The Forth Bridge, designed by Sir Benjamin Baker and Sir John Fowler, opened in 1890, and now owned by Network Rail, is designated as a Category A listed building by Historic Scotland.

A listed building in the United Kingdom is a building that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. It is a widely used status, applied to around half a million buildings.

A listed building may not be demolished, extended or altered without special permission from the local planning authority (which typically consults the relevant central government agency, particularly for significant alterations to the more notable listed buildings). Exemption from secular listed building control is provided for some buildings in current use for worship but only in cases where the relevant religious organisation operates its own equivalent permissions procedure. Owners of listed buildings are, in some circumstances, compelled to repair and maintain them and can face criminal prosecution if they fail to do so or if they perform unauthorised alterations.

The listing procedure allows for buildings to be removed from the list if the listing is shown to be in error.^[1]

Although most structures appearing on the lists are buildings, other structures such as bridges, monuments, sculptures, war memorials, and even milestones and mileposts and the Beatles' Abbey Road pedestrian crossing^[2] are also listed. Ancient, military and uninhabited structures (such as Stonehenge) are sometimes instead classified as Scheduled Ancient Monuments and protected by much older legislation whilst cultural landscapes such as parks and gardens are currently "listed" on a non-statutory basis. Slightly different systems operate in each area of the United Kingdom, though the basic principles of listing are the same.

Background[link]

Although a limited number of 'ancient monuments' were given protection under the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882,^[3] there was reluctance to restrict the owners of occupied buildings in what they could do to their property. It was the damage to buildings caused by German bombing during World War II that prompted the first listing of buildings that were deemed to be of particular architectural merit.^[4] 300 members of the Royal Institute of British Architects and the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings were dispatched to prepare the list under the supervision of the Inspectorate of Ancient Monuments, with funding from the Treasury.^[5] The listings were used as a means of determining whether a particular building should be rebuilt if it was damaged by bombing,^[4] with varying degrees of success.^[5]

The basis of the current more comprehensive listing process was developed from the wartime system and was enacted by a provision in the Town and Country Planning Act 1947 covering England and Wales, and the Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1947 covering Scotland. Listing was first introduced into Northern Ireland under the Planning (Northern Ireland) Order 1972. The listing process has since developed slightly differently in each part of the UK.

Heritage protection[link]

In the UK, the process of protecting the built historic environment (i.e. getting a heritage asset legally protected) is called ‘designation’. To complicate things, several different terms are used because the processes use separate legislation: buildings are ‘listed’; ancient monuments are ‘scheduled’, wrecks are ‘protected’, and battlefields, gardens and parks are ‘registered’. A heritage asset is a part of the historic environment that is valued because of its historic, archaeological, architectural or artistic interest.^[6] Only some of these are judged to be important enough to have extra legal protection through designation. However, buildings that are not formally listed, but still judged as being of heritage interest are still regarded as being a material consideration in the planning process.^[7]

As a very rough guide, listed buildings generally have substantial remains that are visible above the ground whereas ancient monuments are (mostly) below the ground and/or unoccupied.^[8]

What can be listed[link]

Almost anything can be listed – it does not have to be a building. Buildings and structures of special historic interest come in a wide variety of forms and types, ranging from telephone boxes and road signs, to castles. English Heritage has created twenty broad categories of structures, and published selection guides for each one to aid with assessing buildings and structures. These include historical overviews and describe the special considerations for listing each category.^[9][10] Neither Historic Scotland nor Cadw appear to have published comparable guidelines for particular categories (as of June 2011) although both organisations produce guidance for owners.

Procedure for listing or delisting[link]

In England, to have a building considered for listing or de-listing, the process is to submit an application form online to English Heritage. The applicant does not need to be the owner of the building in order to apply for it to be listed.^[10] Full information including application form guidance notes are on the English Heritage website. English Heritage assesses buildings put forward for listing or de-listing and provides advice to the Secretary of State on the architectural and historic interest. The Secretary of State, who may seek additional advice from others, then decides whether or not to list or de-list the building.

In Wales, applications are made using a form obtained from the relevant local authority.^[11] There is no provision for consent to be granted in outline. When a local authority is disposed to grant listed building consent, it must first notify the National Assembly (i.e. Cadw) of the application. If the planning authority decides to refuse consent, it may do so without any reference to Cadw.

In Scotland, applications are made using a form obtained from Historic Scotland. After consultation with the local planning authority, the owner, where possible, and an independent third party, Historic Scotland will then make a recommendation on behalf of the Scottish Ministers.^[12]

England and Wales[link]

The legislation relevant to listing[link]

In England and Wales the authority for listing is granted to the Secretary of State by the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990. Listed buildings in danger of decay are listed on the English Heritage 'Heritage at Risk' Register.

In 1980 there was public outcry at the sudden destruction of the art deco Firestone Factory (Wallis, Gilbert and Partners, 1928–29), which was demolished over the August bank holiday weekend by its owners Trafalgar House who had been told that it was likely to be 'spot-listed' a few days later,^[13] and the Government undertook to review arrangements for listing buildings.^[14] After the Firestone demolition, the Secretary of State for the Environment Michael Heseltine also initiated a complete re-survey of buildings to ensure there was nothing which merited preservation and had been missed off the lists.^[15]

In England, the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) works with English Heritage (an agency of the DCMS), and other government departments, e.g. Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG) and the Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) to deliver the government policy on the protection to historic buildings and other heritage assets. The decision about whether or not to list a building is made by the Secretary of State, although the process is administered in England by English Heritage.^[16] In Wales (where it is a devolved issue) it is administered by Cadw on behalf of the National Assembly for Wales^[17] and in Scotland it is administered by Historic Scotland on behalf of the Scottish Ministers.^[18]

Heritage protection reform legislation in England[link]

There have been several attempts to simplify the heritage planning process for listed buildings in England, which has still (at the time of writing in May 2011) to reach a conclusion.^[19]

The review process was started in 2000 by Alan Howarth, then minister at the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS). The outcome was the paper ‘The Power of Place’ in 2000^[20] followed by the subsequent policy document ‘The Historic Environment: A Force for Our Future’ published by the DCMS and the Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DTLR) in December 2001.^[21] The launch of the Government’s Heritage Protection Reform (HPR) report in July 2003 by the DCMS entitled: ‘Protecting our historic environment: Making the system work better,’^[22] asked questions about how the current designation systems could be improved. The HPR decision report ‘Review of Heritage Protection: The Way Forward’ green paper published in June 2004 by the DCMS committed the UK government and English Heritage to a process of reform including a review of the criteria used for listing buildings.

The Government also began a process of consultation on changes to Planning Policy Guidance 15 (PPG 15) relating to the principles of selection for listing buildings in England. After several years of consultation with heritage groups, charities, planning authorities and English Heritage, this eventually resulted in the publication of Planning Publication Statement 5 ‘Planning for the Historic Environment’ in March 2010 by the DCLG. This replaced PPG15 and sets out the government’s national policies on the conservation of the historic environment for the England.^[7] PPS5 is supported by a Practice Guide, endorsed by the DCLG, the DCMS, and English Heritage^[7] which describes how to apply the policies stated in PPS5.

The government’s White Paper ‘Heritage Protection for the 21st Century’ published on 8 March 2007 offered a commitment to sharing the understanding of the historic environment and more openness in the process of designation.^[23]

In 2008, a draft Heritage Protection Bill^[24] was subject to pre-legislative scrutiny before its passage through UK Parliament. In the event, the legislation was abandoned despite strong cross-party support, to make room in the parliamentary legislative programme for measures to deal with the credit crunch.^[25] though it may be revived in future. The proposal was that the existing registers of buildings, parks and gardens, archaeology and battlefields, maritime wrecks, and World Heritage Sites be merged into a single online register which will "explain what is special and why". English Heritage would become directly responsible for identifying historic assets in England and there would be wider consultation with the public and asset owners, and new rights of appeal. There would have been streamlined systems for granting consent for work on historic assets.^{[26][dead link]}

Categories of listed building[link]

There are three types of listed status for buildings in England and Wales:^[27]

• Grade I: buildings of exceptional interest,
• Grade II*: particularly important buildings of more than special interest.
• Grade II: buildings that are of special interest, warranting every effort to preserve them.^[28]

There was formerly a non-statutory Grade III, which was abolished in 1970.^[29] Additionally, Grades A, B and C were used mainly for Anglican churches in use – these correspond approximately to Grades I, II* and II. These grades were used mainly before 1977, although a few buildings are still listed using these grades.

Listed buildings account for about 2% of English building stock.^[30] In March 2010, there were approximately 374,000 list entries^[16] of which 92% were Grade II, 5.5% were Grade II*, and 2.5% were Grade I.^[31] Places of worship play an important role in the UK’s architectural heritage. England alone has 14,500 listed places of worship (4,000 Grade I, 4,500 Grade II* and 6,000 Grade II). In fact, 45% of all Grade I listed buildings are places of worship.^[32]

There are estimated to be about 500,000 actual buildings listed, as listing entries can apply to more than one building.

Statutory Criteria for listing[link]

In order to be listed, a building must meet various criteria.^[33] The criteria for listing include architectural interest, historic interest and close historical associations with significant people or events. Buildings which are not individually noteworthy may still be listed if they form part of a group that is – for example, all the buildings in a square. This is called ‘group value’. Sometimes large areas comprising many buildings may not justify listing but are given the looser protection of designation as a conservation area.

The criteria include:

• Age and rarity: The older a building is, the more likely it is to be listed. All buildings erected before 1700 "which contain a significant proportion of their original fabric" will be listed. Most buildings built between 1700–1840 are listed. After 1840 more selection is exercised and “particularly careful selection” is applied after 1945. Buildings less than 30 years old are rarely listed unless they are of outstanding quality and under threat.
• Aesthetic merits: i.e. the appearance of a buildings. However, buildings that have little visual appeal may be listed on grounds of representing particular aspects of social or economic history.
• Selectivity: where a large number of buildings of a similar type survive, the policy is only to list those which are the most representative or significant examples.
• National interest: significant or distinctive regional buildings e.g. those that represent a nationally important but localised industry
• State of repair: this is not deemed to be a relevant consideration for listing. A building can be listed regardless of its state of repair.^[33]

Additionally:

• Any buildings or structures constructed before 1 July 1948 which fall within the curtilage of a listed building are treated as part of the listed building.^[34]
• The effect of a proposed development on the setting of a listed building is a material consideration in determining a planning application. Setting is defined as “the surroundings in which a heritage is experienced”.^[7]

Although the decision to list a building may be made on the basis of the architectural or historic interest of one small part of the building, the listing protection nevertheless applies to the whole building. Listing applies not just to the exterior fabric of the building itself, but also to the interior, fixtures, fittings, and objects within the curtilage of the building even if they are not fixed.^[35]

De-listing is possible but rare in practice. One example is the November 30, 2001 de-listing of North Corporation Primary School, Liverpool.

Emergency listing[link]

In an emergency, the local planning authority can serve a temporary listed “building preservation notice”, if a building is in danger of demolition or alteration in such a way that might affect its historic character.^[35] This remains in force for 6 months until the Secretary of State decides whether or not to formally list the building.

Certificates of immunity[link]

If planning permission is being sought or has been obtained in England, anyone can ask the Secretary of State to issue a Certificate of Immunity (CoI) in respect of a particular building. CoIs give certainty to developers proposing works that will affect buildings that may be eligible for listing. To apply for a Certificate of Immunity, it is necessary to submit an application form. Guidance notes are available on English Heritage website.

Altering a listed building[link]

In England and Wales, the management of listed buildings is the responsibility of local planning authorities and the Department for Communities and Local Government (i.e. not DCMS which originally listed the building). There is a general principle that listed buildings are put to ‘appropriate and viable use’ and recognise that this may involve the re-use and modification of the building.^[7] However, listed buildings cannot be modified without first obtaining Listed Building Consent through the relevant local planning authority^[36]

Carrying out unauthorised works to a listed building is a criminal offence and owners can be prosecuted. A planning authority can also insist that all work undertaken without consent be reversed at the owner’s expense.

Examples of Grade I listed buildings[link]

Buckingham Palace, the official London residence of the British monarch, listed Grade I.

See also Category:Grade I listed buildings for examples of such buildings across England and Wales

• Clifton Suspension Bridge, Bristol
• The Palace of Westminster, London
• Royal Albert Hall, London
• York Minster, York
• Blackpool Tower, Blackpool
• Leeds Town Hall, Leeds
• Albert Dock, Liverpool
• Curzon Street railway station, Birmingham
• Warwick Castle, Warwick (Warwickshire)
• Montacute House, South Somerset
• Dock Tower, Grimsby
• Royal Festival Hall, London (first Grade I-listed postwar building)
• Lilford Hall, Northamptonshire
• Pontcysyllte Aqueduct, North Wales
• Lloyd's building, City of London
• Birmingham Town Hall, Birmingham

Examples of Grade II* listed buildings[link]

The Bank Hall mansion house is a Grade II* listed building, due to the 17th century clock tower, which features an original oak cantilevered staircase.

The Johnny Haynes stand at Craven Cottage is a Grade II* listed building.

See also Category:Grade II* listed buildings for examples of such buildings across England and Wales

• Bank Hall, Bretherton
• Battersea Power Station, London
• Coliseum Theatre, London
• Middlesbrough Transporter Bridge, Middlesbrough
• Shibden Hall, Calderdale
• Manchester Town Hall extension, Manchester
• St John's Jerusalem, Kent
• Trellick Tower, London
• Birmingham Council House, Birmingham

Examples of Grade II listed buildings[link]

See also Category:Grade II listed buildings for examples of such buildings across England and Wales

• Alexandra Palace, London
• Broomhill Pool, Ipswich
• BT Tower, London
• Whitechapel Bell Foundry, London
• Birmingham Back to Backs, Birmingham

Mixed designations[link]

• In 2002, there were 80 seaside piers in England that were listed, variously at Grades I, II* and II.
• Golden Lane Estate, City of London, is an example of a site which includes buildings of different Grades, II and II*
• Cobham Park, Kent, is a Listed Landscape (Humphry Repton and older landscape) containing both Grade I structures (Cobham Hall and Darnley Mausoleum) and Grade II structures (ornamental dairy etc.) as well as a Scheduled Ancient Monument (a buried Roman villa).
• West Norwood Cemetery is the first-ever Gothic-designed cemetery and crematorium which contains 65 structures of Grade II or II*, mainly sepulchral monuments but also boundary structures and mausolea. Additionally it is listed Grade II* on the Register of Parks and Gardens.
• Derwent Valley Mills includes 838 listed buildings, made up of 16 Grade I, 42 Grade II*, and 780 Grade II. A further nine structures are Scheduled Ancient Monuments.

Locally listed buildings[link]

Many councils, for example, Birmingham City Council, maintain a list of locally listed buildings as separate to the statutory list (and in addition to it). There is no statutory protection of a building or object on the local list. Councils hope that owners will recognise the merits of their properties and keep them unaltered if at all possible.

These grades are used by Birmingham:

Grade A

This is of statutory list quality. To be the subject of notification to English Heritage and/or the serving of a Building Preservation Notice if imminently threatened.

Grade B

Important in the city wide architectural or local street scene context, warranting positive efforts to ensure retention.

Grade C

Of significance in the local historical/vernacular context, including industrial archaeological features, and worthy of retention.

Northern Ireland[link]

The Grade-A-listed Mussenden Temple, County Londonderry^[37]

Listing began later in Northern Ireland than in the rest of the UK: the first provision for listing was contained in the Planning (Northern Ireland) Order 1972; and the current legislative basis for listing is the Planning (Northern Ireland) Order 1991.^[38] Under Article 42 of the Order, the Department of the Environment of the Northern Ireland Executive is required to compile lists of buildings of "special architectural or historic interest". The responsibility for the listing process rests with the Northern Ireland Environment Agency (NIEA), an executive agency within the Department of the Environment.^[38]

Following the introduction of listing, an initial survey of Northern Ireland's building stock was begun in 1974.^[39] By the time of the completion of this First Survey in 1994, the listing process had developed considerably, and it was therefore decided to embark upon a Second Survey to update and cross-check the original information. As of April 2010^[update], the Second Survey had been completed for 147 of Northern Ireland's 547 council wards, and completion is anticipated by 2016.^[39] Information gathered during this survey, relating to both listed and unlisted buildings, is entered into the publicly accessible Northern Ireland Buildings Database.^[39] A range of listing criteria, which aim to define architectural and historic interest, have been developed by the NIEA, and are used to determine whether or not to list a building.^[38] Listed building consent must be obtained from local authorities prior to any alteration to a listed structure.^[40]

The scheme of listing is as follows:

• Grade A: "buildings of greatest importance to Northern Ireland including both outstanding architectural set-pieces and the least altered examples of each representative style, period and type."^[41]
• Grade B+: "buildings which might have merited grade A status but for detracting features such as an incomplete design, lower quality additions or alterations. Also included are buildings that because of exceptional features, interiors or environmental qualities are clearly above the general standard set by grade B buildings. A building may merit listing as grade B+ where its historic importance is greater than a similar building listed as grade B."^[41]
• Grade B: "buildings of local importance and good examples of a particular period or style. A degree of alteration or imperfection of design may be acceptable."^[41]

There are approximately 8,500 listed buildings in Northern Ireland, representing 2% of the total building stock.^[38] Of these, around 200 are listed at Grade A, 400 at Grade B+, and the remainder at Grade B.^[41] Since 1987, buildings within Grade B are separated into Grade B1, which is applied to buildings that qualify on a wider range of attributes, and Grade B2, which is applied to buildings with a narrower range of qualifying features.^[41]

Examples of Grade A listed buildings[link]

• Bangor Abbey, County Down^[42]
• Grand Opera House, Belfast^[43]

Examples of Grade B+ listed buildings[link]

• Dundarave House, County Antrim^[44]
• Necarne, County Fermanagh^[45]

Examples of Grade B1 listed buildings[link]

• Campbell College, Belfast^[46]
• Linen Hall Library, Belfast^[47]

Scotland[link]

The National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh, designed by William Henry Playfair, is a Category A listed building^[48]

In Scotland, listing was begun by a provision in the Town and Country Planning (Scotland) Act 1947, and the current legislative basis for listing is the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) (Scotland) Act 1997.^[49] As with other matters regarding planning, conservation is a power devolved to the Scottish Parliament and the Scottish Government. The authority for listing rests with Historic Scotland, an executive agency of the Scottish Government, which inherited this role from the Scottish Development Department in 1991. Listed building consent must be obtained from local authorities prior to any alteration to a listed structure.^[49]

The scheme for classifying buildings is:

• Category A: "buildings of national or international importance, either architectural or historic, or fine little-altered examples of some particular period, style or building type."^[50]
• Category B: "buildings of regional or more than local importance, or major examples of some particular period, style or building type which may have been altered."^[50]
• Category C(S): "buildings of local importance, lesser examples of any period, style, or building type, as originally constructed or moderately altered; and simple traditional buildings which group well with others in categories A and B."^[50]

There are approximately 47,400 listed buildings in Scotland. Of these, around 8 percent (some 3,800) are Category A, and 51 percent (24,000) are Category B, with the rest listed at Category C(s).^[51]

The main stand of Ibrox Stadium, the home of Rangers F.C., is a Category B listed building^[52]

Examples of Category A listed buildings[link]

• Craigellachie Bridge, Moray^[53]
• Glasgow City Chambers, Glasgow^[54]
• Palace of Holyroodhouse, Edinburgh^[55]
• Ravelston Garden, Edinburgh^[56]

Examples of Category B listed buildings[link]

• Harbourmaster's House, Dysart, Fife^[57]
• National War Museum of Scotland, within Edinburgh Castle^[58]
• Sabhal Mòr Ostaig, Isle of Skye^[59]

Examples of Category C(S) listed buildings[link]

• St John's Cathedral, Oban, Argyll^[60]
• The Belmont Picturehouse, Aberdeen^[61]
• Craigend Castle, East Dunbartonshire^[62]

How to find a listed building[link]

Although the 2008 draft legislation was abandoned, English Heritage published a single list of all designated heritage assets within England in 2011.^[63] The National Heritage List for England is an online searchable database which includes 400,000 (most but not all) of England’s listed buildings, scheduled monuments, registered parks and gardens, protected historic wrecks and registered battlefields in one place. The legislative frameworks for each type of historic asset remains unchanged (2011).^[64]

In Scotland, the national dataset of listed buildings and other heritage assets can be searched online via Historic Scotland,^[65] or through the map database Pastmap.^[66]

To find a listed building in Wales, it is necessary to contact the appropriate local authority or Cadw. Also British Listed Buildings (website) ^[67] has sections on England, Wales and Scotland. It can be searched either by browsing for listed buildings by country, county and parish/locality, or by keyword search or via the online map. Not all buildings have photographs, as it is run on a volunteer basis.

The Northern Ireland Buildings Database contains details of all listed buildings in Northern Ireland.^[68]

A photographic library of English listed buildings was started in 1999 as a snap shot of buildings listed at the turn of the millennium. This is not an up-to-date record of all listed buildings in England - the listing status and descriptions are only correct as at February 2001.^[69] The photographs were taken between 1999 and 2008. It is maintained by the English Heritage archive at the Images of England project website. The National Heritage List for England contains the up-to-date list of listed buildings.^[64]

Listed buildings in danger of being lost through damage or decay in England started to be recorded by survey in 1991.^[70] This was extended in 1998 with the publication of English Heritage's 'Buildings at Risk Register' which surveyed Grade I and Grade II* buildings. In 2008 this survey was renamed ‘Heritage at Risk’ and extended to include all listed buildings, scheduled monuments, registered parks and gardens, registered battlefields, protected wreck sites and conservation areas.^[71] The register is complied by survey using information from local authorities, official and voluntary heritage groups and the general public. It is possible to search this list online.^[72]

In Scotland, a buildings at risk register was started in 1990 by the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland (RCAHMS)in response to similar concerns at the number of listed buildings that were vacant and in disrepair. RCAHMS maintain the register on behalf of Historic Scotland,^[73] and provides information on properties of architectural or historic merit throughout the country that are considered to be at risk.

In Wales, at risk registers of listed buildings are complied by local planning authorities and CADW produced a report in 2009.^[74] The Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales's (RCAHMW) Emergency Buildings Recording team is responsible for surveying historic buildings threatened with destruction, substantial alteration, or serious decay.

Equivalent status outside the United Kingdom[link]

•  France - Monument historique ("historical monument")
•  Germany - Deutsche Stiftung Denkmalschutz ("German Foundation for Monument Protection") and National Heritage Sites (Kulturdenkmal ("cultural monument"))
•  Hong Kong - Historic Building, see List of Grade I historic buildings in Hong Kong, List of Grade II historic buildings in Hong Kong and List of Grade III historic buildings in Hong Kong
•  Netherlands - Rijksmonument ("national monument")
•  New Zealand - New Zealand Historic Places Trust
•  Sweden - Byggnadsminne ("monument", "memory building")
•  United States - National Register of Historic Places and National Historic Landmark

For other countries' equivalents see List of heritage registers.

See also[link]

• Cadw
• English Heritage
• Historic Scotland
• National Monuments Record (England)
• Conservation area
• Images of England
• Grade I listed buildings in England by county
• Grade II* listed buildings in England by county
• Grade II listed buildings in England by county
• Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England
• Scheduled Ancient Monument
• Site of Special Scientific Interest
• Tree preservation order

References[link]

External links[link]

• English Heritage on listed buildings
• National Heritage List for England: map-based database of listed buildings, scheduled monuments etc in England
• PASTMAP Map-based database of listed buildings, scheduled monuments etc in Scotland
• Images of England:photographs of listed buildings
• Cadw, Wales

Robert Adam
Portrait attributed to George Willison, c. 1770-1775
Born	3 July 1728 Kirkcaldy, Fife [1]
Died	3 March 1792(1792-03-03) (aged 63) London
Nationality	Scottish
Work
Buildings	Syon House Culzean Castle Kedleston Hall Pulteney Bridge Harewood House Charlotte Square

Robert Adam FRSE FRS FSA(Scot) FSA (3 July 1728 – 3 March 1792) was a Scottish neoclassical architect, interior designer and furniture designer. He was the son of William Adam (1689–1748), the country's foremost architect of the time, and trained under him. With his older brother John, Robert took on the family business, which included lucrative work for the Board of Ordnance, after William's death.

In 1754 he left for Rome, spending nearly five years on the continent studying architecture under Charles-Louis Clérisseau and Giovanni Battista Piranesi. On his return to Britain he established a practice in London, where he was joined by his younger brother James. Here he developed the "Adam Style", and his theory of "movement" in architecture, based on his studies of antiquity and became one of the most successful and fashionable architects in the country. Adam held the post of Architect of the Kings Works from 1761 to 1769.

Robert Adam was leader of the first phase of the classical revival in England and Scotland from around 1760 until his death.^[2] He influenced the development of Western architecture, both in Europe and in North America. Adam designed interiors and fittings as well as houses.^[3]

He served as the Member of Parliament for Kinross-shire (1768–74).^[4]

Biography[link]

Early life[link]

Adam was born on the 3 July 1728 at Gladney House in Kirkcaldy, Fife, although the family moved to Edinburgh later that same year.^[1] As a child he was noted as having a "feeble constitution".^[5] From 1734 at the age of six Adam attended the Royal High School, Edinburgh^[6] where he learned Latin (from the second year lessons were conducted in Latin)^[7] until he was fifteen, he was taught to read works by Virgil, Horace, Sallust and parts of Cicero and in his final year Livy^[8]. In autumn 1743 he matriculated at Edinburgh University^[9], and compulsory classes for all students were: the Greek language, logic, metaphysics and Natural philosophy^[10]. Students could choose three elective subjects, Adam attended classes in mathematics, taught by Colin Maclaurin, and anatomy, taught by Alexander Monro primus^[11]. His studies were interrupted by the arrival of Bonnie Prince Charlie and his Highlanders, who occupied Edinburgh during the 1745 Jacobite rising. At the end of the year, Robert fell seriously ill for some months, and it seems unlikely that he returned to university, having completed only two years of study.^[12]

On his recovery from illness in 1746, he joined his elder brother John as apprentice to his father. He assisted William Adam on projects such as the building of Inveraray Castle and the continuing extensions of Hopetoun House. William's position as Master Mason to the Board of Ordnance also began to generate much work, as the Highlands were fortified following the failed Jacobite revolt. Robert's early ambition was to be an artist rather than architect, and the style of his early sketches in the manner of Salvator Rosa are reflected in his earliest surviving architectural drawings, which show picturesque gothic follies.^[13] William Adam died in June 1748, and left Dowhill, a part of the Blair Adam estate which included a tower house, to Robert.

Architectural practice in Edinburgh[link]

Entrance front of Hopetoun House, designed by William Adam and modified by the Adam Brothers

On William Adam's death, John Adam inherited both the family business and the position of Master Mason to the Board of Ordnance. He immediately took Robert into partnership, later to be joined by James Adam. The Adam Brothers' first major commission was the decoration of the grand state apartments on the first floor at Hopetoun House, followed by their first "new build" at Dumfries House. For the Board of Ordnance, the brothers were the main contractor at Fort George, a large modern fort near Inverness designed by military engineer Colonel Skinner. Visits to this project, begun in 1750, would occupy the brothers every summer for the next ten years, and, along with works at many other barracks and forts, provided Robert with a solid foundation in practical building.^[14]

In the winter of 1749–1750, Adam travelled to London with his friend, the poet John Home. He took the opportunity for architectural study, visiting Wilton, designed by Inigo Jones, and the Queens Hermitage in Richmond by Roger Morris. His sketchbook of the trip also shows a continuing interest in gothic architecture.^[15]

Among his friends at Edinburgh were the philosophers Adam Ferguson and David Hume and the artist Paul Sandby whom he met in the Highlands. Other Edinburgh acquaintances included Gilbert Elliot, William Wilkie, John Home and Alexander Wedderburn.^[13]

Kedleston Hall. The south front by Robert Adam, based on the Arch of Constantine in Rome

Grand Tour[link]

On 3 October 1754, Robert Adam in the company of his brother James (who went as far as Brussels) set off from Edinburgh for his Grand Tour, stopping for a few days in London, where they visited the Mansion House, London, St Stephen Walbrook^[16], St Paul's Cathedral, Windsor, Berkshire, in the company of Thomas Sandby who showed them his landscaping at Windsor Great Park and Virginia Water Lake^[17]. They sailed from Dover arriving in Calais^[18] on the 28 October 1754^[19]. He joined Charles Hope-Weir, brother of the Earl of Hopetoun in Brussels^[20] and together they travelled to Rome^[21]. Hope agreed to take Adam on the tour at the suggestion of his uncle, the Marquess of Annandale, who had undertaken the Grand Tour himself. They travelled on to Italy together, before falling out in Rome over travelling expenses and accommodation. Robert Adam stayed on in Rome until 1757, studying classical architecture and honing his drawing skills. His tutors included the French architect and artist Charles-Louis Clérisseau, and the Italian artist Giovanni Battista Piranesi. Here, he became acquainted with the work of the pioneering classical archaeologist and art historian, theorist Johann Joachim Winckelmann. On his return journey, Adam and Clerisseau spent time intensively studying the ruins of Diocletian's Palace at Spalato in Dalmatia (now known as Split, in modern Croatia).^[22] These studies were later published as Ruins of the Palace of the Emperor Diocletian at Spalatro in Dalmatia in 1764.

Architectural practice in London[link]

He returned to Great Britain in 1758 and set up in business in London with his brother James Adam. They focused on designing complete schemes for the decoration and furnishing of houses. Palladian design was popular, and Robert designed a number of country houses in this style,^[23] but Robert evolved a new, more flexible style incorporating elements of classical Roman design alongside influences from Greek, Byzantine and Baroque styles.^[24] The Adam brothers' success can also be attributed to a desire to design everything down to the smallest detail, ensuring a sense of unity in their design.

Public life[link]

One of Adam's masterpieces: Pulteney Bridge, Bath

Adam was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Arts in 1758 and of the Society of Antiquaries in 1761, the same year he was appointed Architect of the King’s Works (jointly with Sir William Chambers). His younger brother James succeeded him in this post when he relinquished the role in 1768 in order to devote more time to his elected office as Member of Parliament for Kinross-shire.

Architectural style[link]

Robert Adam rejected the Palladian style, as introduced to England by Inigo Jones, and advocated by Lord Burlington, as "ponderous" and "disgustful".^[25] However, he continued their tradition of drawing inspiration directly from classical antiquity, during his four-year stay in Europe.^[25] Through the adoption of classical motifs, Adam developed a new style of architectural decoration.

The Adam brothers' principle of "movement" was largely Robert's conception, although the theory was first written down by James. "Movement" relied on dramatic contrasts and diversity of form, and drew on the picturesque aesthetic. The first volume of the Adam brother's Works (1773) cited Kedleston Hall, designed by Robert in 1761, as an outstanding example of movement in architecture.

By contrasting room sizes and decorative schemes, Adam applied the concept of movement to his interiors also. His style of decoration, described by Pevsner as "Classical Rococo", drew on Roman "grotesque" stucco decoration.^[25][26]

Influence[link]

Adam designed bookcase 1776

Robert Adam's work had influenced the direction of architecture across the western world. In North America, the Federal style owes much to neoclassicism as practised by Adam. In Europe, Adam notably influenced Charles Cameron, the Scotsman who designed Tsarskoye Selo and other Russian palaces for Catherine the Great.^[27] However, by the time of his death, Adam's neoclassicism was being superseded in Britain by a more severe, Greek phase of the classical revival, as practiced by James "Athenian" Stuart. The Adam brothers employed several draughtsmen who would go on to establish themselves as architects, including George Richardson, and the Italian Joseph Bonomi, who Robert originally hired in Rome.

Written works[link]

During their lifetime Robert and James Adam published two volumes of their designs, Works in Architecture of Robert and James Adam (in 1773-1778 and 1779; a third volume was published posthumously, in 1822).

Death and burial[link]

Adam had long suffered from stomach and bowel problems,^[28] probably caused by a peptic ulcer and irritable bowel syndrome. While at home - 11 Albermarle Street, London - on 1 March 1792, one of the ulcers burst, and on 3 March Adam died.^[28]

The funeral was held on 10 March; he was buried in the south aisle of Westminster Abbey.^[28] The pall-bearers were several of his clients: Henry Scott, 3rd Duke of Buccleuch; George Coventry, 6th Earl of Coventry; James Maitland, 8th Earl of Lauderdale; David Murray, 2nd Earl of Mansfield; Lord Frederick Campbell and Sir William Pulteney, 5th Baronet.^[28]

Knowing he was dying, he drafted his will on 2 March 1792. Having never married, Adam left his estate to his sisters Elizabeth Adam and Margaret Adam.^[28]

His obituary appeared in the March 1792 edition of The Gentleman's Magazine^[29]. This is an extract:

It is somewhat remarkable that the Arts should be deprived at the same time of two of their greatest ornaments, Sir Joshua Reynolds and Mr Adam: and it is difficult to say which of them excelled most in his particular profession... Mr Adam produced a total change in the architecture of this country: and his fertile genius in elegant ornament was not confined to the decoration of buildings, but has been diffused to every branch of manufacture. His talents extend beyond the lie of his own profession: he displayed in his numerous drawings in landscape a luxuriance of composition, and an effect of light and shadow, which have scarcely been equalled...to the last period of his life, Mr Adam displayed an increasing vigour of genius and refinement of taste: for in the space of one year preceeding his death, he designed eight great public works, besides twenty five private buildings, so various in their style, and so beautiful in their composition, that they have been allowed by the best judges, sufficient of themselves, to establish his fame unrivalled as an artist.

He left nearly 9,000 drawings, 8,856 of which (by both Robert and James Adam) were subsequently purchased in 1821 for £200 by the architect John Soane and are now at the Soane Museum in London.^[30]

[edit] List of architectural works^[31]

Public buildings[link]

• Fort George, Scotland, the buildings within the fort were designed by William Adam, after his death his sons oversaw completion (1748–69)
• The Argyll Arms, Inveraray (1750–56)
• The Town House, Inveraray (1750–57)
• Edinburgh City Chambers, with his brother John Adam (1753–54)
• Screen in front of the Old Admiralty, Whitehall, London (1760)
• Kedleston Hotel, Quarndon (1760)
• Little Market Hall, High Wycombe, Buckinghamshire (1761) later altered
• Riding School, Edinburgh (1763) demolished
• Courts of Justice and Corn Market, Hertford, Hertfordshire, now Shire Hall (1768)
• Pulteney Bridge, Bath (1770)
• County House, Kinross (1771)
• Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures & Commerce (1772)
• Register House, Edinburgh (1774–1789)
• The Market Cross, Bury St Edmunds, refaced and upper floor added (a theatre now art gallery) (1775)
• Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, London, remodelled, (1775) demolished
• Red Lion Inn, Pontefract (1776)
• Drummonds Bank, Charing Cross, London (1777–78) demolished
• Old College, University of Edinburgh, (1788-onwards) completed to an amended design by William Henry Playfair 1831
• The Bridewell, Edinburgh, (1791) demolished
• The Assembly Rooms, Glasgow (1791–94) demolished
• Trades Hall, Glasgow, Scotland (1791–1792) (completed 1792-1802 by his brothers)
• The Royal Infirmary, Glasgow (1791–94) rebuilt 1914

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  The City Chambers, Edinburgh

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  Register House, Edinburgh

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  Register House, cross section, Edinburgh

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  Old College Edinburgh, Dome added later

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  The Market Cross, Bury St Edmunds

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  Theatre Royal Drury Lane, London, rebuilt

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  Edinburgh Bridewell in foreground, demolished

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  Pulteney Bridge, Bath

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  Little Market Hall, High Wycombe

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  McLennan Arch, Glasgow, built from the remains of Glasgow Assembly Rooms

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  Kedleston Hotel, Quarndon

Churches[link]

• Yester Chapel, Lothian, new west front in Gothic style (1753)
• Cumnock church, Ayrshire (1753-4) demolished
• St. Mary Magdalene, Croome Park, interior (1761–63) the church was designed by Lancelot "Capability" Brown
• St. Andrew's Church, Gunton Hall, Gunton, Norfolk (1769)
• St Mary's, Mistley (1776) only the towers survive
• St. George's Chapel, Edinburgh, (1792) demolished

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  Mistley Church as built

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  Mistley Church as it survives

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  St. Andrew's Church Gunton

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  Yester Chapel, west front

Mausoleums[link]

• William Adam Mausoleum, Greyfriars Kirkyard (1753–55)
• Bowood House Mausoleum (1761–64)
• David Hume Mausoleum, Old Calton Cemetery (1777–78)
• Templetown Mausoleum, Castle Upton, County Antrim Ireland (1789) for 2nd.Lord Templetown.
• Johnstone Family Mausoleum, Ochil Road graveyard, Alva, Clackmannanshire (1789–90)
• Johnstone Family Mausoleum, Westerkirk graveyard, near Bentpath, Dumfries and Galloway 1790

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  David Hume Mausoleum

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  Templetown Mausoleum

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  Johnstone Family Mausoleum, Bentpath

Urban domestic work[link]

• Little Wallingford House, Whitehall, London, alterations (1761) demolished
• Lansdowne House, Berkeley Square, London (1762–67), partially demolished, the Dining Room is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Drawing Room is in Philadelphia Museum of Art
• 34 Pall Mall, London (1765–66) demolished
• Langford House, Mary Street, Dublin, Ireland.(1765) Remodelling of house for Rt. Hon. Hercules Langford Rowley. Demolished 1931.
• 16 Hanover Square, London, alterations (1766–67) demolished
• Deputy Ranger's lodge, Green Park, London (1768–71) demolished in the 19th century
• The Adelphi development, London (1768–1775) mostly demolished 1930s, a ceiling & fireplace are in the Victoria and Albert Museum
• Chandos House, London (1770–71)
• Mansfield Street, London (1770–72)
• Northumberland House, London, alterations (1770) demolished, parts of the Glass Drawing Room survive in the Victoria and Albert Museum
• 20 St. James's Square (1771–74)
• 33 St. James's Square (1771–73)
• Ashburnham House, Dover Street, London, alterations (1773)
• Derby House, 23 Grosvenor Square (1773–74) demolished
• Portland Place, London (1773–94) (only a few houses survive)
• 11 St. James's Square (1774–76)
• Frederick's Place, London (1775–78)
• Roxburghe House, Hanover Square, London (1776–78) demolished
• Home House, London (1777-before 1784)
• 31 (now 17) Hill Street, London alterations (1777–79)
• Apsley House, London (1778) altered
• Cumberland House, Pall Mall, London, alterations and interiors (1780–88) demolished
• Marlborough House, Brighton (1786)
• Fitzroy Square, London (1790–94) only the south and east sides were built
• Charlotte Square (north side), Edinburgh (1791–94)
• 169-185 High Street, Glasgow (1793) demolished

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  North side, Charlotte Square, Edinburgh

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  Centre of North side, Charlotte Square, Edinburgh

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  Chandos House London

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  Music Room, Home House, London

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  Drawing Room, Home House, London

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  Design for the Etruscan Room, Home House, London

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  Detail of the Etruscan Room, Home House, London

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  Staircase, Home House, London

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  Staircase Dome, Home House, London

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  South side, Fitzroy Square, London

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  East side, Fitzroy Square, London

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  Surviving Adam Houses, Portland Place, London

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  The Adelphi, London, largely demolished

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  Robert Adam ceiling from the Adelphi, now in the V&A

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  Model of the Glass Drawing Room Northumberland House, in the V&A

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  Panels from the Glass Drawing Room Northumberland House, in the V&A

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  Design for fireplaces in the withdrawing room and the Countess of Derby's dressing room, Derby House

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  Drawing Room, Derby House

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  Drawing Room, Derby House

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  Plan, Derby House

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  Ceiling, Countess of Derby's Dressing Room, Derby House

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  Details for Derby House in Grosvenor Square, an example of the Adam Brothers' decorative designs

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  20 St. James's Square, London, front facade

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  20 St. James's Square, London, rear facade

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  Dining Room ceiling, 20 St. James's Square, London

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  Music Room ceiling, 20 St. James's Square, London

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  Drawing Room ceiling, 20 St. James's Square, London

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  Fireplace, Round room, Strawberry Hill House, Middlesex

Country houses with major work[link]

• Dumfries House, Ayrshire (1754–1759)
• Paxton House, near Berwick-upon-Tweed (1758)
• Shardeloes, Amersham, Buckinghamshire (altered and completed the original design by Stiff Leadbetter) (1759–63)
• Harewood House, West Yorkshire (1759–1771)
• Kedleston Hall, near Derby (1759–1765)
• Mellerstain House, Kelso, Scottish Borders (1760–1768)
• Osterley Park, west London (1761–1780)
• Mersham le Hatch, Mersham, Ashford, Kent (1762–1766)
• Syon House interior, Brentford (1762–1769)
• Luton Hoo, Bedfordshire (1766–1770) later extensively reconstructed 1816 by Robert Smirke and other architects later
• Nostell Priory (1766–80)
• Newby Hall, Newby Boroughbridge, North Yorkshire (1767–76)
• Kenwood House, Hampstead, London (1768)
• Saltram House, Plymouth, Devon (1768–69)
• Bowood House, near Calne, Wiltshire, Diocletian wing, and other interiors (1770)
• Wedderburn Castle, Duns, Berwickshire (1770–1778)
• Culzean Castle, South Ayrshire (1772–1790)
• Moreton Hall, Suffolk (1773–1776), building and interiors
• Stowe, Buckinghamshire (1774)
• Moreton Hall, Bury St Edmund, (1783)
• Pitfour Castle, Tayside, attributed (c.1785-90)
• Seton Castle, East Lothian (1789)
• Newliston House, Lothian (1789)
• Dalquharran Castle, South Ayrshire (1789–1792) now a ruin
• Airthrey Castle, Stirlingshire (1790–1791)
• Balbardie House, Lothian (1792) demolished
• Gosford House, near Longniddry, East Lothian (1790–1800)

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  Paxton House, Berwickshire

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  South front, Kedleston Hall

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  Cross section, Kedleston Hall

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  South front, Stowe House, slightly modified in execution

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  Cross section of Hall, Syon House, London

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  Plan, Syon House, London

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  Kenwood House, London

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  Entrance portico, Kenwood House, London

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  Cross section of the library, Kenwood House, London

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  The library ceiling, Kenwood House, London

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  Nostell Priory, Yorkshire, Adam wing on right

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  Culzean Castle, Ayrshire

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  Pitfour Castle, Tayside

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  Gosford House, wings added in the 1890s

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  Bowood House, Adam's Diocletian wing on left, the main block demolished in 1950s

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  Bowood House, Diocletian wing

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  Wedderburn Castle, Berwickshire

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  Harewood House, Yorkshire, altered by Sir Charles Barry

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  Newliston House

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  Dalquarran Castle, Ayrshire

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  Luton Hoo House, Bedfordshire, altered by Sir Robert Smirke and again in the late 19th century

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  Mellerstain House, Berwickshire

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  Osterley Park, London

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  Main Staircase, Osterley Park, London

Garden buildings and follies[link]

• Stables, Inveraray Castle, joint work with his brother John (1758-60)
• North Lodge, Kedleston Hall (1759)
• Conservatory Croome Park (1760)
• Rotunda Croome Park, attributed (1760)
• Old Rectory, Kedleston Hall (c.1761)
• Entrance screen, Moor Park, Hertfordshire (1763)
• The Conservatory, Osterley Park (1763)
• Bridge, Audley End House, Essex (c.1763-64)
• Tea Pavilion, Moor Park, Hertfordshire (c.1764) demolished
• Gatehouse Kimbolton Castle (c.1764)
• Bridge, Kedleston Hall 1764
• Estate Village Lowther, Cumbria (1766)
• Dunstall 'Castle' and Garden Alcove, Croome Park (1766)
• Entrance arch, Croome Court (1767)
• Entrance Screen, Cullen House, Cullen, Moray (1767)
• Bridge, Osterley Park (c.1768)
• Entrance screen, Syon House (1769)
• Fishing, Boat & Bath House, Kedleston Hall 1770-71
• Circular Temple, Audley End House, Essex (1771)
• Lion Bridge, Alnwick (1773)
• Stag Lodge, Saltram House, Devon (c.1773)
• The Stables, Featherstone entrance & Huntwick arch Nostell Priory (1776)
• Wyke Green Lodges, Osterley, Middlesex (1777) remodelled
• the Home Farm, Culzean Castle, Ayrshire (1777–79)
• Brizlee Tower, Alnwick, Gothic tower (1777–81)
• Oswald's Temple, Auchincruive, Ayrshire (1778)
• 'Ruined' arch and viaduct, Culzean Castle (1780)
• The semi-circular conservatory, Osterley Park (1780)
• Tea House Bridge, Audley End House, Essex (1782)
• The Stables, Culzean Castle (c. 1785)
• Stables, Castle Upton, Templepatrick, Co. Antrim, Ireland.(1788-9) Important range of office buildings in castle style.
• Montagu Bridge, Dalkeith Palace, Lothian (1792)
• Loftus Hall, Fethard-on-sea, Co. Wexford, Ireland. Date unknown. Proposed gates.

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  Screen, Syon House, London

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  Gatehouse, Kimbolton Castle

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  Entrance Arch, Croome Park, Worcestershire

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  Garden Alcove, Croome Court, Worcestershire

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  Rotunda, Croome Park, Worcestershire

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  Dunstall "Castle", Croome Court, Worcestershire

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  Brizlee Tower, Alnwick

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  The semi-circular conservatory, Osterley Park

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  Featherstone entrance, Nostell Priory, Yorkshire

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  Oswald's Temple, Auchincruive, Ayrshire

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  Kedleston Fishing, Bathing & Boat House

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  Kedleston Bridge

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  Former Home Farm, Culzean Castle

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  Lowther Castle Model Village

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  Montagu Bridge, Dalkeith Palace

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  The Lion Bridge, Alnwick

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  Tea House Bridge, Audley End

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  Clock Tower, Stables, Castle Upton, Co. Meath

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  Stables, Culzean Castle, Ayrshire

Country houses with minor work[link]

• Hopetoun House, West Lothian (interiors) (1750–54), the house was designed by William Adam
• Ballochmyle House, Ayrshire (c.1757-60)
• Compton Verney House, added the wings and interiors (1760–63)
• Croome Park, three interiors: the Library the fittings are in the Victoria and Albert Museum, Gallery and Tapestry Room this is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, (1760–65)
• Audley End House, redecoration of ground floor rooms (1763–65)
• Goldsborough Hall, near Knaresborough, North Yorkshire (1764–1765)
• Alnwick Castle, Northumberland (interiors) (1766) destroyed when Anthony Salvin created the current state rooms
• Woolton Hall, Woolton, Merseyside (1772), remodelled main façade and the interior
• Headfort House, County Meath, Ireland. Internal work, including stairs and notably the Great Eating Room (1775) for Thomas Taylour, 1st. Earl Bective.
• Wormleybury, Hertfordshire, internal work including entrance hall & staircase (1777)
• Downhill, near Coleraine, County Londonderry, Ireland.(1780) Design for dining room. Not executed. House is now a crumbling ruin.
• Moccas Court, Moccas, Herefordshire, internal work including drawing room (1781)
• Castle Upton, Templepartick, Co. Antrim, Ireland. Remodelling of house. (1782-3) for 1st. Lord Templetown.
• Archerfield House, Lothian, internal work including library (1791)