the opposing team gains control of the puck, or the team in possession commits an infraction or penalty of their own. Because the team on which the penalty was called cannot control the puck without stopping play, it is impossible for them to score a goal. However, it is possible for the controlling team to mishandle the puck into their own net. In these cases the team in possession of the puck can pull the goalie for an extra attacker without fear of being scored on. If a delayed penalty is signaled and the team in possession scores, the penalty is still assessed to the offending player, but not served.
One of the most important strategies for a team is their forecheck. Forechecking is the act of attacking the opposition in their defensive zone. Forechecking is an important part of the dump and chase strategy (i.e. shooting the puck into the offensive zone and then chasing after it). Each team will use their own unique system but the main ones are: 2–1–2, 1–2–2, and 1–4. The 2–1–2 is the most basic forecheck system where two forwards will go in deep and pressure the opposition's defencemen, the third forward stays high and the two defencemen stay at the blueline. The 1–2–2 is a bit more conservative system where one forward pressures the puck carrier and the other two forwards cover the oppositions' wingers, with the two defencemen staying at the blueline. The 1–4 is the most defensive forecheck system, referred to as the trap, where one forward will apply pressure to the puck carrier around the oppositions' blueline and the other 4 players stand basically in a line by their blueline in hopes the opposition will skate into one of them.
There are many other little tactics used in the game of hockey. Pinching is the term used when a defencemen pressures the opposition's winger in the offensive zone when they are breaking out, attempting to stop their attack and keep the puck in the offensive zone. A saucer pass is a pass used when an opposition's stick or body is in the passing lane. It is the act of raising the puck over the obstruction and having it land on a teammates' stick.
A "deke," short for "decoy," is a feint with the body and/or stick to fool a defender or the goalie. Many new players, such as Pavel Datsyuk, Mike Legg and Patrick Kane, have picked up the skill of "dangling," which is fancier deking and requires more stick handling skills.
Although fighting is officially prohibited in the rules, it is both a source of criticism and a considerable draw for the sport. At the professional level in North America fights are unofficially condoned. Enforcers and other players fight to demoralize the opposing players while exciting their own, as well as settling personal scores. A fight will also break out if one of the team's skilled players gets hit hard or someone gets hit by what the team perceives as a dirty hit. The amateur game penalizes fisticuffs more harshly, as a player who receives a fighting major is also assessed at least a 10 minute misconduct penalty (NCAA and some Junior leagues) or a game misconduct penalty and suspension (high school and younger, as well as some casual adult leagues).[46] Crowds seem to like fighting in ice hockey and cheer when fighting erupts.
A professional game consists of three periods of twenty minutes each, the clock running only when the puck is in play. The teams change ends for the second period, again for the third period, and again at the start of each overtime played(playoffs only; same ends as the odd periods otherwise). Recreational leagues and children's leagues often play shorter games, generally with three shorter periods of play.
Various procedures are used if a game is tied. In tournament play, as well as in the NHL playoffs, North Americans favor sudden death overtime, in which the teams continue to play twenty minute periods until a goal is scored. Up until the 1999–2000 season regular season NHL games were settled with a single five minute sudden death period with five players (plus a goalie) per side, with both teams awarded one point in the standings in the event of a tie. With a goal, the winning team would be awarded two points and the losing team none (just as if they had lost in regulation).
From 1999–2000 until 2003–04, the National Hockey League decided ties by playing a single five minute sudden death overtime period with each team having four players (plus a goalie) per side to "open-up" the game. In the event of a tie, each team would still receive one point in the standings but in the event of a victory the winning team would be awarded two points in the standings and the losing team one point. The idea was to discourage teams from playing for a tie since previously some teams might have preferred a tie and 1 point to risking a loss and zero points. The only exception to this rule is if a team opts to pull their goalie in exchange for an extra skater during overtime and is subsequently scored upon (an 'Empty Net' goal), in which case the losing team receives no points for the overtime loss.
International play and several North American professional leagues, including the NHL (in the regular season), now use an overtime period identical to that from 99–00 – 03–04 followed by a penalty shootout. If the score remains tied after an extra overtime period, the subsequent shootout consists of three players from each team taking penalty shots. After these six total shots, the team with the most goals is awarded the victory. If the score is still tied, the shootout then proceeds to a sudden death format. Regardless of the number of goals scored during the shootout by either team, the final score recorded will award the winning team one more goal than the score at the end of regulation time. In the NHL if a game is decided by a shootout the winning team is awarded two points in the standings and the losing team is awarded one point. Ties no longer occur in the NHL.
Ice hockey is one of the fastest growing women's sports in the world, with the number of participants increasing 350 percent in the last 10 years.[47] In 2011, Canada has 85,827 women players,[48] United States has 65,609,[49] Finland 4,760,[50] Sweden 3,075[51] and Switzerland 1,172.[52] While there are not as many organized leagues for women as there are for men, there exist leagues of all levels, including the Canadian Women's Hockey League, Western Women's Hockey League, Mid-Atlantic Women's Hockey League, and various European leagues; as well as university teams, national and Olympic teams, and recreational teams. By the end of 2011 there had been thirteen IIHF World Women's Championships.[53]
A women's ice hockey team in 1921
The USHL welcomed the first female professional hockey player in 1969–70, when the Marquette Iron Rangers signed Karen Koch.[54]
Women's ice hockey was added as a medal sport at the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano, Japan. The United States won gold, Canada won silver and Finland won bronze.[55]
The chief difference between women's and men's ice hockey is that body checking is not allowed in women's ice hockey. After the 1990 Women's World Championship, body checking was eliminated because female players in many countries do not have the size and mass seen in North American players.[citation needed] In current IIHF women's competition, body checking is either a minor or major penalty, decided at the referee's discretion.[56]
In addition, players in women's competition are required to wear protective full-face masks.[56]
One woman, Manon Rhéaume, appeared as a goaltender for the NHL's Tampa Bay Lightning in pre-season games against the St. Louis Blues and the Boston Bruins, and in 2003 Hayley Wickenheiser played with the Kirkkonummi Salamat in the Finnish men's Suomi-sarja league. Several women have competed in North American minor leagues, including goaltenders Kelly Dyer, Erin Whitten, Manon Rhéaume, and defencewoman Angela Ruggiero.
Main article:
Pond hockeyPond hockey is a form of ice hockey played generally as pick-up hockey on lakes, ponds and artificial outdoor rinks during the winter. Pond hockey is commonly referred to in hockey circles as shinny. Its rules differ from traditional hockey because there is no hitting and very little shooting, placing a greater emphasis on skating, puckhandling and passing abilities. Since 2002, the World Pond Hockey Championship has been played on Roulston Lake in Plaster Rock, New Brunswick, Canada.[57] Since 2006, the U.S. Pond Hockey Championships have been played in Minneapolis, Minnesota.
The annual men's Ice Hockey World Championships are more highly regarded by Europeans than North Americans because they coincide with the Stanley Cup playoffs. Consequently, Canada, the United States, and other countries with large numbers of NHL players have not always been able to field their best possible teams because many of their top players are playing for the Stanley Cup. Furthermore, for many years professionals were barred from play. Now that many Europeans play in the NHL, the world championships no longer represent all of the world's top players.
Hockey has been played at the Winter Olympics since 1924 (and at the summer games in 1920). Canada won six of the first seven gold medals to 1952, the exception occurring in 1936 when Great Britain won. The USSR won all but two gold medals from 1956 to 1988 as well as a final time as the Unified Team at the 1992 Albertville Olympics. The United States won their first gold medal in 1960. On the way to winning the gold medal at the 1980 Lake Placid Olympics amateur US college players defeated the heavily favored Soviet squad – an event known as the "Miracle on ice" in the United States. Since the 1998 games in Nagano all top players from the NHL have been able to take part, with Vancouver 2010 being the first time held in an NHL market since the inclusion of NHL players. Nowadays Winter Olympics games are the most highly regarded international tournament by ice hockey fans.
The 1972 Summit Series and 1974 Summit Series, established Canada and the USSR as a major international ice hockey rivalry. It was followed by five Canada Cup tournaments, where the best players from every hockey nation could play, and two exhibition series, the 1979 Challenge Cup and Rendez-vous '87 where the best players from the NHL played the USSR. The Canada Cup tournament later became the World Cup of Hockey, played in 1996 and 2004. The United States won in 1996 and Canada won in 2004.
Since the initial women's world championships in 1990 there have been thirteen tournaments.[53] Women's hockey has been played at the Olympics since 1998.[55] The 2006 Winter Olympic final between Canada and Sweden marked the only time the women's world championship or Olympic final did not involve both Canada and the United States
The annual Euro Hockey Tour, an unofficial European championships between the national men's teams of the Czech Republic, Finland, Russia and Sweden have been played since 1996–97.
Other ice hockey tournaments featuring national teams include the World U20 Championship, the World U18 Championships, the World U-17 Hockey Challenge, the World Junior A Challenge, the Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament, the World Women's U18 Championships and the 4 Nations Cup.
The National Hockey League,(NHL) and specifically the Stanley Cup trophy, is the oldest still operating international competition, featuring clubs from the United States and Canada.
The Kontinental Hockey League (KHL), an international ice hockey league in Eurasia and the successor to the Russian Super League and the Soviet League, the history of which dates back to the 1940s, was launched in 2008 with clubs from the post-Soviet states and seeks to expand beyond the former USSR for the league's future seasons. The Professional Hockey League (PHL) is the sole professional league in Ukraine and successor to the nation's Ukrainian Hockey Championship. The history of the league dates back to 1992 and the country's independence, and dissolution of the Soviet league format.
The Elite Ice Hockey League is the highest level of ice hockey in Great Britain. The league is served by teams from all of the home nations: England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.
The Asia League Ice Hockey, an international ice hockey league featuring clubs from China, Japan and South Korea, is the successor to the Japan Ice Hockey League.
International club competitions organized by the IIHF include the Champions Hockey League (currently cancelled), the Continental Cup, the Victoria Cup and the European Women's Champions Cup.
One of the oldest international ice hockey competition for clubs is the Spengler Cup, held every year in Davos, Switzerland, between Christmas and New Year's Day. It was first awarded in 1923 to Oxford University Ice Hockey Club.
The World Junior Club Cup is a tournament for junior ice hockey clubs from all over the world.
Pre-season tournaments include the European Trophy, Tampere Cup and the Pajulahti Cup.
The Australian Ice Hockey League and New Zealand Ice Hockey League are represented by seven and five teams respectively.
Ice hockey is the official winter sport of Canada. Ice hockey, partially because of its popularity as a major professional sport, has been a source of inspiration for numerous films, television episodes and songs in North American popular culture.
Attendance in the 30,000 range was once quite common for major international matches held outdoors in the 1940s and 50s in Moscow's Lenin Stadium. Figures of this type are still common in bandy, a relative of ice hockey played outdoors.
The record for a Stanley Cup playoff game is 28,183, set on April 23, 1996, at the Thunderdome during a Tampa Bay Lightning – Philadelphia Flyers game.[58]
A new record was set on December 11, 2010, when the University of Michigan's men's ice hockey team faced cross-state rival Michigan State in an event billed as "The Big Chill at the Big House". The game was played at Michigan's (American) football venue, Michigan Stadium in Ann Arbor, with a capacity of 109,901 as of the 2010 football season. When UM stopped sales to the general public on May 6, 2010, with plans to reserve remaining tickets for students, over 100,000 tickets had been sold for the event.[59] Ultimately, a crowd announced by UM as 113,411, the largest in the stadium's history (including football), saw the homestanding Wolverines win 5–0. Guinness World Records, using a count of ticketed fans who actually entered the stadium instead of UM's figure of tickets sold, announced a final figure of 104,173.[60][61]
Number of registered hockey players, including male, female and junior, provided by the respective countries' federations. Note that this list only includes countries with more than 1000 registered players. Out of 70 IIHF members 31 have more than 1000 registered players as of October 2011.[62][63]
| Country |
Players |
% of population |
 Canada |
572,411 |
1.682% |
 United States |
500,579 |
0.160% |
 Czech Republic |
100,668 |
0.988% |
 Finland |
65,251 |
1.241% |
 Russia |
63,580 |
0.046% |
 Sweden |
62,003 |
0.682% |
 Germany |
28,932 |
0.036% |
 Switzerland |
26,166 |
0.342% |
 Japan |
20,226 |
0.016% |
 France |
17,381 |
0.027% |
 Austria |
10,489 |
0.128% |
 Slovakia |
8,280 |
0.151% |
 Italy |
6,829 |
0.011% |
 Norway |
6,177 |
0.132% |
 United Kingdom |
4,901 |
0.008% |
 Ukraine |
4,500 |
0.010% |
 Latvia |
4,424 |
0.201% |
 Denmark |
4,405 |
0.080% |
 Belarus |
4,374 |
0.046% |
 Kazakhstan |
3,929 |
0.025% |
 Australia |
3,188 |
0.015% |
 Netherlands |
2,485 |
0.015% |
 Poland |
2,292 |
0.006% |
 Hungary |
2,087 |
0.021% |
 South Korea |
1,880 |
0.004% |
 Estonia |
1,510 |
0.118% |
 Mexico |
1,254 |
0.001% |
 New Zealand |
1,205 |
0.028% |
 Belgium |
1,157 |
0.011% |
 North Korea |
1,130 |
0.005% |
 Mongolia |
1,001 |
0.032% |
| Total |
1,549,984 |
|
The strongest men's ice hockey nations are sometimes referred to as the Big Six:[64]
- ^ National Sports of Canada Act
- ^ Including former incarnations of them, such as Czechoslovakia or the Soviet Union.
- ^ "Men". Iihf.com. http://www.iihf.com/iihf-home/history/all-medallists/men.html. Retrieved February 24, 2011.
- ^ "Women". Iihf.com. http://www.iihf.com/iihf-home/history/all-medallists/women.html. Retrieved February 24, 2011.
- ^ "Women". Iihf.com. http://www.iihf.com/iihf-home/history/all-medallists/olympics/women.html. Retrieved February 24, 2011.
- ^ "The Icelandic Emigration". The Icelandic National Broadcasting Service. http://servefir.ruv.is/vesturfarar/. Retrieved March 14, 2012.
- ^ a b Dalhousie University (2000). Thomas Raddall Selected Correspondence: An Electronic Edition. Print source: Thomas Raddall Fonds, Correspondence. From Thomas Raddall to Douglas M. Fisher, January 25, 1954. MS-2-202 41.14. Retrieved on May 10, 2009.
- ^ Robert Burns Morgan (1923). Readings in English Social History. p. 150. http://books.google.com/books?id=cks8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA150&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ a b "Hockey night in Kingston". http://www.queensjournal.ca/story/2005-10-04/features/hockey-night-kingston/. Retrieved June 21, 2006.
- ^ "About Shinny USA". Shinny USA. http://shinnyusa.com/about. Retrieved October 16, 2011.
- ^ a b Vaughan, G. (1999). "Quotes Prove Ice Hockey's Origin. " Birthplace of Hockey. Retrieved on: May 10, 2009.
- ^ Vaughan, Garth (1996). The Puck Stops Here: The origin of Canada's great winter game. Fredericton: Goose Lane Editions. p. 23.
- ^ Giden, Carl; Houda, Patrick (2010). "Stick and Ball Game Timeline". Society for International Hockey Research. p. 4. http://www.sihrhockey.org/new/pdfs/sihr_timeline_Preview.pdf.
- ^ Seamus J. King, "A History of Hurling," page 8.
- ^ Zukerman, Earl (March 17, 2005). "McGill's contribution to the origins of ice hockey". Archived from the original on October 4, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20061004083915/http://www.athletics.mcgill.ca/varsity_sports_article.ch2?article_id=81. Retrieved October 11, 2006.
- ^ Farrell, Arthur (1899). Hockey: Canada's Royal Winter Game. p. 27.
- ^ The trophy for this tournament is on display at the Musee McCord Museum in Montreal. A picture of this trophy can be seen at "?". http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/collection/artifacts/M976.188.1§ion=196.
- ^ The article is called "Creation & Foundation of Modern Hockey", at http://www.hockey-information.com/hockey-history.html
- ^ "Sports and Pastimes, hockey, Formation of a Dominion Hockey Association". The Gazette (Montreal, Quebec). December 9, 1889. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/hockey/024002-119.01-e.php?hockey_id_nbr=5&PHPSESSID=nnme2fg1qhr53o2nqlrhqp9rp2.
- ^ Talbot, Michael (March 5, 2001). "On Frozen Ponds". Macleans. http://www.macleans.ca/topstories/canada/article.jsp?content=47048#continue. [dead link]
- ^ Cambridge Evening News, "Sporting Heritage is Found", July 26, 2003.
- ^ Oxford University Ice Hockey Club. "History". http://users.ox.ac.uk/~ouihc/history.html. Retrieved October 11, 2006.
- ^ Podnieks, Andrew; Hockey Hall of Fame (2004). Lord Stanley's Cup. Triumph Books. ISBN 1-55168-261-3.
- ^ Selke, p. 21.
- ^ "Hockey (Ice)". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historical Foundation of Canada. 2006. http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0003794.
- ^ International Ice Hockey Federation. "History of Ice Hockey". Archived from the original on July 19, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060719171324/http://www.iihf.com/iihf/history/history.htm. Retrieved October 11, 2006.
- ^ "Victoria Skating Rink Property Sold". Montreal Gazette: p. 4. September 5, 1925.
- ^ "Northeastern University Athletics Official Website". Gonu.com. http://www.gonu.com/mhockey/archives/matthews/index.html. Retrieved March 18, 2011.
- ^ "Injury Rates in Sports". The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance 74. 2003. http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=5002567816.
- ^ a b Schmidt, Todd A (March 26, 2009). Ice Hockey Injuries. The Hughston Clinic, P. C. – Home – Orthopedics and Sports Medicine in Georgia and Alabama
- ^ a b Pearsall, David, and Alan Ashare. Safety in Ice Hockey. Philadelphia: Astm International, 2003, p. 99.
- ^ Griffith, H. Winter (2004). Complete guide to sports injuries how to treat—fractures, bruises, sprains, strains, dislocations, head injuries (3rd ed.). New York, N. Y: Body P/Perigee. ISBN 0-89586-379-0.
- ^ Pearsall, David, and Alan Ashare. Safety in Ice Hockey. Philadelphia: Astm International, 2003, p. 181.
- ^ Pearsall, David, and Alan Ashare. Safety in Ice Hockey. Philadelphia: Astm International, 2003, p. 182.
- ^ Pearsall, David, and Alan Ashare. Safety in Ice Hockey. Philadelphia: Astm International, 2003, p. 183.
- ^ Klein, Jeff. "N.H.L.’s New Concussion Protocol Requires a Physician’s Review Off the Ice". NY Times. NY Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/15/sports/hockey/15meetings.html. Retrieved 3 April 2012.
- ^ International Ice Hockey Federation (September 2002) (PDF). Official Rule Book 2002–2006. http://www.iihf.com/pdfRules/IIHFRuleBookeng.pdf.
- ^ National Hockey League (2006) (PDF). Official Rules 2006–07. Chicago, USA: Triumph Books. ISBN 1-894801-03-2. http://cdn.nhl.com/rules/20062007rulebook.pdf.
- ^ Dryden, Ken (1999). The Game. Toronto: Macmillan Canada. ISBN 0-7715-7673-0.
- ^ National Collegiate Athletic Association. "Ice Hockey 2008–2010 Rules and Interpretations". p. HR–53. http://www.ncaapublications.com/productdownloads/IH10.pdf.
- ^ National Collegiate Athletic Association. "Ice Hockey 2008–2010 Rules and Interpretations". p. HR–52. http://www.ncaapublications.com/productdownloads/IH10.pdf.
- ^ National Collegiate Athletic Association. "Ice Hockey 2008–2010 Rules and Interpretations". p. HR–54. http://www.ncaapublications.com/productdownloads/IH10.pdf.
- ^ Hockey Canada Officiating Department. "How to Get Started – Officials". http://hockeycanada.com/index.php/ci_id/63557/la_id/1.htm.
- ^ USA Hockey Officiating Program. "USA Hockey officials registration program". http://www.usahockey.com/uploadedFiles/USAHockey/Menu_Officials/Registration%20Rules.pdf.
- ^ KAHC Suspended Players retrieved August 2, 2009.
- ^ "Industry Canada". Archived from the original on September 27, 2004. http://web.archive.org/web/20040927042219/http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/epic/internet/inimr-ri.nsf/en/gr-72585e.html. Retrieved December 4, 2005.
- ^ IIHF About Hockey Canada
- ^ IIHF About United States
- ^ IIHF About Finland
- ^ IIHF About Sweden
- ^ IIHF About Switzerland
- ^ a b "IIHF World Women's Championships" (PDF). International Ice Hockey Federation. Archived from the original on December 10, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20061210235637/http://www.iihf.com/archive/WW.pdf. Retrieved December 28, 2006.
- ^ "Karen Koch". Marquette Iron Rangers. http://www.marquetteironrangers.com/kar.htm. Retrieved February 24, 2011.
- ^ a b Andria Hunter. "1998 Winter Olympics". http://www.whockey.com/int/olympics/1998/. Retrieved December 28, 2006.
- ^ a b "Section 6 – Specific Rules" (PDF). International Ice Hockey Federation Official Rule Book. International Ice Hockey Federation. Archived from the original on October 21, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20061021194221/http://www.iihf.com/hockey/rules/img/sec6.pdf. Retrieved December 28, 2006.
- ^ "World Pond Hockey Championship – History of the World Pond Hockey Championships". Worldpondhockey.com. http://www.worldpondhockey.com/content/24959. Retrieved February 24, 2011.
- ^ Hackel, Stu (January 2, 2009). "The Morning Skate: Assessing the Winter Classic". The New York Times. http://slapshot.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/01/02/the-morning-skate-assessing-the-winter-classic-and-don-sandersons-passing/. Retrieved May 8, 2010.
- ^ "Ticket Freeze for The Big Chill at the Big House Presented by Arby's" (Press release). University of Michigan Athletic Department. May 6, 2010. http://www.mgoblue.com/sports/m-hockey/spec-rel/050610aac.html. Retrieved July 25, 2010.
- ^ Janela, Mike (December 14, 2010). "Highest ice hockey game attendance". guinnessworldrecords.com. http://community.guinnessworldrecords.com/_Highest-ice-hockey-game-attendance/BLOG/3099369/7691.html. Retrieved December 16, 2010.
- ^ "Record crowd watches hockey game". Associated Press. ESPN.com. December 11, 2010. http://sports.espn.go.com/ncaa/news/story?id=5909615. Retrieved December 12, 2010.
- ^ "IIHF Member National Associations". IIHF. http://www.iihf.com/iihf-home/the-iihf/members.html. Retrieved October 13, 2011.
- ^ "Survey of Players (2011)". IIHF. http://www.iihf.com/iihf-home/the-iihf/survey-of-players.html. Retrieved October 13, 2011.
- ^ Darren Eliot (2002-02-15). "Final round wide open with six teams in the hunt". Sports Illustrated. http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/olympics/2002/ice_hockey/news/2002/02/14/finalround_preview/. Retrieved March 21, 2012.
- Farrell, Arthur (1899). Hockey: Canada's Royal Winter Game. Library and Archives Canada (Full PDF version – 160 MB). http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/hockey/024002-4000-e.html.
- Harari, P. J; Dave Ominsky (1997). Ice hockey made simple: a spectator's guide. First Base Sports In. ISBN 3-8334-4189-5. http://books.google.ca/books?id=XrhMDHrpAa4C&lpg=PP1&dq=Ice%20hockey&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true.
- McFarlane, Brian (1997). Brian McFarlane's History of Hockey. Champaign, IL: Sports Publishing Inc. ISBN 1-57167-145-5
- McKinley, Michael (2006). Hockey: A People's History. McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 0-7710-5769-5. http://books.google.ca/books?id=fCAL2ysKFWoC&lpg=PP1&dq=Hockey%3A%20A%20People's%20History&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true.
- Müller, Stephan (2005). International Ice Hockey Encyclopaedia: 1904–2005. Books on Demand. ISBN 978-3-8334-4189-9. http://books.google.ca/books?id=huA3Y4pU9noC&lpg=PP1&dq=Ice%20hockey&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true.
- Selke, Frank (1962). Behind The Cheering. Toronto, Ontario: McClelland and Stewart Ltd.
- Weekes, Don (2005). The Big Book of Hockey Trivia. Greystone Books. ISBN 1-55365-119-7. http://books.google.ca/books?id=31znPJH56zAC&lpg=PA93&dq=The%20Big%20Book%20of%20Canadian%20Trivia&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true.
- Vaughan, Garth (1996). The Puck Stops Here: The origin of Canada's great winter game. Fredericton: Goose Lane Editions.
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