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Privatdozent (abbreviated PD, P.D. or Priv.-Doz.) or Private lecturer is a title conferred in some European university systems, especially in German-speaking countries, for someone who pursues an academic career and holds all formal qualifications (doctorate and habilitation) to become a tenured university professor. With respect to the level of academic achievement, the title compares to associate professor (North America) or something between senior lecturer and reader (UK); however, the title is not connected to any salaried position.

Becoming[link]

Private lectureship is conferred on academics who have earned a doctorate (promotion) and then have written another thesis for habilitation and given a lecture before the respective department or faculty of a university. If they pass the vote after that lecture, they receive the venia legendi (or, rarely, venia docendi) and thus the status of P.D., roughly equivalent to the status of an associate professorship in the American educational system. This means they are able to teach at the respective institution, and may advise master and PhD theses.

Private docents can be employed by the universities as senior researchers and will be paid according to the salary levels for researchers. Private docents that did not have formal position traditionally did not receive a salary (only fees for the specific lectures or classes they taught). Even today, many private docents exist which are not paid.^{[citation needed]}

Professors at a Fachhochschule (a school more focused on professional skills than research), as well as honorary professors, do not need habilitation and thus were seldom private docents. The same is true for professors in the fine arts at academies or similar institutions, as well as in certain other disciplines even at universities, such as engineering.

[edit] Ceasing

As opposed to academic titles (like Dr. or Habil.), one loses the P.D. title aspect (but not the venia and the habilitation), either by being called to a professorship (which is the goal of the P.D. position) or by ceasing to teach. The withdrawal of the P.D., the so-called "remotion", is very rare and usually happens in case of extremely serious offenses; a famous case was Eugen Dühring. However, during Nazi times, most if not all Jewish private lecturers were remoted according to the Nuremberg Laws.^{[citation needed]}

Academics who stay in academe although they didn't obtain a professorship are, slightly dismissively, often called "ewige Privatdozenten" (eternal private lecturers); if they are popular, they may receive either a salaried permanent staff appointment (where those still exist) as lecturer or equivalent, and/or the purely honorific title of "außerplanmäßiger Professor" (abbreviated "apl. Prof.").

History and future[link]

The institution of private lecturer started in Germany before 1800. Friedrich Karl von Savigny lectured as privat lecturer in Marburg University in 1802/1803 (Friedrich Karl von Savigny, Juristische Methodenlehre, K.F. Koeler Verlag, Stuttgart 1951, p.p. 5–7). In Prussia it started around 1810, and became established only around 1860. After that, for many years, habilitation remained cumulative, i.e. it was based on already-published work, not a new monograph. The heyday of privatelectureship lasted approximately from 1900 until 1968, when hardly a university professor in a normal field was appointed who had not been a private lecturer.

During the university reforms beginning in 1968, in order to quickly broaden the professorial base for the many newly opened and expanding universities, often professors were appointed who were not private lecturers as well. This was also seen as a political act to counter the alleged inherent conservatism and reactionary views of the German professoriate.

The life of the private lecturer can be unsatisfactory (Georg Simmel called the time "the purgatory of P.D.-ship"^{[citation needed]}). A private lecturer in Germany is generally highly qualified, tends to be around 40 and often has a family, and no salaried position is coupled with this academic title and status. However, the private lecturer is often holder of a paid position as Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter, Hochschulassistent, Hochschuldozent or Akademischer Rat; the salary of these permanent or fixed-term positions is comparable with the salary of American instructors or assistant professors. To address the "overagedness" of the German senior academic staff, there have always been reform attempts to abolish the position, and in 2002 a limited number of "junior professorships" were introduced which are fast-track, time-limited positions to qualify for regular professorships. Initially, this has often been seen as the "beginning of the end" of private lectureship. However, it turned out that the Habilitation is held in great esteem in the academia, and that former junior professors are eager to call themselves Privatdozent or (außerplanmäßiger) Professor in case they did not attain a regular chair.^{[citation needed]}

Christian Wolff

Born	24 January 1679 Breslau, Habsburg Silesia
Died	9 April 1754 Halle, Duchy of Magdeburg
Era	18th-century philosophy
Region	Western Philosophy
School	Enlightenment philosophy
Influenced by Leibniz, Tschirnhausen, Descartes, Aristotle, Aquinas, Suárez
Influenced Kant, Baumgarten, Bilfinger

Christian Wolff (less correctly Wolf; also known as Wolfius; ennobled as: Christian Freiherr von Wolff; 24 January 1679 – 9 April 1754) was a German philosopher.

He was the most eminent German philosopher between Leibniz and Kant. His main achievement was a complete oeuvre on almost every scholarly subject of his time, displayed and unfolded according to his demonstrative-deductive, mathematical method, which perhaps represents the peak of Enlightenment rationality in Germany.

Wolff was also the creator of German as the language of scholarly instruction and research, although he also wrote in Latin, so that an international audience could, and did, read him. A founding father of, among other fields, economics and public administration as academic disciplines, he concentrated especially in these fields, giving advice on practical matters to people in government, and stressing the professional nature of university education.

Life[link]

Plaque on building in Wrocław (Breslau) where Wolff was born and lived, 1679–99

Wolff was born in the city of Breslau, Silesia, now Wrocław, Poland, into a modest family. He studied mathematics and physics at the University of Jena, soon adding philosophy. In 1703, he qualified as Privatdozent at the University of Leipzig, where he lectured until 1706, when he was called as professor of mathematics and natural philosophy to the University of Halle. By this time he had made the acquaintance of Leibniz, of whose philosophy his own system is a modified version. At Halle, Wolff at first restricted himself to mathematics, but on the departure of a colleague, he added physics, and soon included all the main philosophical disciplines.

However, the claims Wolff advanced on behalf of philosophical reason appeared impious to his theological colleagues. Halle was the headquarters of Pietism, which, after a long struggle against Lutheran dogmatism, had itself assumed the characteristics of a new orthodoxy. Wolff's professed ideal was to base theological truths on mathematically certain evidence. Strife with the Pietists broke out openly in 1721, when Wolff, on the occasion of stepping down as pro-rector, delivered an oration "On the Practical Philosophy of the Chinese" (Eng. tr. 1750), in which he praised the purity of the moral precepts of Confucius, pointing to them as an evidence of the power of human reason to reach moral truth by its own efforts.

On 12 July 1723 Wolff held a lecture for students and the magistrates at the end of his term as a rector.^[1] Wolff compared, based on books by the Belgian missionaries François Noël (1651-1729) and Philippe Couplet, Moses, Christ and Mohammed with Confucius.^[2] According to Voltaire professor August Hermann Francke had been teaching in an empty classroom but Wolff attracted with his lectures around 1,000 students from all over.^[3] In the following up Wolff was accused by Francke of fatalism and atheism.^[4]

As a consequence, Wolff was ousted in 1723 from his first chair at Halle in one of the most celebrated academic dramas of the 18th century. His successors were Joachim Lange, a pietist, and his son. His enemies had gained the ear of the king Frederick William I and told him that, if Wolff's determinism were recognized, no soldier who deserted could be punished, since he would only have acted as it was necessarily predetermined that he should. This so enraged the king that he immediately deprived Wolff of his office, and commanded him to leave Prussian territory within 48 hours or be hanged. The same day Wolff passed into Saxony, and presently proceeded to Marburg in Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel), to whose university he had received a call even before this crisis, which was now renewed. The Landgrave of Hesse received him with every mark of distinction, and the circumstances of his expulsion drew universal attention to his philosophy. It was everywhere discussed, and over two hundred books and pamphlets appeared for or against it before 1737, not reckoning the systematic treatises of Wolff and his followers.

According to Jonathan I. Israel "the conflict became one of the most significant cultural confrontations of the eighteenth century and perhaps the most important of the Enlightenment in Central Europe and the Baltic countries before the French Revolution."^[5] What happened in Halle should not be seen as an isolated case, but as trendy and fashionable. Around 1720 Chinese porcelain was loaded in enormous quantities to Europe. In the Albrechtsburg the Meissen porcelain manufactory had been started up to copy it and Chinoiserie was popular among artists and buyers. In 1726 Wolff published his Discours, in which he again mentioned the importance of listening to music put on pregnant Chinese women, and had reworded some on Moses.

At the University of Marburg, as one of the most popular and fashionable university teachers in Europe, he increased matriculation figures within five years by about 50%. In 1740 Frederick William died, and one of the first acts of his son and successor, Frederick the Great, an admirer of Wolff, was to recall him to Halle.^{[citation needed]} His entry into the town on 6 December 1740 took on the character of a triumphal procession. In 1743, he became chancellor of the university, and in 1745, he received the title of Freiherr (Baron) from the Elector of Bavaria. But his matter was no longer fashionable, he had outlived his power of attracting students, and his class-rooms remained, while not empty, then certainly emptier than they had been during his heyday in Marburg.

When Wolff died on 9 April 1754, he was a very wealthy man, almost entirely due to his income from lecture-fees, salaries, and royalties. He was also a member of many academies and probably the first scholar to have been created hereditary Baron of the Holy Roman Empire on the basis of his academic work. His school, the Wolffians, was the first school, in the philosophical sense, associated with a German philosopher. It dominated Germany until the rise of Kantianism.

The mountain Mons Wolff on the Moon got its name in his honor.

Philosophy[link]

Leibniz

The Wolffian philosophy held almost undisputed sway in Germany until it was displaced by the Kantian revolution, due partly to his distinctive habit of writing in both Latin and German. Wolff's philosophy has, until a reevaluation set in in the 1960s, often been held to be a common-sense adaptation or watering-down of the Leibnizian system; or, more charitably, Wolff was said to have methodized and "reduced" to dogmatic form the thoughts of his great predecessor.

These are mainly his comprehensive view of philosophy, as embracing in its survey the whole field of human knowledge, his insistence everywhere on clear and methodic exposition, and his confidence in the power of reason to reduce all subjects to this form. The Wolffian system retains the determinism and optimism of Leibniz, but the monadology recedes into the background, the monads falling asunder into souls or conscious beings on the one hand and mere atoms on the other. The doctrine of the pre-established harmony also loses its metaphysical significance – while remaining an important heuristic device – and the principle of sufficient reason introduced by Leibniz is once more discarded in favor of the principle of contradiction which Wolff seeks to make the fundamental principle of philosophy.

He defined philosophy as the science of the possible, and divided it, according to the two faculties of the human individual, into a theoretical and a practical part. Logic, sometimes called philosophia rationalis, forms the introduction or propaedeutics to both. Theoretical philosophy has for its parts ontology or philosophia prima, cosmology, rational psychology and natural theology; ontology treats of the existent in general, psychology of the soul as a simple non-extended substance, cosmology of the world as a whole, and rational theology of the existence and attributes of God. These are best known to philosophical students by Kant's treatment of them in the Critique of Pure Reason. Practical philosophy is subdivided into ethics, economics and politics. Wolff's moral principle is the realization of human perfection – seen realistically as the kind of perfection the human person actually can achieve in the world in which we live. It is perhaps the combination of Enlightenment optimism and worldly realism that made Wolff so successful and popular as a teacher of future statesmen and business leaders.

Works[link]

Wolff's most important works are as follows:

• Anfangsgründe aller mathematischen Wissenschaften (1710); in Latin, Elementa matheseos universae, 1713–1715)
• Vernünftige Gedanken von den Kräften des menschlichen Verstandes (1712; Eng. trans. 1770)
• Vern. Ged. von Gott, der Welt und der Seele des Menschen, auch allen Dingen überhaupt (1719)
• Vern. Ged. von der Menschen Thun und Lassen (1720)
• Vern. Ged. von dem gesellschaftlichen Leben der Menschen (1721)
• Vern. Ged. von den Wirkungen der Natur (1723)
• Vern. Ged. von den Absichten der natürlichen Dinge (1724)
• Vern. Ged. von dem Gebrauche der Theile in Menschen, Thieren und Pflanzen (1725); the last seven may briefly be described as treatises on logic, metaphysics, moral philosophy, political philosophy, theoretical physics, teleology, physiology
• Philosophia rationalis, sive logica (1728)
• Philosophia prima, sive Ontologia (1730)
• Cosmologia generalis (1731)
• Psychologia empirica (1732)
• Psychologia rationalis (1734)
• Theologia naturalis (1736–1737)
• Kleine philosophische Schriften, collected and edited by G.F. Hagen (1736–1740).
• Philosophia practica universalis (1738–1739)
• Jus naturae and Jus Gentium (1740–1749)
• Jus Gentium Methodo Scientifica Pertractum (The Law of Nations According to the Scientific Method) (1749)
• Philosophia moralis (1750–1753).

Wolff's complete writings have been published since 1962 in an annotated reprint collection, and thus are easily accessible:

• Gesammelte Werke, Jean École et al. (eds.), 3 series (German, Latin, and Materials), Hildesheim-[Zürich-]New York: Olms, 1962–.

This includes a volume that unites the three most important older biographies of Wolff.

An excellent modern edition of the famous Halle speech on Chinese philosophy is

• Oratio de Sinarum philosophia practica / Rede über die praktische Philosophie der Chinesen, Michael Albrecht (ed.), Hamburg: Meiner, 1985.

See also[link]

• Wawrzyniec Mitzler de Kolof

References[link]

Sources[link]

• Blackwell, Richard J. "Christian Wolff's Doctrine of the Soul," Journal of the History of Ideas, 1961, 22: 339–354. in JSTOR
• Corr, Charles A. "Christian Wolff and Leibnitz," Journal of the History of Ideas, April 1975, Vol. 36 Issue 2, pp 241–262 in JSTOR
• Gaissinovitch, A. E. "C. F. Wolff on Variability and Heredity," History & Philosophy of the Life Sciences, 1990, Vol. 12 Issue 2, pp 179–201
• Hettche, Matt. "Christian Wolff" Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2006) online
• Jolley, Nicholas, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz (Cambridge University Press, 1995), the standard source in English; includes biography and details of his work in many fields
• Richards, Robert J. "Christian Wolff's Prolegomena to Empirical and Rational Psychology: Translation and Commentary," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society Vol. 124, No. 3 (30 Jun. 1980), pp. 227–239 in JSTOR
• European Journal of Law and Economics 4(2) (Summer 1997), special issue on Christian Wolff, reprinted 1998 in the Gesammelte Werke, 3rd Ser. Note especially the essays by Jürgen G. Backhaus ("Christian Wolff on Subsidiarity, the Division of Labor, and Social Welfare"), Wolfgang Drechsler ("Christian Wolff (1679–1754): A Biographical Essay"), Erik S. Reinert and Arno Mong Daastøl ("Exploring the Genesis of Economic Innovations: The religious Gestalt-Switch and the Duty to Invent as Preconditions for Economic Growth"), and Peter R. Senn ("Christian Wolff in the Pre-History of the Social Sciences").
• Goebel, Julius, "Christian Wolff and the Declaration of Independence", in Deutsch-Amerikanische Geschichtsblätter. Jahrbuch der Deutsch-Amerikanischen Gesellschaft von Illinois 18/19 (Jg. 1918/19), Chicago: Deutsch-Amerikanische Gesellschaft von Illinois, 1920, pp. 69–87, details Wolff's impact on the Declaration of Independence.
•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 

External links[link]

• The Ontology of Christian Wolff: Existence as complement of possibility
• Selected bibliography on the Metaphysical Works of Christian Wolff
• WOLFF from Hegel’s Lectures on the History of Philosophy