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- A. Sreedhara Menon
- Acharya Bhadrabahu
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Alappuzha
Alappuzha (Malayalam: ആലപ്പുഴ
pronunciation (help·info)), also known as Alleppey, is a town in Alappuzha District of Kerala state of southern India.This town is considered to be the oldest planned town in this region and the lighthouse built on the coast of the town is the first of its kind along the Arabian coast(refer encyclopedia of Kerala in Malayalam language). As per 2001 census Alleppey is the sixth largest city in Kerala with an urban population of 177,029. Alleppey is situated 62 kilometres (39 mi) to the south of Kochi and 155 kilometres (96 mi) north of Trivandrum. A town with picturesque canals, backwaters, beaches, and lagoons, it was described as the one of the places known as "Venice of the East" by Lord Curzon . It is the administrative headquarters of Alappuzha District. Malayalam is the most spoken language. Hindi, English and Tamil are also widely spoken in the town.[citation needed]
Alleppey is an important tourist destination in India.Backwaters of Alleppey are world famous and is the most popular tourist attraction in Kerala. A houseboat cruise in these backwaters is a delightful experience. It connects Kumarakom and Cochin towards north and Quilon to the South. Alappuzha is also the access point for the annual Nehru Trophy Boat Race, held on the Punnamada Lake, near Alappuzha, held on the second Saturday of August every year, is the most competitive and popular of the boat races in India. The mullackal chirap is also one of the attractions of Allapuzha which is the festive season held ten colorfull days every year in the month of December.
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Alappuzha district
Alappuzha (Malayalam: ആലപ്പുഴ) is one of the 14 districts in the state of Kerala in India. It was formed as Alleppey District on August 17, 1957. The name of the district was officially changed to Alappuzha in 1990. The district is a widely known tourist destination, and is well known for its coir factories. Most of Kerala's coir industries are situated in and around Alappuzha. The district is also known for its communist traditions. It is home to the Punnapra Vayalar strikes against the British and also the revolt against feudal raj. Alappuzha is strongly connected by waterways to various other parts of Kerala, including the famous tourist destination, Kumarakom.
Alleppey has a wonderful past. Though the present town owes its existence to the sagacious Diwan Rajakesavadas in the second half of 18th century, district of Alappuzha figures in classified Literature. Kuttanad, the rice bowl of Kerala with the unending stretch of paddy fields, small streams and canals with lush green coconut palms, was well known even from the early periods of the Sangam age. History says Alappuzha had trade relations with ancient Greece and Rome in B.C and in the Middle Ages.
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Aranmula
Aranmula (Malayalam: ആറന്മുള) is a village in the state of Kerala, India. At a distance of about 128 km from Trivandrum, the capital of Kerala, it is situated on the banks of the river Pampa. Traditions, culture, traditional village life, sceneries are unique for Aranmula. It is a suburb of Kozhencherry in Pathanamthitta District. Nearby important towns are Pathanamthitta (10 km), Pandalam (14 km) Chengannur (10 km). The nearest railway station is at Chengannur and airports are at Kochi and Thiruvananthapuram. It is the venue of the annual snake boat race on the Pampa river. Aranmula is also famous for its metal mirrors, known as Aranmula kannadi. The palace at aranmula ( Aranmula kottaram) has a history of 200 years.
Aranmula is located at 9°20′N 76°41′E / 9.33°N 76.68°E / 9.33; 76.68. It has an average elevation of 7 m (23 ft).
Aranmula Pardhasaradhi Temple is a famous old major temple in Kerala. Main idol is Krishna, who is the leader of Arjuna in Kurukshetra War. It is believed that this temple was built near Sabarimalai near Nilackal. There is a flight of 18 steps that lead to the Eastern Tower while 57 descending steps from the Northern tower reaches the Pampa River. The temple here has fine murals from the 18th century.
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Assam
Assam /əˈsæm/ (Assamese: অসম) also, rarely, Assam Valley and formerly the Assam Province (British India), is a northeastern state of India and is one of the most culturally and geographically distinct regions of the country[citation needed]. Assam was one of the original provinces of the British ruled Indian sub-continent and among the original provinces of present day India, having a legislature that dates back to 1937. However, present day Assam has undergone numerous territory alignment changes, with its state map being altered more than any other province's. Known for exquisite natural resources, geography and its important role in India's freedom struggle; Assam has its capital as Dispur, an especialized city circuit region located on the outskirts of its largest metropolis, Guwahati.
Assam is particularly famous for its natural beauty. The landscape includes tea gardens, the river Brahmaputra, and many historical monuments and temples. Swami Vivekananda once said that, "next only to Kashmir, Assam is the most beautiful place in India" A state with an abundance of forest, Assam also has five national parks, around half a dozen other wildlife sanctuaries, and is home to two-thirds of the population of the unique one-horned rhino. When it comes to wildlife, Assam too has successfully conserved the one-horned Indian rhinoceros from near extinction, along with the tiger and numerous species of birds, and it provides one of the last wild habitats for the Asian elephant. It is becoming an increasingly popular destination for wildlife tourism, and Kaziranga and Manas are both World Heritage Sites.
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Athirappilly Falls
Athirappilly Falls is situated in Athirappilly panchayath in Thrissur district of Kerala, on the southwest coast of India. Located on the west-flowing Chalakudy River near the Vazhachal Forest Division and the Sholayar ranges, this 24-metre (80 ft) waterfall and the nearby Vazhachal Falls are popular tourist destinations. Controversy about a state-proposed hydroelectric dam on the Chalakudy River above the waterfalls began in the 1990s and has continued through 2011.
The 145 kilometres (90 mi) long Chalakudy River, originates in the Anamudi mountains of the Western Ghats and flows through the Vazhachal Forest toward the Arabian Sea. The river initially runs smoothly but becomes more turbulent as it nears Athirappilly. At Athirappilly Falls, the water surges around big rocks and cascades down in three separate plumes. Below the falls, the river remains turbulent for about 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) until it reaches Kannamkuzhi. Then it calms and flows smoothly until reaching the dam at Thumburmuzhi.
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Australia
Australia ( /əˈstreɪljə/), officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent as well as the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area. Neighbouring countries include Indonesia, East Timor and Papua New Guinea to the north; the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonia to the north-east; and New Zealand to the south-east.
For at least 40,000 years before European settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who belonged to one or more of roughly 250 language groups. After discovery by Dutch explorers in 1606, Australia's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades; the continent was explored and an additional five self-governing Crown Colonies were established.
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Bangalore
Bangalore /ˈbæŋɡəlɔər/, also rendered Bengaluru,[needs IPA] is the capital of the Indian state of Karnataka. Bangalore is nicknamed the Garden City for its gardens and parks and was once called a pensioner's paradise. Located on the Deccan Plateau in the south-eastern part of Karnataka, Bangalore is India's third most populous city and fifth-most populous urban agglomeration. Bangalore is well known as a hub for India's information technology sector. It is among the top 10 preferred entrepreneurial locations in the world.
A succession of South Indian dynasties ruled the region of Bangalore until in 1537 AD Kempe Gowda—a feudatory ruler under the Vijayanagara Empire—established a mud fort considered to be the foundation of modern Bangalore. Following transitory occupation by Maratha and Mughal, the city remained under the Mysore kingdom. Bangalore continued to be a cantonment of the British and a major city of the Princely State of Mysore which existed as a nominally sovereign entity of the British Raj. Following the independence of India in 1947, Bangalore became the capital of Mysore state, and later Karnataka.
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Calicut
Kozhikode (Malayalam: കോഴിക്കോട് [koːɻikːoːɖ] (
listen), also known as Calicut, is a city in the state of Kerala in southern India on the Malabar Coast. Kozhikode is the third largest city in Kerala and is part of the second largest urban agglomeration in Kerala with a metropolitan population of 2,030,519 as per 2011 census.It is the headquarters of the Kozhikode district.
During classical antiquity and the middle ages, Kozhikode was dubbed the "City of Spices" for its role as the major trading point of eastern spices. It was the capital of an independent kingdom of the same name ruled by the Samoothiris (Zamorins) in middle ages and later of the erstwhile Malabar district under British rule. Muslim Arab merchants traded with Kozhikode as early as 7th century, and Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama landed at Kozhikode on May 20, 1498. A Portuguese factory and fort was intact in Kozhikode for short period (1511–1525, until the Fall of Calicut), the English landed in 1615 (constructed a trading post in 1665), followed by the French (1698) and the Dutch (1752). In 1765, Mysore captured Kozhikode as part of his occupation.
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Chennai
Chennai /ˈtʃɛnaɪ/, formerly Madras /məˈdræs/, is the capital city of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Located on the Coromandel Coast off the Bay of Bengal, it is a major commercial, cultural, and educational centre in South India, while the port of Chennai is the second largest port in India. As of the 2011 census, the city had 4.68 million residents making it the sixth most populous city in India; the urban agglomeration, which comprises the city and its suburbs, was home to approximately 8.9 million, making it the fourth most populous metropolitan area in the country.
Although the area has been part of successive South Indian kingdoms through centuries, the recorded history of the city began in the colonial times, specifically with the arrival of British East India Company and the establishment in 1644 of Fort St George, an English settlement. The British defended several attacks from the French colonial forces, and from the kingdom of Mysore, on Chennai's way to become a major naval port and presidency city by late eighteenth century. Following the independence of India, Chennai became the capital of Tamil Nadu and a hotbed of regional politics that tended to bank on Dravidian identity of the populace. Chennai had become a bustling metropolis with beautiful classical and colonial European styled buildings, lining the city’s thoroughfares.
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Cochin
Kochi (Malayalam: കൊച്ചി, Kocci ?[koˈtʃːi] ( listen)), formerly Cochin, is a major port city on the west coast of India by the Arabian Sea. Kochi is part of the district of Ernakulam in the state of Kerala.
Kochi is often called by the name Ernakulam, which refers to the eastern part of the mainland Kochi. The civic body that governs the city is the Corporation of Cochin, which was constituted in the year 1967, and the statutory bodies that oversee its development are the Greater Cochin Development Authority and the Goshree Islands Development Authority.
The city of Kochi (pop. 601,574) is Kerala's largest city and is part of an extended metropolitan region (pop. 2.1 million), which is the largest urban agglomeration in Kerala. It is the most densely populated city in the state. Kochi city is also a part of Greater Cochin region and is classified as a B-1 grade city by the Government of India, making it the highest graded city in the state. Kochi ranks first in the total number of international and domestic tourists in Kerala. Kochi has been ranked the sixth best tourist destination in India according to a survey conducted by the Nielsen Company on behalf of the Outlook Traveller magazine.
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Delhi
Delhi (/ˈdɛli/; locally pronounced Dillee or Dehli), officially the National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT), is the largest metropolis by area and the second-largest metropolis by population in India. It is the eighth largest metropolis in the world by population with 16.7 million inhabitants in the Territory at the 2011 Census. The region has been given special status of National Capital Region under The Constitution (69th Amendment) Act, 1991. There are nearly 22.2 million residents in the greater National Capital Region urban area (which also includes the cities Noida, Greater Noida, Ghaziabad, Gurgaon,Sonepat and Faridabad along with other smaller nearby towns).
Delhi is known to have been continuously inhabited since at least the 6th century BCE, though human habitation is believed to have existed since the second millennium BCE. Delhi is also widely believed to have been the site of Indraprastha, the legendary capital of the Pandavas during the times of the Mahabharata. Delhi re-emerged as a major political, cultural and commercial city along the trade routes between northwest India and the Gangetic plain after the rise of the Delhi sultanates. It is the site of many ancient and medieval monuments, archaeological sites and remains.
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Dubai
Dubai (/duːˈbaɪ/ doo-BY; Arabic: دبيّ Dubeii; IPA: [du'beii]) is an emirate within the United Arab Emirates (UAE). A city within the emirate is also named Dubai. The emirate is located south east of the Persian Gulf on the Arabian Peninsula and has the largest population with the second-largest land territory by area of all the emirates, after Abu Dhabi. Dubai and Abu Dhabi are the only two emirates to have veto power over critical matters of national importance in the country's legislature. Dubai City is located on the emirate's northern coastline.
The earliest mention of Dubai is in 1095, and the earliest settlement known as Dubai town dates from 1799. Dubai was formally established in 1833 by Sheikh Maktoum bin Buti al Maktoum when he persuaded 800 members of the Bani Yas tribe, living in what is now part of Saudi Arabia, to follow him to the Dubai Creek by the Al Abu Falasa clan of Bani Yas. It remained under clan control when the United Kingdom assumed the protection of Dubai in 1892. Its geographical location made it an important trading hub and by the beginning of the 20th century, it was an important port.
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Fiji
Fiji
i/ˈfiːdʒiː/ (Fijian: Viti; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी), officially the Republic of Fiji (Fijian: Matanitu ko Viti; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी गणराज्यFijī Gaṇarājya), is an island nation in Melanesia in the South Pacific Ocean about 1,100 nautical miles (2,000 km; 1,300 mi) northeast of New Zealand's North Island. Its closest neighbours are Vanuatu to the west, France's New Caledonia to the southwest, New Zealand's Kermadec to the southeast, Tonga to the east, the Samoas, France's Wallis and Futuna to the northeast and Tuvalu to the north.
The majority of Fiji's islands were formed through volcanic activity started around 150 million years ago. Today, some geothermal activity still occurs on the islands of Vanua Levu and Taveuni. Fiji has been inhabited since the second millennium BC. The country comprises an archipelago of more than 332 islands, of which 110 are permanently inhabited, and more than 500 islets, amounting to a total land area of circa 18,300 square kilometres (7,100 sq mi). The two major islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, account for 87% of the population of almost 850,000. The former contains Suva, the capital and largest city. Most of Fijians live on Viti Levu's coasts, either in Suva or in smaller urban centres. Viti Levu's interior is sparsely inhabited due to its terrain.
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Government of Kerala
The Government of Kerala is a democratically elected body that governs the State of Kerala, India for a period of 5 years. The state government is headed by the Governor of Kerala as the nominal head of state, with a democratically elected Chief Minister as real head of the executive. The state government maintains its capital at Thiruvananthapuram(Trivandrum). The Government of Kerala was formed on November 1, 1956 after merging of Royal States of Travancore-Cochin with Malabar as part of States Reorganization Act-1956.
The Governor is appointed by the President for a term of five years. The executive and legislative powers lie with the Chief Minister and his council of ministers, who are by the Governor. The Governors of the states and territories of India have similar powers and functions at the state level as that of the President of India at Union level. Only Indian citizens above 35 years of age are eligible for appointment. Governors discharge all constitutional functions such as the appointment of the Chief Minister, sending reports to the President about failure of constitutional machinery in a state, or with respect to issues relating to the assent to a bill passed by legislature, exercise or their own opinion.
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Greater Toronto Area
The Greater Toronto Area (GTA) is the largest metropolitan area in Canada, with a 2011 census population of over 6 million. The Greater Toronto Area is defined as the central city of Toronto, along with four regional municipalities surrounding it: Durham, Halton, Peel, and York.
The Greater Toronto Area is different from the Census Metropolitan Area of Toronto, which covers a smaller region. As of early 21st century, the regional span of the Greater Toronto Area is sometimes extended to include the city of Hamilton, Ontario and its surrounding region, to form the Greater Toronto and Hamilton Area, an urban area which has a total population ranked among the top 50 in the world.
The term Greater Toronto has been used in writing as early as the 1900s, although at the time, the term only referred to the former City of Toronto and its immediate townships and villages, which became Metropolitan Toronto in 1954 and became the current city of Toronto in 1998. The usage of the term involving the four regional municipalities came into formal use in the mid-1980s, after it was used in a widely discussed report on municipal governance restructuring in the region and was later made official as a provincial planning area. However it did not come into everyday usage until the mid- to late 1990s. In 2006, the term began to be supplanted in the field of spatial planning as provincial policy increasingly began to refer to either the "Greater Toronto and Hamilton Area" (GTHA) or the still-broader "Greater Golden Horseshoe". The latter includes communities like Barrie, Guelph and the Niagara Region. The GTA continues, however, to be in official use elsewhere in the Government of Ontario, such as the Ministry of Finance.
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Haripad
Haripad (Malayalam: ഹരിപ്പാട്) is a town in Alappuzha District, Kerala, India, located between Alappuzha and Kollam on National Highway 47. Haripad is close to the Arabian Sea, and connects Mavelikkara and Thrikkunnappuzha.
Haripad is known as the 'Town of Temples'. There are eighteen Hindu temples there and more than 30 more in the surrounding countryside. The most famous temples are Subrahmanya Swami Temple and the Mannarashala Nagaraja Temple. The first Sri Ramakrishna Asrama in the state of Kerala was established at Pilapuzha in Haripad on 4 May 1913. It is the land of "Mayura Sandesa", the land of snake boats and the land of music, dance and drama. According to colonial Dutch Governor Gollanez the sea coast between Quilon and Purakkad which the Dutch called 'Martha" and which region was known as Karthikappally (of which Haripad was a part) consisted of two regions or nation states, Karnoppally (the present Karunagapally) and Karimpali.
Haripad derived its name from either Aripad (as Ari means Rice and this was the place where from the major portion of the rice for the state came), or "Harigeethapuram". In a literary piece of Kerala Varma Valia Koithampuran there is a reference to Pahi Harigeetha Pathanapathe" (save as the master of Harigeetha) 'Mayura Sandesa' has a reference to 'Aripadu vaanoru Kaalam' (at a time when Haripad was ruled). Swathi Thirunal addresses Subramanya as Harigeetha puthalaya dweep', all the show long history and importance of the name Haripad. To this may be added the fact that Karithikapally was called the place where Karthikayan lived.' (Karthikayan Pallikollunnidom).
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Israel
Coordinates: 31°N 35°E / 31°N 35°E / 31; 35
Israel, officially the State of Israel ( /ˈɪzriːəl/ or /ˈɪzreɪəl/; Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, Medīnat Yisrā'el, IPA: [me̞diˈnät jisʁäˈʔe̞l] ( listen); Arabic: دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل, Dawlat Isrāʼīl, IPA: [dawlat ʔisraːˈʔiːl]), is a parliamentary republic in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank in the east, Egypt and the Gaza Strip on the southwest, and the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea to the south, and it contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area. Israel is defined as a Jewish and Democratic State in its Basic Laws and is the world's only Jewish-majority state.
Following the adoption of a resolution by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 29 November 1947 recommending the adoption and implementation of the United Nations plan to partition Palestine, on 14 May 1948 David Ben-Gurion, the Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization and president of the Jewish Agency for Palestine, declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel, a state independent from the British Mandate for Palestine. Neighboring Arab states invaded the next day in support of the Palestinian Arabs. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied the West Bank, Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights. Portions of these territories, including east Jerusalem, have been annexed by Israel, but the border with the neighboring West Bank has not yet been permanently defined.[neutrality is disputed] Israel has signed peace treaties with Egypt and Jordan, but efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have so far not resulted in peace.
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Kannur
Kannur pronunciation (help·info) (Malayalam: കണ്ണൂര്, Kaṇṇūr ?), also known as Cannanore, is a city in Kannur district in the Indian state of Kerala. It is the administrative headquarters of the District of Kannur and 518 km north of state capital Trivandrum. During British rule in India, Kannur was known by its old name Cannanore(Land of lord Krishna[citation needed]), which is still in fairly common usage. Kannur is the 6th largest city in Kerala, after Thiruvananthapuram, Ernakulam, Kozhikode, Thrissur and Kollam. It is the largest city of North Malabar region. Kannur Municipality was established in 1867 and is one of the oldest municipalities in Kerala.
Kannur is one of the Million Plus urban agglomerations in India with a population of 1,642,892 in 2011. Kannur is known as the Land of Looms and Lores, because of the loom industries functioning in the district and ritualistic folk arts held in temples. Kannur is famous for its pristine beaches; Theyyam, its native performing art, and its handloom industry.
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Karnataka
Karnataka /kɑrˈnɑːtəkə/ is a state in South West India. It was created on 1 November 1956, with the passing of the States Reorganisation Act and this day is annually celebrated as Karnataka Rajyotsava (Formation Day). Originally known as the State of Mysore /maɪˈsɔər/, it was renamed Karnataka in 1973. It is the land of the Kannadigas, Tuluvas, Konkanis and Kodavas. The capital and largest city is Bangalore.
Karnataka is bordered by the Arabian Sea to the west, Goa to the northwest, Maharashtra to the north, Andhra Pradesh to the east, Tamil Nadu to the southeast, and Kerala to the southwest. The state covers an area of 191,976 square kilometres (74,122 sq mi), or 5.83% of the total geographical area of India. It is the eighth largest Indian state by area. With over 61 million inhabitants (2011), Karnataka is the ninth largest state by population, comprising 30 districts. Kannada is the most widely spoken and official language of the state.
The two main river systems of the state are Krishna and its tributaries (Bhima, Ghataprabha, Vedavati, Malaprabha, and Tungabhadra) in the north, and the Cauvery and its tributaries (Hemavati, Shimsha, Arkavathi, Lakshmana Thirtha and Kabini) in the south. Both these rivers flow eastward and fall into the Bay of Bengal.
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Kasargod
Kasaragod is a town and a municipality in Kasaragod district in the Indian state of Kerala. It is the administrative headquarters of Kasaragod district as well as of Kasaragod Taluk. Landmarks of note includes the famous Madhur Temple, Mallikkarjuna Temple, Theruvatthu Mosque, Chandragiri Fort, Malik Deenar Mosque and the Central Plantation Crops Research Institute.The Bekal Fort is also a major tourist attraction near Kasargod.
The ship building industry of Thalangara was well known in India. In the past years a number of ships were built here and sold in various states of India and exported to foreign countries. The Kasaragod economy is mainly agrarian; cash crops such as coconut, rubber are grown and commercially exploited. Other industries include tile manufacture, timber industry etc. Foreign investment or N.R.I Income is high in this part of the state.
Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI) was established in 1970 as one of the agricultural research institutes in the National Agricultural Research System (NARS) under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). The Coconut Research Station at Kasaragod in Kerala was initially established in 1916 by the then Government of Madras and subsequently it was taken over by the Indian Central Coconut Committee in 1948. (http://www.cpcri.gov.in/)
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Kerala
Kerala or Keralam /ˈkɛrələ/ is an Indian state located on the Malabar coast of south-west India. It was formed on 1 November 1956 by the States Reorganisation Act by combining various Malayalam speaking regions.
The state has an area of 38,863 km2 (15,005 sq mi) and is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Arabian Sea on the west. Thiruvananthapuram is the state capital. Kochi and Kozhikode are other major cities. According to a survey by The Economic Times, five out of ten best cities to live in India are located in Kerala.
Kerala has the highest Human Development Index in India, higher than that of most developed countries The state has the highest literacy rate in India with 93.91 percent. It hopes to be the first e-literate state in India through the state run Akshaya project. The state recently became and is currently the only one to have banking facilities in every village. A survey conducted in 2005 by Transparency International ranked Kerala as the least corrupt state in the country. Kerala is also ranked as India's cleanest state. Kerala has witnessed significant migration of its people, especially to the Persian Gulf countries during the Kerala Gulf boom and is heavily dependent on remittances from its large Malayali expatriate community.
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Kerala Backwaters
The Kerala backwaters are a chain of brackish lagoons and lakes lying parallel to the Arabian Sea coast (known as the Malabar Coast) of Kerala state in southern India. The network includes five large lakes linked by canals, both manmade and natural, fed by 38 rivers, and extending virtually half the length of Kerala state. The backwaters were formed by the action of waves and shore currents creating low barrier islands across the mouths of the many rivers flowing down from the Western Ghats range.
The Kerala Backwaters are a network of interconnected canals, rivers, lakes and inlets, a labyrinthine system formed by more than 900 km of waterways, and sometimes compared to the American Bayou. In the midst of this landscape there are a number of towns and cities, which serve as the starting and end points of backwater cruises. National Waterway No. 3 from Kollam to Kottapuram, covers a distance of 205 km and runs almost parallel to the coast line of southern Kerala facilitating both cargo movement and backwater tourism.
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Keralite
Malayali (also spelled Malayalee; Malayalam: മലയാളി, Malayāḷi ?) is the term used to refer to the native speakers of Malayalam, originating from the Indian state of Kerala. The Malayali identity is primarily linguistic, although in recent times the definition has been broadened to include emigrants of Malayali descent who partly maintain Malayali cultural traditions, even if they do not regularly speak the language. While the origins of the Malayali people are in the state of Kerala, significant populations also exist in other parts of India, the Middle East, Europe and North America. According to the Indian census of 2001, there were 30,803,747 speakers of Malayalam in Kerala, making up 96.7% of the total population of that state. Hence the word Keralite is often used in the same context, though a proper definition is ambiguous.
Malayalam, the Malayalis' native language, has its origin from the words mala meaning mountain and alam meaning land (Tamil/Malayalam) or locality (which lies alongside the mountain). Hence 'Malayali' means people from the mountains who lived beyond the Western Ghats, and Malayalam the language that was spoken there.
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Kochi,India
Kochi (Malayalam: കൊച്ചി, Kocci ?[koˈtʃːi] ( listen)), formerly Cochin, is a major port city on the west coast of India by the Arabian Sea. Kochi is part of the district of Ernakulam in the state of Kerala.
Kochi is often called by the name Ernakulam, which refers to the eastern part of the mainland Kochi. The civic body that governs the city is the Corporation of Cochin, which was constituted in the year 1967, and the statutory bodies that oversee its development are the Greater Cochin Development Authority and the Goshree Islands Development Authority.
The city of Kochi (pop. 601,574) is Kerala's largest city and is part of an extended metropolitan region (pop. 2.1 million), which is the largest urban agglomeration in Kerala. It is the most densely populated city in the state. Kochi city is also a part of Greater Cochin region and is classified as a B-1 grade city by the Government of India, making it the highest graded city in the state. Kochi ranks first in the total number of international and domestic tourists in Kerala. Kochi has been ranked the sixth best tourist destination in India according to a survey conducted by the Nielsen Company on behalf of the Outlook Traveller magazine.
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Kodagu
Kodagu, also known by its anglicised former name of Coorg, is an administrative district in Karnataka, India. It occupies an area of 4,102 square kilometres (1,584 sq mi) in the Western Ghats of southwestern Karnataka. As of 2001, the population was 548,561, 13.74% of which resided in the district's urban centres, making it the least populous of the 30 districts in Karnataka. Kodagu is well known in the world for coffee and its "brave warriors", like Field Marshal K. M. Cariappa.
Madikeri (English: Mercara) is the headquarters of Kodagu. The district is bordered by Dakshina Kannada district to the northwest, Hassan district to the north, Mysore district to the east, Kannur district of Kerala to the southwest, and the Wayanad district of Kerala to the south.
Kodagu is home to the native speakers of Kodava language. As per 1991 census, the speakers of Kodava made up 0.25% of the total population of Karnataka.[citation needed] According to Karnataka Kodava Sahitya Academy, apart from Kodavas, 18 other ethnic groups speak Kodava Takk in and outside the district including Heggade, Iri, Koyava, Banna, Madivala, Hajama, Kembatti, and Meda. Though the language has no script, recently German linguist Gregg M. Cox developed a new writing system for the language known as the Coorgi-Cox alphabet, used by a number of individuals within Kodagu. Lately, some organizations including the Codava National Council and Kodava Rashtriya Samiti are demanding Kodava homeland status and autonomy to Kodagu district.
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Kottayam
Kottayam (Malayalam: കോട്ടയം) is a city in the Indian state of Kerala, spread over an area of 55.40 km2 and is the administrative capital of Kottayam district. Kottayam is located in south-central Kerala and has a population of 172,878 according to the 2001 census. . The city is approximately 150 km (93.2 mi) from the state capital, Thiruvananthapuram.
The city is an important trading center of spices and commercial crops, especially rubber. Major Kerala print media such as Malayala Manorama, Deepika and Mangalam are headquartered in the town. Also a pioneering center of modern education in Kerala, the city became India's first city to achieve 100% literacy in 1989 and the district became the first tobacco free district in India on September 28, 2008. The city of Kottayam is also known as Akshara Nagari (അക്ഷര നഗരി) (City of Alphabets) in honor of its contributions to print media and literature.
Kottayam district has acquired it's name from Kottayam town which is the headquarters of the district. It is believed that the name Kottaya is derived from the combination of Malayalam words kott (fort) and akam (inside), and could be translated as "the interior of the fort".
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Lakshadweep
Lakshadweep /ləkˈʃɑːdwiːp/ (Malayalam: ലക്ഷദ്വീപ് Lakṣadvīp (help·info), Mahl: ލަކްޝަދީބު Lakshadīb), formerly known as the Laccadive, Minicoy, and Amindivi Islands /ˌlækədaɪv ˌmɪnɨkɔɪ/ & /ˌæmɨnˈdiːvi/, is a group of islands in the Laccadive Sea, 200 to 440 km off the coast of the South West Indian state of Kerala. They were also known as Laccadive Islands, although geographically this is only the name of the central subgroup of the group.
The islands form the smallest Union Territory of India. The total surface area of the islands is just 11 sq mi or 32 km2. However, the lagoon area is about 4,200 square kilometres (1,600 sq mi), the territorial waters area is 20,000 square kilometres (7,700 sq mi) and the exclusive economic zone area is 400,000 square kilometres (150,000 sq mi).
Lakshadweep is the northern part of the erstwhile Lakshadweepa.[clarification needed] The islands are the northernmost among the Lakshadweep-Maldives-Chagos group of islands, which are actually the tops of a vast undersea mountain range, in the Indian Ocean, the Chagos-Laccadive Ridge.
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Maharashtra
Maharashtra /mɑːhəˈrɑːʃtrə/ (Marathi: महाराष्ट् mahārāṣṭra [məharaːʂʈrə] ( listen)) is a state located in India. It is the second most populous after Uttar Pradesh and third largest state by area in India. Maharashtra is the richest state in India, contributing 15% of the country's industrial output and 13.3% of its GDP (2006–2007 figures).
Maharashtra is bordered by the Arabian Sea to the west, Gujarat and the Union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli to the northwest, Madhya Pradesh to the northeast, Chhattisgarh to the east, Karnataka to the south, Andhra Pradesh to the southeast, and Goa to the southwest. The state covers an area of 307,731 km2 (118,816 sq mi) or 9.84% of the total geographical area of India. Mumbai, the capital city of the state, is India's largest city and the financial capital of the nation. Nagpur is the second capital of the state. Marathi is the official language.
Maharashtra is the world's second most populous first-level administrative country sub-division. Were it a nation in its own right, Maharashtra would be the world's tenth most populous country ahead of Mexico.
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Mumbai
Mumbai /mʊmˈbaɪ/, also known as Bombay /bɒmˈbeɪ/, is the capital of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the most populous city in India, and the fourth most populous city in the world, with a total metropolitan area population of approximately 20.5 million. Along with the neighbouring urban areas, including the cities of Navi Mumbai and Thane, it is one of the most populous urban regions in the world. Mumbai lies on the west coast of India and has a deep natural harbour. In 2009, Mumbai was named an Alpha world city. Mumbai is also the richest city in India, and has the highest GDP of any city in South, West or Central Asia.
The seven islands that came to constitute Mumbai were home to communities of fishing colonies. For centuries, the islands were under the control of successive indigenous empires before being ceded to the Portuguese and subsequently to the British East India Company. During the mid-18th century, Mumbai was reshaped by the Hornby Vellard project, which undertook the reclamation of the area between the seven constituent islands from the sea. Completed by 1845, the project along with construction of major roads and railways transformed Bombay into a major seaport on the Arabian Sea. Economic and educational development characterised the city during the 19th century. It became a strong base for the Indian independence movement during the early 20th century. When India became independent in 1947, the city was incorporated into Bombay State. In 1960, following the Samyukta Maharashtra movement, a new state of Maharashtra was created with Bombay as capital. The city was renamed Mumbai in 1996.
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Munnar
Munnar is a hill station in Kerala and in southern India. Munnar is located on the Western Ghats, situated in the Idukki.
The name Munnar is believed to mean "three rivers", referring to the town's strategic location at the confluence of the Madhurapuzha, Nallathanni and Kundaly rivers. The town has shared a strong cultural link with Tamil Nadu.
The Munnar town is in Kannan Devan Hills ( KDH ) Village in Devikulam taluk and is the largest panchayat in the Idukki district having an area measuring nearly 557 km².
The nearest major railway stations are at Ernakulam and Aluva (approximately 120 km by road). The nearest airport is Cochin International Airport, which is 140 km away.
The region in and around Munnar varies in height from 1,450 meters (4,760 ft) to 2,695 meters (8,842 ft) above mean sea level. Munnar enjoys a salubrious climate. The temperature ranges between 5 °C (41 °F) and 25 °C (77 °F) in winter and 15 °C (59 °F) and 25 °C (77 °F) in summer. Temperatures as low as −4 °C (25 °F) have been recorded in the Sevenmallay region of Munnar.The mean maximum daily temperature is at its lowest during the monsoon months with the highest temperature being 19 C.
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Mysore
Mysore (i/ˈmaɪsɔər/; Maisūru in Kannada) is the second-largest city in the state of Karnataka, India. Located at the base of the Chamundi Hills about 146 km (91 mi) southwest of the state capital Bangalore, it is spread across an area of 128.42 km2 (50 sq mi). According to the provisional results of the 2011 national census of India, the population of Mysore is 887,446 and Hinduism is its major religion. Mysore City Corporation is responsible for the civic administration of the city, which is also the headquarters of the Mysore district and the Mysore division.
Until 1947, Mysore served as the capital of the Kingdom of Mysore. The kingdom was ruled by the Wodeyar dynasty, except for a brief period in the late 18th century when Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan usurped power. Patrons of art and culture, the Wodeyars contributed significantly to the cultural growth of the city. The cultural ambience and achievements of Mysore earned it the sobriquet Cultural capital of Karnataka.
Mysore is noted for its palaces including the Mysore Palace, and the festivities that take place during the Dasara festival when the city receives a large number of tourists. It lends its name to the Mysore style of painting, the sweet dish Mysore Pak, the Mysore Peta (a traditional silk turban) and the garment known as the Mysore silk saree. Tourism is the major industry, while information technology has emerged as a major employer alongside the traditional industries. With no airport, Mysore depends on rail and bus transport for inter-city connections. The city was the location of the first private radio station in India. Mysore houses Mysore University which has produced several notable authors, particularly in the field of Kannada literature. Cricket is the most popular sport in the city.
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Negev
The Negev (Hebrew: נֶּגֶב, Tiberian vocalization: Néḡeḇ; Arabic: النقب al-Naqab) is a desert and semidesert region of southern Israel. The region's largest city and administrative capital is Beersheba (pop. 185,000), in the north. At its southern end is the Gulf of Aqaba and the resort city of Eilat. It contains several development towns, including Dimona, Arad and Mitzpe Ramon, as well as a number of small Bedouin cities, including Rahat and Tel as-Sabi. There are also several kibbutzim, including Revivim and Sde Boker; the latter became the home of Israel's first Prime Minister, David Ben-Gurion, after his retirement from politics.
The desert is home to the Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, whose faculties include the Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research and the Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies, both located on the Midreshet Ben-Gurion campus adjacent to Sde Boker.
The origin of the word negev is from the Hebrew root denoting 'dry'. In the Bible the word Negev is also used for the direction 'south'. In Arabic, the Negev is known as al-Naqab, although it was created with the establishment of the Egypt-Palestine frontier in the 19th century and has no single traditional Arabic name. During the British Mandate it was called Beersheba sub-district.
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Nelliampathi
Nelliampathi is a popular hill station 60 km away from Palakkad in Kerala, a small state in south India. It is surrounded by tea and coffee plantations and has excellent weather conditions. The journey to Nelliampathi itself is an experience. The only route is from Nemmara, from where the first town of Nelliampathi, namely Kaikatty junction, is at a distance of 26 km. At the 9th kilometer is the Pothundi Dam, a small irrigation dam which provides water for the rice fields in the surrounding area. The dam is at the foot of the Nelliampathi hills. From here, the road winds up for the next 17 km, with many hairpin turns on the way. Immediately after Pothundy dam, comes the government forest, where one can see massive teak trees. The road is very narrow and requires a skilled driver behind the wheel. On the way, one can see wild animals like monkey, deer and porcupine. The view of the Pothundy dam from the height is a breathtaking sight. There will be many waterfalls by the roadside during the rainy season.
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New Zealand
New Zealand (Māori: Aotearoa) is an island country located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses ‒ that of the North and South Islands ‒ as well as numerous smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres (900 mi) east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres (600 mi) south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga. Because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans.
During its long isolation, New Zealand developed a distinctive biodiversity of both animal and plant life. Most notable are the large number of unique bird species, many of which became extinct after the arrival of humans and introduced mammals. With a mild maritime climate, the land was mostly covered in forest. The country's varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions caused by the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates clashing beneath the earth's surface.
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Nilgiris (mountains)
The Nilgiri (Tamil: நீலகிரி, Badaga: நீலகி:ரி or blue mountains), often referred to as the Nilgiri Hills, are a range of mountains with at least 24 peaks above 2,000 metres (6,600 ft), in the westernmost part of Tamil Nadu state at the junction of Karnataka and Kerala states in Southern India. They are part of the larger Western Ghats mountain chain making up the southwestern edge of the Deccan Plateau.
The hills are separated from the Karnataka plateau to the north by the Moyar River and from the Anaimalai Hills and Palni Hills to the south by the Palghat Gap. The Nilgiris District of Tamil Nadu lies within these mountains. Its latitudinal and longitudinal dimensions are 130 km (Latitude: 11° 08' to 11° 37' N) by 185 km (Longitude: 76° 27' E to 77° 4' E). Central location is: 11°22′30″N 76°45′30″E / 11.375°N 76.75833°E / 11.375; 76.75833. It has an area of 2,479 square kilometres (957 sq mi).
The Western Ghats, Nilgiri Sub-Cluster (6,000+ km²), including all of Mukurthi National Park in the south-eastern corner of the Nilgiris, is under consideration by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee for selection as a World Heritage Site.
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Pamba River
The Pamba River (also called Pampa river) is the third longest river in the South Indian state of Kerala after Periyar and Bharathappuzha and the longest river in the erstwhile princely state of Travancore. Sabarimala temple dedicated to Lord Ayyappa is located on the banks of the river Pamba.
The Pamba is considered as the Dakshina Ganga (Southern Ganges) due to its association with Kerala's Largest Pilgrim Centre - Sabarimala.
The River Pamba enriches the lands of Pathanamthitta District and the Kuttanand area of Alappuzha District
Pampa originates at Pulachimalai hill in the Peerumedu plateau in the Western Ghats at an altitude of 1650 metres and flows through Ranni, Ayroor, Pathanamthitta, Kozhenchery, Chengannur, Kuttanad and Ambalappuzha Taluks and finally empties into the Vembanad Lake.A famous Anjana temple is situated near this bank. This river enriches the Pathanamthitta, Alappuzha districts of Kerala state. Kuttanad, an important rice cultivating area in Kerala gets the irrigation water from the Pamba river. The Pamba basin is bounded on the east by the Western Ghats. The river shares its northern boundary with the Manimala River basin, while it shares the southern boundary with the Achankovil River basin.
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Persian Gulf
The Persian Gulf is located in Western Asia between Iran (Persia) and the Arabian Peninsula. It is an extension of the Indian Ocean.
The Persian Gulf was the focus of the 1980–1988 Iran-Iraq War, in which each side attacked the other's oil tankers. In 1991, the Persian Gulf again was the background for what was called the "Persian Gulf War" or the "Gulf War" when Iraq invaded Kuwait and was subsequently pushed back, despite the fact that this conflict was primarily a land conflict.
The Persian Gulf has many good fishing grounds, extensive coral reefs, and abundant pearl oysters, but its ecology has come under pressure from industrialization, and in particular, oil and petroleum spillages during wars in the region.
Historically and internationally known as the Persian Gulf, this body of water is sometimes controversially referred to as the Arabian Gulf or simply The Gulf by most Arab states, although neither of the latter two terms are recognized internationally. The name Gulf of Iran (Persian Gulf) is used by the International Hydrographic Organization.
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Portugal
Portugali/ˈpɔrtʃʉɡəl/ (Portuguese: Portugal, IPA: [puɾtuˈɣaɫ]), officially the Portuguese Republic (Portuguese: República Portuguesa) is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula . Portugal is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are part of Portugal. The country is named after its second largest city, Porto, whose Latin name was Portus Cale.
The land within the borders of the current Portuguese Republic has been continuously settled since prehistoric times: occupied by Celts like the Gallaeci and the Lusitanians, integrated into the Roman Republic and later settled by Germanic peoples such as the Suebi, Swabians, Vandals and the Visigoths. In the 8th century most of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Moorish invaders professing Islam, which were later expelled by the Knights Templar under the Order of Christ. During the Christian Reconquista, Portugal established itself as an independent kingdom from León in 1139, claiming to be the oldest European nation state.
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Southern Ontario
Southern Ontario is a region of the province of Ontario, Canada. It is the most densely populated and southernmost region in Canada. Situated south of Algonquin Park it covers between 14 to 15% of the province, depending on the inclusion of the Parry Sound and Muskoka districts.
Southern Ontario differs very greatly from Northern Ontario. The region has a larger population, different climate, and different culture than its northern counterpart. Southern Ontario can also be broken into smaller subregions, such as Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Southwestern Ontario, and the Golden Horseshoe.
Southern Ontario can be distinguished from Northern Ontario because it is far more densely populated and contains the majority of the province's cities, major roads, and institutions. (The north, in contrast, contains more natural resources and remote wilderness.) Although it has no saltwater coastline, the region has an abundance of fresh water coastline on three Great Lakes (Huron, Erie and Ontario) as well as smaller lakes such as Lake Simcoe and Lake St. Clair. It is a major vineyard region and producer of Canadian wines.
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Suriname
Suriname, officially the Republic of Suriname (Dutch: Republiek Suriname, Dutch pronunciation: [ˌrepyˈblik ˌsyriˈnaːmə]), is a country in northern South America. It borders French Guiana to the east, Guyana to the west, Brazil to the south, and the Atlantic Ocean to the north. Suriname was first colonized by the British, and captured by the Dutch in 1667, who governed it as the colony of Suriname until 1954. The country of Suriname achieved independence from the Kingdom of the Netherlands, in which Suriname, the Netherlands Antilles, and the Netherlands itself cooperated on a basis of equality since 1954, on 25 November 1975.
At just under 165,000 km2 (64,000 sq mi) Suriname is the smallest sovereign state in South America (French Guiana comprises less territory, but is French territory). It has an estimated population of approximately 560,000, most of whom live on the country's north coast, where the capital Paramaribo is located.
The name Suriname may derive from a Taino (Arawak-speaking) group called "Surinen" who first inhabited the region prior to European arrival.
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Syrian
The Syrian people (Arabic: الشعب السوري / ALA-LC: al-sha‘ab al-Sūrī) are the inhabitants and citizens of Syria and are, overall an indigenous Eastern Mediterranean people. While modern-day Syrians are commonly described as Arabs by virtue of their modern-day language and bonds to Arab culture and history, they are, in fact, largely a blend of the various Aramaic speaking groups indigenous to the region who were Arabized when Muslim Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula arrived and settled following the Arab expansion. Syrians are tied together by geography, linguistic heritage, religion, and similar Eastern Mediterranean ethnicities. Most Syrians reside primarily in Syria; however 17 million Syrians live outside of Syria and they stay connected to their cultural roots by watching Syrian satellite television, listening to Syrian music and preparing Syrian cuisine.
Damascus, the capital of Syria, is one of the most continuously inhabited cities in the world (for 8000 years straight, Syrians inhabited Damascus), and a large percentage of Damascenes are the descendents of the early inhabitants of Damascus.
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Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu /ˈtæmɨl ˈnɑːduː/ (Tamiḻ Nāṭu [t̪amɨɭ naːɖɯ] ( listen)) is one of the 28 states of India. Its capital is Chennai, the largest city. Tamil Nadu lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Pondicherry, and the states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. It is bound by the Eastern Ghats in the north, the Nilgiri, the Anamalai Hills, and Palakkad on the west, by the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Gulf of Mannar, the Palk Strait in the south east, and by the Indian Ocean in the south.
Tamil Nadu is the eleventh largest state in India by area and the seventh most populous state. It is the fourth largest contributor (as of 2010) to India's GDP and ranks tenth in Human Development Index as of 2006. Tamil Nadu is also the most urbanised state in India. The state has the highest number (10.56%) of business enterprises and stands second in total employment (9.97%) in India, compared to the population share of about 6%.
The region has been the home of the Tamil people since at least 500 BCE. Its official language Tamil has been in use in inscriptions and literature for over 2000 years. Tamil Nadu is home to many natural resources, Hindu temples of Dravidian architecture, hill stations, beach resorts, multi-religious pilgrimage sites and eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
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Thiruvananthapuram
Thiruvananthapuram,[needs IPA]known in English as Trivandrum /trɨˈvændrəm/, is the capital of the Indian state of Kerala and the headquarters of the Thiruvananthapuram District. It is located on the west coast of India near the extreme south of the mainland. Referred to by Mahatma Gandhi as the "Evergreen city of India", the city is characterized by its undulating terrain of low coastal hills and busy commercial alleys. With more than 750,000 inhabitants in the city proper, and a population around 1.68 million when including the wider urban agglomeration, Thiruvananthapuram is the largest and most populous city in Kerala. It is an IT hub of the state with over 80% of the state's software exports.
The city houses several central and state government offices and organizations. Apart from being the political nerve centre of Kerala, it is also a major academic hub and is home to several educational institutions including the University of Kerala, and to many science and technology institutions, the most prominent being the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), Technopark, the Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), the Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management, Kerala,Indian Institute of Science, Education and Research (IISER), the Centre for Development Studies, the International Centre for Free and Open Source Software (ICFOSS), the Regional Research Laboratory, the Centre for Earth Science Studies, Rajeev Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology and the Sree Chithira Thirunal Institute for Medical Science and Technology. It is also considered as one of the 10 greenest cities in India. Thiruvananthapuram was ranked as the best city in Kerala to live in by a recent Times of India survey
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UAE
The United Arab Emirates
i/juːˌnaɪtɨd ˌærəb ˈɛmɪrɨts/ (Arabic: دولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة, Al Imārāt al ‘Arabīyah al Muttaḥidah), sometimes simply called the Emirates or the UAE, is a country situated in the southeast of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia on the Persian Gulf, bordering Oman to the east and Saudi Arabia to the south, as well as sharing sea borders with Qatar to the west and Iran to the north.
The UAE is a federation of seven emirates (equivalent to principalities), each governed by a hereditary emir, with a single national president. The constituent emirates are Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Sharjah, and Umm al-Quwain. The capital is Abu Dhabi, which is also the state's center of political, industrial, and cultural activities.
Prior to independence in 1971, the UAE was known as the Trucial States or Trucial Oman, in reference to a 19th-century truce between the local sheikhs, hereditary rulers of the territories, and the United Kingdom. The term Pirate Coast was also used by some to refer to the emirates from the 18th to the early 20th century, owing to the preponderance of pirates operating from Emirati ports.
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United States
The United States of America (commonly abbreviated to the United States, the U.S., the USA, America, and the States) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west, across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Pacific and Caribbean.
At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2) and with over 312 million people, the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area, and the third largest by both land area and population. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The U.S. economy is the world's largest national economy, with an estimated 2011 GDP of $15.1 trillion (22% of nominal global GDP and over 19% of global GDP at purchasing-power parity). Per capita income is the world's sixth-highest.
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Wayanad
Wayanad District (Malayalam: വയനാട്) in the north-east of Kerala, India, was formed on November 1, 1980 as the 12th district by carving out areas from Kozhikode and Kannur districts. Kalpetta is the district headquarters as well as the only municipal town in the district. The region was known as Mayakshetra (Maya's land) in the earliest records. Mayakshetra evolved into Mayanad and finally to Wayanad. The Folk etymology of the word says it is a combination of Vayal (paddy field) and Naad (land), making it 'The Land of Paddy Fields'. There are many indigenous tribals in this area. It is set high on the majestic Western Ghats with altitudes ranging from 700 to 2100 m.
It is the least populous district in Kerala (out of 14).
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A. Sreedhara Menon
Professor Alappat Sreedhara Menon (18 December 1925 – 23 July 2010) was a historian from Kerala, India. He received the Padma Bhushan for Literature & Education in 2009, India's third highest civilian honour.
He was a noted academic, having taught history across the universities in Kerala. He served as the Registrar of the University of Kerala and authored the official history of the University in two volumes. Menon edited eight volumes of Kerala Gazetteers and served on the editorial board of journals including the Journal Of Indian History and Journal of Kerala Studies, both published by the Department of History, University of Kerala.
His Padma Bhushan citation describes him as
"a distinguished academician from Kerala who has rendered meritorious service to the cause of education and Literature... (and) left his mark as a teacher of History, author of historical works and educational administrator."
Sreedhara Menon passed the Secondary School Leaving Certificate in 1940 with First Class and proceeded to the Madras University where he passed the Intermediate Examination in 1942 with distinction in Hindi, Indian History, and Modem History. In 1944, supported by the Maharaja’s scholarship, he completed his Bachelor of Arts from the Maharaja's College, Ernakulam winning the Karimpat Rama Menon Gold Medal and the Rama Varma Shashtiabdapurthi Memorial Prize for English. He then continued his Master of Arts (postgraduate) at Madras University completing it in 1948 with a First Rank in history.
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Acharya Bhadrabahu
Acharya Bhadrabahu (c. 433 BC - c. 355 BC ?) was a Jain monk. He is more famously known as a spiritual teacher of Chandragupta Maurya and author of several texts related to Jainism, including some of the most important works, Upsargahara Stotra and Kalpasutra.
Bhadrabahu was born in Pundravardhana, (now in Bangladesh). During this time, the secondary capital of the Mauryas was Ujjain. While there Bhadrabahu was able to foresee through his nimitta jnan (subtle cognition of causes and effects) that there would be a 12-year famine across North India. He decided the famine would make it harder for monks to survive and migrated with a group of monks to South India, bringing with him Chandragupta, the founder of the Mauryan Empire turned Jain monk.
While Bhadrabahu was away the monks staying in the North realized that the sacred scriptures were being forgotten. A monk named Sthulabhadra convened a council to recompile the Purva scriptures. However, because Sthulabhadra’s own knowledge of these texts was imperfect, he went to Bhadrabahu to study the sections missing from his memory.
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Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara (Sanskrit: आदिशङ्करः Ādi Śaṅkara, pronounced [aːd̪i ɕəŋkəɾə]) (788 CE - 820 CE), also known as Śaṅkara Bhagavatpādācārya and Ādi Śaṅkarācārya was an Indian sage from Kalady in present day Kerala who consolidated the doctrine of advaita vedānta. His teachings are based on the unity of the ātman and brahman— non-dual brahman, in which brahman is viewed as nirguna brahman, brahman without attributes.
Shankara travelled across the Indian subcontinent to propagate his philosophy through discourses and debates with other thinkers. He is reputed to have founded four mathas ("monasteries"), which helped in the historical development, revival and spread of Advaita Vedanta of which he is known as the greatest revivalist. Adi Shankara is believed to be the organizer of the Dashanami monastic order and the founder of the Shanmata tradition of worship.
His works in Sanskrit concern themselves with establishing the doctrine of advaita (nondualism). He also established the importance of monastic life as sanctioned in the Upanishads and Brahma Sutra, in a time when the Mimamsa school established strict ritualism and ridiculed monasticism. Shankara represented his works as elaborating on ideas found in the Upanishads, and he wrote copious commentaries on the Vedic canon (Brahma Sutra, principal upanishads and Bhagavad Gita) in support of his thesis. The main opponent in his work is the Mimamsa school of thought, though he also offers arguments against the views of some other schools like Samkhya and certain schools of Buddhism.
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Adivasi
Adivasi (Sanskrit: Nepali: Hindi: आदिवासी; ādivāsī) is an umbrella term for a heterogeneous set of ethnic and tribal groups claimed to be the aboriginal population of India. They comprise a substantial indigenous minority of the population of India. The word is used in the same sense in Nepal as is another word janajati (Nepali: जनजाति; janajāti), although the political context differed historically under the Shah and Rana dynasties.
Adivasi societies are particularly present in the Indian Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Mizoram, and other northeastern states, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Many smaller tribal groups are quite sensitive to ecological degradation caused by modernization. Both commercial forestry and intensive agriculture have proved destructive to the forests that had endured swidden agriculture for many centuries. Officially recognized by the Indian government as "Scheduled Tribes" in the Fifth Schedule of the Constitution of India, they are often grouped together with scheduled castes in the category "Scheduled Castes and Tribes", which is eligible for certain affirmative action measures.
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Adoor Gopalakrishnan
Moutatthu "Adoor" Gopalakrishnan Unnithan (born 3 July 1941) is an Indian film director, script writer, and producer. Adoor Gopalakrishnan had a major role in revolutionizing Malayalam cinema and is regarded as one of the greatest filmmakers of India. Adoor's first film Swayamvaram (1972) pioneered the new wave cinema movement in Kerala. Most of his films go to festivals around the world, and are released in Kerala. All the eleven films he directed, from Swayamvaram to Oru Pennum Randaanum (2008), were screened at several international film festivals and won him several national and international awards. He won National Film Awards sixteen times, Kerala State Film Awards seventeen times and also won several international film awards. He won the prestigious British Film Institute award for Elippathayam (1981). Adoor received the Padma Shri in 1984 and the Padma Vibhushan in 2006. The Nation honoured Adoor for his valuable contributions to Indian cinema by awarding him the highest cinema award of India, the Dadasaheb Phalke Award for the year 2004.
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Anglo Indian
Anglo-Indians are people who have mixed Indian and British ancestry, or people of British descent born or living in India, Pakistan, or Burma, now mainly historical in the latter sense. British residents in India used the term "Eurasians" for people of mixed European and Indian descent (cf. George Orwell's Burmese Days). The Oxford Dictionary's definition of "Anglo-Indian" is "Of mixed British and Indian parentage, of Indian descent but born or living in Britain, or (chiefly historical) of British descent or birth but living or having lived long in India".
The Anglo-Indian community in its modern sense is a distinct, small minority community originating in India. It consists of people from mixed British and Indian ancestry whose native language is English. An Anglo-Indian's British ancestry was usually bequeathed paternally.
Article 366(2) of the Indian Constitution defines Anglo-Indian as "a person whose father or any of whose other male progenitors in the male line is or was of European descent but who is domiciled within the territory of India and is or was born within such territory of parents habitually resident therein and not established there for temporary purposes only". This definition extends "Anglo-Indian" to include Indians of purely European (male) ancestry.
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Anglo-Indian
Anglo-Indians are people who have mixed Indian and British ancestry, or people of British descent born or living in India, Pakistan, or Burma, now mainly historical in the latter sense. British residents in India used the term "Eurasians" for people of mixed European and Indian descent (cf. George Orwell's Burmese Days). The Oxford Dictionary's definition of "Anglo-Indian" is "Of mixed British and Indian parentage, of Indian descent but born or living in Britain, or (chiefly historical) of British descent or birth but living or having lived long in India".
The Anglo-Indian community in its modern sense is a distinct, small minority community originating in India. It consists of people from mixed British and Indian ancestry whose native language is English. An Anglo-Indian's British ancestry was usually bequeathed paternally.
Article 366(2) of the Indian Constitution defines Anglo-Indian as "a person whose father or any of whose other male progenitors in the male line is or was of European descent but who is domiciled within the territory of India and is or was born within such territory of parents habitually resident therein and not established there for temporary purposes only". This definition extends "Anglo-Indian" to include Indians of purely European (male) ancestry.
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Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs (Arabic: عرب, ʿarab), are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing an important part of Arab identity.
The word "Arab" has had several different, but overlapping, meanings over the centuries (and sometimes even today). In addition to including all Arabized people of the world (with language tending to be the acid test), it has also at times been used exclusively for bedouin (Arab nomads [although a related word, "`a-RAB," with the Arabic letter "alif" in the second syllable, once was sometimes used when this specific meaning was intended] and their now almost entirely settled descendants). It is sometimes used that way colloquially even today in some places. Townspeople once were sometimes called "sons of the Arabs." As in the case of other ethnicities or nations, people identify themselves (or are identified by others) as "Arabs" to varying degrees. This may not be one's primary identity (it tends to compete with country, religion, sect, etc.), and whether it is emphasized may depend upon one's audience.
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Arjuna
In Indian mythology, Arjuna (Devanagari: अर्जुन, Thai: อรชุน Orachun, Tamil: அருச்சுனன் Aruccunan, Indonesian and Javanese: Harjuna, Harjuno, Herjuno, Malay: Ranjuna; pronounced [ɐrˈɟunɐ] in classical Sanskrit) is the greatest warrior on earth and is one of the Pandavas, the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, and a key historical figure in the Dwapar Yuga. Arjuna, whose name. means 'bright', 'shining', 'white' or 'silver' (cf. Latin argentum), was such a peerless archer that he is often referred to as Vishnu – the unbeatable.
The third of the five Pandava brothers, Arjuna was the son of the king of gods, Indra, and Kunti, wife of king Pandu of Kuru. Arjuna was an ambidextrous master archer and as a Maharathi played a key role in the victory of Yudhisthira in the Mahabharata War. Taught by the master of military arts Drona, Arjuna used the magnificent bow Gāndeeva, and killed many Kaurava generals like Karna and Jayadratha. He was also a close friend of Krishna, an Avatar of god Vishnu. Arjuna had four wives, Subhadra, Draupadi, Chitrangada and Ulupi.
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Ayyankali
Ayyankali (Malayalam: അയ്യങ്കാളി; 1863–1941) was a leader of the native Indian people treated as lower caste Dalits known as the Untouchables. He pioneered many reforms to improve the lives of the Dalits. In 1937 he was praised by Mahatma Gandhi when he visited Venganoor, Ayyankali's home town. Gandhi called him 'Pulaya raja' means king of pulaya caste. This was a clever and deliberate conspiracy to depict Ayyankali as the leader of a particular community and to create split among various dalit communities whom Ayyankali united under a single organization. In November 1980, Indira Gandhi unveiled sculptor Ezra David's commorative statue of Ayyankali at Kowdiar square, in Trivandrum.
Ayyankali was born in 1863 in Venganoor, Trivandrum, Travancore. He was one of seven children born to a Pulaya family. He was illiterate as were all Dalits at that time. In those days Dalits were not allowed to walk along public roads. The Dalit women were not allowed to cover their breasts in public places. Ayyankali organized Dalits and fought against these discriminations.
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Bodhidharma
Bodhidharma was a Buddhist monk who lived during the 5th/6th century CE. He is traditionally credited as the transmitter of Ch'an (Sanskrit: Dhyāna, Japanese: Zen) to China, and regarded as the first Chinese patriarch. According to Chinese legend, he also began the physical training of the Shaolin monks that led to the creation of Shaolinquan.
Little contemporary biographical information on Bodhidharma is extant, and subsequent accounts became layered with legend. There are three principal sources for Bodhidharma's biography: Yáng Xuànzhī's (Yang Hsüan-chih) The Record of the Buddhist Monasteries of Luoyang (547), Tánlín's preface to the Two Entrances and Four Acts (6th century CE), and Dàoxuān's (Tao-hsuan) Further Biographies of Eminent Monks (7th century CE).
These sources vary on their account of Bodhidharma being either "from Persia" (547 CE), "a Brahman monk from South India" (645 CE), "the third son of a Brahman king of South India" (ca. 715 CE).Some traditions specifically describe Bodhidharma to be the third son of a Tamil Pallava king from Kanchipuram.
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Brahmins
Brahmin (also called Brahman; from Sanskrit brāhmaṇa ब्राह्मण) is a name used to designate a member of one of the four varnas (castes) in the traditional Hindu societys of Nepal and India.
Brahman, Brahmin and Brahma have different meanings. Brahman refers to the Supreme Self. Brahmin or Brahmana refers to an individual, while the word Brahma refers to the creative aspect of the universal consciousness. The English word brahmin is an anglicised form of the Sanskrit word Brāhmana. In the Smriti view there are four "varnas", or classes: the Brahmins, the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas, and Shudras. The Atreya smriti 141-142 enjoins that
One is a Shudra by birth
samskarad dvija ucyate
By observing Sanskara one becomes a Dvija
vedapathi bhaved viprah
By studying the Vedas one becomes a Vipra
brahma janati brahmanah
Traditionally Brahmin was the name given to persons who had attained the highest spiritual knowledge (brahmavidya) and who adhered to different branches (shakhas) of Vedas. This was described to be a difficult path of discipline of body, mind, and intellect. Irrespective of their birth or class,[citation needed] people who were dedicated to such an austere life were recognized as Brahmins.[citation needed] An example of this definition of Brahmin, that a person becomes a Brahmin, rather than being born as one, is the story of the sage Vishwamitra, who was a warrior, who became a Brahmin after attaining brahmavidya, and composed the Gayatri mantra. [defunct example from period before dharmashastras So,[citation needed] The belief that people born into the Brahmin caste, automatically become Brahmins, is a concept that emerged later in ancient India.[citation needed]
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Brahui people
The Brahui or Brohi (Brahui: براہوی) (Sindhi: بروہي ) are an ethnic group of about 2.2 million people with the majority found in Kalat, Baluchistan, Pakistan, but they are also found in smaller numbers in neighboring Afghanistan and Iran. The Brahuis are almost entirely Sunni Muslims.
The ethnonym "Brahui" is a very old term and a purely Dravidian one. The fact that other Dravidian languages only exist further south in India has led to several speculations about the origins of the Brahui. There are three hypotheses regarding the Brahui that have been proposed by academics. One theory is that the Brahui are a relic population of Dravidians, surrounded by speakers of Indo-Iranian languages, remaining from a time when Dravidian was more widespread. Another theory is that they migrated to Baluchistan from inner India during the early Muslim period of the 13th or 14th centuries. A third theory says the Brahui migrated to Balochistan from South India after 1000 AD. The absence of any older Iranian (Avestan) influence in Brahui supports this hypothesis. The main Iranian contributor to Brahui vocabulary is a northwestern Iranic language, Baluchi, and southeastern Iranic language, Pashto.
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Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy indigenous to the Indian subcontinent and encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs, and practices largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, who is commonly known as the Buddha (meaning "the awakened one" in Sanskrit and Pāli). The Buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. He is recognized by Buddhists as an awakened or enlightened teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end ignorance (avidyā), craving (taṇhā), and suffering (dukkha), by recognizing dependent origination and sunyata, and attain Nirvana.
Two major branches of Buddhism are recognized: Theravada ("The School of the Elders") and Mahayana ("The Great Vehicle"). Theravada has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana is found throughout East Asia and includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Shingon, Tiantai (Tendai) and Shinnyo-en. In some classifications, Vajrayana—practiced mainly in Tibet and Mongolia, and adjacent parts of China and Russia—is recognized as a third branch, while others classify it as a part of Mahayana. There are other categorisations of these three Vehicles or Yanas.
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Buddhist
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy indigenous to the Indian subcontinent and encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs, and practices largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, who is commonly known as the Buddha (meaning "the awakened one" in Sanskrit and Pāli). The Buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. He is recognized by Buddhists as an awakened or enlightened teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end ignorance (avidyā), craving (taṇhā), and suffering (dukkha), by recognizing dependent origination and sunyata, and attain Nirvana.
Two major branches of Buddhism are recognized: Theravada ("The School of the Elders") and Mahayana ("The Great Vehicle"). Theravada has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana is found throughout East Asia and includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Shingon, Tiantai (Tendai) and Shinnyo-en. In some classifications, Vajrayana—practiced mainly in Tibet and Mongolia, and adjacent parts of China and Russia—is recognized as a third branch, while others classify it as a part of Mahayana. There are other categorisations of these three Vehicles or Yanas.
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Chakyar
Chakyar (also; Cakyar, Chakkiar, Chakiar etc.) is a Brahmin caste coming under the Ambalavasi community of Hindus in the Kerala state of South India. The women in this caste are called Illotammas.
They occupy a position in the Hindu Temple in managing the affairs of the temple, though not the actual conduct of ceremonies. They are assigned with the holy temple ritualistic performance called Chakyar Koothu and Koodiyattam, which is the only surviving ancient Sanskrit theatre in India.
Chakyar is the main actor who performs the ritualistic Koothus and Koodiyattams inside the temple or in Koothambalams. Their women's- Illotammas are not allowed to participate in that. The women roles are done by ladies of Nambiar community called Nangyarammas. Nambiar plays the holy drum Mizhavu.
There were 18 Chakyar families throughout Kerala, but now their number is small. Mani family is one of them. Their place is in North Kerala, Malabar. The greatest Koodiyattam and Chakyar koothu exponent, Natyashastra scholar and world renowned Guru, (late)Natyacharya Vidushakaratnam Padma Shri Mani Madhava Chakyar belonged to this family.
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Chandragupta Maurya
Chandragupta Maurya (Sanskrit: चन्द्रगुप्त मौर्य महान Hindi: चन्द्रगुप्त मौर्य महान), (born c. 340 BCE, ruled c. 320 BCE, – 298 BCE) was the founder of the Maurya Empire. He succeeded in conquering most of the Indian subcontinent and is considered the first unifier of India as well as its first genuine emperor. In foreign Greek and Latin accounts, Chandragupta is known as Sandrokyptos (Σανδρόκυπτος), Sandrokottos (Σανδρόκοττος) or Androcottus.
Prior to Chandragupta's consolidation of power, small regional kingdoms dominated the northwestern subcontinent, while the Nanda Dynasty dominated the middle and lower basin of the Ganges. After Chandragupta's conquests, the Maurya Empire extended from Bengal and Assam in the east, to Afghanistan and Balochistan,some part of the easten and south-east Iran in the west, to Kashmir and Nepal in the north, and to the Deccan Plateau in the south. Tradition holds that Chandragupta abdicated his throne to become a monk and led such an ascetic life that he starved himself to death. Whether or not this is factually accurate, he was succeeded by his son in 298 BC.
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Cochin Royal Family
The Cochin royal family were rulers of Cochin, India.
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Dravidian people
Dravidian people or peoples or is a term used to refer to the diverse groups of people who natively speak languages belonging to the Dravidian language family. Populations of speakers of around 220 million are found mostly in Southern India. Other Dravidian people are found in parts of central India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan. The most populous Dravidian people are the Telugus, Tamils, Kannadigas and the Malayalis. Smaller Dravidian communities with 1–5 million speakers are the Tuluvas, Gonds and Brahui.
There are two definitions for Dravidian ethnicity which are generally divided between proposing that Dravidian people are an ethnic group in their own right, or Dravidian peoples are a collective group of ethnolinguistic ethnicities. The World Book encyclopedia, Volume 10 says: "Most southern Indians belong to the Dravidian ethnic group;" referring to them as one ethnic group, while the The New Encyclopaedia Britannica: Volume 8; Volume 21 refers to 'Dravidian ethnic groups', suggesting the latter definition. Hence, depending on the definition and context, both 'Dravidian people' and 'Dravidian peoples' may be used.
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Duarte Barbosa
Duarte Barbosa (Lisbon, Portugal - † 1521, Philippines) was a Portuguese writer and Portuguese India officer between 1500 and 1516–17, with the post of scrivener in Cannanore factory and sometimes interpreter of the local language (malayalam). His "Book of Duarte Barbosa" (Livro de Duarte Barbosa) is one of the earliest examples of Portuguese travel literature, written circa 1516, shortly after the arrival in the Indian Ocean. In 1519 Duarte Barbosa embarked on the first expedition to circumnavigate the world, led by his brother-in-law Ferdinand Magellan, dying in 1521 at the feast of rajah Humabon in Cebu at the Philippines.
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Europeans
The ethnic groups in Europe are the various ethnic groups that reside in the nations of Europe. European ethnology is the field of anthropology focusing on Europe.
Pan and Pfeil (2004) count 87 distinct "peoples of Europe", of which 33 form the majority population in at least one sovereign state, while the remaining 54 constitute ethnic minorities. The total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people, or 14% of 770 million Europeans.
There is no precise or universally accepted definition of the terms "ethnic group" or "nationality". In the context of European ethnography in particular, the terms ethnic group, people (without nation state), nationality, national minority, ethnic minority, linguistic community, linguistic group and linguistic minority are used as mostly synonymous, although preference may vary in usage with respect to the situation specific to the individual countries of Europe.
There are eight peoples of Europe (defined by their language) with more than 30 million members residing in Europe:
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G. Sankara Kurup
G. Sankara Kurup, ( Malayalam: ജി.ശങ്കരകുറുപ്പ്, born June 3, 1901, Nayathode, Kingdom of Cochin (now in Ernakulam district, Kerala) - February 2, 1978, Vappalassery, Angamaly, Ernakulam district, Kerala), better known as Mahakavi G (The Great Poet G), was the first winner of the Jnanpith Award, India's highest literary award. He won the prize in 1965 for his collection of poems in Malayalam Odakkuzhal (The bamboo flute, 1950). With part of the prize money he established the literary award Odakkuzhal in 1968. He was also the recipient of the Soviet Land Nehru Award, in 1967, and the Padma Bhushan in 1968.
After completing his education, Kurup worked as the Malayalam teacher in a secondary school in Thiruvillwamala in 1921. Later he became a teacher in the Government Secondary Teacher Training Institute near Trichur. He worked as the Malayalam Pandit in Maharaja's College, Ernakulam, and retired as Professor of Malayalam from the College in 1956.
Kurup published his first poem, called Salutation to Nature in 1918, while still a student. Apart from 25 collections of poetry, Kurup also wrote verse dramas and collections of literary essays—in all about 40 works in Malayalam. He also translated the Rubáiyát (1932) of Omar Khayyám, the Sanskrit poem Meghaduta (1944) of Kalidas, and the collection of poems Gitanjali (1959) of Rabindranath Tagore into Malayalam. Indeed, one often speaks of the influence of Tagore and Gandhi on the humanism and nationalism of Kurup. Interestingly, he has also been described as a “bard of science” who explores the role of science in achieving the human potential.
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K. J. Yesudas
Kattassery Joseph Yesudas (born 10 January 1940) is an Indian classical musician and playback singer.
Yesudas sings Indian classical, devotional, and popular music. He has recorded more than 50,000 songs in many languages including Malayalam, Tamil, Hindi, Kannada, Telugu, Bengali, Gujarati, Oriya, Marathi, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tulu, Malay, Russian, Arabic, Latin and English during a career spanning five decades. He has performed in most Indian languages except Assamese, Konkani and Kashmiri. He also composed a number of Malayalam film songs in the 1970s and 1980s. Yesudas is fondly called Gana Gandharvan (English: The Celestial Singer)
He has won the National Award for the Best Male Playback Singer seven times (the most by any Indian singer) and the State Award for the Best Playback Singer 43 times, which consists of awards by the state governments of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and West Bengal. He was awarded Padma Shri in 1975 and Padma Bhushan in 2002 by the Government of India for his contributions towards the arts.
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Kamaladas
Kamala Suraiyya (b. Kamala Madhavikutty) (Malayalam കമലാ സുരയ്യ / മാധവിക്കുട്ടി) (31 March 1934 – 31 May 2009) was a major Indian English poet and littérateur and at the same time a leading Malayalam author from Kerala, India. Her popularity in Kerala is based chiefly on her short stories and autobiography, while her oeuvre in English, written under the name Kamala Das, is noted for the fiery poems and explicit autobiography.
Her open and honest treatment of female sexuality, free from any sense of guilt, infused her writing with power, but also marked her as an iconoclast in her generation. On 31 May 2009, aged 75, she died at a hospital in Pune, but has earned considerable respect in recent years.
Kamala Das was born in Punnayurkulam, Thrissur District in Kerala, on March 31, 1934, to V. M. Nair, a former managing editor of the widely-circulated Malayalam daily Mathrubhumi, and Nalappatt Balamani Amma, a renowned Malayali poetess.
She spent her childhood between Calcutta, where her father was employed as a senior officer in the Walford Transport Company that sold Bentley and Rolls Royce automobiles, and the Nalappatt ancestral home in Punnayurkulam.
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Kaniyar
Kaniyar are a caste of India with origins in the states of Kerala and Karnataka. There are regional variations in the name used to define them. The Kerala Public Service Commission considers Kaniyar Panicker (otherwise known as Kaniyan, Kanisu, Ganaka, Kanisan, Kamnan, and Kani) to be one group in their list of designated Other Backward Classes, and Kalari Panicker (otherwise referred to as Kalari Kurup) to be another. .Dakshina Kannada region of Karnataka, they are known by the name Balyaya.
Various occupational groups exist within the caste. For example, traditionally the Kaniyar Panicker were found in the area of Malabar and northern Travancore, and the title recognised their occupation as teachers of physical exercises, especially those relating to military purposes, as well as their role as Hindu astrologers. The Kaniyar Asan members of the caste, who did not teach such things, were primarily to be found in southern Travancore. The Tinta group, and in particular the women, were makers of palm-leaf umbrellas; the group members also exorcised spirits, with their name literally meaning "polluting". As with the various transliterated names, so too the occupational titles adopt various spellings, such as Panikkar and Aasaan.[citation needed]
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Kannadiga
The Kannada people, or Kanarese (masculine Kannadiga, feminine Kannadati) are the people who natively speak the Kannada language. Kannadigas are mainly located in the state of Karnataka in India and in the neighboring states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa and Maharashtra. The English plural is Kanarese, Kannadas, or Kannadigas.
Kannadigas are people who speak Kannada, its variants or its various dialects as their native language. Various districts of Karnataka have mixed variations of dialects like Dharwad Kannada,Sankethi, Naddvara Kannada, Havigannada, Bengaluru Kannada,Are Bhashe, Mysooru Kannada, Kundagannada, etc. Janapadas of Soliga, Badaga and other tribes of Karnataka having rich contribution to Kannada literature have their own style. Many Kannadigas have emigrated to countries like United States of America, United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia. Apart from native speakers, Kannada is also spoken by Tuluvas, Konkani, Kodavas of Karnataka and Telugu and Tamil settlers in the state.
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Kerala Iyers
Kerala Iyers, colloquially called Pattars, are Tamil Iyers of the Indian state of Kerala who migrated from present day Tamil Nadu in different waves starting from the medieval period onwards. The community consists of two groups - the Palakkad Iyers and Iyers of the Cochin and Travancore regions.
The first wave of Iyers settled down in Palakkad district at the beginning of the medieval period. Migrations to the Travancore and Cochin regions took place mostly in the 16th and 17th centuries AD. Many of the Diwans or Prime Ministers of the princely state of Travancore were Tamil Brahmins.
Kerala Iyers, like the Iyers of Tamil Nadu, belonged to the Pancha Dravida classification of India's Brahmin community. They mostly belonged to the Vadama and Brahacharanam sub-sects. Kerala Iyers and other Tamil Brahmins ranked below the orthodox Nambudiri Brahmins in the Malayali caste hierarchy and the touch of a Tamil/Kerala Iyer meant that the Nambudiri was defiled by Eda Shudam which required the Nambudiri to bathe before resuming rituals.
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Kumaran Asan
Modern Triumvirates
Ulloor | Ashan | Vallathol
N. Kumaran Asan (Malayalam:കുമാരനാശാന്) (1873–1924), also known as Mahakavi Kumaran Asan (the prefix Mahakavi awarded by Madras University in the year 1922 means "great poet" and the suffix Asan meaning scholar or teacher), was one of the triumvirate poets of Kerala, South India. He was also a philosopher, a social reformer and a disciple of Sree Narayana Guru.
Kumaran Asan initiated a revolution in Malayalam poetry in the first quarter of the 20th century, transforming it from the metaphysical to the lyrical. Deep moral and spiritual commitment is evident in Asan's poetry. His works are an eloquent testimony of poetic concentration and dramatic contextualization.
Asan was born in a merchant family belonging to the Ezhava community[citation needed] in April 1873 in Kayikkara village, Chirayinkeezhu taluk, north of Thiruvananthapuram district of Kerala, south India. Named Kumaru He was the second son in a family of nine children. His father, Narayanan Perungudi, was well versed in Malayalam and Tamil.His mother, Kaali. Asan inherited his taste for Kathakali and classical music. Kumaru trained in mathematics and Sanskrit for which he had a passion. Even though through his father's efforts, he got a job as a primary school teacher was not before and an accountant to a wholesaler at the age of 14, he quit the job two years later to pursue higher studies in Sanskrit. He undertook a studentship in poetry under Manamboor Govindan Asan. He wished to learn Yoga and Tantra and worked as an apprentice in a Muruga temple at Vakkom. It is said that the Muse of Poetry blessed him during this time. He composed a few devotional songs for the benefit of regular worshippers at this temple.
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L. Athira Krishna
Athira Krishna is an internationally acclaimed prodigy violinist from India. She was born in Trivandrum, Kerala. She has an enviable musical lineage as the granddaughter of the illustrious Vidwan Shri. GopalaPillai, fabulous musician of yesteryears who belonged to the renowned Tanjore tradition of Carnatic Music whose master-disciple lineage traced back to the Sri. Muthuswamy Dikshithar Carnatic trinity of the 18th century, and to Baluswamy Dikshithar, who first introduced the violin to Indian classical music. Athira is the proud recipient of many coveted recognitions including the prestigious Guinness World Record for her unique 32 hour long Non-Stop Carnatic Violin Solo Concert. She is among the youngest Cultural Ambassadors of India taking the rich Indian classical music tradition to the nooks and corners of the world through her violin solo concerts and lec-dems.
Athira is the daughter of Sri. K. C. Krishna Pillai and Smt. S. Leela Kurup. Growing up within one of Kerala's most acclaimed musical families, she had her intensive training under her grandfather Sangitha Vidwan. Sri Gopala Pillai at a tender age. Athira also inherited the intricacies of South Indian classical music from her father acclaimed musician and noted Veena Player Sangitha Vidwan. Sri K. C. Krishna.
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M. Mukundan
M. Mukundan(Malayalam: എം. മുകുന്ദൻ) is one of the pioneers of modernity in Malayalam literature, belonging to Mahe, part of Pondicherry Union Territory in South India. He was born on 10 September 1942 at Mayyazhi (Mahe), a one-time French territory in India. He served as the president of Kerala Sahitya Akademi from October 2006 until March 2010.
Mukundan is known in Kerala as Mayyazhiyude Kathakaaran (The story-teller of Mayyazhi). His native village of Mayyazhi figures in his early works: Mayyazhippuzhayude Theerangalil, Daivathinte Vikrithikal, Appam Chudunna Kunkiyamma and Lesli Achante Kadangal.
His first literary work was a short story published in 1961. Mukundan has so far published 12 novels and ten collections of short stories. Mukundan's latest four novels Adithyanum Radhayum Mattu Chilarum', Oru Dalit Yuvathiyude Kadanakatha,Kesavante Vilapangal and Nritham carries a change in structure and approach.
Oru Dalit Yuvathiyude Kadanakatha reveals how Vasundhara, an actress has been insulted in the course of acting due to some unexpected situations. It proclaims the postmodern message that martyrs are created not only through ideologies, but through art also.
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M. T. Vasudevan Nair
Madathil Thekkepaattu Vasudevan Nair (Malayalam: മഠത്തില് തെക്കെപാട്ട് വാസുദേവന് നായര്) (born 15 July 1933), popularly known as MT, is an Indian author,screenplay writer and film director. He was born in Kudallur, a small village in the present day Palakkad District, which was under the Malabar District in the Madras Presidency of the British Raj. He is one of the most prolific and versatile writers in modern Malayalam literature. In 2005, India's third highest civilian honour Padma Bhushan was awarded to him. He was awarded the highest literary award in India- Jnanpith for his overall contribution to Malayalam literature.His novel- Randamoozham (Second Turn) is widely credited as his masterpiece.
M.T. was born in 1933 at Kudallur in the present day Palakkad district. He spent his early days in Punnayurkulam village of present day Thrissur District. He occupied and continues to occupy many important and powerful positions in various literary bodies including the presidentship of Kerala Sahitya Akademi and the chairmanship of Tunchan Memorial Trust. The Library of Congress has in its collection sixty-two books, mostly by M.T and some on him. Also, some of them are translations of his works into English. He acted as the Chief Editor of the weekly Mathrubhumi and as the editor of the Mathrubhumi periodicals. He has also served as a faculty in the Film and Television Institute,Pune. On the 2 June 1996, he was bestowed with honourary D.Lit degree by the Calicut University. He is married twice. His second wife is the dance artist Kalamandalam Saraswathi with whom he has a daughter.
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M.S. Gopalakrishnan
M.S. Gopalakrishnan, aka MSG, (b.10 June 1931, Mylapore, Chennai, India,) is a violinist in the field of Carnatic music. He has been a recipient of the Padma Bhushan, Padma Sri, Kalaimamani, Sangeetha Kalanidhi and 1997 Sangeet Natak Akademi awards, and is commonly grouped with Lalgudi Jayaraman and T.N.Krishnan as part of the violin-trinity of carnatic music.[citation needed]
Gopalakrishnan was taught violin by his father, the late Parur Sundaram Iyer, who was well-versed in North Indian (Hindustani) and South Indian (Carnatic) systems of Indian classical music. He learnt both systems from his father, with whom he gave his first performance at 8 years old.
He has played the violin for over fifty years as a soloist and accompanist, having accompanied Omkarnath Thakur and D. V. Paluskar, and has toured Australia, the US, the UK, the Netherlands, South Africa, Malaysia, and Hong Kong.
His daughter, Dr M. Narmadha, is also a violinist.
Gopalakrishnan has researched playing technique, and has developed the particular fingering and bowing disciplines of the "Parur style" to produce a clarity of sound and speed of delivery. His style includes one-finger playing and a thematic development on single-string octaves.[clarification needed]
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Malayali
Malayali (also spelled Malayalee; Malayalam: മലയാളി, Malayāḷi ?) is the term used to refer to the native speakers of Malayalam, originating from the Indian state of Kerala. The Malayali identity is primarily linguistic, although in recent times the definition has been broadened to include emigrants of Malayali descent who partly maintain Malayali cultural traditions, even if they do not regularly speak the language. While the origins of the Malayali people are in the state of Kerala, significant populations also exist in other parts of India, the Middle East, Europe and North America. According to the Indian census of 2001, there were 30,803,747 speakers of Malayalam in Kerala, making up 96.7% of the total population of that state. Hence the word Keralite is often used in the same context, though a proper definition is ambiguous.
Malayalam, the Malayalis' native language, has its origin from the words mala meaning mountain and alam meaning land (Tamil/Malayalam) or locality (which lies alongside the mountain). Hence 'Malayali' means people from the mountains who lived beyond the Western Ghats, and Malayalam the language that was spoken there.
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Mappila
Mappila (Malayalam: മാപ്പിള Māppiḷa, alternatively Mopla, Moplah) refers to the largest Muslim community in Kerala state, India primarily distributed in the northern region called Malabar, which arose as a result of the pre and post Islamic Arab contacts.
Muslims of Kerala, of which Mappilas constitute a majority, also make up the largest community in Kerala state, 24.70% of the population. As a religious group they are the second largest after Hindus (56%). They share the common language called Malayalam with the other inhabitants of Kerala. Islam reached Malabar Coast as early as 7th century AD and was assimilated with the culture and traditions of the local people. Over the centuries, the strong relations of the Mappilas with the traders from Arabia have created a profound impact on their life and culture. This has resulted in the formation of a unique tradition in literature, art, music, and history of the Mappilas. They form an integral part of the unique blend of the culture of the Malayalam language speaking population. Most of the Mappilas follow Shafi`i School, while a large minority follow movements arose within Sunni Islam.
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Muhammad
Muhammad (c. 26 April 570 – 8 June 632; also transliterated as Mohammad, Mohammed, or Muhammed; Arabic: محمد), full name: Muhammad Ibn `Abd Allāh Ibn `Abd al-Muttalib (Arabic: محمد بن عبدالله بن عبد المطلب ) was a leader from Mecca who unified the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity under Islam. He is believed by Muslims and Bahá'ís to be a messenger and prophet of God. Muslims believe that Islam was not his own invention but was revealed by God, and most consider him to be the last prophet of God Muslims thus consider him the restorer of an uncorrupted original monotheistic faith (islām) of Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and other prophets.
Born in 570 CE in the Arabian city of Mecca, he was orphaned at an early age and brought up under the care of his uncle Abu Talib. He later worked mostly as a merchant, as well as a shepherd, and was first married by age 25. Being in the habit of periodically retreating to a cave in the surrounding mountains for several nights of meditation and prayer, he later reported that it was there, at age 40, that he received his first revelation from God. Three years after this event Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly, proclaiming that "God is One", that complete "surrender" to Him (lit. islām) is the only way (dīn) acceptable to God, and that he himself was a prophet and messenger of God, in the same vein as other Islamic prophets.
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Muslims of Kerala
There had been considerable trade relations between Arabia and Kerala even before the time of Mohammed the Prophet. Islam might have been introduced in Kerala by the Arab traders in the 7th or 8th century AD itself. Like the Jews and Christians, the Arabs also settled down in Cranganore and established a separate colony of their part of the town.
Muslims of Kerala state, India may belong to any of the following different communities (based on religious believes and origins), viz., Mappilas, Keyis, Dakhni Muslims, Labbays, Rowthers, Thangals, Thulukkars, Marakkars, Koyas, Ossans, Pusalans etc.
And they may belong to any of the following intra-religious sects (the position of Chekannur Maulavi's Khur’an Sunnat Society is not shown), viz.,
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Namboothiri Brahmin
The Nambudiri Brahmins, also transliterated Namboothiri, are Hindu Brahmins from the Indian state of Kerala.
Nambudri nambũdiri is derived from nambuka "to trust" and tiri (from Sanskrit śrī) "blessed". Popular etymology derives the name from Malayalam nambu "the Veda", ōthu "to teach" and tiri "holy".
Nambudiri mythology associates their immigration to Kerala from the banks of Narmada, Krishna and Kaveri rivers with the legendary creation of Kerala by Parasurama, an avatar of Vishnu. In the Travancore State Manual, Nagam Ayya also says that they came from the region between Krishna and Godavari.
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Namboothiris
The Nambudiri Brahmins, also transliterated Namboothiri, are Hindu Brahmins from the Indian state of Kerala.
Nambudri nambũdiri is derived from nambuka "to trust" and tiri (from Sanskrit śrī) "blessed". Popular etymology derives the name from Malayalam nambu "the Veda", ōthu "to teach" and tiri "holy".
Nambudiri mythology associates their immigration to Kerala from the banks of Narmada, Krishna and Kaveri rivers with the legendary creation of Kerala by Parasurama, an avatar of Vishnu. In the Travancore State Manual, Nagam Ayya also says that they came from the region between Krishna and Godavari.
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Nambudiri
The Nambudiri Brahmins, also transliterated Namboothiri, are Hindu Brahmins from the Indian state of Kerala.
Nambudri nambũdiri is derived from nambuka "to trust" and tiri (from Sanskrit śrī) "blessed". Popular etymology derives the name from Malayalam nambu "the Veda", ōthu "to teach" and tiri "holy".
Nambudiri mythology associates their immigration to Kerala from the banks of Narmada, Krishna and Kaveri rivers with the legendary creation of Kerala by Parasurama, an avatar of Vishnu. In the Travancore State Manual, Nagam Ayya also says that they came from the region between Krishna and Godavari.
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Narayana Guru
Sri Nārāyana Guru (Malayalam: ശ്രീ നാരായണ ഗുരു) (1856–1928), also known as Sree Nārāyana Guru Swami, was a Hindu saint, sadhu[Full citation needed] and social reformer of India. The Guru was born into an Ezhava family, in an era when people from backward communities like the Ezhavas faced much social injustices in the caste-ridden Kerala society. Gurudevan, as he was fondly known to his followers, led Reform movement in Kerala, revolted against casteism and worked on propagating new values of freedom in spirituality and of social equality, thereby transforming the Kerala society and as such he is adored as a prophet.
Nārāyana Guru is revered for his Vedic knowledge[citation needed], poetic proficiency[citation needed], openness to the views of others[citation needed], non-violent philosophy[citation needed] and his unrelenting resolve to set aright social wrongs. Nārāyana Guru was instrumental in setting the spiritual foundations for social reform in today's Kerala and was one of the most successful social reformers who tackled caste in India. He demonstrated a path to social emancipation without invoking the dualism of the oppressed and the oppressor.
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O. V. Vijayan
Ootupulackal Velukkuty Vijayan (Malayalam: ഊട്ടുപുലാക്കല് വേലുക്കുട്ടി വിജയന്; July 2, 1930 – March 30, 2005) was an Indian author and cartoonist, who was an important figure in modern Malayalam language literature. Best known for his first novel Khasakkinte Itihasam (1969), Vijayan has six novels, nine short-story collections, and nine collections of essays, memoirs and reflections.
O. V. Vijayan was born in Palakkad on July 2, 1930. His father O. Velukkutty was an officer in Malabar Special Police of the erstwhile Madras Province in British India. As a child, Vijayan was largely homeschooled. Formal schooling began at the age of twelve, when he joined Raja’s High School, Kottakkal in Malabar, directly in to sixth grade. The informal education arranged by his father during his absentee years was sufficient to keep him at par with his peers. The following year, Velukkutty was transferred and Vijayan joined the school at Koduvayur in Palakkad. He graduated from Victoria College in Palakkad and obtained a masters degree in English literature from Presidency College.
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P. T. Usha
Pilavullakandi Thekkeparambil Usha (Malayalam: പിലാവുള്ളകണ്ടി തെക്കേ പറമ്പിൽ ഉഷ) (born June 27, 1964), popularly known as P. T. Usha, is an Indian athlete from the state of Kerala. P. T. Usha has been associated with Indian athletics since 1979. She is regarded as one of the greatest athletes India has ever produced and is often called the "queen of Indian track and field". She is nicknamed Payyoli Express. Currently she runs the Usha School of Athletics at Koyilandy in Kerala.
P. T. Usha was born in the village of Payyoli, Kozhikode District, Kerala. In 1976 the Kerala State Government started a Sports School for women, and Usha was chosen to represent her district.
In 1979 P. T. Usha participated in the National School Games, where she was noticed by O. M. Nambiar, who coached her throughout her career. Her debut in the 1980 Moscow Olympics proved lacklustre. In the 1982 New Delhi Asiad, she got silver medal in the 100 m and the 200 m, but at the Asian Track and Field Championship in Kuwait a year later, Usha took gold in the 400 m with a new Asian record[citation needed] . Between 1983-89, Usha garnered 13 golds at ATF meets. She finished first in the semi-finals of the 400 metres hurdles in the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, but faltered in the finals. In almost a repeat of Milkha Singh's 1960 feat, there was a nail-biting photo finish for the third place. Usha lost the bronze by 1/100th of a second. She became the first Indian woman (and the fifth Indian) to reach the final of an Olympic event by winning her 400 m hurdles Semi-final.
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Phillip Zarrilli
Phillip Zarrilli is a British practitioner of the Indian martial arts of Kalarippayattu and Marma Adi. Zarrilli has also trained in variations of Yoga, the Wu style of T'ai chi ch'uan, and is one of the notable Western authorities on the subject of Indian martial arts.
Zarrilli trained with Gurukkal Govindankutty Nair in 1977. He made repeated trips to India to engage in advanced training in Kalarippayattu. Between 1977–1998, Zarrilli spent a total of seven years living in Kerala learning Kalarippayattu. Zarrilli was the first citizen from a Western country to receive his teacher's permission to teach Kalarippayattu. He began teaching in the United States in 1978 following a period of advanced training under Gurukkal Govindankutty Nair. In 1988 Gurukkal Govindankutty Nair awarded him the traditional pitham—a seat on which past masters "sit," signifying mastery.
Zarrilli heads the Tyn-y-parc CVN Kalari in Llanarth, Ceredigion, Wales, a private studio, and conducts workshops throughout the world. His productions of Samuel Beckett's plays in Los Angeles (2000), Austria (2001), and Ireland (2004) have won critical acclaim and awards for "best actress" and "courageous production" in Los Angeles, US.
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Pulaya
The Pulayar, also Pulayar, Pulaya, or Pulayas or Holeya or Cheramar, are one of the main social groups found in Kerala, Karnataka and in historical Tamil Nadu or Tamilakam.
Their marriage rituals were described by Edgar Thurston,. Nowadays many of these customs have fallen into disuse. Traditionally women of this caste are more independent compared to the women of other caste. The spiritual life of the Pulaya includes certain ancient magic rituals and practices that have a certain reputation. Members of the mainstream community may consult Pulaya sorcerers (Manthrikavadi) in Kerala, for advice.
Pulayas are noted for their music, craftsmanship, and for certain dances which include Kōlam-thullal, a mask dance which is part of their exorcism rituals, as well as the Mudi-āttam or hair-dance which has its origins in a fertility ritual.
Snake worship (nagaradhana) was prevalent among many Pulaya families all over Kerala.[citation needed]
They did use surnames like other groups. But off late many have been identified calling themselves as Cheramar or Cheraman Pulayan or Cheramar Pulayar or Cheramar Christian.[citation needed]
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Pulayar
The Pulayar, also Pulayar, Pulaya, or Pulayas or Holeya or Cheramar, are one of the main social groups found in Kerala, Karnataka and in historical Tamil Nadu or Tamilakam.
Their marriage rituals were described by Edgar Thurston,. Nowadays many of these customs have fallen into disuse. Traditionally women of this caste are more independent compared to the women of other caste. The spiritual life of the Pulaya includes certain ancient magic rituals and practices that have a certain reputation. Members of the mainstream community may consult Pulaya sorcerers (Manthrikavadi) in Kerala, for advice.
Pulayas are noted for their music, craftsmanship, and for certain dances which include Kōlam-thullal, a mask dance which is part of their exorcism rituals, as well as the Mudi-āttam or hair-dance which has its origins in a fertility ritual.
Snake worship (nagaradhana) was prevalent among many Pulaya families all over Kerala.[citation needed]
They did use surnames like other groups. But off late many have been identified calling themselves as Cheramar or Cheraman Pulayan or Cheramar Pulayar or Cheramar Christian.[citation needed]
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Raja Ravi Varma
Raja Ravi Varma (Malayalam: രാജാ രവി വർമ്മ) (April 29, 1848 - October 2, 1906) was an Indian painter from the princely state of Travancore (presently in Kerala) who achieved recognition for his depiction of scenes from the epics of the Mahabharata and Ramayana. His paintings are considered to be among the best examples of the fusion of Indian traditions with the techniques of European academic art.
During his life-time Varma is most remembered for his paintings of beautiful sari-clad women, who were portrayed as shapely and graceful. Varma's paintings became an important motif in kitsch of the time, reproductions being found in almost every middle-class home. His exposure in the west came when he won the first prize in the Vienna Art Exhibition in 1873. Raja Ravi Varma died in 1906 at the age of 58. He is considered among the greatest painters in the history of Indian art.
Raja Ravi Varma was born as Ravi Varma Koil Thampuran of Kilimanoor palace, in the erstwhile princely state of Travancore (Thiruvithankur) in Kerala. His father Ezhumavail Neelakanthan Bhattatiripad was an accomplished scholar, and his mother Umayamba Thampuratti (died 1886) was a poet and writer whose work Parvati Swayamvaram was published by Raja Ravi Varma after her death. His siblings were C. Goda Varma (born 1854), C. Raja Raja Varma (born 1860) and Mangala Bayi Thampuratti, who was also a painter.
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S. K. Pottekkatt
Sankaran Kutty Pottekkatt (Malayalam: ശങ്കരന്കുട്ടി കുഞ്ഞിരാമന് പൊറ്റെക്കാട്ട്), popularly known as S. K. Pottekkatt, (March 13, 1913 – August 6, 1982) was a famous Malayalam writer from Kerala state, South India. He is the author of nearly sixty books which include ten novels, twenty-four collections of short stories, three anthologies of poems, eighteen travelogues, four plays, a collection of essays and a couple of books based on personal reminiscences. Pottekat won the Jnanpith Award in 1980 for the novel Oru Desathinte Katha (The Story of a Locale). His works have been translated into English, Italian, Russian, German and Czech, besides all major Indian languages.
S. K. Pottekkat was born in Kozhikode as the son of Kunchiraman Pottekkatt, an English schoolteacher. He had his early education at the Hindu School and Zamorin's High School. He graduated from Zamorin’s College, Kozhikode in 1934. He did not find an employment for three years following his graduation and devoted his time to the study of Indian and Western classics. From 1937 to 1939, he worked as a teacher at Calicut Gujarati School. He quit the job to attend the Tripura Congress in 1939. He then went to Mumbai and took up several jobs only to develop an aversion for any white-collored jobs. He returned to Kerala in 1945. In 1952, he married Ms. Jayavalli and settled down at Puthiyara in Calicut. They had four children- two sons and two daughters. Pottekatts' wife died in 1980 after which his comdition too deteriorated. He was hospitalized in July 1982 following a paralytic stroke. He died on August 6, 1982.
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Shashi Tharoor
Shashi Tharoor (Malayalam: ശശി തരൂര്) (born 9 March 1956) is an Indian politician and a Member of Parliament (MP) from the Thiruvananthapuram constituency in Kerala. He previously served as the United Nations Under-Secretary General for Communications and Public Information[citation needed] and as the Minister of State for the Ministry of External Affairs.
He is also an author and columnist.
Shashi Tharoor was born in London to Lily and Chandran Tharoor, both Malayalis, hailing from the state of Kerala[citation needed]. Tharoor studied at Montfort School in Yercaud and Campion School in Mumbai[citation needed]. He attended high school at St. Xavier’s Collegiate School in Kolkata and obtained his Bachelor of Arts degree in history from St. Stephen’s College, Delhi.
He went on to win a scholarship to study at The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University and earned three degrees in three years - a Ph.D. and two master's degrees at the age of 22, Tharoor is the youngest person in the history of the Fletcher School to be awarded a doctorate. His doctoral thesis, "Reasons of State", was a required reading in courses on Indian foreign-policy making. In 2000, Tharoor was awarded an honorary Doctor of Letters degree[citation needed] by the University of Puget Sound and in 2008 he received an honorary doctorate degree by the University of Bucharest[citation needed].
wn.com/Shashi_Tharoor -
Swati Tirunal
Sri Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma (Malayalam: ശ്രrii സ്വാതി തിരുനാള് രാമ വര്മ) (April 16, 1813 – December 25, 1846) was the Maharaja of the state of Travancore (തിരുവിതാംകൂര്), in India. He reigned under the regency of his mother Maharani Gowri Lakshmi Bayi from 1813 till 1815 and henceforth under the regency of his aunt Maharani Gowri Parvati Bayi from 1815 till 1829. In 1829 he turned major and assumed full powers of ruler and ruled Travancore till his demise in 1846.
Besides being an able ruler, he was a patron of music and a musician himself. He encouraged both broad systems of Indian music, Hindustani and Carnatic music, though he was essentially a connoisseur of the Carnatic music tradition. He is credited with composing over 400 compositions in Carnatic music as well as Hindustani music. Some of his favorite compositions are Padmanabha Pahi, Deva Deva, Sarasijanabha and Sree Ramana Vibho. The king was fluent in a number of languages such as Malayalam, Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Telugu, Kannada,Bengali, Tamil, Oriya and English.
wn.com/Swati_Tirunal -
Tamil people
Tamil people (Tamil: தமிழர், tamiḻar ?), are an ethnic group native to Tamil Nadu, India and the north-eastern region of Sri Lanka. Historic and post 15th century emigrant communities are also found across the world, notably Malaysia, Singapore, Mauritius, South Africa, Australia, Canada, Réunion (France) and the UK. Since the early BCE, urbanization and mercantile activity along the western and eastern coast of what is today Kerala and Tamil Nadu led to the development of four large Tamil political states (Chera, Chola, Pandya and Pallavas) and a number of small petty states warring amongst themselves for dominance. Between the 3rd century BCE and the 3rd century CE Tamil people also produced native literature that came to be called Sangam literature. In centuries BCE religions such as Jainism, Buddhism and Vedic religion was spread amongst the populace.
Tamils were noted for their military, religious and mercantile activities beyond their native borders. Pandyas and Cholas were historically active in Sri Lanka. Pallava traders and religious leaders travelled to South East Asia and played an important role in the cultural Indianisation of the region. Locally developed scripts such as Grantha and Pallava script induced the development of many native scripts such as Khmer, Javanese and Thai.
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Telugu people
The Telugu people or Telugu Prajalu (Telugu: తెలుగు ప్రజలు) are a Dravidian ethnic group of India. They are the native speakers of the Telugu language, the third most commonly spoken language in India after Hindi and Bengali. They are mostly native to Andhra Pradesh, with significant populations in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Pondicherry, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh and Orissa. The Telugu constitute one of the largest ethnic groups in the world.
After Apastamba's death the Andhra tribes crossed the Vindhya mountains, reached the south, and merged with the other Andhra tribes. The Atreya Brahmana says that the Andhras lived on the south side of Vindhya Range along with the Pundras, Pulindas, Sabaras and Mootibas.[citation needed]
Some of those Andhras who came to the south of the Vindhya mountains settled in the regions north of present-day Hyderabad. Another tribe crossed the Eastern Ghats.[citation needed]
The Sanskrit epics mention the Andhra Kingdom, named for the Aryan tribe of the Andhras. They are mentioned again at the time of the death of the great Mauryan King Ashoka in 232 BC. This date has been considered to be the beginning of the Andhra historical record. Various dynasties have ruled the area, including the Andhra (or Satavahana), Shakas, Ikshvakus, Eastern Chalukyas, the Vijayanagara Kingdom, the Qutb Shahis of Golconda, and the Nizams (princes) of Hyderābād.
wn.com/Telugu_people -
Thomas the Apostle
Thomas the Apostle, also called Doubting Thomas or Didymus (meaning "Twin," as does "Thomas" in Aramaic") was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. He is best known for questioning Jesus' resurrection when first told of it, then proclaiming "My Lord and my God" on seeing Jesus in John 20:28. He was perhaps the only Apostle who went outside the Roman Empire to preach the Gospel. He is also believed to have crossed the largest area, which includes the Parthian Empire and India.
Thomas speaks in the Gospel of John. In John 11:16, when Lazarus has just died, the apostles don't want to go back to Judea, where Jesus' fellow Jews had attempted to stone him to death. Thomas says bravely: "Let us also go, that we may die with him" (NIV).
In Thomas' best known appearance in the New Testament, [Jn. 20:24–29] he doubts the resurrection of Jesus and demands to touch Jesus' wounds before being convinced. Caravaggio's painting, The Incredulity of Saint Thomas (illustration above), depicts this scene. This story is the origin of the term Doubting Thomas. After seeing Jesus alive, Thomas exclaimed, "My Lord and my God!".
wn.com/Thomas_the_Apostle -
Tuluva
The Tulu people, or Tuluva (plural Tuluver), are an ethnolinguistic group native to the Tulu Nadu region of India, presently divided amongst the Dakshina Kannada and Udupi district of Karnataka and the Kasaragod taluk of Kerala. They are the native speakers of the Tulu language. There is a sizable emigrant Tuluva population in Mumbai, the Middle East, and in several countries of the Anglosphere.
Though most of the Tuluva population is found in the Tulu Nadu region, migrant poplulations are found the world over. In recent times, the first period of migration started at the beginning of the 20th century to places such as Mumbai (known then as Bombay) and Chennai (known then as Madras) and other parts of South India. The Tulu speaking Shivalli Brahmins mostly migrated towards the south of Tulunadu to areas like Madras, Bangalore, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, etc. and other Tuluvas towards the north of Tulunadu especially to Mumbai and surrounding areas like Thane, Navi Mumbai and Pune where they are involved in various fields from banking to Bollywood.
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malayali house wife hot phone part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:45
- Updated: 23 Nov 2012
malayali house wife hot phone with her mobile friend and cheating her husband mallu house wife hot phone with friend
http://wn.com/malayali_house_wife_hot_phone_part_1
Kerala Malayali Housewife Hot
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:26
- Updated: 22 Nov 2012
http://wn.com/Kerala_Malayali_Housewife_Hot
malayali house wife hot phone part 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:09
- Updated: 26 Nov 2012
a malayali house wife chat with mobile friend
http://wn.com/malayali_house_wife_hot_phone_part_2
leaked video..Malayali girl showing her..very hot
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:39
- Updated: 24 Nov 2012
Mallu aunties .hot
http://wn.com/leaked_videoMalayali_girl_showing_hervery_hot
ithanu original malayali.. 2012
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:28
- Updated: 17 Nov 2012
http://wn.com/ithanu_original_malayali_2012
"Poor Gulf Malayali treated badly by Indian Officials"-Kannadi 31,January 2012 Part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:51
- Updated: 17 Oct 2012
Kannadi, as the name itself suggests holds a mirror to our society and to each and everyone of us exhorting us to look inward and introspect. Whenever a society or a system fails to protect the interests of its marginalized sections, it is also a measure of our failure as individual human beings.
http://wn.com/Poor_Gulf_Malayali_treated_badly_by_Indian_Officials-Kannadi_31,January_2012_Part_1
Malayali(Indian) Muslim girl turn to Lord Jesus Christ..Part 1 of 16
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:10
- Updated: 26 Aug 2012
By referring Quran 19:16-21. It is so confusing to me how the Muslims can believe that Jesus was born of a virgin by the word of Allah, but was not the son of God? Someone had to father him! Who put Him in her womb. Where did the seed to fertilize the baby come from? Why not be Allah be the father of Jesus? So what makes Jesus different?Jesus said, "I am the way, the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father (God) except through. Lord Jesus Christ is fully God, the expressed image of the Father, who, without ceasing to be God, became man in order that He might reveal God and redeem sinful man. God the Son became incarnate in the person of Jesus Christ; that He was conceived of the Holy Spirit and was born of the virgin Mary; that He is truly God and truly man; that He lived a perfect, sinless life; that all His teachings are true.Lord Jesus Christ died on the cross for all mankind.Jesus Christ resurrected from the dead. Lord Jesus Christ ascended to Heaven in His glorified body. By referring Quran 19:16-21 The Muslims believe that Jesus was born of a virgin by the word of Allah. This means Muslims believe that Jesus is the Word of God. In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God (John 1:1). And God said unto Moses, I AM THAT I AM: and Thus shalt thou say unto the children of Israel, I AM hath sent me unto you.Exodus 3:14.Jesus said un to them Verily, verily, I say unto you, Before Abraham was, I AM.( John 8:58). It seems that ...
http://wn.com/MalayaliIndian_Muslim_girl_turn_to_Lord_Jesus_ChristPart_1_of_16
Bhooloka Malayali Part - 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:32
- Updated: 13 Nov 2012
Bhooloka Malayali (www.bhoolokamalayali.com) is an online sitcom based on the story of an NRI Malayali who is visiting Kerala from abroad after few years. He still has in his mind, the coconut land before he went abroad in late 90's. He finds that things have changed a lot in Kerala but he is not able to accept those changes immediately. The story narrates his funny experiences from starting right from the airport where he lands and continues to his way home. Coming soon, lot more funny experiences... Wait and watch!!
http://wn.com/Bhooloka_Malayali_Part_2
Ezhuthappuram Ep 14, Malayali Cliche's
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:19
- Updated: 16 Nov 2012
Have you noticed these questions we normally ask each other?
http://wn.com/Ezhuthappuram_Ep_14,_Malayali_Cliche's
Hottest Malayali Clips Compilation
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:36
- Updated: 16 Nov 2012
Hottest Malayali Clips Compilation
http://wn.com/Hottest_Malayali_Clips_Compilation
Chathikkapedunna Malayali Penkuttikal, Ente Vartha
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:22
- Updated: 16 Nov 2012
citizen's Reports
http://wn.com/Chathikkapedunna_Malayali_Penkuttikal,_Ente_Vartha
Doctors Sexually Harassed Malayali Girl in Chennai
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:40
- Updated: 28 Jul 2012
Ayurveda Doctors Sexually Harassed Malayali Girl in Chennai
http://wn.com/Doctors_Sexually_Harassed_Malayali_Girl_in_Chennai
hot beach scene from malayali movie
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:39
- Updated: 19 Nov 2012
watch the hot scene on beach
http://wn.com/hot_beach_scene_from_malayali_movie
Malayali family facing pathetic condition -Gulf Round Up Part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:16
- Updated: 23 Nov 2012
A comprehensive dairy of news from the Middle East catering to the interests of Malayalee diaspora.
http://wn.com/Malayali_family_facing_pathetic_condition_-Gulf_Round_Up_Part_1
Chathikkapedunna Malayali Penkuttikal,Ente Vartha Follow Up
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:23
- Updated: 18 Nov 2012
citizen's Reports
http://wn.com/Chathikkapedunna_Malayali_Penkuttikal,Ente_Vartha_Follow_Up
Santhosh pandit's dance teacher : Funny Malayali dancing
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:52
- Updated: 20 Nov 2012
Santhosh pandit's dance teacher : Funny Malayali dancing
http://wn.com/Santhosh_pandit's_dance_teacher_Funny_Malayali_dancing
Gulf Malayali's first night-Part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:05
- Updated: 15 Oct 2012
Watch this episode of Comedy Street. Gulf Malayali enjoys his First night at home. www.istream.in
http://wn.com/Gulf_Malayali's_first_night-Part_1
"Story of a Malayali Doctor in Delhi"-India Gate 27, June 2012 Part 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:07
- Updated: 26 Jul 2012
An in-depth analysis of the top national stories of the week from New Delhi, spiced up with some very interesting special feature stories.
http://wn.com/Story_of_a_Malayali_Doctor_in_Delhi-India_Gate_27,_June_2012_Part_2
Ezham sooryan Malayalam Full Movie Part 1 @ www.malayalis.webs.com / www.malayaliz.webs.com.flv
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 15:02
- Updated: 12 Oct 2012
Ezham sooryan Malayalam Full Movie 2012 DVD Part 1 @ www.malayalis.webs.com / www.malayaliz.webs.com.flv
http://wn.com/Ezham_sooryan_Malayalam_Full_Movie_Part_1_@_wwwmalayaliswebscom_wwwmalayalizwebscomflv
Track Malayalam Full Movie 2012 Part 1 @ www.malayalis.webs.com / www.malayaliz.webs.com
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 15:02
- Updated: 12 Oct 2012
Track Malayalam Full Movie 2012 Part 1 @ www.malayalis.webs.com / www.malayaliz.webs.com
http://wn.com/Track_Malayalam_Full_Movie_2012_Part_1_@_wwwmalayaliswebscom_wwwmalayalizwebscom
Malayali Hot Nurse: Hot Treatment
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:43
- Updated: 26 Nov 2012
http://wn.com/Malayali_Hot_Nurse_Hot_Treatment
photo: AP / Jerome Delay
25 Nov 2012
Joseph Kabila, president of the Democratic Republic of Congo, has held direct talks with the leader of the M23 rebels in Uganda, hours after a regional summit called on them to end their offensive in the east of the country. Jean-Marie Runiga Lugerero, the political leader of the eastern DR Congo rebel group, said on Sunday he had an initial meeting with Kabila after the summit in the Ugandan capital, Kampala, ended on Saturday....(size: 20.0Kb)
photo: AP / Henry Griffin
26 Nov 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling "In our opinion and from our experience," declared John Kerry in 1971, "there is nothing in South Vietnam which could happen that realistically threatens the United States of America. And to attempt to justify the loss of one American life in Vietnam, Cambodia or Laos by linking such loss to the preservation of freedom..is to us the height of criminal hypocrisy..." ... The U.S....(size: 6.4Kb)
photo: AP
26 Nov 2012
This town of 19,000 nestled in an idyllic mountain pass of impossibly green pastures and golden autumn trees is on the front lines of Turkey's rapidly escalating guerrilla war. In a struggle for autonomy as well as independent language and education rights, the outlawed Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) has waged a low-grade conflict in Turkey for decades. ... 4 just as a Turkish army tank rolled by. ... "The violence is getting worse....(size: 8.8Kb)
photo: AP / Ahmed Gomaa
26 Nov 2012
Egyptian President Mohammed Mursi is due to meet meet senior judges to try and ease a crisis over the extent of his powers. A decree giving him sweeping new powers was announced on Thursday, sparking violent nationwide protests and leading to a 9% drop in Egypt's stock market. Mr Mursi said on Sunday the decree was temporary and not intended to concentrate power in his hands. ... ....(size: 2.8Kb)
IBN Live
27 Nov 2012
Deccan Chronicle
27 Nov 2012
Rani Mukerji is disheartened that not many went to see her latest release 'Aiyyaa' and says that actors always crave for adulation. Produced by Anurag Kashyap and directed by debutant Sachin Kundalkar 'Aiyyaa' had Rani and south actor Prithviraj in lead roles. Rani played the role of a Marathi girl who falls in love with a Malayali boy. ... That gives us immense pleasure. ... ....(size: 1.6Kb)
Deccan Herald
27 Nov 2012
Rani Mukerji is disheartened that not many went to see her latest release 'Aiyyaa' and says that actors always crave for adulation. Produced by Anurag Kashyap and directed by debutant Sachin Kundalkar 'Aiyyaa' had Rani and south actor Prithviraj in lead roles. Rani played the role of a Marathi girl who falls in love with a Malayali boy. However, the film did not create magic at the box office. ... It is a very sad situation for me. ... ....(size: 2.7Kb)
Deccan Chronicle
26 Nov 2012
A man known to effortlessly don the garb of a wily Machiavelli or a smiling Monalisa, Atul Kulkarni is now waiting to steal the thunder with '@Andheri', a Malayalam movie that’ll bring alive the aspirations and heartbreaks of thousands of Malayalis in Mumbai, the city of their dreams....(size: 2.9Kb)
The Times of India
26 Nov 2012
MANGALORE: Kannur University Malayalam department head A M Sreedharan is all set to do to Beary what Christian missionary Rev Ferdinand Kittel did to Kannada. If Kittel compiled the first Kannada-English dictionary with about 70,000 words in 1894, the Malayali professor is gearing up to publish the first ever Beary-Malayalam dictionary. This will also be the first ever dictionary in the language. ... ....(size: 1.9Kb)
The Times of India
26 Nov 2012
The Times of India
24 Nov 2012
The Hindu
24 Nov 2012
The Christian Church in Kerala grabbed international attention for the second time this year as Pope Benedict XVI installed Baselios Mar Cleemis, Major Archbishop of the Syro Malankara Catholic Church, Cardinal of the Catholic Church at a ceremony at the St. Peter’s Basilica in The Vatican on Saturday. ... At The Vatican, an official delegation led by Rajya Sabha deputy chairman P.J. ... Venugopal and E.T. ... I pray for all Malayalis....(size: 2.3Kb)
IMC
24 Nov 2012
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IMC
24 Nov 2012
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The Times of India
24 Nov 2012
Secretary of Wellington Malayali Association Jomin Antony said that Jessie's feat is a rare one since not many talented Indians have tasted such success. ... All Malayalis in Wellington want her to win the competition and celebrate on Sunday," he said. Swaroopa Unni, a Malayali from Dunedin, said: "Jessie is confident and a very talented girl. ... "She made proud all the Wellington Malayalis and Indian community as well....(size: 3.4Kb)
The Times of India
23 Nov 2012
THIRUVANANTHAPURAM: Scientist A Ajayaghosh has bagged the Infosys Prize 2012 for physical sciences in recognition of his pioneering research in the construction of supra molecular functional materials, which can be employed as components in organic electronic devices and in selective optical sensing and imaging. He is the second Malayali chosen for the award, after Prof Thanu Padmanabhan in 2009. ... The other awardees include Dr. ... ....(size: 2.3Kb)
IMC
23 Nov 2012
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| Notable List of Malayalees:
Adi Shankara • Shashi Tharoor • Arundhati Roy • Adoor Gopalakrishnan • Narayana Guru • Varghese Payapilly Palakkappilly • Raja Ravi Varma • P. T. Usha • K. J. Yesudas |
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| Total population | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| 35,757,100 (1997)[1] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Regions with significant populations | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Malayalam (മലയാളം) |
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| Related ethnic groups | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Dravidian people, Tamil people, Kannadiga, Telugu people, Tuluva, Brahui people |
Malayali (also spelled Malayalee; Malayalam: മലയാളി, Malayāḷi ?) is the term used to refer to the native speakers of Malayalam, originating from the Indian state of Kerala. The Malayali identity is primarily linguistic, although in recent times the definition has been broadened to include emigrants of Malayali descent who partly maintain Malayali cultural traditions, even if they do not regularly speak the language. While the origins of the Malayali people are in the state of Kerala, significant populations also exist in other parts of India, the Middle East, Europe and North America. According to the Indian census of 2001, there were 30,803,747 speakers of Malayalam in Kerala,[6] making up 96.7% of the total population of that state. Hence the word Keralite is often used in the same context, though a proper definition is ambiguous.
Contents |
Etymology[link]
Malayalam, the Malayalis' native language, has its origin from the words mala meaning mountain and alam meaning land (Tamil/Malayalam) or locality (which lies alongside the mountain).[7] Hence 'Malayali' means people from the mountains who lived beyond the Western Ghats, and Malayalam the language that was spoken there.
Geographic distribution and population[link]
See also: Kerala Gulf diaspora
According to the Indian census of 2001, there were 30,803,747 speakers of Malayalam in Kerala, making up 93.2% of the total number of Malayalam speakers in India, and 96.7% of the total population of the state. There were a further 701,673 (2.1% of the total number) in Karnataka, 557,705 (1.7%) in Tamil Nadu, and 406,358 (1.2%) in Maharashtra. The number of Malayalam speakers in Lakshadweep is 51,100, which is only 0.15% of the total number, but is as much as about 84% of the population of Lakshadweep. In all, Malayalis made up 3.22% of the total Indian population in 2001. Of the total 33,066,392 Malayalam speakers in India in 2001, 33,015,420 spoke the standard dialects, 19,643 spoke the Yerava dialect and 31,329 spoke non- standard regional variations like Eranadan.[6] As per the 1991 census data, 28.85% of all Malayalam speakers in India spoke a second language and 19.64% of the total knew three or more languages.
Large numbers of Malayalis have settled in Delhi, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Mumbai (Bombay), Pune and Chennai (Madras). A large number of Malayalis have also emigrated to the Middle East, the United States, and Europe. There were 179,860 speakers of Malayalam in the United States, according to the 2000 census, with the highest concentrations in Bergen County, New Jersey and Rockland County, New York. There were 7,093 Malayalam speakers in Australia in 2006.[3] The 2001 Canadian census reported 7,070 people who listed Malayalam as their mother tongue. The vast majority of them live in the Greater Toronto Area and Southern Ontario. The 2006 New Zealand census reported 2,139 speakers.[8] 134 Malayalam speaking households were reported in 1956 in Fiji. There is also a considerable Malayali population in the Persian Gulf regions, especially in Dubai. Interestingly there are also three malayalies in the small country of Suriname in South American continent.
Communities[link]
Historically, religion and caste played a major role in community, with individuals associating and marrying within their religion or caste. Hence, Malayali communities can be differentiated along historical religious lines.
Hindu[link]
Ezhava[link]
Main article: Ezhava
The Ezhavas are the largest Hindu community in Kerala. Ezhavas are also found amongst the Malayali diaspora around the world. Ezhavas are today a social group sharing a common history from the pre-social reform era. With a population of 7.3 million Ezhavas are the largest Hindu community in Kerala.
Nambudiri[link]
Main article: Nambudiri
The Nambudiri Brahmins are the indigenous Brahmins of Kerala, who are considered the most orthodox Brahmins in India.[9] They perform rituals in temples of Kerala based on Tantra Vidhi, a complex and ancient branch of Tantric traditions found only in Kerala, and some Mahakshetras ("Great Temples") around India (which have a Nambudiri acting as the Head Priest). Namboothiris follow the conservative and ritualistic Śrauta traditions and the ancient Purva Mimamsa, unlike the majority of other Brahmins in India who follow the Vedanta.
Nair[link]
Main article: Nair
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Nairs (sometimes spelled Nayar) were Hindu upper caste and division of the Hindu caste system. The Nairs were a martial nobility[10][11][12][13] and figure prominently in the history of Kerala. The Nairs form the second largest Hindu community in Kerala.
Interim castes[link]
Certain interim castes ( Antharala Jati) such as Kaniyar, Viswakarma( Kammalas) are worth mentioning . They were once socially indispensable for their exclusive traditional occupational functions .
Ganaka /Kaniyar community were associated with the practice of traditional Hindu astrology, and other intellectual vocations [14] such as conducting Kalari for teaching letters(3R's)[15] to non- Brahmins at village school(Ezhuthu Palli) and Martial arts (Kalary payattu).[16][17] They were generally known by the title Panicker and Asan [18] in northern and southern regions of Kerala respectively.[19]
Many artisan communities are collectively known as Viswakarma, they were engaged with various craft traditions ( carpentery, masonry,glack smithing, gold smithing, pot making etc.), involving the make and maintenance of architectural entities of Kerala.[20]
Ambalavasi[link]
Main article: Ambalavasi
Ambalavasi is the name of a Kerala community (not to be confused with caste) composed of a number of Hindu castes such as Pushpakas (Unni, Nambeesan, etc.), Chakyars, Moothaths, Ilayaths, Kurukkals, Warriers, Marars, Nambiars, Pisharody, Poduvals etc. Traditionally, they perform temple related jobs and art forms.
Pulaya[link]
Main article: Pulayar
The Pulayas, also known as Pulayar are one of the main social groups found in the Kerala society, who were traditionally engaged in various agriculture-related occupations. Ayyankali (1863–1914), one among the great social reformers of India, who was praised by Mahatma Gandhi when he visited Venganoor, was born to a Malayali Pulaya family.
Muslim[link]
Main article: Mappila
See also: Muslims of Kerala
Malayali Muslims are members of a Malayalam-speaking Islamic community spread across Kerala, Lakshadweep, Kodagu and across Malayali Diaspora around the world. In North Kerala they are known as Mappilas or Moplahs. The word mappila is derived from the words 'maha' and 'pilla' . The Mappilas are believed to be the earliest known Indian Muslim community, having existed since the 8th century CE, when Arab merchants who had long been trading with the Chera kingdom settled in Kerala. The Muslims in Kerala can not be easily distinguished in the community as they still retain their Malayali features.[citation needed] They follow the preachings of monotheism by Muhammad in Arabia, especially the UAE and other Gulf countries. They propagated their Islamic faith along the Malabar Coast. Most Mappila Muslims follow the Shafi'i school of Muslim Jurisprudence (in contrast to the Hanafi school followed by most South Asian Muslims). A good amount of mappila's find their income from gulf region. In North Malabar, from Malappuram to Kasargod, at least one of three Muslim houses have foreign income.
Christian[link]
Main article: Saint Thomas Christians
Christians form the third largest group in Kerala. Over the centuries, they have blended well with the changing socio-cultural environment of the region, becoming uniquely Indian and Christian.
According to beliefs, Christianity in India dates to Thomas the Apostle’s conversion of Jews and local population in Kerala during the 1st century CE.[21][22] The 3rd and 4th centuries saw an influx of Christians from the Middle East. Distance kept the community of St Thomas Christians separate from other Christian communities until about the 8th century, when they started receiving bishops and support from the Chaldean Church. The arrival of Europeans in the 15th century and discontent with Portuguese interference in religious matters fomented schism into Syrian Catholic and Orthodox communities. Further schism, rearrangements, and missionary activity led to the formation of the other Indian Churches. Latin Rite Christians were converted by the Portuguese in the 16th and 19th centuries mainly from communities where fishing was the traditional occupation. Anglo-Indian Christian communities formed around this time as Europeans and local Malayalis intermarried. Protestantism arrived a few centuries later with missionary activity during British rule. The community today can broadly divided into Catholic, Orthodox, Marthomite, other Protestant denominations and the relatively newer Pentecostal groups. It is important to note that despite being a heterogeneous group, Malayali Christians find unity in a common history and faith.
Jewish[link]
Cochin Jews, also called Malabar Jews (Malabar Yehudan) are the ancient Jews and their descendants of the erstwhile state of Kingdom of Cochin which includes the present day port city of Kochi.[23] They traditionally spoke Judeo-Malayalam, a form of the Malayalam tongue, native to the state of Kerala. The Jews of Cochin did not adhere to the Talmudic prohibition, followed by other Orthodox Jews, against public singing by women, and therefore have a rich tradition of Jewish prayers and narrative songs performed by women in Judeo-Malayalam.[24]
Their population has been greatly reduced from historical numbers, as many have emigrated to Israel to settle in the Negev. Part of the decline in Kerala's Jewish population can also be attributed to conversion.[21] Many of the Jews that converted during the time of Saint Thomas became Nasranis aka Saint Thomas Christians.[21]
Jain[link]
Main article: Jainism in Kerala
Jainism has had a continued presence in Kerala since pre-Christian times with Jainism in Kerala enjoying an extensive heritage and history.
At present, Jainism in Kerala has a very small following, mainly from the original Jains of Kerala and the Gujarati Jain business community, to be found in Kochi and Calicut. Most of the Shwetambar followers are living in Mattancherry (Kochi) and Digambar community families are residents of Ernakulam (Kochi).
Jainism came to Kerala in the third century BC soon after Chandragupta Maurya (B.C. 321-297), accompanied by the Jain monk Bhadrabahu, travelled to Shravanabelagola near Mysore (in present day Karnataka). Their followers are believed to have journeyed further south, into present day Kerala and Tamil Nadu, in search of suitable places for meditation. By the start of the Christian era, Jainism was well established in Kerala. Ilango Adigal, author of the Tamil epic Silappadikaram, was among the notable royal patrons of the Jain religion in Kerala. He lived in Trikkanaa-Mathilakam which attained fame as a centre of Jain culture and learning.
Unclassified[link]
Main article: Atheism in Kerala
With the growth in intermarriage between Malayali communities and also with other groups, especially outside Kerala, many people who identify themselves with Kerala or with Malayali culture can not readily be labeled as members of one of the historic castes or communities listed above. Also, although a number of these groups were historically affiliated to one or other religion or sect, many of their modern members may be agnostic or atheist, or identify more strongly with some other religious or non-religious ideology. Nevertheless, Malayalis have been a open-minded people who are accepting of various groups irrespective of caste and class in their community.
Culture[link]
Malayali cultural genesis can be traced to their membership (around the 3rd century CE) in a well defined historical region known as Tamilakam, encompassing the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kingdoms and southern coastal Karnataka. Later upon the arrival of other ethnic groups such as Namboothiris, Nairs, etc. the distinct culture took shape. This was later elaborated upon by centuries of contact with foreign cultures such as Syrian, Judeo, Arabian, Portuguese, English communities which have left their mark.[25] These foreign communities often settled in Kerala and assimilated with the local population resulting in different ethnic groups such as the Cochin Jews, Mappilas, Syrian Malabar Nasranis, and Anglo Indian.
Language and Literature[link]
Malayalam is the language spoken by the Malayalis. Malayalam is derived from Middle Tamil in the 6th century, of which Modern Tamil was also derived.[26] An alternative theory proposes a split in more ancient times.[26] For cultural purposes Malayalam and Sanskrit formed a language known as Manipravalam, where both languages were used in an alternating style. Malayalam is the only among the major Dravidian languages without diglossia. This means, that the Malayalam which is spoken does not differ from the written variant. Malayalam is written using the Malayalam script.
Malayalam literature is ancient in origin. The oldest literature works in Malayalam, distinct from the Tamil tradition, is dated between 9th century and 11th century.[26] Malayalam literature includes the 14th century Niranam poets (Madhava Panikkar, Sankara Panikkar and Rama Panikkar), whose works mark the dawn of both modern Malayalam language and indigenous Keralite poetry. The Triumvirate of poets (Kavithrayam: Kumaran Asan, Vallathol Narayana Menon and Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer)[27] are recognized for moving Keralite poetry away from archaic sophistry and metaphysics and towards a more lyrical mode.In the second half of the 20th century, Jnanpith awardees like G. Sankara Kurup, S. K. Pottekkatt, Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai and M. T. Vasudevan Nair have made valuable contributions to the Malayalam literature. Later, such Keralite writers as O. V. Vijayan, Kamaladas, M. Mukundan, and Booker Prize winner Arundhati Roy, whose 1996 semi-autobiographical bestseller[28] The God of Small Things is set in the Kottayam town of Ayemenem, have gained international recognition.[29][30]
Tharavadu[link]
Main article: Tharavadu
Tharavadu is a system of joint family practised by Malayalis, especially castes like Nambudiris, Nairs, and Ezhavas. Each Tharavadu has a unique name. The Tharavadu was administered by the Karanavan, the oldest male member of the family.[31] He would be the eldest maternal uncle of the family as well. The members of the Tharavadu consisted of mother, daughters, sons, sisters and brothers. The fathers and husbands had very minimal role to play in the affairs of the Tharavadu. It was a true matrilineal affair. The Karanavar took all major decisions. He was usually autocratic. However, the consent of the eldest female member of the family was taken before implementing the decisions. This eldest female member would be his maternal grandmother, own mother, mother's sister, his own sister or a sister through his maternal lineage. Since the lineage was through the female members, the birth of a daughter was always welcomed. Each Tharavadu also has a Para Devatha (clan deity) revered by those in the particular Tharavadu. Temples were built to honor these deities.
Kerala's society is less patriarchical than the rest of the Majority World.[32][33] Certain Hindu communities such as the Nairs, some Ezhava families in Travancore and Cochin, Ezhavas in north Kerala and Muslims around Kannur used to follow a traditional matrilineal system known as marumakkathayam which has in the recent years (post Indian independence) ceased to exist. Christians, Muslims, and some Hindu castes such as the Namboothiris and some Ezhavas follow makkathayam, a patrilineal system.[34] Kerala's gender relations are among the most equitable in India and the Majority World.[35][36]
Architecture[link]
Main article: Architecture of Kerala
Kerala, the native land of Malayalis has a tropical climate with excessive rains and intensive solar radiation.[37] The architecture of this region has evolved to meet these climatic conditions by having the form of buildings with low walls, sloping roof and projecting caves.[37] The setting of the building in the open garden plot was again necessitated by the requirement of wind for giving comfort in the humid climate.[37] Timber is the prime structural material abundantly available in many varieties in Kerala. Perhaps the skillful choice of timber, accurate joinery, artful assembly and delicate carving of wood work for columns, walls and roofs frames are the unique characteristics of Malayali architecture.[37] From the limitations of the materials, a mixed mode of construction was evolved in Malayali architecture. The stone work was restricted to the plinth even in important buildings such as temples. Laterite was used for walls. The roof structure in timber was covered with palm leaf thatching for most buildings and rarely with tiles for palaces or temples.[37] The Kerala murals are paintings with vegetable dyes on wet walls in subdued shades of brown. The indigenous adoption of the available raw materials and their transformation as enduring media for architectural expression thus became the dominant feature of the Malayali style of architecture.[37]
Nalukettu[link]
Nalukettu is a quadrangular building constructed after following the Tachu Sastra(Science of Carpentry). In past, Nalukettu was the house in which Malayalis lived.[38] It was a typical house which was flanked by out-houses and utility structures.The large house-Nalukettu is constructed within a large compound.It was called Nalukettu because it consisted of four wings around a central courtyard called Nadumuttom.[38] The house has a quadrangle in the center. The quadrangle is in every way the center of life in the house and very useful for the performance of rituals.The layout of these homes was simple, and catered to the dwelling of a large number of people, usually part of a tharavadu. Ettukettu (eight halled with two central courtyards) or Pathinarukettu (sixteen halled with four central courtyards) are the more elaborate forms of the same architecture. An example of a Nalukettu structure is Mattancherry Palace.[38]
Performing Arts and Music[link]
Malayalis use two words to denote dance, which is attom and thullal.[39] The art forms of Malayalis are classified into three types. They are (i)Religious like Theyyam, Bhagavatipattu etc., (ii)Semi religious like Sanghakali, Krishnanattom etc., and (iii)Secular like Kathakali, Mohiniaattam, Thullal etc.[39]Kathakali and Mohiniaattam are the two classical dance forms from Kerala.[40] Kathakali is actually a dance-drama. Mohiniaattam is a very sensual and graceful dance form that is performed both solo and in a group by women.[40]Kutiyattam is a traditional performing art form from Kerala, which is recognised by UNESCO and given the status Masterpieces of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.[41]Ottamthullal is another performing art, which is also known as the poor man's Kathakali, which was created by the poet Kunchan Nambiar as an alternative to Chakiarkooth (another performing art),which was open only for higher castes to see.[42]Theyyam is a ritualistic art form of Malayalis, which is thought to predate hinduism and to have developed from folk dances performed in conjunction with harvest celebrations. Theyyam is performed as an offering to gods so as to get rid of poverty and illness.[43] Velakali is another ritualistic art form, mainly performed at temples in the festival time. Kolkali is a folk art in which dance performers move in a circle, striking small sticks and keeping rhythm with special steps. Many ancient Malayali family houses in Kerala have special snake shrines called Kavu. Sarpam Thullal is usually performed in the courtyard of houses having snake shrines. This is a votive offering for family wealth and happiness.
Performing arts in Kerala is not limited to a single religion of the Malayali society. The Malayalam speaking Muslim community of Kerala, known as Mappila and the Christian community has their own unique performing art forms. Duff Muttu, also known as Dubh Muttu/Aravanamuttu[44] is a performing art form prevalent among the Muslim community. It is a group performance, staged as a social event during festivals and nuptial ceremonies.[44] Oppana is a popular form of social entertainment among the Muslim community. It is a form accompanied by clapping of hands, in which both men and women participate.[45] Margamkali is a performing art which is popular among the Saint Thomas Christians. It combines both devotion and entertainment, and was performed by women in groups.[46] Since 1980's women also have found groups. The dancers themselves sing the margamkali songs in unison call and response form.[46]Parichamuttikali is another performing art which is popular among Saint Thomas Christians. This is an artistic adaptation of the martial art of Kerala, Kalaripayattu.[46] Chavittu nadakom is a theatrical art form observed mainly by Kerala Latin Christians, dating back to second half of 16th century.[46]
However, many of these native art forms largely play to tourists or at youth festivals, and are not as popular among ordinary Keralites. Thus, more contemporary forms – including those heavily based on the use of often risqué and politically incorrect mimicry and parody – have gained considerable mass appeal in recent years. Indeed, contemporary artists often use such modes to mock socioeconomic elites. In recent decades, Malayalam cinema, yet another mode of widely popular artistic expression, have provided a distinct and indigenous Keralite alternative to both Bollywood and Hollywood.
Music formed a major part of early Malayalam literature, which is believed to have started developing by 9th century CE.[47] The significance of music in the culture of Kerala can be established just by the fact that in Malayalam language, musical poetry was developed long before prose. Kerala is musically known for Sopanam. Sopanam is religious in nature, and developed through singing invocatory songs at the Kalam of Kali, and later inside temples. Sopanam came to prominence in the wake of the increasing popularity of Jayadeva's Gita Govinda or Ashtapadis. Sopana sangeetham (music), as the very name suggests, is sung by the side of the holy steps (sopanam) leading to the sanctum sanctorum of a shrine. It is sung, typically employing plain notes, to the accompaniment of the small, hourglass-shaped ethnic drum called idakka, besides the chengila or the handy metallic gong to sound the beats. Sopanam is traditionally sung by men of the Marar and Pothuval community, who are Ambalavasi (semi-Brahmin) castes engaged to do it as their hereditary profession. Kerala is also home of Carnatic music. Legends like Swati Tirunal, Shadkala Govinda Maarar, Sangitha Vidwan Gopala Pillai Bhagavathar, Chertala Gopalan Nair, M.D. Ramanathan, T.V. Gopalakrishnan, M.S. Gopalakrishnan, L. Subramaniam T.N. Krishnan & K.J. Yesudas are Malayali musicians.
Padmabhushan. Dr.K.J. Yesudas sings Indian classical, devotional, and popular music. He has recorded more than 50,000 songs in many languages including Malayalam, Tamil, Hindi, Kannada, Telugu, Bengali, Gujarati, Oriya, Marathi, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Tulu, Malay, Russian, Arabic, Latin and English during a career spanning five decades. He has performed in most Indian languages except Assamese, Konkani and Kashmiri. He also composed a number of Malayalam film songs in the 1970s and 1980s.[1] Yesudas is fondly called Gana Gandharvan (English: The Celestial Singer. He has won the National Award for the Best Male Playback Singer seven times, the most by any Indian singer, and the State Award for the Best Playback Singer twenty three times by the Government of Kerala and by the Governments of Tamil Nadu (8), Karnataka (5), Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal (1) altogether 43 state awards. He was awarded The Padma shri in 1975 the Padma Bhushan in 2002 by the Government of India for his contributions towards the arts.
In 2006 Yesudas sang 16 film songs in four South Indian languages on the same day at AVM Studio, Chennai. Yesudas has performed in many major cities around the world. In 1965, he was invited by the Soviet Union government to perform at music concerts in various cities in the USSR and also sang a Russian song over Radio Kazakhstan. Yesudas became one of the senate members in the International Parliament for Safety and Peace. On November 14, 1999, Yesudas was presented with an honorary award by UNESCO for "Outstanding Achievements in Music and Peace" at the "Music for Peace" event in Paris.a concert held to mark the dawn of the new millennium and whose attendees included artistes such as Lionel Richie, Ray Charles, Montserrat Caballé, and Zubin Mehta. [18] In 1971, during the Indo-Pakistan War, Yesudas traveled all around Kerala with his musical troupe to raise funds for the Indian Prime Minister's National Defense Fund. In 2001 he sang for album Ahimsa in Sanskrit, Latin and English and in a mix of styles including New Age and Carnatic. In his music concerts in the Middle East he sings Arabic songs in the Carnatic style. He frequently serves as a cultural ambassador for India through his performances abroad, promoting Indian music. In 2009 Yesudas began a cross-country musical campaign against terrorism in Thiruvananthapuram, with the motto 'Music For Peace'. Kavita Karkare, wife of Hemant Karkare, handed over the torch to Yesudas to mark the launch of the 'Shanthi Sangeetha Yatra'.
Also among the younger generations with wide acclaim and promise is Child Prodigy Violinist L. Athira Krishna etc., who are looked upon as Maestros of tomorrow.[48] Kerala also has a significant presence of Hindustani music as well.[49] The king of Travancore, Swathi Thirunal patronaged and contributed much to the Hindustani Music. The pulluvar of Kerala are closely connected to the serpent worship. One group among these people consider the snake gods as their presiding deity and perform certain sacrifices and sing songs. This is called Pulluvan Pattu. The song conducted by the pulluvar in serpent temples and snake groves is called Sarppapaattu, Naagam Paattu, Sarpam Thullal, Sarppolsavam, Paambum Thullal or Paambum Kalam. Mappila Paattukal or Mappila Songs are folklore Muslim devotional songs in the Malayalam language. Mappila songs are composed in colloquial Malayalam and are sung in a distinctive tune. They are composed in a mixture of Malayalam and Arabic.
Film music, which refers to playback singing in the context of Indian music, forms the most important canon of popular music in India. Film music of Kerala in particular is the most popular form of music in the state.[49] Before Malayalam cinema and Malayalam film music developed, the Keralites eagerly followed Tamil and Hindi film songs and that habit has stayed with them till now.
Vallam Kali[link]
Vallam Kali, is the race of country made boats. It is mainly conducted during the season of the harvest festival Onam in Autumn. Vallam Kali include races of many kinds of traditional boats of Kerala. The race of Chundan Vallam (snake boat) is the major item. Hence Vallam Kali is also known in English as Snake Boat Race and a major tourist attraction. Other types of boats which do participate in various events in the race are Churulan Vallam, Iruttukuthy Vallam, Odi Vallam, Veppu Vallam (Vaipu Vallam), Vadakkanody Vallam, and Kochu Vallam. Nehru Trophy Boat Race is one the famous Vallam Kali held in Punnamada Lake in Alappuzha district of Kerala. Champakulam Moolam Boat Race is the oldest and most popular Vallam Kali in Kerala. The race is held on river Pamba on the moolam day (according to the Malayalam Era) of the Malayalam month Midhunam, the day of the installation of the deity at the Ambalappuzha Sree Krishna Temple. The Aranmula Boat Race takes place at Aranmula, near a temple dedicated to Lord Krishna and Arjuna. Thousands of people gather on the banks of the river Pamba to watch the snake boat races. Nearly 30 snake boats or chundan vallams participate in the festival. Payippad Jalotsavam is a three day water festival. Its conducted in Payippad Lake which is 35 km from Alappuzha district of Kerala state. There is a close relation between this Payippad boat race and Subramanya Swamy Temple in Haripad. Indira Gandhi Boat Race is a boat race festival celebrated in the last week of December in the backwaters of Kochi, a city in Kerala. This boat race is one of the most popular Vallam Kali in Kerala. This festival is conducted to promote Kerala tourism.
Festivals[link]
Malayalis celebrate a variety of festivals. Other than the two given below Malayalis also celebrate Christmas and Bakrid.
Onam[link]
Main article: Onam
File:Thiruvathira Kali During Onam.jpg
Thiruvathira kali
Onam is an annual harvest festival, celebrated mainly in Kerala, although celebrations also occur among the diaspora. It is the foremost festival among the cultural repertoire of Malayalis, and falls during the month of Chingam (August–September as per the Gregorian calendar), the first month of the Malayalam calendar and lasts for ten days from the Star Atham in Chingam. Though it is essentially a harvest festival of Malayalis, mythologically it is linked to Malayali-Hindu folktales. Like many other religious festivals in India, Onam is celebrated by people across all castes and faiths. Onam has been part of Malayali psyche for centuries. There are records of Onam being celebrated during the Sangam Age. The earliest record of Onam is found during time of Kulasekhara Perumals around AD 800, soon after the Kalabhra Interregnum of Kerala History. Until the eighth century the political history is mostly unknown and is usually known as the Kalabhra Interregnum. Kalabhras were supposed to have been ruling Kerala until at least the sixth century. Kalabhras probably refers to Keralaputras. They are believed to be people of Mayavi.
Onam has two specific significance. First it is the communal memory and celebration of past history as ennunciated in the Mahabali Legend. A story of how paradise was lost. Second it is the celebration of the harvest tied with the memory of the golden age of prosperity. It is believed that during those days the whole of Chingam was celebrated as Onam season. After the rain drenched month of Karkidakam with its privations, Chingam is a welcome month for people in the state of Kerala. The festival is the harbinger of spring – signalling the start of the harvest season. Onam epitomizes the newfound vigour and enthusiasm of the season, and is celebrated with traditional fervour with visit to temples, family get-togethers, gifting each other clothes called Onakkodi and lots of merry making. Thiruvathira is in the malayalam month Dhanu (Dec–Jan). it is considering as the bithday of Lord Shiva.
Vishu[link]
Main article: Vishu
Vishu is a festival celebrated by Malayalis around the first day in the Malayalam month of Medam (April – May). This occasion signifies the Sun's transit to the zodiac Mesha (Mesha Raasi) as per Indian astrological calculations. Vishu is also considered as the Malayalam New Year day and thus the importance of this day to all Malayalis regardless of their religion or sect. Similarly the day is celebrated in almost all places in India by the Hindus albeit by different names. In Assam this day is called Bihu, in Punjab Baisakhi and in Tamil Nadu Puthandu. The word "Vishu" in Sanskrit means "equal". Therefore Vishu is more probably denoting one of the equinox days.
The festival is marked with offerings to the divine called Vishukkani. The offerings consist of a ritual arrangement in the puja room of auspicious articles like raw rice, fresh linen, golden cucumber, betel leaves, arecanut, metal mirror, the yellow flowers konna (Cassia fistula), and a holy text and coins, in a bell metal vessel called uruli. A lighted bell metal lamp called nilavilakku is also placed alongside. This arrangement is completed the previous night. On the day of Vishu, the custom is to wake up at dawn and go to the puja room with the eyes closed so that the Vishukkani is the first thing one sees. Since the occasion marks the beginning of Malayalam New Year, it is also considered auspicious to read verses from Hindu Holy book Ramayanam after seeing the Vishukkani. It is also believed by some that the page of the Ramayanam to which you open up will have a bearing on your life in the coming year. Devotees also throng the well-known temples like Sabarimala Ayyappan Teample, Guruvayur Sree Krishna temple to have a "Vishukkani Kazhcha" on the early hours of "Vishu" day.
Cuisine[link]
Main article: Cuisine of Kerala
The cuisine of Malayalis are linked in all its richness to the history, geography and culture of the land. Spices form an important ingredient in almost all curries. Malayali cuisine is not homogeneous and regional variations are visible throughout. Kerala is known for its traditional sadhyas, a vegetarian meal served with boiled rice and a host of side-dishes. The sadhya is complemented by payasam, a sweet milk dessert native to Kerala. The sadhya is, as per custom, served on a banana leaf. Traditional dishes include sambar, aviyal, kaalan, theeyal, thoran, injipully, pulisherry, appam, kappa (tapioca), puttu (steamed rice powder), and puzhukku. Coconut is an essential ingredient in most of the food items and is liberally used.
Puttu is a culinary specialty in Kerala. It is a steamed rice cake which is a favourite breakfast of most Malayalis. It is served with either brown chickpeas cooked in a spicy gravy, papadams and boiled small green lentils, or tiny ripe yellow Kerala plantains. In the highlands there is also a variety of puttu served with paani (the boiled-down syrup from sweet palm toddy) and sweet boiled bananas. to steam the puttu, there is a special utensil called "Puttu Kutti". It consists of two sections. The lower bulkier portion is where the water for steaming is stored. The upper detachable leaner portion which is separated from lower portion with peforated lids so as to allow the steam to pass through and bake the rice powder which has been filled. The upper portion of the leaner section is covered with a peforated cup shaped lid once it is filled with rice powder.
Appam is a pancake made of fermented batter. The batter is made of rice flour and fermented using either yeast or toddy, the local spirit. It is fried using a special frying pan called appa-chatti and is served with egg curry, chicken curry, mutton stew, vegetable curry and chick pea curry.
Martial arts[link]
See also: Kalaripayattu
Malayalis have their own lethal form of martial arts called Kalaripayattu. This type of martial arts was used as defensive mechanism against intruders. In ancient times, disputes between nobles (naaduvazhis or Vazhunors) were also settled by the outcome of a Kalaripayattu tournament. This ancient martial art is claimed as the mother of all martial arts – even the Chinese Shaolin chuan from the famous Shaolin temple traces its ancestry to Bodhidharma, an Indian Buddhist monk who was a Kalaripayattu expert.[50][51][52] The word "kalari" can be traced to ancient Sangam literature.[53] The martial tradition of Kalaripayattu is also dated to ancient Dravidian traditions.[54] Phillip Zarrilli, a professor at the University of Exeter and one of the few Western authorities on kalaripayattu, estimates that kalarippayattu dates back to at least the 12th century CE.[55] The historian Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai attributes the birth of Kalaripayattu to an extended period of warfare between the Cheras and the Cholas in the 11th century CE.[55] What eventually crystallized into this style is thought to have been a product of existing South Indian styles of combat, combined with techniques brought by migration from the north along the western coast.[55] What eventually crystallized as kalarippayattu combined indigenous Dravidian techniques with the martial practices and ethos brought by brahman migrations from Saurastra and Konkan down the west Indian coast into Karnataka and eventually Kerala. Discovery channel notes that Kalaripayattu may be one of the oldest martial arts in existence.[50] The oldest western reference to Kalaripayattu is a 16th century travelogue of Duarte Barbosa, a Portuguese explorer. The Southern style, which places more emphasis on open hand combat was mostly practiced in the southern regions of Kerala.[56]
Keralites[link]
See also[link]
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References[link]
- ^ Ethnologue report for Malayalam
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Zachariah, K. C. & Rajan, S. Irudaya (2008), Kerala Migration Survey 2007 (PDF), Department of Non-resident Keralite Affairs, Government of Kerala, p. 48. This is the number of emigrants from Kerala, which is closely related to but different from the actual number of Malayalis.
- ^ a b [1]
- ^ The Last Jews of Kerala, Edna Fernandes, Portobello Books 2008
- ^ Where Malayalees once held sway: DNA India
- ^ a b [2], censusindia.net
- ^ "kerala.gov.in". http://www.kerala.gov.in/. -go to the website and click the link – language & literature to retrieve the information
- ^ Statistics New Zealand:Language spoken (total responses) for the 1996–2006 censuses (Table 16), stats.govt.nz
- ^ [3], encyclopedia.com
- ^ Neither Newton nor Leibniz, canisius.edu
- ^ From Vedic Martial Arts to Aikido, veda.harekrsna.cz
- ^ A travel feature on the ancient Kerala art of Kalaripayattu, rediff.com
- ^ Kalaripayattu, the traditional martial art, enskalari.org.in
- ^ Arthur Miles The land of the lingam Hurst & Blackett, Ltd., 1933
- ^ A. Aiyappan. Social revolution in a Kerala village: a study in culture change -1965 ,
- ^ L.Krishna Anantha Krishna Iyer (Diwan Bahadur), The Cochin tribes and castes, 1909.
- ^ Pi. Uṇittiri Studies in Kerala Sanskrit literature ,University of Calicut,2004
- ^ KUMAR SURESH SINGH People of India: Volume 27, Part 1ANTHROPOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA - 2002
- ^ Studies in traditional Kerala society ,college book house ,1977
- ^ Krishnat P. Padmanabha Menon, Jacobus Canter Visscher, History of Kerala history of Kerala written in the form of notes on Visscher's letters from Malabar, Volume 3, Asian Educational Services, 1984.
- ^ a b c Weil S. 1982; Jessay P.M. 1986; Menachery 1973; Menachery 1998.
- ^ A.E. Medlycott, India and The Apostle Thomas, pp.1–71, 213–97; M.R. James, Apocryphal New Testament, pp.364–436; Eusebius, History, chapter 4:30; J.N. Farquhar, The Apostle Thomas in North India, chapter 4:30; V.A. Smith, Early History of India, p.235; L.W. Brown, The Indian Christians of St. Thomas, p.49-59
- ^ Katz 2000; Koder 1973; Menachery 1998; Thomas Puthiakunnel 1973; Weil 1982; Menachery 1998.
- ^ Cited on p164 of The Last Jews of Kerala
- ^ Bhagyalekshmy 2004, pp. 6–7.
- ^ a b c Malayalam, R. E. Asher, T. C. Kumari, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-02242-8, 1997
- ^ "Trios of modern Malayalam literature". http://books.google.co.in/books?id=vfSPI2irzUgC&pg=PA185&dq=Vallathol#v=onepage&q=Vallathol&f=false.
- ^ Cooper KJ (20 October 1997). "For India, No Small Thing; Native Daughter Arundhati Roy Wins Coveted Booker Prize". Washington Post. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/19563051.html?dids=19563051:19563051&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=OCT+20%2C+1997&author=Kenneth+J.+Cooper&pub=The+Washington+Post&desc=For+India%2C+No+Small+Thing%3B+Native+Daughter+Arundhati+Roy+Wins+Coveted+Booker+Prize&pqatl=google. Retrieved 28 December 2008.
- ^ Lyall, Sarah (15 October 1997). "Indian's First Novel Wins Booker Prize in Britain". New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A01E6DD173FF936A25753C1A961958260. Retrieved 11 November 2007.
- ^ "Winds, Rivers & Rain". Salon. September 1997. http://www.salon.com/sept97/00roy.html. Retrieved 11 November 2007.
- ^ "Tharavadu system". http://books.google.co.in/books?id=rMRw0gTZSJwC&pg=PA84&dq=Malayali+tharavadu+system#v=onepage&q=&f=false.
- ^ McKibben 2006.
- ^ Lindberg 2004, pp. 18–19.
- ^ Government of Kerala 2002b.
- ^ Government of Kerala 2004r, p. 366.
- ^ Lindberg 2004, p. 1.
- ^ a b c d e f "Kerala architecture". http://www.keralahistory.ac.in/keralaarchitecture.htm.
- ^ a b c "Nalukettu". http://www.malayalamresourcecentre.org/Mrc/culture/cultureofkerala/kerala.html. -Malayalam Resource Centre
- ^ a b "Kerala dance forms". http://books.google.co.in/books?id=waWQ8mAUrC8C&pg=PA139&dq=Kerala+dance#v=onepage&q=Kerala%20dance&f=false.
- ^ a b "Classical dance forms of India". http://dances.indobase.com/classical-dances/index.html.
- ^ "Koodiyattam". http://books.google.co.in/books?id=lDhuAAAAMAAJ&q=Koodiyattam+UNESCO&dq=Koodiyattam+UNESCO.
- ^ "Ottamthullal". http://books.google.co.in/books?id=L8bExoV6GL8C&pg=PA70&dq=Ottamthullal#v=onepage&q=Ottamthullal&f=false.
- ^ "Theyyam". http://books.google.co.in/books?id=Fk8FQa2ZSFQC&pg=PA928&dq=Theyyam#v=onepage&q=Theyyam&f=false.
- ^ a b "Duffmuttu". http://books.google.co.in/books?id=ZYfRBcLdTNYC&pg=PA8&dq=duffmuttu#v=onepage&q=duffmuttu&f=false.
- ^ "Oppana". http://books.google.co.in/books?id=zh6z0nuIjAgC&pg=PA149&dq=Oppana#v=onepage&q=Oppana&f=false.
- ^ a b c d "Christian art foms". http://books.google.co.in/books?id=ZOlNv8MAXIEC&pg=RA2-PA945&dq=Margamkali#v=onepage&q=Margamkali&f=false.
- ^ Sreedhara Menon, A.. Kerala Charithram. Kottayam, Kerala: D.C. Books. p. 494.
- ^ Rolf, Killius (2006). Ritual Music and Hindu Rituals of Kerala. New Delhi: BR Rhythms. ISBN 81-88827-07-X.
- ^ a b "Music". Keral.com. Archived from the original on 2 August 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080802081714/http://www.keral.com/movies/music.htm. Retrieved 2 January 2009.
- ^ a b [4]
- ^ Bodhidharma bought Kalari to China [5]
- ^ Bodhidharma and Kalari [6]
- ^ Suresh, P. R. (2005). Kalari Payatte – The martial art of Kerala.
- ^ Subaltern Sports: Politics and Sports in South Asia By James H. Mills. Published 2005, Anthem Press. Subject: Archaeology /Anthropology. ISBN 1-84331-167-4
- ^ a b c Zarrilli, Phillip B. A South Indian Martial Art and the Yoga and Ayurvedic Paradigms. University of Wisconsin–Madison.
- ^ Phillip B. Zarrilli, When the Body Becomes All Eyes
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This article is about Jesus of Nazareth. For other uses, see Jesus (disambiguation).
| Jesus | |
|---|---|
 Jesus as Good Shepherd (stained glass at St John's Ashfield) |
|
| Born | 7–2 BC/BCE[1] Judaea[2] |
| Died | 30–36 AD/CE[3][4][5][6][7] Judaea |
| Cause of death | Crucifixion[8] |
| Ethnicity | Jewish[9] |
| Home town | Nazareth, Galilee[10] |
Jesus ( /ˈdʒiːzəs/; Greek: Ἰησοῦς; 7–2 BC/BCE to 30–36 AD/CE), also referred to as Jesus Christ or simply Christ, is the central figure of Christianity and most Christian denominations venerate him as God the Son incarnated. In Islam, Jesus (in Arabic: عيسى in Islamic usage, commonly transliterated as Isa) is considered one of God's important prophets.[11][12]
Most modern historians agree that Jesus existed and was a Jewish teacher from Galilee in Roman Judaea, who was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified in Jerusalem on the orders of the Roman Prefect, Pontius Pilate.[13][14][15][16][8] Scholars have offered competing descriptions and portraits of Jesus, which at times share a number of overlapping attributes, such as a rabbi, a charismatic healer, the leader of an apocalyptic movement, a self-described Messiah, a sage and philosopher, or a social reformer who preached of the "Kingdom of God" as a means for personal and egalitarian social transformation.[17][18][19][20] Scholars have correlated the New Testament accounts with non-Christian historical records to arrive at an estimated chronology of Jesus' life.[3][5][21][22][23][24][25][26][27]
Christians traditionally believe that Jesus was born of a virgin, performed miracles, founded the Church, died sacrificially by crucifixion to achieve atonement, rose from the dead, and ascended into heaven, from which he will return.[28] The majority of Christians worship Jesus as the incarnation of God the Son, and the Second Person of the Holy Trinity.[29] A few Christian groups, however, reject Trinitarianism, wholly or partly, believing it to be non-scriptural.[29][30] Most Christian scholars today present Jesus as the awaited Messiah promised in the Old Testament and as God,[31] arguing that he fulfilled many Messianic prophecies of the Old Testament.[32]
In Islam, Jesus is a bringer of scripture, and the product of a virgin birth, but not the victim of crucifixion.[33] Judaism rejects the belief that Jesus was the awaited Messiah, arguing that he did not fulfill the Messianic prophecies in the Tanakh.[34] Islam and the Bahá'í Faith use the title "Messiah" for Jesus,[35][36] but do not teach that he was God incarnate.
Etymology of name[link]
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"Jesus" is a transliteration, occurring in a number of languages and based on the Latin Iesus, of the Greek Ἰησοῦς (Iēsoûs), itself a hellenization of the Hebrew יְהוֹשֻׁעַ (Yĕhōšuă‘, Joshua) or Hebrew-Aramaic יֵשׁוּעַ (Yēšûă‘), both meaning "Yahweh delivers" or "Yahweh rescues". In Arabic, it is عيسى.[37][38]
The etymology of the name Jesus in the context of the New Testament is generally expressed as "Yahweh saves",[39][40][41] "Yahweh is salvation"[42][43] and at times as "Jehovah is salvation".[44] The name Jesus appears to have been in use in Judaea at the time of the birth of Jesus.[44][45] Philo's reference (Mutatione Nominum item 121) indicates that the etymology of Joshua was known outside Judaea at the time.[46]
In the New Testament, in Luke 1:26-33, the angel Gabriel tells Mary to name her child "Jesus", and in Matthew 1:21 an angel tells Joseph to name the child "Jesus". The statement in Matthew 1:21 "you are to give him the name Jesus, because he will save his people from their sins" associates salvific attributes to the name Jesus in Christian theology.[47][48]
"Christ" ( /ˈkraɪst/) is derived from the Greek Χριστός (Khrīstos), meaning "the anointed" or "the anointed one", a translation of the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ (Māšîaḥ), usually transliterated into English as "Messiah" ( /mɨˈsaɪ.ə/).[49][50] In the Septuagint version of the Hebrew Bible (written well over a century before the time of Jesus), the word "Christ" (Χριστός) was used to translate the Hebrew word "Messiah" (מָשִׁיחַ) into Greek.[51] In Matthew 16:16, the apostle Peter's profession "You are the Christ" identifies Jesus as the Messiah.[52] In postbiblical usage, "Christ" became viewed as a name, one part of "Jesus Christ", but originally it was a title ("Jesus the Anointed").[53][54][55]
Chronology[link]
Main article: Chronology of Jesus
Although a few scholars have questioned the existence of Jesus as an actual historical figure,[56], and some early Christian sects denied that Jesus existed as a physical being (see below), most scholars involved with historical Jesus research believe his existence, but that the supernatural claims associated with him cannot be established using documentary and other evidence.[57][58][59][16][60][61] As discussed in the sections immediately below, the estimation of the year of death of Jesus places his lifespan around the beginning of the 1st century AD/CE, in the geographic region of Roman Judaea.[62][63][64][65][66]
Roman involvement in Judaea began around 63 BC/BCE and by 6 AD/CE Judaea had become a Roman province.[67] From 26-37 AD/CE Pontius Pilate was the governor of Roman Judaea.[68] In this time period, although Roman Judaea was strategically positioned in the Near East, close to Arabia and North Africa, it was not viewed as a critically important province by the Romans.[69][70] At the time the Romans were highly tolerant of other religions and allowed the local populations such as the Jews to practice their own faiths.[67]
Year of birth[link]
Two independent approaches have been used to estimate the year of the birth of Jesus, one by analyzing the Nativity accounts in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew along with other historical data, the other by working backwards from the estimation of the start of the ministry of Jesus, as also discussed in the next section.[5][22]
In its Nativity account, the Gospel of Matthew associates the birth of Jesus with the reign of Herod the Great, who is generally believed to have died around 4 BC/BCE.[22][71] Matthew 2:1 states that: "Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judaea in the days of Herod the king" and Luke 1:5 mentions the reign of Herod shortly before the birth of Jesus.[22] Matthew also suggests that Jesus may have been as much as two years old at the time of the visit of the Magi and hence even older at the time of Herod's death.[72] But the author of Luke also describes the birth as taking place during the first census of the Roman provinces of Syria and Iudaea, which is generally believed to have occurred in 6 AD/CE.[73] Most scholars generally assume a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC/BCE.[74] Other scholars assume that Jesus was born sometime between 7–2 BC/BCE.[75]
The year of birth of Jesus has also been estimated in a manner that is independent of the Nativity accounts, by using information in the Gospel of John to work backwards from the statement in Luke 3:23 that Jesus was "about 30 years of age" at the start of his ministry.[3][5] As discussed in the section below, by combining information from John 2:13 and John 2:20 with the writings of Flavius Josephus, it has been estimated that around 27-29 AD/CE, Jesus was "about thirty years of age".[76][77] Some scholars thus estimate the year 28 AD/CE to be roughly the 32nd birthday of Jesus and the birth year of Jesus to be around 6-4 BC/BCE.[3][5][78]
However, the common Gregorian calendar method for numbering years, in which the current year is 2012, is based on the decision of a monk Dionysius in the sixth century, to count the years from a point of reference (namely, Jesus’ birth) which he placed sometime between 2 BC and 1 AD.[79] Although Christian feasts related to the Nativity have had specific dates (e.g. December 25 for Christmas) there is no historical evidence for the exact day or month of the birth of Jesus.[80][81][82]
Years of ministry[link]
There have been different approaches to estimating the date of the start of the ministry of Jesus.[3][76][77][83] One approach, based on combining information from the Gospel of Luke with historical data about Emperor Tiberius yields a date around 28-29 AD/CE, while a second independent approach based on statements in the Gospel of John along with historical information from Josephus about the Temple in Jerusalem leads to a date around 27-29 AD/CE.[5][76][77][84][85][86] A third method uses the date of the death of John the Baptist and the marriage of Herod Antipas to Herodias based on the writings of Josephus, and correlates it to Matthew 14:4.[87][88][89]
The estimation of the date based on the Gospel of Luke relies on the statement in Luke 3:1-2 that the ministry of John the Baptist which preceded that of Jesus began "in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar".[76] Given that Tiberius began his reign in 14 AD/CE, this yields a date about 28-29 AD/CE.[3][76][78][90][91]
The estimation of the date based on the Gospel of John uses the statements in John 2:13 that Jesus went to the Temple in Jerusalem around the start of his ministry and in John 2:20 that "Forty and six years was this temple in building" at that time.[5][76] According to Josephus (Ant 15.380) the temple reconstruction was started by Herod the Great in the 15th-18th year of his reign at about the time that Augustus arrived in Syria (Ant 15.354).[3][76][92][93] Temple expansion and reconstruction was ongoing, and it was in constant reconstruction until it was destroyed in 70 AD/CE by the Romans.[94] Given that it took 46 years of construction, the Temple visit in the Gospel of John has been estimated at around 27-29 AD/CE.[5][76][84][85][86][95]
Although both the gospels and Josephus refer to Herod Antipas killing John the Baptist, they differ on the details, e.g. whether this act was a consequence of the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias, as indicated in Matthew 14:4, or a pre-emptive measure by Herod which possibly took place before the marriage, as Josephus suggests in Ant 18.5.2.[96][97][98][99] The exact year of the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias is subject to debate among scholars.[88] In his analysis of Herod's life, Harold Hoehner estimates that John the Baptist's imprisonment probably occurred around AD 30-31.[100] The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia estimates the death of the Baptist to have occurred about AD 31-32.[89] The death of John the Baptist relates to the end of the major Galilean ministry of Jesus, just before the half way point in the gospel narratives, before the start of Jesus' final journey to Jerusalem through Judea.[101][102][102][103]
Luke 3:23 states that at the start of his ministry Jesus was "about 30 years of age", but the other gospels do not mention a specific age. However, in John 8:57 the Jews exclaimed to Jesus: "Thou art not yet fifty years old, and hast thou seen Abraham?" suggesting that he was much less than 50 years old during his ministry.[5] The length of the ministry is subject to debate, based on the fact that the synoptic gospels mention only one passover during Jesus' ministry, often interpreted as implying that the ministry lasted approximately one year, whereas the Gospel of John records multiple passovers, implying that his ministry may have lasted at least three years.[3][5][104][105]
Year of death[link]
A number of approaches have been used to estimate the year of the death of Jesus, including information from the canonical gospels, the chronology of the life of Paul the Apostle in the New Testament correlated with historical events, as well as different astronomical models, as discussed below.
All four canonical gospels report that Jesus was crucified at Calvary during the prefecture of Pontius Pilate, the Roman prefect who governed Judaea from 26 to 36 AD/CE. The late 1st century Jewish historian Josephus,[62] writing in Antiquities of the Jews (c. 93 AD/CE), and the early 2nd century Roman historian Tacitus,[63] writing in The Annals (c. 116 AD/CE), also state that Pilate ordered the execution of Jesus, though both writers use the title "procurator" instead of "prefect".[64]
The estimation of the date of the conversion of Paul places the death of Jesus before this conversion, which is estimated at around 33-36 AD/CE.[4][106][107] (Also see the estimation of the start of Jesus' ministry as a few years before this date above). The estimation of the year of Paul's conversion relies on a series of calculations working backwards from the well established date of his trial before Gallio in Achaea Greece (Acts 18:12-17) around 51-52 AD/CE, the meeting of Priscilla and Aquila which were expelled from Rome about 49 AD/CE and the 14-year period before returning to Jerusalem in Galatians 2:1.[4][106][107] The remaining period is generally accounted for by Paul's missions (at times with Barnabas) such as those in Acts 11:25-26 and 2 Corinthians 11:23-33, resulting in the 33-36 AD/CE estimate.[4][106][107]
For centuries, astronomers and scientists have used diverse computational methods to estimate the date of crucifixion, Isaac Newton being one of the first cases.[65] Newton's method relied on the relative visibility of the crescent of the new moon and he suggested the date as Friday, April 23, 34 AD/CE.[108] In 1990 astronomer Bradley E. Schaefer computed the date as Friday, April 3, 33 AD/CE.[109] In 1991, John Pratt stated that Newton's method was sound, but included a minor error at the end. Pratt suggested the year 33 AD/CE as the answer.[65] Using the completely different approach of a lunar eclipse model, Humphreys and Waddington arrived at the conclusion that Friday, April 3, 33 AD/CE was the date of the crucifixion.[66][110][111]
Life and teachings in the New Testament[link]
See also: Life of Jesus in the New Testament, New Testament places associated with Jesus, and Historical reliability of the Gospels
Although the four canonical gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, are the main sources for the biography of Jesus’ life, other parts of the New Testament, such as the Pauline epistles which were likely written decades before them, also include references to key episodes in his life such as the Last Supper, as in 1 Corinthians 11:23-26.[112][113][114] The Acts of the Apostles (10:37-38 and 19:4) refers to the early ministry of Jesus and its anticipation by John the Baptist.[115][116] And Acts 1:1-11 says more about the Ascension episode (also mentioned in 1 Timothy 3:16) than the canonical gospels.[117][118]
According to the majority viewpoint, the Synoptic Gospels are the primary sources of historical information about Jesus.[6][7][119] and of the religious movement he founded, but not everything contained in the gospels is considered to be historically reliable.[120][121][122][123][124] Elements whose historical authenticity are disputed include the two accounts of the Nativity of Jesus, as well as the resurrection and certain details about the crucifixion.[125][126][127][128][129][130] On one extreme, some Christian scholars maintain that the gospels are inerrant descriptions of the life of Jesus.[131] On the other extreme, some scholars have concluded that the gospels provide no historical information about Jesus' life.[132]
Canonical gospel accounts[link]
Three of the four canonical gospels, namely Matthew, Mark, and Luke, are known as the synoptic Gospels, from the Greek σύν (syn "together") and ὄψις (opsis "view"), given that they display a high degree of similarity in content, narrative arrangement, language and paragraph structure.[133][134][135] The presentation in the fourth canonical gospel, i.e. John, differs from these three in that it has more of a thematic nature rather than a narrative format.[136][137] Scholars generally agree that it is impossible to find any direct literary relationship between the synoptic gospels and the Gospel of John.[136]
However, in general, the authors of the New Testament showed little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the age.[138] The gospels were primarily written as theological documents in the context of early Christianity with the chronological timelines as a secondary consideration.[139] One manifestation of the gospels being theological documents rather than historical chronicles is that they devote about one third of their text to just seven days, namely the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem.[140]
Although the gospels do not provide enough details to satisfy the demands of modern historians regarding exact dates, it is possible to draw from them a general picture of the life story of Jesus.[138][139][141] However, as stated in John 21:25 the gospels do not claim to provide an exhaustive list of the events in the life of Jesus.[142]
Gospel sources, similarities and differences[link]
See also: Gospel harmony and Historical reliability of the Gospels
Scholars have debated the sources for the gospels for millennia, and have proposed various hypotheses of how the synoptic gospels were written and how they influenced each other, going back to the Augustinian hypothesis in the 5th century.[143] In the 20th and 21st centuries hypotheses such as the two-source, four-source, Farrer or the Markan priority hypothesis have been debated.[143][144][145] Each hypothesis assumes a specific order in which the gospels were written, or that other as yet unknown and hypothetical documents such as the Q source or the M source influenced various gospels in various ways. Each hypotheses has had support among some scholars, while problems with and weaknesses in it have been pointed out by opponents.[143][144][145][146]
Since the 2nd century attempts have been made to harmonize the gospel accounts into a single narrative; Tatian's Diatesseron perhaps being the first harmony and other works such as Augustine' book Harmony of the Gospels followed.[147][148] A number of different approaches to gospel harmony have been proposed in the 20th century, but no single and unique harmony can be constructed.[149] While some scholars argue that combining the four gospel stories into one story is tantamount to creating a fifth story different from each original, others see the gospels as blending together to give an overall and comprehensive picture of Jesus' teaching and ministry.[148][150][151][152] Although there are differences in specific temporal sequences, and in the parables and miracles listed in each gospel, the flow of the key events such as Baptism, Transfiguration and Crucifixion and interactions with people such as the Apostles are shared among the gospel narratives.[138][139][153][154]
Key elements and the five major milestones[link]
The five major milestones in the gospel narrative of the life of Jesus are his Baptism, Transfiguration, Crucifixion, Resurrection and Ascension.[155][156][157] These are usually bracketed by two other episodes: his Nativity at the beginning and the sending of the Holy Spirit at the end.[155][157] The gospel accounts of the teachings of Jesus are often presented in terms of specific categories involving his "works and words", e.g. his ministry, parables and miracles.[158][159]
The gospels include a number discourses by Jesus on specific occasions, e.g. the Sermon on the Mount or the Farewell Discourse, and also include over 30 parables, spread throughout the narrative, often with themes that relate to the sermons.[160] Parables represent a major component of the teachings of Jesus in the gospels, forming approximately one third of his recorded teachings, and John 14:10 positions them as the revelations of God the Father.[161][162] The gospel episodes that include descriptions of the miracle of Jesus also often include teachings, providing an intertwining of his "words and works" in the gospels.[159][163]
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Last Supper and Betrayal
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Decani.jpg
Passion and Crucifixion
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Resurrection and Appearances
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Genealogy and Nativity[link]
The accounts of the genealogy and Nativity of Jesus in the New Testament appear only in the Gospel of Luke and the Gospel of Matthew. While there are documents outside of the New Testament which are more or less contemporary with Jesus and the gospels, many shed no light on the more biographical aspects of his life and these two gospel accounts remain the main sources of information on the genealogy and Nativity.[141]
Genealogy[link]
Main article: Genealogy of Jesus
Matthew begins his gospel in 1:1 with the genealogy of Jesus, and presents it before the account of the birth of Jesus, while Luke discusses the genealogy in chapter 3, after the Baptism of Jesus in Luke 3:22 when the voice from Heaven addresses Jesus and identifies him as the Son of God.[164] At that point Luke traces Jesus' ancestry through Adam to God.[164]
While Luke traces the genealogy upwards towards Adam and God, Matthew traces it downwards towards Jesus.[165] Both gospels state that Jesus was begotten not by Joseph, but by God.[166] Both accounts trace Joseph back to King David and from there to Abraham. These lists are identical between Abraham and David (except for one), but they differ almost completely between David and Joseph.[167][168] Matthew gives Jacob as Joseph’s father and Luke says Joseph was the son of Heli. Attempts at explaining the differences between the genealogies have varied in nature, e.g. that Luke traces the genealogy through Mary while Matthew traces it through Joseph; or that Jacob and Heli were both fathers of Joseph, one being the legal father, after the death of Joseph's actual father—but there is no scholarly agreement on a resolution for the differences.[169][170][171]
Nativity[link]
Main article: Nativity of Jesus
The Nativity is a prominent element in the Gospel of Luke, comprises over 10% of the text, and is three times the length of the nativity text in Matthew.[172] Luke's account takes place mostly before the birth of Jesus and centers on Mary, while Matthew's takes place mostly after the birth of Jesus and centers on Joseph.[173][174][175] According to Luke and Matthew, Jesus was born to Joseph and Mary, his betrothed, in Bethlehem. Both support the doctrine of the Virgin Birth in which Jesus was miraculously conceived in his mother's womb by the Holy Spirit, when his mother was still a virgin.[176][177][178][179]
Luke is the only gospel to provide an account of the birth of John the Baptist, and uses it to draw parallels between the births of John and Jesus.[180] Luke relates the two births in the visitation of Mary to Elizabeth[172] and further connects the two births by stating that Mary and Elizabeth are cousins.[181] In Luke 1:31-38 Mary learns from the angel Gabriel that she will conceive and bear a child called Jesus through the action of the Holy Spirit. When Mary is due to give birth, she and Joseph travel from Nazareth to Joseph's ancestral home in Bethlehem to register in the census of Quirinius. In Luke 2:1-7. Mary gives birth to Jesus and, having found no place in the inn, places the newborn in a manger. An angel visits the shepherds and sends them to adore the child in Luke 2:22. After presenting Jesus at the Temple, Joseph and Mary return home to Nazareth.[174][182]
The nativity account in chapters 1 and 2 of the Gospel of Matthew appears to differ from Luke in implying that Jesus and his family are already living in Bethlehem.[183] However, Matthew does not state that Joseph lived in Bethlehem prior to the birth of Jesus.[184] Following his betrothal to Mary, Joseph is troubled in Matthew 1:19-20 because Mary is pregnant, but in the first of Joseph's three dreams an angel assures him not be afraid to take Mary as his wife, because her child was conceived by the Holy Spirit.[185] In Matthew 1:1-12, the Wise Men or Magi bring gifts to the young Jesus after following a star which they believe was a sign that the King of the Jews had been born. King Herod hears of Jesus' birth from the Wise Men and tries to kill him by massacring all the male children in Bethlehem under the age of two (the Massacre of the Innocents).[186] Before the massacre, Joseph is warned by an angel in his dream and the family flees to Egypt and remains there until Herod's death, after which they leave Egypt and settle in Nazareth to avoid living under the authority of Herod's son and successor Archelaus.[185][187]
Early life and profession[link]
See also: Return of young Jesus to Nazareth
In the Gospels of Luke and Matthew, Jesus’ childhood home is identified as the town of Nazareth in Galilee. Joseph, husband of Mary, appears in descriptions of Jesus’ childhood and no mention is made of him thereafter.[188] The New Testament books of Matthew, Mark, and Galatians mention Jesus’ brothers and sisters, but the Greek word adelphos in these verses, has also been translated as brother or kinsman.[189]
Luke 2:41–52 includes an incident in the childhood of Jesus, where he was found teaching in the temple by his parents after being lost. The Finding in the Temple is the sole event between Jesus’ infancy and baptism mentioned in any of the canonical gospels.
In Mark 6:3 Jesus is called a tekton (τέκτων in Greek), usually understood to mean carpenter. Matthew 13:55 says he was the son of a tekton.[50]:170 Tekton has been traditionally translated into English as "carpenter", but it is a rather general word (from the same root that leads to "technical" and "technology") that could cover makers of objects in various materials, even builders.[190][191]
Beyond the New Testament accounts, the specific association of the profession of Jesus with woodworking is a constant in the traditions of the 1st and 2nd centuries and Justin Martyr (d. ca. 165) wrote that Jesus made yokes and ploughs.[192]
Baptism and temptation[link]
In the gospels, the accounts of the Baptism of Jesus are always preceded by information about John the Baptist and his ministry.[153][194][195] In these accounts, John was preaching for penance and repentance for the remission of sins and encouraged the giving of alms to the poor (as in Luke 3:11) as he baptized people in the area of the River Jordan around Perea about the time of the commencement of the ministry of Jesus. The Gospel of John (1:28) specifies "Bethany beyond the Jordan", i.e. Bethabara in Perea, when it initially refers to it and later John 3:23 refers to further baptisms in Ænon "because there was much water there".[196][197]
The four gospels are not the only references to John's ministry around the River Jordan. In Acts 10:37-38, Peter refers to how the ministry of Jesus followed "the baptism which John preached".[116] In the Antiquities of the Jews (18.5.2) 1st century historian Josephus also wrote about John the Baptist and his eventual death in Perea.[198][199]
In the gospels, John had been foretelling (as in Luke 3:16) of the arrival of a someone "mightier than I".[200][201] Apostle Paul also refers to this anticipation by John in Acts 19:4.[115] In Matthew 3:14, upon meeting Jesus, the Baptist states: "I need to be baptized by you." However, Jesus persuades John to baptize him nonetheless.[202] In the baptismal scene, after Jesus emerges from the water, the sky opens and a voice from Heaven states: "This is my beloved Son with whom I am well pleased". The Holy Spirit then descends upon Jesus as a dove in Matthew 3:13-17, Mark 1:9-11, Luke 3:21-23.[200][201][202] In John 1:29-33 rather than a direct narrative, the Baptist bears witness to the episode.[201][203] This is one of two cases in the gospels where a voice from Heaven calls Jesus "Son", the other being in the Transfiguration of Jesus episode.[204][205]
After the baptism, the synoptic gospels proceed to describe the Temptation of Jesus, but John 1:35-37 narrates the first encounter between Jesus and two of his future disciples, who were then disciples of John the Baptist.[206][207] In this narrative, the next day the Baptist sees Jesus again and calls him the Lamb of God and the "two disciples heard him speak, and they followed Jesus".[208][209][210] One of the disciples is named Andrew, but the other remains unnamed, and Raymond E. Brown raises the question of his being the author of the Gospel of John himself.[203][211] In the Gospel of John, the disciples follow Jesus thereafter, and bring other disciples to him, and Acts 18:24-19:6 portrays the disciples of John as eventually merging with the followers of Jesus.[203][206]
The Temptation of Jesus is narrated in the three synoptic gospels after his baptism.[207][212] In these accounts, as in Matthew 4:1-11 and Luke 4:1-13, Jesus goes to the desert for forty days to fast. While there, Satan appears to him and tempts him in various ways, e.g. asking Jesus to show signs that he is the Son of God by turning stone to bread, or offering Jesus worldly rewards in exchange for worship.[207][213] Jesus rejects every temptation and when Satan leaves, angels appear and minister to Jesus.[207][212][213]
Ministry[link]
Main articles: Ministry of Jesus and Twelve Apostles
Luke 3:23 states that Jesus was "about 30 years of age" at the start of his ministry.[3][5] The date of the start of his ministry has been estimated at around 27-29 AD/CE, based on independent approaches which combine separate gospel accounts with other historical data.[3][5][76][77][84][85][86] The end of his ministry is estimated to be in the range 30-36 AD/CE.[3][4][5][6]
The three synoptic gospels refer to just one passover during his ministry, while the Gospel of John refers to three passovers, suggesting a period of about three years.[194][214] However, the synoptic gospels do not require a ministry that lasted only one year, and scholars such as Köstenberger state that the Gospel of John simply provides a more detailed account.[153][194][215]
The gospel accounts place the beginning of Jesus' ministry in the countryside of Judaea, near the River Jordan.[195] Jesus' ministry begins with his Baptism by John the Baptist (Matthew 3, Luke 3), and ends with the Last Supper with his disciples (Matthew 26, Luke 22) in Jerusalem.[194][195] The gospels present John the Baptist's ministry as the precursor to that of Jesus and the Baptism as marking the beginning of Jesus' ministry, after which Jesus travels, preaches and performs miracles.[153][194][195]
The Early Galilean ministry begins when Jesus goes back to Galilee from the Judaean desert after rebuffing the temptation of Satan.[216] In this early period Jesus preaches around Galilee and in Matthew 4:18-20 his first disciples encounter him, begin to travel with him and eventually form the core of the early Church.[195][217] This period includes the Sermon on the Mount, one of the major discourses of Jesus.[217][218]
The Major Galilean ministry which begins in Matthew 8 refers to activities up to the death of John the Baptist. It includes the Calming the storm and a number of other miracles and parables, as well as the Mission Discourse in which Jesus instructs the twelve apostles who are named in Matthew 10:2-3 to carry no belongings as they travel from city to city and preach.[219][220]
The Final Galilean ministry includes the Feeding the 5000 and Walking on water episodes, both in Matthew 14.[221][222] The end of this period (as Matthew 16 and Mark 8 end) marks a turning point is the ministry of Jesus with the dual episodes of Confession of Peter and the Transfiguration - which begins his Later Judaean ministry as he starts his final journey to Jerusalem through Judaea.[223][224][225][226]
As Jesus travels towards Jerusalem, in the Later Perean ministry, about one third the way down from the Sea of Galilee along the Jordan, he returns to the area where he was baptized, and in John 10:40-42 "many people believed in him beyond the Jordan", saying "all things whatsoever John spake of this man were true".[227][228][229] This period of ministry includes the Discourse on the Church in which Jesus anticipates a future community of followers, and explains the role of his apostles in leading it.[230][231] At the end of this period, the Gospel of John includes the Raising of Lazarus episode.[232]
The Final ministry in Jerusalem is sometimes called the Passion Week and begins with the Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday.[232] In that week Jesus drives the money changers from the Temple, and Judas bargains to betray him. This period includes the Olivet Discourse and the Second Coming Prophecy and culminates in the Last Supper, at the end of which Jesus prepares his disciples for his departure in the Farewell discourse. The accounts of the ministry of Jesus generally end with the Last Supper.[153][232][233] However, some authors also consider the period between the Resurrection and the Ascension part of the ministry of Jesus.[234]
Teachings and preachings[link]
Main articles: Sermon on the Mount and Parables of Jesus
In the New Testament the teachings of Jesus are presented in terms of his "words and works".[158][159] The words of Jesus include a number of sermons, as well as parables that appear throughout the narrative of the synoptic gospels (the Gospel of John includes no parables). The works include the miracles and other acts performed during his ministry.[159] Although the canonical gospels are the major source of the teachings of Jesus, the Pauline epistles, which were likely written decades before the gospels, provide some of the earliest written accounts of the teachings of Jesus.[112]
The New Testament does not present the teachings of Jesus as merely his own preachings, but equates the words of Jesus with divine revelation, with John the Baptist stating in John 3:34: "he whom God hath sent speaketh the words of God" and Jesus stating in John 7:16: "My teaching is not mine, but his that sent me" and again re-asserting that in John 14:10: "the words that I say unto you I speak not from myself: but the Father abiding in me doeth his works."[162][235] In Matthew 11:27 Jesus claims divine knowledge, stating: "No one knows the Son except the Father and no one knows the Father except the Son", asserting the mutual knowledge he has with the Father.[236][237]
The gospels include a number of discourses by Jesus on specific occasions, such as the Farewell discourse delivered after the Last Supper, the night before his crucifixion.[238] Although some of the teachings of Jesus are reported as taking place within the formal atmosphere of a synagogue (e.g. in Matthew 4:23) many of the discourses are more like conversations than formal lectures.[239]
The Gospel of Matthew has a structured set of sermons, often grouped as the Five Discourses of Matthew, which present many of the key teachings of Jesus.[240][241] Each of the five discourses has some parallel passages in the Gospel of Mark or the Gospel of Luke.[242] The five discourses in Matthew begin with the Sermon on the Mount, which encapsulates many of the moral teaching of Jesus and which is one of the best known and most quoted elements of the New Testament.[218][239] The Sermon on the Mount includes the Beatitudes which describe the character of the people of the Kingdom of God, expressed as "blessings".[243] The Beatitudes focus on love and humility rather than force and exaction and echo the key ideals of Jesus' teachings on spirituality and compassion.[244][245][246] The other discourses in Matthew include the Missionary Discourse in Matthew 10 and the Discourse on the Church in Matthew 18, providing instructions to the disciples and laying the foundation of the codes of conduct for the anticipated community of followers.[231][247][248]
Parables represent a major component of the teachings of Jesus in the gospels, the approximately thirty parables forming about one third of his recorded teachings.[160][161] The parables may appear within longer sermons, as well as other places within the narrative.[239] Jesus' parables are seemingly simple and memorable stories, often with imagery, and each conveys a teaching which usually relates the physical world to the spiritual world.[249][250]
The gospel episodes that include descriptions of the miracle of Jesus also often include teachings, providing an intertwining of his "words and works" in the gospels.[159][163] Many of the miracles in the gospels teach the importance of faith, for instance in Cleansing ten lepers and Daughter of Jairus the beneficiaries are told that they were healed due to their faith.[251][252]
Proclamation as Christ and Transfiguration[link]
Main articles: Confession of Peter and Transfiguration of Jesus
At about the middle of each of the three synoptic gospels, two related episodes mark a turning point in the narrative: the Confession of Peter and the Transfiguration of Jesus.[223][224] These episodes begin in Caesarea Philippi just north of the Sea of Galilee at the beginning of the final journey to Jerusalem which ends in the Passion and Resurrection of Jesus.[253] These episodes mark the beginnings of the gradual disclosure of the identity of Jesus to his disciples; and his prediction of his own suffering and death.[204][205][223][224][253]
Peter's Confession begins as a dialogue between Jesus and his disciples in Matthew 16:13, Mark 8:27 and Luke 9:18. Jesus asks his disciples: But who do you say that I am? Simon Peter answers him: You are the Christ, the Son of the living God.[253][254][255] In Matthew 16:17 Jesus blesses Peter for his answer, and states: "flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father who is in heaven." In blessing Peter, Jesus not only accepts the titles Christ and Son of God which Peter attributes to him, but declares the proclamation a divine revelation by stating that his Father in Heaven had revealed it to Peter.[256] In this assertion, by endorsing both titles as divine revelation, Jesus unequivocally declares himself to be both Christ and the Son of God.[256][257]
The account of the Transfiguration of Jesus appears in Matthew 17:1-9, Mark 9:2-8, Luke 9:28-36.[204][205][205][224] Jesus takes Peter and two other apostles with him and goes up to a mountain, which is not named. Once on the mountain, Matthew (17:2) states that Jesus "was transfigured before them; his face shining as the sun, and his garments became white as the light." At that point the prophets Elijah and Moses appear and Jesus begins to talk to them.[204] Luke is specific in describing Jesus in a state of glory, with Luke 9:32 referring to "they saw his glory".[258] A bright cloud appears around them, and a voice from the cloud states: "This is my beloved Son, with whom I am well pleased; listen to him".[204]
The Transfiguration not only supports the identity of Jesus as the Son of God (as in his Baptism), but the statement "listen to him", identifies him as the messenger and mouth-piece of God.[259] The significance is enhanced by the presence of Elijah and Moses, for it indicates to the apostles that Jesus is the voice of God, and instead of Elijah or Moses, he should be listened to, by virtue of his filial relationship with God.[259] 2 Peter 1:16-18, echoes the same message: at the Transfiguration God assigns to Jesus a special "honor and glory" and it is the turning point at which God exalts Jesus above all other powers in creation.[260]
At the end of both episodes, as in some other pericopes in the New Testament such as miracles, Jesus tells his disciples not to repeat to others, what they had seen - the command at times interpreted in the context of the theory of the Messianic Secret.[261] At the end of the Transfiguration episode, Jesus commands the disciples to silence about it "until the Son of man be risen from the dead", relating the Transfiguration to the Resurrection episode.[262][263][264]
Final week: betrayal, arrest, trial, and death[link]
The description of the last week of the life of Jesus (often called the Passion week) occupies about one third of the narrative in the canonical gospels.[140] The narrative for that week starts by a description of the final entry into Jerusalem, and ends with his crucifixion.[153][232]
The last week in Jerusalem is the conclusion of the journey which Jesus had started in Galilee through Perea and Judea.[232] Just before the account of the final entry of Jesus into Jerusalem, the Gospel of John includes the Raising of Lazarus episode, which builds the tension between Jesus and the authorities. At the beginning of the week as Jesus enters Jerusalem, he is greeted by the cheering crowds, adding to that tension.[232]
During the week of his "final ministry in Jerusalem", Jesus visits the Temple, and has a conflict with the money changers about their use of the Temple for commercial purposes. This is followed by a debate with the priests and the elder in which his authority is questioned. One of his disciples, Judas Iscariot, decides to betray Jesus for thirty pieces of silver.[266]
Towards the end of the week, Jesus has the Last Supper with his disciples, during which he institutes the Eucharist, and prepares them for his departure in the Farewell Discourse. After the supper, Jesus is betrayed with a kiss while he is in agony in the garden, and is arrested. After his arrest, Jesus is abandoned by most of his disciples, and Peter denies him three times, as Jesus had predicted during the Last Supper.[267][268]
Jesus is first questioned by the Sanhedrin, and is then tried by Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of Judea. During these trials Jesus says very little, and is mostly silent. After the scourging of Jesus, and his mocking as the King of the Jews Pilate orders the crucifixion.[269][270]
Thus the final week that begins with his entry into Jerusalem, concludes with his crucifixion and burial on that Friday, as described in the next 5 sub-sections. The New Testament accounts then describe the resurrection of Jesus three days later, on the Sunday following his death.
Final entry into Jerusalem[link]
In the four canonical gospels, Jesus' Triumphal entry into Jerusalem takes place at the beginning of the last week of his life, a few days before the Last Supper, marking the beginning of the Passion narrative.[271][274][275][276][277] While at Bethany Jesus sent two disciples to retrieve a donkey that had been tied up but never ridden and rode it into Jerusalem, with Mark and John stating Sunday, Matthew Monday, and Luke not specifying the day.[271][274][275] As Jesus rode into Jerusalem the people there lay down their cloaks in front of him, and also lay down small branches of trees and sang part of Psalm 118: 25-26.[271][273][274][275]
In the three synoptic gospels, entry into Jerusalem is followed by the Cleansing of the Temple episode, in which Jesus expels the money changers from the Temple, accusing them of turning the Temple to a den of thieves through their commercial activities. This is the only account of Jesus using physical force in any of the gospels.[236][278][279] John 2:13-16 includes a similar narrative much earlier, and scholars debate if these refer to the same episode.[236][278][279] The synoptics include a number of well known parables and sermons such as the Widow's mite and the Second Coming Prophecy during the week that follows.[274][275]
In that week, the synoptics also narrate conflicts between Jesus and the elders of the Jews, in episodes such as the Authority of Jesus Questioned and the Woes of the Pharisees in which Jesus criticizes their hypocrisy.[274][275] Judas Iscariot, one of the twelve apostles approaches the Jewish elders and performs the "Bargain of Judas" in which he accepts to betray Jesus and hand him over to the elders.[280][266][281] Matthew specifies the price as thirty silver coins.[266]
Last Supper[link]
Main article: Last Supper
In the New Testament, the Last Supper is the final meal that Jesus shares with his twelve apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is mentioned in all four canonical gospels, and Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians (11:23-26), which was likely written before the gospels, also refers to it.[113][114][282][283]
In all four gospels, during the meal, Jesus predicts that one of his Apostles will betray him.[267] Jesus is described as reiterating, despite each Apostle's assertion that he would not betray Jesus, that the betrayer would be one of those who were present. In Matthew 26:23-25 and John 13:26-27 Judas is specifically singled out as the traitor.[113][114][267]
In Matthew 26:26-29, Mark 14:22-25, Luke 22:19-20 Jesus takes bread, breaks it and gives it to the disciples, saying: "This is my body which is given for you". In 1 Corinthians 11:23-26 Apostle Paul provides the theological underpinnings for the use of the Eucharist, stating: "This cup is the new covenant in my blood; do this, whenever you drink it, in remembrance of me."[113][284] Although the Gospel of John does not include a description of the bread and wine ritual during the Last Supper, most scholars agree that John 6:58-59 (the Bread of Life Discourse) has a Eucharistic nature and resonates with the "words of institution" used in the synoptic gospels and the Pauline writings on the Last Supper.[285]
In all four gospels Jesus predicts that Peter will deny knowledge of him, stating that Peter will disown him three times before the rooster crows the next morning. The synoptics mention that after the arrest of Jesus Peter denied knowing him three times, but after the third denial, heard the rooster crow and recalled the prediction as Jesus turned to look at him. Peter then began to cry bitterly.[286][287]
The Gospel of John provides the only account of Jesus washing his disciples' feet before the meal.[288] John's Gospel also includes a long sermon by Jesus, preparing his disciples (now without Judas) for his departure. Chapters 14-17 of the Gospel of John are known as the Farewell discourse given by Jesus, and are a rich source of Christological content.[238][289]
Agony in the Garden, betrayal and arrest[link]
See also: Holy Hour
In Matthew 26:36-46, Mark 14:32-42, Luke 22:39-46 and John 18:1, immediately after the Last Supper, Jesus takes a walk to pray, Matthew and Mark identifying this place of prayer as Garden of Gethsemane.[290][291]
Jesus is accompanied by Peter, John and James the Greater, whom he asks to "remain here and keep watch with me." He moves "a stone's throw away" from them, where he feels overwhelming sadness and says "My Father, if it is possible, let this cup pass me by. Nevertheless, let it be as you, not I, would have it."[291] Only the Gospel of Luke mentions the details of the sweat of blood of Jesus and the visitation of the angel who comforts Jesus as he accepts the will of the Father. Returning to the disciples after prayer, he finds them asleep and in Matthew 26:40 he asks Peter: "So, could you men not keep watch with me for an hour?"[291]
While in the Garden, Judas appears, accompanied by a crowd that includes the Jewish priests and elders and people with weapons. Judas gives Jesus a kiss to identify him to the crowd who then arrests Jesus.[291][292] One of Jesus' disciples tries to stop them and uses a sword to cut off the ear of one of the men in the crowd.[291][292] Luke states that Jesus miraculously healed the wound and John and Matthew state that Jesus criticized the violent act, insisting that his disciples should not resist his arrest. In Matthew 26:52 Jesus makes the well known statement: all who live by the sword, shall die by the sword.[291][292]
Prior to the arrest, in Matthew 26:31 Jesus tells the disciples: "All ye shall be offended in me this night" and in 32 that: "But after I am raised up, I will go before you into Galilee." After his arrest, Jesus' disciples go into hiding.[291]
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FarewellApostles.jpg
Trials by the Sanhedrin, Herod and Pilate[link]
Main articles: Sanhedrin trial of Jesus, Pilate's Court, Jesus at Herod's Court, and Crown of Thorns
See also: Jesus, King of the Jews and What is truth?
In the narrative of the four canonical gospels after the betrayal and arrest of Jesus, he is taken to the Sanhedrin, a Jewish judicial body.[293] Jesus is tried by the Sanhedrin, mocked and beaten and is condemned for making claims of being the Son of God.[292][294][295] He is then taken to Pontius Pilate and the Jewish elders ask Pilate to judge and condemn Jesus—accusing him of claiming to be the King of the Jews.[295] After questioning, with few replies provided by Jesus, Pilate publicly declares that he finds Jesus innocent, but the crowd insists on punishment. Pilate then orders Jesus' crucifixion.[292][294][295][296] Although the gospel accounts vary with respect to various details, they agree on the general character and overall structure of the trials of Jesus.[296]
In, Matthew 26:57, Mark 14:53 and Luke 22:54 Jesus was taken to the high priest's house where he was mocked and beaten that night. The next day, early in the morning, the chief priests and scribes gathered together and lead Jesus away into their council.[292][294][295][298] In John 18:12-14, however, Jesus is first taken to Annas, the father-in-law of Caiaphas, and then to Caiaphas.[292][294][295] In all four gospel accounts the trial of Jesus is interleaved with the Denial of Peter narrative, where Peter who has followed Jesus denies knowing him three times, at which point the rooster crows as predicted by Jesus during the Last Supper.[294][299]
In the gospel accounts Jesus speaks very little, mounts no defense and gives very infrequent and indirect answers to the questions of the priests, prompting an officer to slap him. In Matthew 26:62 the lack of response from Jesus prompts the high priest to ask him: "Answerest thou nothing?"[292][294][295][300] Mark 14:55-59 states that the chief priests had arranged false witness against Jesus, but the witnesses did not agree together. In Mark 14:61 the high priest then asked Jesus: "Are you the Christ, the Son of the Blessed?" And Jesus said, "I am" — at which point the high priest tore his own robe in anger and accused Jesus of blasphemy. In Luke 22:70 when asked: "Are you then the Son of God?" Jesus answers: "You say that I am" affirming the title Son of God.[301] At that point the priests say: "What further need have we of witness? for we ourselves have heard from his own mouth" and decide to condemn Jesus.[292][294][295] In Matthew 27:3-5 Judas, who has watched the trial from a distance, is distraught by his betrayal of Jesus, and attempts to return the thirty pieces of silver he had received for betraying Jesus. The priests tell him that his guilt is of his own account. Judas throws the money into the temple, and then leaves and hangs himself.[291][292]
Taking Jesus to Pilate's Court, the Jewish elders ask Pontius Pilate to judge and condemn Jesus—accusing him of claiming to be the King of the Jews.[295] In Luke 23:7-15 (the only gospel account of this episode), Pilate realizes that Jesus is a Galilean, and is thus under the jurisdiction of Herod Antipas.[302][303][304][305][306] Pilate sends Jesus to Herod to be tried.[307] However, Jesus says almost nothing in response to Herod's questions, or the continuing accusations of the chief priests and the scribes. Herod and his soldiers mock Jesus, put a gorgeous robe on him, as the King of the Jews, and sent him back to Pilate.[302] Pilate then calls together the Jewish elders, and says that he has "found no fault in this man."[307]
The use of the term king is central in the discussion between Jesus and Pilate. In John 18:36 Jesus states: "My kingdom is not of this world", but does not directly deny being the King of the Jews.[308][309] And when in John 19:12 Pilate seeks to release Jesus, the priests object and say: "Every one that makes himself a king speaks against Caesar . . . We have no king but Caesar."[310] Pilate then writes "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews" as a sign (abbreviated as INRI in depictions) to be affixed to the cross of Jesus.[311]
In Matthew 27:19 Pilate's wife, tormented by a dream, urges Pilate not to have anything to do with Jesus, and Pilate publicly washes his hands of responsibility, yet orders the crucifixion in response to the demands of the crowd. The trial by Pilate is followed by the flagellation episode, the soldiers mock Jesus as the King of Jews by putting a purple robe (that signifies royal status) on him, place a Crown of Thorns on his head, and beat and mistreat him in Matthew 27:29-30, Mark 15:17-19 and John 19:2-3.[270] Jesus is then sent to Calvary for crucifixion.[292][294][295]
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Crucifixion and burial[link]
Main article: Crucifixion of Jesus
Jesus' crucifixion is described in all four canonical gospels, and is attested to by other sources of that age (e.g. Josephus and Tacitus), and is regarded as an historical event.[312][313][314]
After the trials, Jesus made his way to Calvary (the path is traditionally called via Dolorosa) and the three synoptic gospels indicate that he was assisted by Simon of Cyrene, the Romans compelling him to do so.[315][316] In Luke 23:27-28 Jesus tells the women in multitude of people following him not to cry for him but for themselves and their children.[315] Once at Calvary (Golgotha), Jesus was offered wine mixed with gall to drink — usually offered as a form of painkiller. Matthew's and Mark's gospels state that he refused this.[315][316]
The soldiers then crucified Jesus and cast lots for his clothes. Above Jesus' head on the cross was the inscription King of the Jews, and the soldiers and those passing by mocked him about the title. Jesus was crucified between two convicted thieves, one of whom rebuked Jesus, while the other defended him.[315][317] Each gospel has its own account of Jesus' last words, comprising the seven last sayings on the cross.[318][319][320] In John 19:26-27 Jesus entrusts his mother to the disciple he loved and in Luke 23:34 he states: "Father, forgive them; for they know not what they do", usually interpreted as his forgiveness of the Roman soldiers and the others involved.[318][321][322][323]
In the three synoptic gospels, various supernatural events accompany the crucifixion, including darkness of the sky, an earthquake, and (in Matthew) the resurrection of saints.[316] The tearing of the temple veil, upon the death of Jesus, is referenced in the synoptic.[316] The Roman soldiers did not break Jesus' legs, as they did to the other two men crucified (breaking the legs hastened the crucifixion process), as Jesus was dead already. One of the soldiers pierced the side of Jesus with a lance and water flowed out.[317] In Mark 13:59, impressed by the events the Roman centurion calls Jesus the Son of God.[315][316][324][325]
Following Jesus' death on Friday, Joseph of Arimathea asked the permission of Pilate to remove the body. The body was removed from the cross, was wrapped in a clean cloth and buried in a new rock-hewn tomb, with the assistance of Nicodemus.[315] In Matthew 27:62-66 the Jews go to Pilate the day after the crucifixion and ask for guards for the tomb and also seal the tomb with a stone as well as the guard, to be sure the body remains there.[315][326][327]
Resurrection and ascension[link]
See also: Empty tomb, Great Commission, Second Coming, Resurrection of Jesus in Christian art, and Ascension of Jesus in Christian art
The New Testament accounts of the resurrection and ascension of Jesus, state that the first day of the week after the crucifixion (typically interpreted as a Sunday), his followers encounter him risen from the dead, after his tomb is discovered to be empty.[117][118][328][329] The resurrected Jesus appears to them that day and a number of times thereafter, delivers sermons and commissions them, before ascending to Heaven. Two of the canonical gospels (Luke and Mark) include a brief mention of the Ascension, but the main references to it are elsewhere in the New Testament.[117][118][329]
In the four canonical gospels, when the tomb of Jesus is discovered empty, in Matthew 28:5, Mark 16:5, Luke 24:4 and John 20:12 his resurrection is announced and explained to the followers who arrive there early in the morning by either one or two beings (either men or angels) dressed in bright robes who appear in or near the tomb.[117][118][329] The gospel accounts vary as to who arrived at the tomb first, but they are women and are instructed by the risen Jesus to inform the other disciples. All four accounts include Mary Magdalene and three include Mary the mother of Jesus. The accounts of Mark 16:9, John 20:15 indicate that Jesus appeared to the Magdalene first, and Luke 16:9 states that she was among the Myrrhbearers who informed the disciples about the resurrection.[117][118][329] In Matthew 28:11-15, to explain the empty tomb, the Jewish elders bribe the soldiers who had guarded the tomb to spread the rumor that Jesus' disciples took his body.[118]
After the discovery of the empty tomb, the gospels indicate that Jesus made a series of appearances to the disciples.[117][118] These include the well known Doubting Thomas episode, where Thomas did not believe the resurrection until he was invited to put his finger into the holes made by the wounds in Jesus' hands and side; and the Road to Emmaus appearance where Jesus meets two disciples. The catch of 153 fish appearance includes a miracle at the Sea of Galilee, and thereafter Jesus encourages Peter to serve his followers.[117][118][329]
The final post-resurrection appearance in the gospel accounts is when Jesus ascends to Heaven where he remains with God the Father and the Holy Spirit.[117][118] The canonical gospels include only brief mentions of the Ascension of Jesus, Luke 24:51 states that Jesus "was carried up into heaven". The ascension account is further elaborated in Acts 1:1-11 and mentioned 1 Timothy 3:16. In Acts 1:1-9, forty days after the resurrection, as the disciples look on, "he was taken up; and a cloud received him out of their sight." 1 Peter 3:22 describes Jesus as being on "the right hand of God, having gone into heaven".[117][118]
The Acts of the Apostles also contain "post-ascension" appearances by Jesus. These include the vision by Stephen just before his death in Acts 7:55,[330] and the road to Damascus episode in which Apostle Paul is converted to Christianity.[331][332] The instruction given to Ananias in Damascus in Acts 9:10-18 to heal Paul is the last reported conversation with Jesus in the Bible until the Book of Revelation was written.[331][332]
Title attributions[link]
Main article: Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament
The New Testament attributes a wide range of titles to Jesus by the authors of the gospels, by Jesus himself, a voice from Heaven (often assumed to be God) during the Baptism and Transfiguration, as well as various groups of people such as the disciples, and even demons throughout the narrative.[270][333] The emphasis on the titles used in each of the four canonical gospels gives a different emphasis to the portrayal of Jesus in that gospel.[150][334][335]
Two of the key titles used for Jesus in the New Testament are Christ and Son of God.[53][336] The opening words in Mark 1:1 attribute both Christ and Son of God as titles, reaffirming the second title again in Mark 1:11.[337] The Gospel of Matthew also begins in 1:1 with the Christ title and reaffirms it in Matthew 1:16.[337] Beyond the declarations by the Gospel writers, titles are attributed in the narrative. The statement by Peter in Matthew 16:16 ("you are the Christ, the Son of the living God") is a key turning point in the Gospel narrative, where Jesus is proclaimed as both Christ and Son of God by his followers and he accepts both titles.[254] The immediate declaration by Jesus that the titles were revealed to Peter by "my Father who is in Heaven" not only endorses both titles as divine revelation but includes a separate assertion of sonship by Jesus within the same statement.[256]
In the Gospel of John, Jesus refers to himself as the Son of God far more frequently than in the synoptic gospels.[338] In a number of other episodes Jesus claims sonship by referring to the Father, e.g. in Luke 2:49 when he is found in the temple a young Jesus calls the temple "my Father's house", just as he does later in John 2:16 in the Cleansing of the Temple episode.[236] However, scholars still debate if Jesus was making a claim to divinity in these statements.[339][340][341] In John 11:27 Martha tells Jesus "you are the Christ, the Son of God", signifying that both titles were later used (yet considered distinct) in the narrative.[342] While the Gospel of John frequently uses the Son of God title, the Gospel of Luke emphasizes Jesus as a prophet.[343]
One of the most frequent titles for Jesus in the New Testament is the Greek word Kyrios (κύριος) which can mean God, Lord or master and is used to refers to him over 700 times.[344][345] In everyday Aramaic, Mari was a very respectful form of polite address, well above "Teacher" and similar to Rabbi. In Greek this has at times been translated as Kyrios.[346] The Rabbi title is used in several New Testament episodes to refer to Jesus, but more often in the Gospel of John than elsewhere and does not appear in the Gospel of Luke at all.[347] Although Jesus accepts this title in the narrative, in Matthew 23:1-8 he rejected the title of Rabbi for his disciples, saying: "But be not ye called Rabbi".[347][348][349]
Some New Testament scholars argue that Jesus claimed to be God through his frequent use of "I am" (Ego eimi in Greek and Qui est in Latin). This term is used by Jesus in the Gospel of John on several occasions to refer to himself, seven times with specific titles.[350][351] It is used in the Gospel of John both with or without a predicate.[351] The seven uses with a predicate that have resulted in titles for Jesus are: Bread of Life, Light of the World, the Door, the Good Shepherd, the Resurrection of Life, the Way, the Truth and the Life, the Vine.[350] It is also used without a predicate, which is very unusual in Greek and Christologists usually interpret it as God's own self-declaration.[351] In John 8:24 Jesus states: "unless you believe that I am you will die in your sins" and in John 8:59 the crowd attempts to stone Jesus in response to his statement that "Before Abraham was, I am".[351] However, many modern scholars believe that Jesus never made a claim to divinity.[352][353] John Hick says that this "is a point of broad agreement among New Testament scholars".[354]
The Gospel of John opens by identifying Jesus as the divine Logos in John 1:1-18. The Greek term Logos (λόγος) is often translated as "the Word" in English.[355] The identification of Jesus as the Logos which became Incarnate appears only at the beginning of the Gospel of John and the term Logos is used only in two other Johannine passages: 1 John 1:1 and Revelation 19:13.[356][357][358][359] John's Logos statements build on each other: the statement that the Logos existed "at the beginning" asserts that as Logos Jesus was an eternal being like God; that the Logos was "with God" asserts the distinction of Jesus from God; and Logos "was God" states the unity of Jesus with God.[288][357][360][361]
Some authors have suggested that other titles applied to Jesus in the New Testament had meanings in the 1st century quite different from those meanings ascribed today, e.g. "messiah" and “Son of David” is found elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible and other Jewish texts to refer to the heir to the throne; "son of God" to refer to a righteous person; and "son of man" to signify the third person in the subjective case and a polite way to refer to one's self.[362]
Historical views[link]
Existence[link]
See also: Josephus on Jesus and Tacitus on Jesus
The Christian gospels were written primarily as theological documents rather than historical chronicles.[139][140] However, the question of the existence of Jesus as a historical figure should be distinguished from discussions about the historicity of specific episodes in the gospels, the chronology they present, or theological issues regarding his divinity.[365] A number of historical non-Christian documents, such as Jewish and Greco-Roman sources, have been used in historical analyses of the existence of Jesus.[363] Most critical historians agree that Jesus existed and regard events such as his baptism and his crucifixion as historical.[15][366][367][368]
Robert E. Van Voorst states that the idea of the non-historicity of the existence of Jesus has always been controversial, and has consistently failed to convince scholars of many disciplines, and that classical historians, as well as biblical scholars now regard it as effectively refuted.[16] Walter P. Weaver, among others, states that the denial of Jesus’ existence has never convinced any large number of people, in or out of technical circles.[15][368][369]
Separate non-Christian sources used to establish the historical existence of Jesus include the works of 1st century Roman historians Josephus and Tacitus.[363][370] Josephus scholar Louis H. Feldman has stated that "few have doubted the genuineness" of Josephus' reference to Jesus in Antiquities 20, 9, 1 and it is only disputed by a small number of scholars.[364][371][372][373] Bart D. Ehrman states that the existence of Jesus and his crucifixion by the Romans is attested to by a wide range of sources, including Josephus and Tacitus.[374]
The historical existence of Jesus as a person is a separate issue from any religious discussions about his divinity, or the theological issues relating to his nature as man or God.[375] Leading scientific atheist Richard Dawkins specifically separates the question of the existence of Jesus from the attribution of supernatural powers to him, or the accuracy of the Christian gospels.[376] Dawkins does not deny the existence of Jesus, although he dismisses the reliability of the gospel accounts.[376] This position is also held by leading critic G. A. Wells, who used to argue that Jesus never existed, but has since changed his views and no longer rejects it.[377]
In antiquity, the existence of Jesus was never denied by those who opposed Christianity.[138] While theological differences existed among early Christians regarding the nature of Jesus (e.g. monophysitism, miaphysitism, Docetism, Nestorianism, etc.) these were debates in Christian theology, not about the historical existence of Jesus.[378][379] Although a very small number of modern scholars argue that Jesus never existed, that view is a distinct minority and most scholars consider theories that Jesus' existence was a Christian invention as implausible.[365][380][381]
Language, race and appearance[link]
See also: Aramaic of Jesus, Race and appearance of Jesus, and Cultural and historical background of Jesus
Jesus grew up in Galilee and much of his ministry took place there.[382] The languages spoken in Galilee and Judea during the 1st century AD/CE include the Semitic Aramaic and Hebrew languages as well as Greek, with Aramaic being the predominant language.[383][384] Most scholars agree that during the early part of 1st century AD/CE Aramaic was the mother tongue of virtually all women in Galilee and Judae.[385] Most scholars support the theory that Jesus spoke Aramaic and that he may have also spoken Hebrew and Greek.[383][384][386][387] In a review of the state of modern scholarship, Amy-Jill Levine stated: "Beyond recognizing that 'Jesus was Jewish' rarely does scholarship address what being 'Jewish' means."[388]
The New Testament includes no description of the physical appearance of Jesus before his death and its narrative is generally indifferent to racial appearances and does not refer to the features of the people it discusses.[391][392][393] The synoptic gospels include the account of the Transfiguration of Jesus during which he was glorified with "his face shining as the sun" but do not provide details of his everyday appearance.[205][224] The Book of Revelation describes the features of a glorified Jesus in a vision (1:13-16), but the vision refers to Jesus in heavenly form, after his death.[394][395] Old Testament references about the coming Messiah have been projected forward to form conjectures about the appearance of Jesus on theological, rather than historical grounds; e.g. Isaiah 53:2 which refers to the coming Messiah as "no beauty that we should desire him" and Psalm 45:2-3 which describes him as "fairer than the children of men", often interpreted as a description of his physical appearance.[396][397][398][399]
Despite the lack of direct biblical or historical references, from the 2nd century, various theories about the race of Jesus were advanced, e.g. by Justin Martyr based on arguments on the genealogy of Jesus.[400] These arguments have been subject to debate for centuries among modern scholars.[400] Another suggestion by anti-Christian pagan author Celsus (who was likely aware of the gospel texts, and mocked them) that Jesus' father was a Roman soldier named Pantera drew responses from Origen who considered it a fabricated story, and scholars continue to view it as having no historical basis.[401][402][403][404][405][406]
By the Middle Ages a number of documents, generally of unknown origin, were circulating with details of the appearance of Jesus, e.g. a forged letter by Publius Lentulus, the Governor of Judea, to the Roman Senate, which according to most scholars dates to around the year 1300 and was composed to compensate for the lack of any physical description of Jesus in the Bible.[392] Other spurious references include the Archko Volume and the letter of Pontius Pilate to Tiberius Caesar, the descriptions in which were most likely composed in the Middle Ages.[407][408][409]
By the 19th century theories that Jesus was of Aryan descent, in particular European, were developed and later appealed to those who wanted nothing Jewish about Jesus, e.g. Nazi theologians.[393][410] These theories usually also include the reasoning that Jesus was Aryan because Galilee was an Aryan region, but have not gained scholarly acceptance.[393][411] By the 20th century, theories had also been proposed that Jesus was of black African descent, e.g. based on the argument that Mary his mother was a descendant of black Jews.[412] By the 21st century the race of Jesus was being addressed on television, e.g. a 2001 BBC program that suggested specific physical characteristics for him.[413][414] In the 21st century, the race of Jesus also had a cultural component in cinematic portrayals, e.g. actor James Caviezel was made-up to look semitic as he portrayed Jesus.[415][416]
Relics associated with Jesus[link]
Main article: Relics associated with Jesus
A number of relics associated with Jesus have been claimed and displayed throughout the history of Christianity. Some people believe in the authenticity of some relics; others doubt the authenticity of various items. For instance, the sixteenth century Catholic theologian Erasmus wrote sarcastically about the proliferation of relics, and the number of buildings that could have been constructed from the wood claimed to be from the cross used in the Crucifixion of Christ.[417] Similarly, while experts debate whether Christ was crucified with three or with four nails, at least thirty Holy Nails continue to be venerated as relics across Europe.[418]
Some relics, such as purported remnants of the Crown of Thorns, receive only a modest number of pilgrims, others such as the Shroud of Turin (which is associated with an approved Catholic devotion to the Holy Face of Jesus) receive millions of pilgrims, which in recent years have included Pope John Paul II and Pope Benedict XVI.[419]
Depictions[link]
Main article: Depictions of Jesus
Despite the lack of biblical references or historical records, for two millennia a wide range of depictions of Jesus have appeared, often influenced by cultural settings, political circumstances and theological contexts.[389][390][392] As in other Christian art, the earliest depictions date to the late 2nd or early 3rd century, and survivors are primarily found in the Catacombs of Rome.[420] In these early depictions, which use popular rather than elite Greco-Roman styles, Jesus is usually shown as a youthful figure without a beard and with curly hair, often with different features from the other men in the scenes, such as his disciples or the Romans.[391]
Although some images exist at the synagogue at Dura-Europos, Judaism forbade images, and there is no record of its influence on the depictions of Jesus.[389] Christian depictions of the 3rd and 4th centuries typically focused on New Testament scenes of healings and other miracles.[420] Following the conversion of Constantine in the 4th century, Christian art found many wealthy donors and flourished.[420] In this period Jesus began to have more mature features, and was shown with a beard.[391] A new development at this time was the depiction of Jesus without a narrative context, but just as a figure by himself.[391]
By the 5th century depictions of the Passion began to appear, perhaps reflecting a change in the theological focus of the early Church.[420] The 6th century Rabbula Gospels includes some of the earliest surviving images of the crucifixion and resurrection.[420] By the 6th century the bearded depiction of Jesus had become standard in the East, though the West, especially in northern Europe, continued to mix bearded and unbearded depictions for several centuries. The depiction with a longish face, long straight brown hair parted in the middle, and almond shaped eyes shows consistency from the 6th century to the present. Various legends developed which were believed to authenticate the historical accuracy of the standard depiction, such as the image of Edessa and later the Veil of Veronica.[391] Partly to aid recognition of the scenes, narrative depictions of the Life of Christ focused increasingly on the events celebrated in the major feasts of the church calendar, and the events of the Passion, neglecting the miracles and other events of Jesus's public ministry, except for the raising of Lazarus, where the mummy-like wrapped body was shown standing upright, giving an unmistakable visual signature.[citation needed] A cruciform halo was worn only by Jesus (and the other persons of the Trinity), while plain halos distinguished Mary, the Apostles and other saints, helping the viewer to read increasingly populated scenes.[citation needed]
The Byzantine Iconoclasm acted as a barrier to developments in the East, but by the 9th century art was permitted again.[389] The Transfiguration of Jesus was a major theme in the East and every Eastern Orthodox monk who had trained in icon painting had to prove his craft by painting an icon of the Transfiguration.[421] However, while Western depictions aim for proportion, in the Eastern icons the abolition of perspective and alterations in the size and proportion of an image aim to reaches beyond man's earthly dwellings.[422]
The 13th century witnessed a turning point in the portrayal of the powerful Kyrios image of Jesus as a wonder worker in the West, as the Franciscans began to emphasize the humility of Jesus both at his birth and his death via the nativity scene as well as the crucifixion.[423][424][425] The Franciscans approached both ends of this spectrum of emotions and as the joys of the Nativity of were added to the agony of crucifixion a whole new range of emotions were ushered in, with wide ranging cultural impact on the image of Jesus for centuries thereafter.[423][425][426][427]
The Renaissance brought forth a number of artists who focused on the depictions of Jesus and after Giotto, Fra Angelico and others systematically developed uncluttered images that focused on the depiction of Jesus with an ideal human beauty.[389] Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper which is considered the first work of High Renaissance art due to its high level of harmony became well known for depicting Jesus surrounded by varying emotions of the individual apostles at the announcement of the betrayal.[428][429] Meanwhile, the Protestant Reformation, especially in its first decades, violently objected to almost all public religious images as idolaterous, and vast numbers were destroyed.
By the end of the 19th century, new reports of miraculous images of Jesus had appeared and continue to receive significant attention, e.g. Secondo Pia's 1898 photograph of the Shroud of Turin, one of the most controversial artifacts in history, which during its May 2010 exposition it was visited by over 2 million people.[430][431][432] Another 20th century depiction of Jesus, namely the Divine Mercy image based on Faustina Kowalska's reported vision has over 100 million followers.[433][434] The first cinematic portrayal of Jesus was in the 1897 film La Passion du Christ produced in Paris, which lasted 5 minutes.[435][436] Thereafter cinematic portrayals have continued to show Jesus with a beard in the standard western depiction that resembles traditional images.[437]
Analysis of the gospels[link]
The historical-critical method (or higher criticism) is used to examine the Bible for clues about the historical Jesus, whereby sayings and events that are more likely to be genuine in the opinion of scholars are used to construct their portraits of Jesus. Standard historical methods are used to discern the authorship of each book, and its likely date of composition.[438]
The earliest extant texts which refer to Jesus are Paul's letters (mid-1st century), which affirm Jesus' crucifixion. Keulman and Gregory hold that the Gospel of Thomas, a collection of 114 sayings of Jesus, predates the four orthodox gospels, and believe it may have been composed around mid-1st century.[439][440]
Biblical scholars hold that the works describing Jesus were initially communicated by oral tradition, and were not committed to writing until several decades after Jesus' crucifixion. After the original oral stories were written down in Greek, they were transcribed, and later translated into other languages. The books of the New Testament had mostly been written by 100 AD/CE, making them, at least the synoptic gospels, historically relevant.[441] The Gospel tradition certainly preserves several fragments of Jesus' teaching.[442] The Markan priority hypothesis holds that the Gospel of Mark was written first c. 70 AD/CE.[443][444][445] Matthew is placed at being sometime after this date and Luke is thought to have been written between 70 and 100 AD/CE.[446][447] According to the Q source hypothesis supported by a majority of modern scholars, the gospels were written not by the four evangelists themselves but derived from other sources.[438] A minority of prominent scholars, such as J. A. T. Robinson, have maintained that the writers of the gospels of Matthew, Mark and John were either apostles and eyewitness to Jesus' ministry and death, or were close to those who had been.[448][449][450][450]
Critical scholars consider scriptural accounts more likely when they are attested in multiple texts, plausible in Jesus' historical environment, and potentially embarrassing to the author's Christian community. The "criterion of embarrassment" holds that stories about events with aspects embarrassing to Christians (such as the denial of Jesus by Peter, or the fleeing of Jesus' followers after his arrest) would likely not have been included if those accounts were fictional.[451] Sayings attributed to Jesus are deemed more likely to reflect his character when they are distinctive, vivid, paradoxical, surprising, and contrary to social and religious expectations, such as "Blessed are the poor".[452] Short, memorable parables and aphorisms capable of being transmitted orally are also thought more likely to be authentic.[452]
Scholars use textual criticism to determine which variants among manuscripts is original and how much they may have changed. Contemporary textual critic Bart D. Ehrman cites numerous places where he maintains that the gospels, and other New Testament books, were apparently altered by Christian scribes.[150] Craig Blomberg, F. F. Bruce and Gregory Boyd view the evidence as conclusive that very few alterations were made by Christian scribes, while none of them (three or four in total) were important.[448][449][450] According to Normal Geisler and William Nix, "The New Testament, then, has not only survived in more manuscripts than any other book from antiquity, but it has survived in a purer form than any other great book─a form that is 99.5% pure"[450]:p.367
Historical analysis[link]
Main articles: Historical Jesus and Quest for the historical Jesus
After the Enlightenment, scholars began producing characterizations of the life of Jesus by comparing New Testament accounts with other sources that shed light on the social and political background of his time, and used the historical method to produce their own version of the "life of Jesus" which aimed to fill gaps in gospel accounts, as well as excluding some material scholars deemed historically implausible.[453][454][455][456] By the end of the 19th century hundreds of such accounts existed, and in the early 20th century this resulted in the Quest for the historical Jesus, a term coined by Albert Schweitzer.[453]
The historical analysis has relied on Biblical criticism, as well as the political, cultural, and religious crises and movements in late Second Temple Judaism and in Roman Judaea, including differences between Galilee and Judaea, and between different sects such as the Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes and Zealots,[457][458] In the 1950s the second Quest began and resulted in a number of new models and theories.[453] The third Quest began in the 1990s, and continued into the 21st century, producing a variety of perspectives on the life of Jesus.[453] Scholars generally agree that Jesus was a Jewish Galilean, but not a Roman citizen.[459][460] Christina Kreinecker states that Jesus was simply a peregrinus (i.e. subject) of the Judea Province of the Roman Empire.[461]
However, although scholars agree on basic historical facts such as the crucifixion of Jesus, the various "portraits of Jesus" they construct often differ from each other, and from the image found in the gospels.[19][462]
The portraits of Jesus constructed by scholars often share a number of common, and at times overlapping building blocks, such as healer, philosopher, sage, apocalyptic preacher, or social reformer.[18][19][20] However, Bart Ehrman and separately Andreas Köstenberger contend that given the scarcity of historical sources, it is generally difficult for any scholar to construct a portrait of Jesus that can be considered historically valid beyond the basic elements of his life.[19][463][464] However, some scholars have suggested caution when reading modern meanings into terms such as rabbi at Jesus' time.[465] At the time of Jesus the title rabbi was merely a general title for "teachers of the Law" and did not involve an official appointment.[466] Martin Hengel states that as a "teacher of Wisdom", Jesus was not a typical representatives of the official establishment of the time.[467] William Herzog states that although Jesus was called a rabbi and a teacher he rejected the title rabbi in the synoptic gospels and did not identify himself with the established notion of rabbi at the time.[348]
An attribute used by many scholars to describe Jesus is a healer, a number of the same scholars also stating that he preached the restoration of God's kingdom.[468][469][470] Many scholars also hold that the movement Jesus led (and his eschatology) were apocalyptic, as were the preachings of John the Baptist, but some scholars makes a distinction between John's apocalyptic ministry and Jesus' ethical teachings.[471][472] Another attribute used to describe Jesus are a sage who preached the wisdom of God, offering new interpretations of Old Testament teachings.[19][473] Two other views of Jesus are as a cynic philosopher and a social reformer who renounced material possessions and taught a new form of egalitarianism, social justice and equality among men and women as well as the abandonment of social class hierarchies.[19][464][474][475] Some historians argue that Jewish and Roman authorities in Jerusalem were wary of Galilean patriots, and that Jesus' preachings were regarded as troubling, and he was hence executed on political charges.[25][25][476][477]
Historicity of events[link]
Modern scholars consider the baptism of Jesus and his crucifixion to be the two historically certain facts about him, James Dunn stating that these "two facts in the life of Jesus command almost universal assent".[8] Dunn states that these two facts "rank so high on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of historical facts" that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus.[8] Bart Ehrman states that the crucifixion of Jesus on the orders of Pontius Pilate is the most certain element about him.[478] John Dominic Crossan states that the crucifixion of Jesus is as certain as any historical fact can be.[479]
Craig Blomberg states that most scholars in the third quest for the historical Jesus consider the crucifixion indisputable.[480] Although scholars agree on the historicity of the crucifixion, they differ on the reason and context for it, e.g. both E.P. Sanders and Paula Fredriksen support the historicity of the crucifixion, but contend that Jesus did not foretell of his own crucifixion, and that his prediction of the crucifixion is a Christian story.[481] Geza Vermes also views the crucifixion a historical event but provides his own explanation and background for it.[481] John P. Meier views the crucifixion of Jesus as historical fact and states that based on the criterion of embarrassment Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader.[482] Meier states that a number of other criteria, e.g. the criterion of multiple attestation (i.e. confirmation by more than one source), the criterion of coherence (i.e. that it fits with other historical elements) and the criterion of rejection (i.e. that it is not disputed by ancient sources) help establish the crucifixion of Jesus as a historical event.[483]
Role of archaeology[link]
No documents written by Jesus exist,[486] and no specific archaeological remnants are directly attributed to him. The 21st century has witnessed an increase in scholarly interest in the integrated use of archaeology as an additional research component in arriving at a better understanding of the historical Jesus by illuminating the socio-economic and political background of his age.[487][488][489][490][491][492]
James Charlesworth states that few modern scholars now want to overlook the archaeological discoveries that clarify the nature of life in Galilee and Judea during the time of Jesus.[490] Jonathan Reed states that chief contribution of archaeology to the study of the historical Jesus is the reconstruction of his social world.[493] An example archaeological item that Reed mentions is the 1961 discovery of the Pilate Stone, which mentions the Roman prefect Pontius Pilate, by whose order Jesus was crucified.[493][494][495]
Reed also states that archaeological finding related to coinage can shed light on historical critical analysis. As an example, he refers to coins with the ""Divi filius" inscription.[487] Although Roman Emperor Augustus called himself "Divi filius", and not "Dei filius" (Son of God), the line between been god and god-like was at times less than clear to the population at large, and the Roman court seems to have been aware of the necessity of keeping the ambiguity.[484][485] Later, Tiberius who was emperor at the time of Jesus came to be accepted as the son of divus Augustus.[484] Reed discusses this coinage in the context of Mark 12:13-17 (known as Render unto Caesar...) in which Jesus asks his disciples to look at a coin: "Whose portrait is this? And whose inscription?" and then advises them to "Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's." Reed states that "the answer becomes much more subversive when one knows that Roman coinage proclaimed Caesar to be God".[487]
David Gowler states that an interdisciplinary scholarly study of archeology, textual analysis and historical context can shed light on Jesus and his teachings.[491] An example is the archeological studies at Capernaum. Despite the frequent references to Capernaum in the New Testament, little is said about it there.[496] However, recent archeological evidence show that unlike earlier assumptions, Capernaum was poor and small, without even a forum or agora.[491][497] This archaeological discovery thus resonates well with the scholarly view that Jesus advocated reciprocal sharing among the destitute in that area of Galilee.[491] Other archeological findings support the wealth of the ruling priests in Judea at the beginning of the first century.[489][498]
First century Jewish religious movements[link]
Scholars refer to the religious background of the early 1st century to better reconstruct Jesus' life. Some scholars identify him with one or another group.
Pharisees were a powerful force in 1st-century Judaea. Early Christians shared several beliefs of the Pharisees, such as resurrection, retribution in the next world, angels, human freedom, and Divine Providence.[499] After the fall of the Temple, the Pharisaic outlook was established in Rabbinic Judaism. Some scholars speculate that Jesus was himself a Pharisee.[500] In Jesus' day, the two main schools of thought among the Pharisees were the House of Hillel, which had been founded by the eminent Tanna, Hillel the Elder, and the House of Shammai. Jesus' assertion of hypocrisy may have been directed against the stricter members of the House of Shammai, although he also agreed with their teachings on divorce.[Mk 10:1–12][501] Jesus also commented on the House of Hillel's teachings (Babylonian Talmud, Shabbat 31a) concerning the greatest commandment[Mk 12:28–34] and the Golden Rule.[Mt 7:12] Historians do not know whether there were Pharisees in Galilee during Jesus' life, or what they would have been like.[502]
Sadducees were particularly powerful in Jerusalem. They accepted the written Law only, rejecting the traditional interpretations accepted by the Pharisees, such as belief in retribution in an afterlife, resurrection of the body, angels, and spirits. After Jesus caused a disturbance at the Temple, it was to have been the Sadducees who had him arrested and turned over to the Romans for execution. After the fall of Jerusalem, they disappeared from history.[503]
Essenes were apocalyptic ascetics, one of the three (or four) major Jewish schools of the time, though they were not mentioned in the New Testament.[504] Some scholars theorize that Jesus was an Essene, or close to them. Among these scholars is Pope Benedict XVI, who supposes in his book on Jesus that "it appears that not only John the Baptist, but possibly Jesus and his family as well, were close to the Qumran community."[505]
Zealots were a revolutionary party opposed to Roman rule, one of those parties that, according to Josephus inspired the fanatical stand in Jerusalem that led to its destruction in the year 70 AD/CE.[506] Luke identifies Simon, a disciple, as a "zealot", which might mean a member of the Zealot party (which would therefore have been already in existence in the lifetime of Jesus) or a zealous person.[506] The notion that Jesus himself was a Zealot does not do justice to the earliest Synoptic material describing him.[507]
Mythical view[link]
Main article: Christ myth theory
The term "Christ myth theory" is an umbrella term that applies to a range of arguments that in one way or another question the authenticity of the existence of Jesus or the essential elements of his life as described in the Christian gospels.[508][509][510][511] One viewpoint is that there was no real historical figure Jesus and that he was invented by Christians. Another viewpoint is that there was a person called Jesus, but much of the teachings and miracles attributed to him were either invented or symbolic references. Yet another view holds that the Jesus portrayed in the gospels is a composite character constructed from multiple people over a period of time.[508][509][510][511]
Supporters of the various Christ myth theories point to the lack of any known written references to Jesus during his lifetime and the relative scarcity of non-Christian references to him in the 1st century, and dispute the veracity of the existing accounts about him.[512]
Among the variants of the Jesus myth theory, the notion that Jesus never existed has little scholarly support, and although some modern scholars adhere to it, they remain a distinct minority; most scholars involved with historical Jesus research believe that his existence can be established using documentary and other evidence.[16][57][58][59][60][61]
In the context of historical theories, the hypothesis that Jesus never existed is a rather recent topic, and in antiquity his existence was never doubted, even by those who were critical of Christian teachings.[138] In the early 18th century, friction between the church establishment and some theologians, coupled with the growing emphasis on rationalism, resulted in discord between the English deists and the church, and John Toland, Anthony Collins and Thomas Woolston planted the seeds of discontent.[513][514]
The beginnings of the formal denial of the existence of Jesus can be traced to late 18th-century France, and the works of Constantin-Volney and Charles Dupuis.[515] The more methodical writings of David Friedrich Strauss caused an uproar in Europe in 1835, and Strauss became known as the founder of Christ myth theory, his approach having been influenced by the epistemological views of Leibniz and Spinoza.[513][516] Strauss did not deny the existence of Jesus, but believed that very few facts could be known about him and characterized the miraculous accounts in the gospels as "mythical".[516][517][518] At about the same time in Berlin, Bruno Bauer supported somewhat similar ideas.[515][519] Although both Strauss and Bauer drew on Hegel, their views did not coincide, and often conflicted.[520][521] Karl Marx, a student and at the time a close friend of Bauer, was significantly influenced by him, as well as Hegel and Strauss, setting the stage for the denial of Jesus within communism.[519][522][523]
By the beginning of the 20th century, Arthur Drews, William B. Smith and John M. Robertson became the most recognized proponents of the Christ myth theory.[515][524] However, these authors were not performing purely atheist attacks on Christianity, e.g. Drew did not consider religion as outdated, but argued for a different form of religious consciousness.[515] W. B. Smith argued for a symbolic interpretation of gospel episodes and contended that in a parable such as Jesus and the rich young man the rich young man never existed and symbolically referred to the land of Israel.[525] Smith also argued that Jesus never healed anyone physically, but only spiritually cured them of their paganism.[525] J. M. Robertson on the other hand viewed the gospel accounts as a collection of myths gathered by a large number of anonymous authors, over time.[525]
When Marxist–Leninist atheism became part of the state ideals in communist Russia in 1922, the theories of Arthur Drew gained prominence there.[526] The communist state not only supported the Christ myth theory but embellished it with scientific colloquialisms, and school textbooks began to teach that Jesus never existed, making Russia a bastion of Jesus denial.[526][527][528] These ideas were rebuffed in Russia by Sergei Bulgakov and Alexander Men, copies of whose book began to circulate underground via typewriters in the 1970s to reintroduce Christianity to Russia.[526][529]
In the 20th century, scholars such as G. A. Wells, Alvar Ellegård, and Robert M. Price produced a number of arguments to support the Christ myth theory. Non-scholarly works on the Jesus myth theory have since been published by mass-media authors such as Doherty, Freke and Gandy. In parallel, a number of historians and biblical scholars such as Paula Fredriksen, Geza Vermes, E.P. Sanders and others involved in the quest for the historical Jesus performed detailed analyses of historical and biblical documents. Almost all of these scholars accept the existence of Jesus, but differ on the accuracy of the details of his life within the biblical narratives.[530] Robert Van Voorst stated that among "New Testament scholars and historians the theory of the non-existence of Jesus remains effectively dead as a scholarly question".[531][532]
The Christ myth theory is still being debated in the 21st century, with Graham Stanton stating in 2002 that the most thorough analysis of the theory had been by G. A. Wells.[533] But Wells' book Did Jesus Exist? was criticized by James D.G. Dunn in his book The Evidence for Jesus.[534] And the debates continue, e.g. Wells changed his views over time and while he used to argue that there was no historical evidence supporting the existence of Jesus, he later modified his position, and in his later book The Jesus Myth accepted the possible existence of Jesus based on historical sources, although still disputing the gospel portrayals of his life.[531][532][535][536]
Religious perspectives[link]
Main article: Religious perspectives on Jesus
By and large, the Jews of Jesus' day rejected his claim to be the Messiah, as do Jews today. For their part, Christian Church Fathers, Ecumenical Councils, Reformers, and others have written extensively about Jesus over the centuries. Christian sects and schisms have often been defined or characterized by competing descriptions of Jesus. Meanwhile, Gnostics, Mandaeans, Manichaeans, Muslims, Baha'is, and others have found prominent places for Jesus in their own religious accounts.[citation needed]
Christian views[link]
Main articles: Jesus in Christianity and Christology
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Although Christian views of Jesus vary, it is possible to summarize key elements of the shared beliefs among major denominations based on their catechetical or confessional texts.[537][538][539] Christian views of Jesus are derived from various sources, but especially from the canonical Gospels, and New Testament letters, such as the Letters of Paul and Johannine writings. Christians predominantly hold that these works are historically true.[540]
These documents outline the key beliefs held by Christians about Jesus, including his divinity, humanity, and earthly life. Generally speaking, adhering to the Christian faith requires a belief that Jesus is the Son of God and the Christ. In the New Testament Jesus indicates that he is the Son of God by calling God his father.[256] However, not all Christian denominations agree on all doctrines, and both major and minor differences on teachings and beliefs have persisted throughout Christianity for centuries.[541]
Christians consider Jesus the Christ and believe that through his death and resurrection, humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of eternal life.[542] These teachings emphasize that as the willing Lamb of God, Jesus chose to suffer in Calvary as a sign of his full obedience to the will of the Eternal Father, as an "agent and servant of God".[345][543] The choice Jesus made thus counter-positions him as a the new and last Adam, new man of morality and obedience, in contrast to Adam's disobedience.[544]
Most Christians believe that Jesus was both human and the Son of God. While there have been theological debate over the nature of Jesus, Trinitarian Christians generally believe that Jesus is the Logos, God incarnate, God the Son, and "true God and true man" (or both fully divine and fully human). Nontrinitarian Christians reject the notion of the Holy Trinity, do not adhere to the ecumenical councils and believe that their interpretations of the Bible take precedence over the Christian creeds.[545]
Christians generally believe that Jesus having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, yet he did not sin, but defeated death and rose to life after his crucifixion. According to the Bible, God raised him from the dead.[546] He ascended to heaven, to sit at the "Right Hand of God,"[547] and he will return to earth again for the Last Judgment and the establishment of the Kingdom of God in the World to Come.[548]
Christians not only attach theological significance to the works of Jesus, but also to his name. Devotions to the Holy Name of Jesus go back to the earliest days of Christianity.[549][550] These devotions and feasts exist both in Eastern and Western Christianity.[550]
Jewish views[link]
Main article: Judaism's view of Jesus
See also: Jesus in the Talmud
Classic texts of Rabbinic Judaism reject any notion of an anthropomorphic God. Tractate Ta'anit of the Jerusalem Talmud states explicitly that “if a man claims to be God, he is a liar.”[551] Furthermore Exodus Rabba 29 says, "'I am the first and I am the last, and beside Me there is no God' I am the first, I have no father; I am the last, I have no brother. Beside Me there is no God; I have no son."[552]
Judaism rejects the idea of Jesus being God, or a person of a Trinity, or a mediator to God. Judaism also holds that Jesus is not the Messiah, arguing that he had not fulfilled the Messianic prophecies in the Tanakh nor embodied the personal qualifications of the Messiah. According to Jewish tradition, there were no prophets after Malachi, who delivered his prophesies about 420 BC/BCE.[553]
The Talmud includes stories which some consider accounts of Jesus in the Talmud, although there is a spectrum[554] from scholars, such as Maier (1978), who considers that only the accounts with the name Yeshu יֵשׁוּ refer to the Christian Jesus, and that these are late redactions, to scholars such as Klausner (1925), who suggested that accounts related to Jesus in the Talmud may contain traces of the historical Jesus. However the majority of contemporary historians disregard this material as providing information on the historical Jesus.[468] Many contemporary Talmud scholars view these as comments on the relationship between Judaism and Christians or other sectarians, rather than comments on the historical Jesus.[555][556]
The Mishneh Torah, an authoritative work of Jewish law, provides the last established consensus view of the Jewish community, in Hilkhot Melakhim 11:10–12 that Jesus is a "stumbling block" who makes "the majority of the world err to serve a divinity besides God".
Even Jesus the Nazarene who imagined that he would be Messiah and was killed by the court, was already prophesied by Daniel. So that it was said, "And the members of the outlaws of your nation would be carried to make a (prophetic) vision stand. And they stumbled."[Dan. 11:14] Because, is there a greater stumbling-block than this one? So that all of the prophets spoke that the Messiah redeems Israel, and saves them, and gathers their banished ones, and strengthens their commandments. And this one caused (nations) to destroy Israel by sword, and to scatter their remnant, and to humiliate them, and to exchange the Torah, and to make the majority of the world err to serve a divinity besides God. However, the thoughts of the Creator of the world — there is no force in a human to attain them because our ways are not God's ways, and our thoughts not God's thoughts. And all these things of Jesus the Nazarene, and of (Muhammad) the Ishmaelite who stood after him — there is no (purpose) but to straighten out the way for the King Messiah, and to restore all the world to serve God together. So that it is said, "Because then I will turn toward the nations (giving them) a clear lip, to call all of them in the name of God and to serve God (shoulder to shoulder as) one shoulder."[Zeph. 3:9] Look how all the world already becomes full of the things of the Messiah, and the things of the Torah, and the things of the commandments! And these things spread among the far islands and among the many nations uncircumcised of heart.[557]
According to Conservative Judaism, Jews who believe Jesus is the Messiah have "crossed the line out of the Jewish community".[558] Reform Judaism, the modern progressive movement, states "For us in the Jewish community anyone who claims that Jesus is their savior is no longer a Jew and is an apostate".[559]
Islamic views[link]
Main article: Jesus in Islam
In Islam, Jesus (Arabic: عيسى ʿĪsā) is considered to be a Messenger of God and the Masih (Messiah) who was sent to guide the Children of Israel (banī isrā'īl) with a new scripture, the Injīl or Gospel.[560] The belief in Jesus (and all other messengers of God) is required in Islam, and a requirement of being a Muslim. The Qur'an mentions Jesus twenty-five times, more often, by name, than Muhammad.[561][562]
There is no mention of Joseph in the Quran, but it includes the annunciation to Mary (Arabic: Maryam) by an angel that she is to give birth to Jesus while remaining a virgin, a miraculous event which occurred by the will of God (Arabic: Allah).[563][564][565] The details of the Mary's conception are not discussed during the angelic visit, but elsewhere the Quran states (21:91 and 66:12) that God breathed "His Spirit" into Mary while she was chaste.[563][564][565][566] In Islam, Jesus is called the "Spirit of God" because he was born through the action of the spirit, but that belief does not include the doctrine of his pre-existence, as it does in Christianity.[563]
Numerous other titles are given to Jesus in Islamic literature, the most common being al-Masīḥ ("the messiah"). Jesus is also, at times, called "Seal of the Israelite Prophets", because, in general Muslim belief, Jesus was the last prophet sent by God to guide the Children of Israel. Jesus is seen in Islam as a precursor to Muhammad, and is believed by Muslims to have foretold the latter's coming.[567][568] To aid in his ministry to the Jewish people, Jesus was given the ability to perform miracles, all by the permission of God rather than of his own power.
The Qur'an emphasizes that Jesus was a mortal human being who, like all other prophets, had been divinely chosen to spread God's message. Islamic texts forbid the association of partners with God (shirk), emphasizing a strict notion of monotheism (tawhīd). Like all prophets in Islam, Jesus is considered to have been a Muslim (i.e., one who submits to the will of God), as he preached that his followers should adopt the "straight path" as commanded by God.[567][569]
Islam rejects the Christian view that Jesus was God incarnate or the son of God, that he was ever crucified or resurrected, or that he ever atoned for the sins of mankind. The Qur'an says that Jesus himself never claimed any of these things, and it furthermore indicates that Jesus will deny having ever claimed divinity at the Last Judgment, and God will vindicate him.[570] According to Muslim traditions, Jesus was not crucified but instead, he was raised up by God unto the heavens. This "raising" is understood to mean through bodily ascension. Muslims believe that Jesus will return to earth near the day of judgment to restore justice.[567][569]
Ahmadiyya views[link]
Main article: Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam
The Ahmadiyya Movement considers Jesus a mortal man who died a natural death. According to the early 20th century writings of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (the founder of the Ahmadiyya movement),[571] Jesus survived his ordeal on the cross, and after his apparent death and resurrection, he fled Palestine and migrated eastwards to further teach the gospels. Jesus eventually died a natural death of old age in Kashmir, India and is believed to be buried at Roza Bal.[572]
Although the view of Jesus having migrated to India has also been researched in the publications of independent historians with no affiliation to the movement,[573] the Ahmadiyya Movement are the only religious organization to adopt these views as a characteristic of their faith. The general notion of Jesus in India is older than the foundation of the movement,[574] and is discussed at length by Grönbold[575] and Klatt.[576]
The movement also interprets the second coming of Christ prophesied in various religious texts would be that of a person "similar to Jesus" (mathīl-i ʿIsā). Thus, Ahmadi's consider that the founder of the movement and his prophetical character and teachings were representative of Jesus and subsequently a fulfillment of this prophecy.[577]
Bahá'í views[link]
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The Bahá'í Faith, founded in 19th-century Persia, considers Jesus, along with Muhammad, Gautama Buddha, Krishna, and Zoroaster, and other messengers of the great religions of the world to be Manifestations of God (or prophets), with both human and divine stations.[578] Bahá'ís refer to this concept as Progressive Revelation, which means that God's will is revealed to mankind progressively as mankind matures and is better able to comprehend the purpose of God in creating humanity. In this view, God's word is revealed through a series of messengers. In the Kitáb-i-Íqán, Bahá'u'lláh claims that these messengers have two natures: divine and human. Examining their divine nature, they are more or less the same being. However, when examining their human nature, they are individual, with distinct personalities. For example, when Jesus says "I and my Father are one",[John 10:30] Bahá'ís take this quite literally, but specifically with respect to his nature as a Manifestation. When Jesus conversely stated "...And the Father himself, which hath sent me, hath borne witness of me",[John 5:36-37] Bahá'ís see this as a simple reference to the individuality of Jesus. This divine nature, according to Bahá'u'lláh, means that any Manifestation of God can be said to be the return of a previous Manifestation, though Bahá'ís also believe that some Manifestations with specific missions return with a "new name",[Rev 3:12] and a different, or expanded purpose. Bahá'ís believe that Bahá'u'lláh is, in both respects, the return of Jesus.
Other views[link]
Buddhist views of Jesus differ. Some Buddhist views on Jesus including Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama[579] regard Jesus as a bodhisattva who dedicated his life to the welfare of human beings. It was recorded in 101 Zen Stories that the 14th century Zen master Gasan Jōseki, on hearing some of the sayings of Jesus in the Gospels, remarked that he was "an enlightened man", and "not far from Buddhahood".[580]
In a letter to his daughter Indira Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru wrote, "All over Central Asia, in Kashmir and Ladakh and Tibet and even farther north, there is a strong belief that Jesus or Isa travelled about there."[581]
Mandaeanism, a very small Mideastern, Gnostic sect that reveres John the Baptist as God's greatest prophet, regards Jesus as a false prophet of the false Jewish god of the Old Testament, Adonai,[582] and likewise rejects Abraham, Moses, and Muhammad.
Manichaeism accepted Jesus as a prophet, along with Gautama Buddha and Zoroaster.[583]
The New Age movement entertains a wide variety of views on Jesus. The creators of A Course In Miracles claim to trance-channel his spirit. However, the New Age movement generally teaches that Christhood is something that all may attain. Theosophists, from whom many New Age teachings originated, refer to Jesus of Nazareth as the Master Jesus and believe the Christ, after various incarnations occupied the body of Jesus.[584]
U.S. President Thomas Jefferson, a deist, created the Jefferson Bible, an early (but not complete) gospel harmony that included only Jesus' ethical teachings because he did not believe in Jesus' divinity or any of the other supernatural aspects of the Bible.[585][586]
Criticism[link]
Main article: Criticism of Jesus
Criticism of Jesus has existed since the earliest days of Christianity. The New Testament states that Jesus was criticized by the Jewish authorities of his time, e.g. the Pharisees and scribes who criticized Jesus and his disciples for not observing the Mosaic Law, not washing their hands before eating (Mark 7:1-23, Matthew 15:1-20), or gathering grain on the Sabbath (Mark 2:23-3:6). Later critics included Celsus in the 2nd century and Porphyry who wrote a 15 volume attack on Christianity as a whole.[587][588]
Jesus continued to be criticized by Judaism, and in the early 12th century, the Mishneh Torah (the last established consensus of the Jewish community) called Jesus as a "stumbling block" who makes "the majority of the world err to serve a divinity besides God". Criticism of Jesus continued into the 19th century, with Nietzsche being highly critical of Jesus. For instance, Nietzsche considered Jesus' teachings anti-natural in their treatment of topics such as sexuality.[589] In the 20th century Bertrand Russell was also critical of Jesus and in Why I Am Not a Christian stated that Jesus was "not so wise as some other people have been, and He was certainly not superlatively wise."[590]
See also[link]
- Views on Jesus
- Related lists
References[link]
- ^ Rahner (page 731) states that the consensus among historians is c. 4 BC/BCE. Sanders supports c. 4 BC/BCE. Vermes supports c. 6/5 BC/BCE. Finegan supports c. 3/2 BC/BCE. Sanders refers to the general consensus, Vermes a common 'early' date, Finegan defends comprehensively the date according to early Christian traditions.
- ^ Brown (1999) p. 513
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 page 114
- ^ a b c d e Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times by Paul Barnett 2002 ISBN 0-8308-2699-8 pages 19-21
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Paul L. Maier "The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus" in Chronos, kairos, Christos: nativity and chronological studies by Jerry Vardaman, Edwin M. Yamauchi 1989 ISBN 0-931464-50-1 pages 113-129
- ^ a b c Sanders, E. P. The historical figure of Jesus. Penguin, 1993.
- ^ a b Vermes (2004)
- ^ a b c d ''Jesus Remembered by James D. G. Dunn 2003 ISBN 0-8028-3931-2 page 339
- ^ Amy-Jill Levine writes that the entire category of ethnicity is itself fraught with with difficulty. Beyond recognizing that “Jesus was Jewish,” rarely does the scholarship address what being “Jewish” means. In the New Testament, written in Koine Greek, Jesus was referred to as an Ioudaios on three occasions, although he did not refer to himself as such. These three occasions are (1) by the Biblical Magi in Matthew 2 who referred to Jesus as "basileus ton ioudaion"; (2) by the Samaritan woman at the well in John 4 when Jesus was travelling out of Judea; and (3) by the Romans in all four gospels during the Passion who also used the phrase "basileus ton ioudaion" (see John Elliott in the Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus 2007; 5; 119). According to Amy-Jill Levine, in light of the Holocaust, the Jewishness of Jesus increasingly has been highlighted.
- ^ Theissen (1998) p. 165 "Our conclusion must be that Jesus came from Nazareth."
- ^ Houlden, James L. (2005). Jesus: The Complete Guide. London: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-8011-8.
- ^ Şaban Ali Düzgün (2004). Uncovering Islam: Questions and Answers about Islamic Beliefs and Teachings. The Presidency of Religious Affairs. Ankara: Diyanet Isleri Baskanligi. ISBN 978-975-19-3636-3. http://www.diyanet.gov.tr/English/web_kitap.asp?yid=30.
- ^ Brown (1994) p. 964
Carson (1992) et al., pp. 50–56.
Cohen (1987), pp. 78, 93, 105, 108.
Crossan (1993), pp. xi–xiii.
Grant (1977), pp. 34–35, 78, 166, 200.
Fredriksen (1999), pp. 6–7, 105–10, 232–34, 266.
Meier (1991), pp. 68, 146, 199, 278, 386.
Meier (1994), pp. 12–13.
Vermes (1973), p. 37.
Maier, Paul L. (1991). Kregel. pp. 1, 99, 121, 171.
Wright, N. T. (1998). HarperCollins. pp. 32, 83, 100–102, 222.
Witherington III, Ben. pp. 12–20. - ^ In a 2011 review of the state of modern scholarship, Bart Ehrman wrote: "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees" B. Ehrman, 2011 Forged : writing in the name of God ISBN 978-0-06-207863-6. page 285
- ^ a b c Ramm, Bernard L (1993). An Evangelical Christology: Ecumenic and Historic. Regent College Publishing. p. 19. "There is almost Universal agreement that Jesus lived"
- ^ a b c d Van Voorst (2000) p. 16
- ^ Theissen (1998) pp. 1–16
- ^ a b Jesus Remembered by James D. G. Dunn 2003 ISBN 0-8028-3931-2 pages 47-49
- ^ a b c d e f The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 pages 117-125
- ^ a b Fredriksen (2000) pp. 6–7, 105–110, 232–234, 266
- ^ Van Voorst (2000) pp. 39–42
- ^ a b c d New Testament History by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0-310-31201-9 pages 121-124
- ^ Funk, Robert W.; Seminar, Jesus (1998). Introduction. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco. pp. 1–40. ISBN 978-0-06-062978-6.
- ^ Funk, Robert W.; Hoover, Roy W.; Jesus Seminar (1993). Introduction. New York: Maxwell Macmillan. pp. 1–30. ISBN 978-0-02-541949-0.
- ^ a b c Harris, Stephen L. (1985). Understanding the Bible: a reader's introduction. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield. pp. 255–60. ISBN 978-0-87484-696-6.
- ^ Crossan, John Dominic (1998). The essential Jesus: original sayings and earliest images. Edison, NJ: Castle Books. ISBN 978-0-7858-0901-2.
- ^ Examples of authors who argue the Jesus myth theory:
- Thompson, Thomas L (2006). The messiah myth: The near eastern roots of Jesus and David. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 978-0-224-06200-8.
- Martin, Michael (1991). The case against Christianity. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. pp. 36–72. ISBN 978-1-56639-081-1.
- Robertson, John Mackinnon.
- ^ Grudem (1994) pp. 568–603
- ^ a b Kevin Knight, ed. "The dogma of the Trinity". Catholic Encyclopedia. New Advent. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15047a.htm.
- ^ Friedmann, Robert (1953). "Antitrinitarianism". Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/A597.html. Retrieved 2008-06-08.
- ^ For instance Brown, Raymond E. (1979). The Birth of the Messiah. Garden City, NY: Image Books. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-385-05405-8.
- ^ Strobel, Lee (2007). The case for the real Jesus: a journalist investigates current attacks on the identity of Christ. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. p. 200. ISBN 978-0-310-24061-7.
- ^ "Compendium of Muslim Texts". http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/quran/004.qmt.html#004.157. [dead link]
- ^ Norman, Asher (2007). Twenty-six reasons why Jews don't believe in Jesus. Nanuet, NY: Feldheim Publishers. pp. 16–18, 89–96. ISBN 978-0-9771937-0-7. http://books.google.com/?id=tx5qrKz6dRMC&pg=PR17&dq=Judaism+rejects+assertions+that+Jesus+was+the+awaited+Messiah,+arguing+that+he+did+not+fulfill+the&q. Retrieved 2010-07-05.
- ^ "Comparison Chart: Baha'i, Islam, Christianity, Judaism". ReligionFacts. http://www.religionfacts.com/bahai/comparison_chart.htm. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
- ^ "Baha'i Beliefs". Contenderministries.org. http://www.contenderministries.org/bahai/beliefs.php. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
- ^ Briggs, Brown Driver (1996). Hebrew and English Lexicon. Hendrickson Publishers. ISBN 1-56563-206-0.
- ^ Liddell; Scott. A Greek-English Lexicon. p. 824.
- ^ Larry W. Hurtado, 2005 Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity ISBN 978-0-8028-3167-5 page 392
- ^ The Gospel of Luke by Joel B. Green 1997 ISBN 0-8028-2315-7 page 88
- ^ Reading Matthew: a literary and theological commentary by David E. Garland 1999 ISBN 1-57312-274-2 page 23
- ^ The Gospel of Matthew by R. T. France 2007 ISBN 0-8028-2501-X page 78
- ^ Matthew 1-7 by William David Davies, Dale C. Allison 2004 ISBN 0-567-08355-1 page 155
- ^ a b "Catholic encyclopedia: Origin of the name Jesus Christ". Newadvent.org. 1910-10-01. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08374x.htm. Retrieved 2011-04-10.
- ^ Matthew by Douglas Hare 2009 ISBN 0-664-23433-X page 11
- ^ Matthew 1-7 by William David Davies, Dale C. Allison 2004 ISBN 0-567-08355-1 page 209
- ^ Bible explorer's guide by John Phillips 2002 ISBN 0-8254-3483-1 page 147
- ^ All the Doctrines of the Bible by Herbert Lockyer 1988 ISBN 0-310-28051-6 page 159
- ^
"Origin of the Name of Jesus Christ". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. - ^ a b Vine, WE (1940). Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words. Old Tappan, NJ: Fleming H. Revell Company. pp 274-275
- ^ Jesus of history, Christ of faith by Thomas Zanzig 2000 ISBN 0-88489-530-0 page 314
- ^ Christianity by Donald W. Ekstrand 2008 ISBN 1-60477-929-2 pages 147-150
- ^ a b Jesus God and Man by Wolfhart Pannenberg 1968 ISBN 0-664-24468-8 pages 30-31
- ^ Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions by Wendy Doniger 2000 ISBN 0-87779-044-2 page 212
- ^ Theology of the New Testament by Rudolf Karl Bultmann 2007 ISBN 1-932792-93-7 page 80
- ^ Durant 1944:553–7.
- ^ a b The Cambridge companion to Jesus by Markus N. A. Bockmuehl 2001 Cambridge Univ Press ISBN 978-0-521-79678-1 pages 123-124. Page 124 state that the "farfetched theories that Jesus' existence was a Christian invention are highly implausible."
- ^ a b Powell, Mark Allan (1998). Jesus as a figure in history: how modern historians view the man from Galilee. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-664-25703-3. http://books.google.com/?id=IJP4DRCVaUMC&pg=PA168.
- ^ a b Weaver, Walter P (1999). The historical Jesus in the twentieth century. Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-56338-280-2. http://books.google.com/?id=1CZbuFBdAMUC&pg=PA71&q=.
- ^ a b Dunn, James G (January 20, 2009). "James Dunn profile". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/profile/james-g-dunn. Retrieved 2010-05-06.
- ^ a b "Professor James Dunn — British Academy". Britac.ac.uk. http://www.britac.ac.uk/fellowship/elections/2006/dunn_j.cfm. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
- ^ a b Theissen (1998) pp. 64–72
- ^ a b Theissen (1998) pp. 81-83
- ^ a b Green, Joel B. (1997). The Gospel of Luke : new international commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co.. p. 168. ISBN 0-8028-2315-7. http://books.google.com/?id=koYlW6IoOjMC&pg=PR85&dq=Joel+B.+Green,+The+Gospel+of+Luke,+(Eerdmans,+1997),+page+168.
- ^ a b c Pratt, J. P. (1991). "Newton's Date for the Crucifixion". Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 32 (3): 301–304. Bibcode 1991QJRAS..32..301P.
- ^ a b Colin Humphreys and W. G. Waddington, "Dating the Crucifixion ," Nature 306 (December 22/29, 1983), pp. 743-46.[1]
- ^ a b Western Civilization: A Brief History by Jackson J. Spielvogel 2010 ISBN 0-495-57147-4 pages 123-124
- ^ Pontius Pilate in history and interpretation by Helen Katharine Bond 1999 ISBN 0-521-63114-9 pages 1-2
- ^ Between Rome and Jerusalem: 300 years of Roman-Judaean relations by Martin Sicker 2001 ISBN 0-275-97140-6 pages ix-xii
- ^ The Jews under Roman rule by E. Mary Smallwood 2001 ISBN 0-391-04155-X page 144
- ^ Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi by Karl Rahner 2004 ISBN 0-86012-006-6 page 731
- ^ Freed, Edwin D (2004). Stories of Jesus' Birth. Continuum International. p. 119.
- ^ Vermes (2006) p. 22
- ^ Dunn, James DG (2003). Jesus Remembered. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 324.
- ^ Some of the historians and Biblical scholars who place the birth and death of Jesus within this range include Carson et. al. (1992) pp. 54, 56
Grant (1977) p. 71.
Meier (1991) p. 214.
Sanders (1993), pp. 10–11
Witherington (1998) No. 3:12–20. - ^ a b c d e f g h i Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible 2000 Amsterdam University Press ISBN 90-5356-503-5 page 249
- ^ a b c d Jack V. Scarola, "A Chronology of the nativity Era" in Chronos, kairos, Christos 2 by Ray Summers, Jerry Vardaman 1998 ISBN 0-86554-582-0 pages 61-81
- ^ a b Christianity and the Roman Empire: background texts by Ralph Martin Novak 2001 ISBN 1-56338-347-0 pages 302-303
- ^ Blackburn, Bonnie; Holford-Strevens, Leofranc. The Oxford companion to the Year: An exploration of calendar customs and time-reckoning. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
- ^ Aspects of the liturgical year in Cappadocia (325-430) by Jill Burnett Comings 2005 ISBN 0-8204-7464-9 pages 61-71
- ^ Faith & philosophy of Christianity by Maya George 2009 ISBN 81-7835-720-8 page 287
- ^ Stories of Jesus' Birth by Edwin D. Freed 2004 ISBN 0-567-08046-3 pages 136-137
- ^ Luke 1-5: New Testament Commentary by John MacArthur, Jr. 2009 ISBN 978-0-8024-0871-6 page 201
- ^ a b c The Riddles of the Fourth Gospel: An Introduction to John by Paul N. Anderson 2011 ISBN 0-8006-0427-X page 200
- ^ a b c Herod the Great by Jerry Knoblet 2005 ISBN 0-7618-3087-1 page 184
- ^ a b c Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible states that Jesus began his ministry "ca 28 AD" at "ca age 31". In Chronos, kairos, Christos: Paul L. Maier specifically states that he considers the Temple visit date in John at "around 29 AD/CE", using various factors that he summarizes in a chronology table. Maier's table considers 28 AD/CE to be roughly the 32nd birthday of Jesus, and at http://www.mtio.com/articles/aissar30.htm Paul Meir clearly states that 5 BC/BCE was the year of birth of Jesus. Paul N. Anderson dates the temple incident at "around 26-27 AD/CE" Jerry Knoblet estimates the date as around AD 27 AD/CE. In their book, Robert Fortna & Thatcher estimate the date at around AD/CE 28. Köstenberger & Kellum (page 140) make the same statement as Maier, namely that the 32nd birthday of Jesus was around 28 AD/CE when his ministry began.
- ^ Craig Evans, 2006 "Josephus on John the Baptist" in The Historical Jesus in Context edited by Amy-Jill Levine et al. Princeton Univ Press ISBN 978-0-691-00992-6 pages 55-58
- ^ a b Herodias: at home in that fox's den by Florence Morgan Gillman 2003 ISBN 0-8146-5108-9 pages 25-30
- ^ a b International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1982 ISBN 0-8028-3782-4 pages 694-695
- ^ Hoehner, Harold W (1978). Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ. Zondervan. pp. 29–37. ISBN 0-310-26211-9. http://books.google.com/?id=6z-NcR7fVSIC&dq=CHronological+Aspects+of+the+Life+of+Christ.
- ^ Luke states that John's ministry began in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, when Pontius Pilate was governor of Judaea, and Herod was tetrarch of Galilee, and his brother Philip was tetrarch of the region of Iturea and Trachonitis, and Lysanias was tetrarch of Abilene, during the high priesthood of Annas and Caiaphas.
- ^ Encyclopedia of the historical Jesus by Craig A. Evans 2008 ISBN 0-415-97569-7 page 115
- ^ As stated by Köstenberger & Kellum (page 114) there is some uncertainty about how Josephus referred to and computed dates, hence various scholars arrive at slightly different dates for the exact date of the start of the Temple construction, varying by a few years in their final estimation of the date of the Temple visit.
- ^ Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, page 246 states that Temple construction never completed, and that the Temple was in constant reconstruction until it was destroyed in 70 AD/CE by the Romans, and states that the 46 years should refers to the actual number of year from the start of the construction.
- ^ Jesus in Johannine tradition by Robert Tomson Fortna, Tom Thatcher 2001 ISBN 978-0-664-22219-2 page 77
- ^ Jesus in history, thought, and culture: an encyclopedia, Volume 1 by James Leslie Houlden 2003 ISBN 1-57607-856-6 pages 508-509
- ^ Women in scripture by Carol Meyers, Toni Craven and Ross Shepard Kraemer 2001 ISBN 0-8028-4962-8 pages 92-93
- ^ Herod Antipas in Galilee: The Literary and Archaeological Sources by Morten H. Jensen 2010 ISBN 978-3-16-150362-7 pages 42-43
- ^ The Emergence of Christianity: Classical Traditions in Contemporary Perspective by Cynthia White 2010 ISBN 0-8006-9747-2 page 48
- ^ Herod Antipas by Harold W. Hoehner 1983 ISBN 0-310-42251-5 page 131
- ^ The Gospel of Matthew by Rudolf Schnackenburg 2002 ISBN 0-8028-4438-3 page 104
- ^ a b Mercer dictionary of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 page 459
- ^ The Cambridge companion to the Gospels by Stephen C. Barton ISBN 0-521-00261-3 pages 132-133
- ^ Newsom, Carol A; Ringe, Sharon H (1998). The Women's Bible Commentary. Westminster: John Knox Press. p. 381. ISBN 978-0-664-25781-1. http://books.google.com/?id=ymp4S2qZJ4cC&pg=PA381&vq=three-year&dq=The+Women%27s+Bible+Commentary.
- ^ Graham Stanton, 2002, The Gospels and Jesus ISBN 0-19-924616-5 page 185
- ^ a b c The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 pages 77-79
- ^ a b c Paul's early period: chronology, mission strategy, theology by Rainer Riesner 1997 ISBN 978-0-8028-4166-7 page 19-27 (page 27 has a table of various scholarly estimates)
- ^ Newton, Isaac (1733). "Of the Times of the Birth and Passion of Christ", in Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John
- ^ Schaefer, B. E. (1990). "Lunar Visibility and the Crucifixion". Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 31 (1): 53–67. Bibcode 1990QJRAS..31...53S.
- ^ Colin J. Humphreys and W. G. Waddington, The Date of the Crucifixion Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation 37 (March 1985)[2]
- ^ Colin Humphreys, The Mystery of the Last Supper Cambridge University Press 2011 ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0, p. 193 (However note that Humphreys places the Last Supper on a Wednesday)
- ^ a b Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 pages 441-442
- ^ a b c d The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 4 by Erwin Fahlbusch, 2005 ISBN 978-0-8028-2416-5 pages 52-56
- ^ a b c The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary by Craig A. Evans 2003 ISBN 0-7814-3868-3 pages 465-477
- ^ a b The Book of the Acts by Frederick Fyvie Bruce 1988 ISBN 0-8028-2505-2 page 362
- ^ a b Who is Jesus?: an introduction to Christology by Thomas P. Rausch 2003 ISBN 978-0-8146-5078-3 page
- ^ a b c d e f g h i The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Matthew-Luke, Volume 1 by Craig A. Evans 2003 ISBN 0-7814-3868-3 pages 521-530
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament edited by John F. Walvoord, Roy B. Zuck 1983 ISBN 978-0-88207-812-0 page 91
- ^ "The Synoptic Gospels, then, are the primary sources for knowledge of the historical Jesus." "Jesus Christ." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 27 Nov. 2010 [3].
- ^ Craig Evans, "Life-of-Jesus Research and the Eclipse of Mythology," Theological Studies 54 (1993) p. 5,
- ^ Charles H. Talbert, What Is a Gospel? The Genre of Canonical Gospels pg 42 (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1977).
- ^ “The Historical Figure of Jesus," Sanders, E.P., Penguin Books: London, 1995, p., 3.
- ^ Fire of Mercy, Heart of the Word (Vol. II): Meditations on the Gospel According to St. Matthew – Dr Erasmo Leiva-Merikakis, Ignatius Press, Introduction
- ^ Grant, Robert M., "A Historical Introduction to the New Testament" (Harper and Row, 1963) http://www.religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title=1116&C=1230
- ^ Who is Jesus? Answers to your questions about the historical Jesus, by John Dominic Crossan, Richard G. Watts (Westminster John Knox Press 1999), page 108
- ^ James G. D. Dunn, Jesus Remembered, (Eerdmans, 2003) page 779-781.
- ^ Rev. John Edmunds, 1855 The seven sayings of Christ on the cross Thomas Hatchford Publishers, London, page 26
- ^ Stagg, Evelyn and Frank. Woman in the World of Jesus. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1978 ISBN 0-664-24195-6
- ^ Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. "Empty Tomb, Appearances & Ascension" p. 449-495.
- ^ Bruce M. Metzger's Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament: Luke 24:51 is missing in some important early witnesses, Acts 1 varies between the Alexandrian and Western versions.
- ^ Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theology (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1994); pages 90-91
- ^ Howard M. Teeple (March 1970). "The Oral Tradition That Never Existed". Journal of Biblical Literature 89 (1): 56–68. DOI:10.2307/3263638.
- ^ New Testament Theology by Paul Haffner 2008 ISBN 88-902268-0-3 page 135
- ^ A Guide to the Gospels by W. Graham Scroggie 1995 ISBN 0-8254-3744-X page 128
- ^ "synoptic". Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 3rd ed. 2001.
- ^ a b The Gospel of John by Francis J. Moloney, Daniel J. Harrington 1998 ISBN 0-8146-5806-7 page 3
- ^ Durant, Will. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972
- ^ a b c d e Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi by Karl Rahner 2004 ISBN 0-86012-006-6 pages 730-731
- ^ a b c d Interpreting Gospel Narratives: Scenes, People, and Theology by Timothy Wiarda 2010 ISBN 0-8054-4843-8 pages 75-78
- ^ a b c Matthew by David L. Turner 2008 ISBN 0-8010-2684-9 page 613
- ^ a b Sanders (1993) p. 3
- ^ Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus by Gerald O'Collins 2009 ISBN 0-19-955787-X pages 1-3
- ^ a b c Handbook of biblical criticism by Richard N. Soulen, R. Kendall Soulen ISBN 0-664-22314-1 page 185
- ^ a b Three views on the origins of the Synoptic Gospels by Robert L. Thomas 2002 ISBN 0-8254-3838-1 pages 61-65
- ^ a b The Blackwell companion to the New Testament by David E. Aune 2010 ISBN 978-1-4051-0825-6 page 312
- ^ Carlson, Stephen C. "The Two Source Hypothesis." Aug. 20, 2009.
- ^ Augustine through the ages: an encyclopedia by John C. Cavadini 1999 ISBN 0-8028-3843-X page 132
- ^ a b Cox (2007) p. 3
- ^ Cox (2007) pp. 7-8
- ^ a b c Ehrman, Bart D. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why. HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN 978-0-06-073817-4.
- ^ Kurt Aland, 1982 Synopsis of the Four Gospels ISBN 0-8267-0500-6 pages 1-10
- ^ John Bernard Orchard, 1983 Synopsis of the Four Gospels ISBN 0-567-09331-X pages 2-7
- ^ a b c d e f Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 page 224-229
- ^ Cox (2007) pp. 18-20
- ^ a b Essays in New Testament interpretation by Charles Francis Digby Moule 1982 ISBN 0-521-23783-1 page 63
- ^ The Melody of Faith: Theology in an Orthodox Key by Vigen Guroian 2010 ISBN 0-8028-6496-1 page 28
- ^ a b Scripture in tradition by John Breck 2001 ISBN 0-88141-226-0 page 12
- ^ a b The Bible Knowledge Commentary by John F. Walvoord, Roy B. Zuck 1983 ISBN 0-88207-812-7 page 100
- ^ a b c d e The words and works of Jesus Christ by J. Dwight Pentecost 2000 ISBN 978-0-310-30940-6 page 212
- ^ a b All the Parables of the Bible by Herbert Lockyer 1988 ISBN 978-0-310-28111-5 page 174
- ^ a b J. Dwight Pentecost, 1998 The parables of Jesus: lessons in life from the Master Teacher ISBN 0-8254-3458-0 page 10
- ^ a b Eric Francis Osborn, 1993 The emergence of Christian theology ISBN 0-521-43078-X page 98
- ^ a b Graham H. Twelftree, Jesus the miracle worker: a historical & theological study ISBN 0-8308-1596-1 page 95
- ^ a b Mary in the New Testament by Raymond Edward Brown 1978 ISBN 0-8091-2168-9 page 163
- ^ Where Christology began: essays on Philippians 2 by Ralph P. Martin, Brian J. Dodd 1998 ISBN 0-664-25619-8 page 28
- ^ The purpose of the Biblical genealogies by Marshall D. Johnson 1989 ISBN 0-521-35644-X pages 229-233
- ^ Joseph A. Fitzmyer, The Gospel According to Luke I–IX. Anchor Bible. Garden City: Doubleday, 1981, pp. 499–500.
- ^ I. Howard Marshall, The Gospel of Luke (The New International Greek Testament Commentary). Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1978, p. 158.
- ^ The Gospel of Luke by William Barclay 2001 ISBN 0-664-22487-3 pages 49-50
- ^ Luke: an introduction and commentary by Leon Morris 1988 ISBN 0-8028-0419-5 page 110
- ^ Cox (2007) pp. 285-286
- ^ a b Boring, M. Eugene; Craddock, Fred B. (2004). The people's New Testament commentary. Louisville, KY: John Knox Press. p. 177. ISBN 978-0-664-22754-8.
- ^ Mills, Watson E.; Bullard, Roger Aubrey (1998). Mercer dictionary of the Bible. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press. p. 556. ISBN 978-0-86554-373-7.
- ^ a b Marsh, Clive; Moyise, Steve (2006). Jesus and the Gospels. New York: Clark International. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-567-04073-2.
- ^ Morris, Leon (2000) [1992]. The Gospel according to Matthew. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-8028-3696-0.
- ^ Jeffrey, David L. (1992). A Dictionary of biblical tradition in English literature. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. pp. 538–540. ISBN 978-0-85244-224-1.
- ^ Cox (2007) pp. 30–37
- ^ Brownrigg, Ronald (2002). Who's Who in the New Testament. London: Taylor & Francis. pp. 96–100. ISBN 978-0-415-26036-7.
- ^ Kelly, Joseph F. (2008). The Birth of Jesus According to the Gospels. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press. pp. 41–49. ISBN 978-0-8146-2948-2.
- ^ An Introduction to the Bible by Robert Kugler, Patrick Hartin ISBN 0-8028-4636-X page 394
- ^ Recovering Jesus Thomas R. Yoder Neufeld 2007 ISBN 1-58743-202-1 pages 113-114
- ^ A Dictionary of biblical tradition by David L. Jeffrey 1993 ISBN 0-8028-3634-8 pages 538-540
- ^ William David Davies, Dale C. Allison, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on The Gospel According to Saint Matthew, Volume I (T & T Clark, 1988), page 226.
- ^ Virgin Birth of Christ by J Gresham Machen 1987 ISBN 0-227-67630-0 page 193
- ^ a b Matthew by Charles H. Talbert 2010 ISBN 0-8010-3192-3 page 29-30
- ^ Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "Matthew" pp. 272–85.
- ^ The Gospel of Matthew by Rudolf Schnackenburg 2002 ISBN 0-8028-4438-3 pages 9-11
- ^ Saint Joseph: His Life and His Role in the Church Today by Louise Bourassa Perrotta 2000 ISBN 0-87973-573-2 pages 21 and 110-112
- ^ International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: A-D by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1979 ISBN 0-8028-3781-6 page 551
- ^ An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon: The Seventh Edition of Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 797.
- ^ Dickson, John Jesus: A Short Life, Lion Hudson , 2008, ISBN 0-8254-7802-2 pages 68-69
- ^ Fiensy, David Jesus the Galilean Gorgias Press, 2007, ISBN 1-59333-313-7 page 74
- ^ Medieval art: a topical dictionary by Leslie Ross 1996 ISBN 978-0-313-29329-0 page 30
- ^ a b c d e The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 page 141-143
- ^ a b c d e Christianity: an introduction by Alister E. McGrath 2006 ISBN 978-1-4051-0901-7 pages 16-22
- ^ Big Picture of the Bible - New Testament by Lorna Daniels Nichols 2009 ISBN 1-57921-928-4 page 12
- ^ John by Gerard Stephen Sloyan 1987 ISBN 0-8042-3125-7 page 11
- ^ Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible 2000 ISBN 90-5356-503-5 page 583
- ^ Behold the Man: The Real Life of the Historical Jesus by Kirk Kimball 2002 ISBN 978-1-58112-633-4 page 654
- ^ a b Eerdmans commentary on the Bible by James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson 2003 ISBN 0-8028-3711-5 page 1010
- ^ a b c Jesus of history, Christ of faith by Thomas Zanzig 2000 ISBN 0-88489-530-0 page 118
- ^ a b The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke by Ján Majerník, Joseph Ponessa, Laurie Watson Manhardt 2005 ISBN 1-931018-31-6 pages 27-31
- ^ a b c The Gospel and Epistles of John: A Concise Commentary by Raymond Edward Brown 1988 ISBN 978-0-8146-1283-5 pages 25-27
- ^ a b c d e Transfiguration by Dorothy A. Lee 2005 ISBN 978-0-8264-7595-4 pages 21-30
- ^ a b c d e The Content and the Setting of the Gospel Tradition by Mark Harding, Alanna Nobbs 2010 ISBN 978-0-8028-3318-1 pages 281-282
- ^ a b The people's New Testament commentary by M. Eugene Boring, Fred B. Craddock 2004 ISBN 0-664-22754-6 pages 292-293
- ^ a b c d New Testament History by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0-310-31201-9 pages 143-146
- ^ Jesus of Nazareth by Duane S. Crowther 1999 ISBN 0-88290-656-9 page 77
- ^ The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels by Douglas Redford 2007 ISBN 0-7847-1900-4 page 92
- ^ A Summary of Christian History by Robert A. Baker, John M. Landers 2005 ISBN 0-8054-3288-4 pages 6-7
- ^ The Disciple Whom Jesus Loved by J. Phillips 2004 ISBN 0-9702687-1-8 pages 121-123
- ^ a b Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 pages 259-261
- ^ a b The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels by Douglas Redford 2007 ISBN 0-7847-1900-4 pages 95-99
- ^ An introduction to the New Testament by Albertus Frederik Johannes Klijn 1997 ISBN 90-04-06263-7 pages 45-46
- ^ New Testament History by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0-310-31201-9 pages 132-136
- ^ The Gospel according to Matthew by Leon Morris ISBN 0-85111-338-9 page 71
- ^ a b The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels by Douglas Redford 2007 ISBN 0-7847-1900-4 pages 117-130
- ^ a b The Sermon on the mount: a theological investigation by Carl G. Vaught 2001 ISBN 978-0-918954-76-3 pages xi-xiv
- ^ A theology of the New Testament by George Eldon Ladd 1993ISBN page 324
- ^ The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels by Douglas Redford 2007 ISBN 0-7847-1900-4 pages 143-160
- ^ Cox (2007) pp. 97-110
- ^ The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels by Douglas Redford 2007 ISBN 0-7847-1900-4 pages 165-180
- ^ a b c The Christology of Mark's Gospel by Jack Dean Kingsbury 1983 ISBN 0-8006-2337-1 pages 91-95
- ^ a b c d e The Cambridge companion to the Gospels by Stephen C. Barton ISBN 0-521-00261-3 pages 132-133
- ^ Cox (2007) pp. 121-135
- ^ The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels by Douglas Redford 2007 ISBN 0-7847-1900-4 pages 189-207
- ^ Cox (2007) pp. 137
- ^ The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels by Douglas Redford 2007 ISBN 0-7847-1900-4 pages 211-229
- ^ Mercer dictionary of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 page 929
- ^ Preaching Matthew's Gospel by Richard A. Jensen 1998 ISBN 978-0-7880-1221-1 pages 25 & 158
- ^ a b Behold the King: A Study of Matthew by Stanley D. Toussaint 2005 ISBN 0-8254-3845-4 pages 215-216
- ^ a b c d e f Cox (2007) pp. 155-170
- ^ The Life and Ministry of Jesus: The Gospels by Douglas Redford 2007 ISBN 0-7847-1900-4 pages 257-274
- ^ New Testament History by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0-310-31201-9 page 154
- ^ The missions of Jesus and the disciples according to the Fourth Gospel by Andreas J. Köstenberger 1998 ISBN 0-8028-4255-0 pages 108-109
- ^ a b c d The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1988 ISBN 0-8028-3785-9 page 571-572
- ^ Matthew by Charles H. Talbert 2010 ISBN 0-8010-3192-3 page 149
- ^ a b John by Gail R. O'Day, Susan Hylen 2006 ISBN 978-0-664-25260-1, Chapter 15: The Farewell Discourse, pages 142-168
- ^ a b c The Sermons of Jesus the Messiah by E. Keith Howick 2003 ISBN 978-1-886249-02-8 pages 7-9
- ^ The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 pages 194-196
- ^ The Gospel of Matthew by Craig S. Keener 2009 ISBN 978-0-8028-6498-7 pages 37-38
- ^ The Gospel of Matthew by R. T. France 2007 ISBN 978-0-8028-2501-8 page 9
- ^ "Beatitudes." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
- ^ A Dictionary Of The Bible by James Hastings 2004 ISBN 1-4102-1730-2 page 15-19
- ^ Jesus the Peacemaker by Carol Frances Jegen 1986 ISBN 0-934134-36-7 pages 68-71
- ^ The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke by Ján Majerník, Joseph Ponessa, Laurie Watson Manhardt 2005 ISBN 1-931018-31-6, pages 63-68
- ^ Preaching Matthew's Gospel by Richard A. Jensen 1998 ISBN 978-0-7880-1221-1 pages 25 & 158
- ^ Matthew by Larry Chouinard 1997 ISBN 0-89900-628-0 page 321
- ^ Friedrich Gustav Lisco 1850 The Parables of Jesus Daniels and Smith Publishers, Philadelphia pages 9-11
- ^ Ashton Oxenden, 1864 The parables of our Lord? William Macintosh Publishers, London, page 6
- ^ John R. Donahue, Daniel J. Harrington. The Gospel of Mark. Zondervan 1981. ISBN 0-8146-5965-9 p.182
- ^ Lockyer, Herbert, 1988 All the Miracles of the Bible ISBN 0-310-28101-6 page 235
- ^ a b c The Collegeville Bible Commentary: New Testament by Robert J. Karris 1992 ISBN 0-8146-2211-9 pages 885-886
- ^ a b Who do you say that I am? Essays on Christology by Jack Dean Kingsbury, Mark Allan Powell, David R. Bauer 1999 ISBN 0-664-25752-6 page xvi
- ^ The Gospel of Mark, Volume 2 by John R. Donahue, Daniel J. Harrington 2002 ISBN 0-8146-5965-9 page 336
- ^ a b c d One teacher: Jesus' teaching role in Matthew's gospel by John Yueh-Han Yieh 2004 ISBN 3-11-018151-7 pages 240-241
- ^ Jesus God and Man by Wolfhart Pannenberg 1968 ISBN 0-664-24468-8 pages 53-54
- ^ Transfiguration by Dorothy A. Lee 2005 ISBN 978-0-8264-7595-4 pages 72-76
- ^ a b Metamorphosis: the Transfiguration in Byzantine theology and iconography by Andreas Andreopoulos 2005 ISBN 0-88141-295-3 pages 47-49
- ^ The Bible knowledge background commentary: John's Gospel, Hebrews-Revelation by Craig A. Evans ISBN 0-7814-4228-1 pages 319-320
- ^ The Christology of Mark's Gospel by Jack Dean Kingsbury 1983 ISBN 0-8006-2337-1 pages 2-11
- ^ Metamorphosis: the Transfiguration in Byzantine theology and iconography by Andreas Andreopoulos 2005 ISBN 0-88141-295-3 pages 60-65
- ^ The Gospel according to Mark by James R. Edwards 2002 ISBN 0-85111-778-3 pages 272-274
- ^ Reading Matthew: a literary and theological commentary by David E. Garland 1999 ISBN 1-57312-274-2 pages 182-184
- ^ Gospel figures in art by Stefano Zuffi 2003 ISBN 978-0-89236-727-6 pages 254-259
- ^ a b c All the Apostles of the Bible by Herbert Lockyer 1988 ISBN 0-310-28011-7 page 106-111
- ^ a b c Cox (2007) p. 182
- ^ Craig A. Evans 2005 The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: John's Gospel, Hebrews-Revelation ISBN 0-7814-4228-1 page 122
- ^ Introduction to the New Testament Christology by Raymond E. Brown, 1994 ISBN 0-8264-7190-0 pages 78-79
- ^ a b c The Passion of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew by Donald Senior 1985 ISBN 0-89453-460-2 page 124
- ^ a b c d The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke by Ján Majerník, Joseph Ponessa, Laurie Watson Manhardt 2005 ISBN 1-931018-31-6 pages 133-134
- ^ Matthew 19-28 by William David Davies, Dale C. Allison 2004 ISBN 0-567-08375-6 page 120
- ^ a b John 12-21 by John MacArthur 2008 ISBN 978-0-8024-0824-2 pages 17-18
- ^ a b c d e The people's New Testament commentary by M. Eugene Boring, Fred B. Craddock 2004 ISBN 0-664-22754-6 pages 256-258
- ^ a b c d e The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Matthew-Luke, Volume 1 by Craig A. Evans 2003 ISBN 0-7814-3868-3 page 381-395
- ^ The Bible knowledge background commentary: John's Gospel, Hebrews-Revelation by Craig A. Evans ISBN 0-7814-4228-1 pages 114-118
- ^ Matthew 21:1-11, Mark 11:1-11, Luke 19:28-44 John 12:12-19
- ^ a b The Bible knowledge background commentary by Craig A. Evans 2005 ISBN 0-7814-4228-1 page 49
- ^ a b The Fourth Gospel And the Quest for Jesus by Paul N. Anderson 2006 ISBN 0-567-04394-0 page 158
- ^ Matthew 26:14-16, Mark 14:10-11, Luke 22:1-6
- ^ The Synoptic Gospels and the Book of Acts by Doremus Almy Hayes 2009 ISBN 1-115-87731-3 page 88
- ^ Matthew 26:20, Mark 14:17, Luke 22:21-23 John 13:1
- ^ Cox (2007) pp. 180-191
- ^ Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church / editors, F. L. Cross & E. A. Livingstone 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3, article Eucharist
- ^ Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible 2000 ISBN 90-5356-503-5 page 792
- ^ Peter: apostle for the whole church by Pheme Perkins 2000 ISBN 0-567-08743-3 page 85
- ^ The Gospel according to Matthew, Volume 1 by Johann Peter Lange 1865 Published by Charles Scribner Co, NY page 499
- ^ a b Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "Matthew" pp. 272–85.
- ^ The Gospel according to John by Herman Ridderbos 1997 ISBN 978-0-8028-0453-2 The Farewell Prayer: pages 546-576
- ^ The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke by Ján Majerník, Joseph Ponessa, Laurie Watson Manhardt 2005 ISBN 1-931018-31-6 page 169
- ^ a b c d e f g h The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament edited by John F. Walvoord, Roy B. Zuck 1983 ISBN 978-0-88207-812-0 pages 83-85
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Matthew-Luke, Volume 1 by Craig A. Evans 2003 ISBN 0-7814-3868-3 page 487-500
- ^ Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament Doubleday 1997 ISBN 0-385-24767-2, p. 146.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 pages 396-400
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Holman Concise Bible Dictionary 2011 ISBN 0-8054-9548-7 pages 608-609
- ^ a b The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1982 ISBN 0-8028-3782-4 pages 1050-1052
- ^ The Biblical Rembrandt by John I. Durham 2004 ISBN 0865548862163
- ^ Matthew 27:1, Mark 15:1, 22:66
- ^ Theological dictionary of the New Testament by Gerhard Kittel, Geoffrey William Bromiley, Gerhard Friedrich 1980 ISBN 0-8028-2248-7 page 105
- ^ Matthew 26:67 Mark 14:65 Luke 22:63-65 John 18:22
- ^ Luke's presentation of Jesus: a christology by Robert F. O'Toole 2004 ISBN 88-7653-625-6 page 166
- ^ a b New Testament History by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0-310-31201-9 page 172
- ^ The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke by Ján Majerník, Joseph Ponessa 2005 ISBN 1-931018-31-6 page 181
- ^ The Gospel according to Luke by Michael Patella 2005 ISBN 0-8146-2862-1 page 16
- ^ Luke: The Gospel of Amazement by Michael Card 2011 ISBN 978-0-8308-3835-6 page 251
- ^ "Bible Study Workshop - Lesson 228" (PDF). http://www.biblestudyworkshop.com/data/Lesson228.pdf. Retrieved 2011-06-30.
- ^ a b Pontius Pilate: portraits of a Roman governor by Warren Carter 2003 ISBN 978-0-8146-5113-1 pages 120-121
- ^ The Names of Jesus by Stephen J. Binz 2004 ISBN 1-58595-315-6 pages 81-82
- ^ John by H. A. Ironside 2006 ISBN 0-8254-2915-3 page 454
- ^ Studies in Early Christology by Martin Hengel 2004 ISBN 0-567-04280-4 page 46
- ^ The Gospel and Epistles of John by Raymond Edward Brown 1988 ISBN 0-8146-1283-0 page 93
- ^ Funk, Robert W.; Jesus Seminar (1998). The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. San Francisco: Harper.
- ^ John Dominic Crossan, (1995) Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography HarperOne ISBN 0-06-061662-8 page 145. J. D. Crossan, page 145 states: "that he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be."
- ^ The Word in this world by Paul William Meyer, John T. Carroll 2004 ISBN 0-664-22701-5 page 112
- ^ a b c d e f g The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Matthew-Luke, Volume 1 by Craig A. Evans 2003 ISBN 0-7814-3868-3 page 509-520
- ^ a b c d e The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 pages 211-214
- ^ a b Merriam-Webster's encyclopedia of world religions by Merriam-Webster, Inc. 1999 ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0 page 271
- ^ a b Geoffrey W. Bromiley, International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, Eerdmans Press 1995, ISBN 0-8028-3784-0 page 426
- ^ Joseph F. Kelly, An Introduction to the New Testament 2006 ISBN 978-0-8146-5216-9 page 153
- ^ Jesus: the complete guide by Leslie Houlden 2006 ISBN 0-8264-8011-X page 627
- ^ Vernon K. Robbins in Literary studies in Luke-Acts by Richard P. Thompson (editor) 1998 ISBN 0-86554-563-4 pages 200-201
- ^ Mercer dictionary of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 page 648
- ^ Reading Luke-Acts: dynamics of Biblical narrative by William S. Kurz 1993 ISBN 0-664-25441-1 page 201
- ^ The Gospel according to Mark by George Martin 2o05 ISBN 0-8294-1970-5 page 440
- ^ Mark by Allen Black 1995 ISBN 0-89900-629-9 page 280
- ^ The Gospel of Matthew by Daniel J. Harrington 1991 ISBN 0-8146-5803-2 page 404
- ^ The Gospel according to Matthew by Leon Morris ISBN 0-85111-338-9 page 727
- ^ Matthew 28:1, Mark 16:9, Luke 24:1 and John 20:1
- ^ a b c d e Cox (2007) pp. 216-226
- ^ The Acts of the Apostles by Frederick Fyvie Bruce ISBN 978-0-8028-0966-7 page 210
- ^ a b The Wiersbe Bible Commentary: The Complete New Testament by Warren W. Wiersbe 2007 ISBN 978-0-7814-4539-9 pages 350-352
- ^ a b The Acts of the Apostles by Luke Timothy Johnson, Daniel J. Harrington 1992 ISBN 978-0-8146-5807-9 pages 164-167
- ^ The Titles of Jesus in Christology: Their History in Early Christianity by Ferdinand Hahn, Harold Knight, George Ogg 2002 ISBN 0-227-17085-7 pages 11-12
- ^ Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.
- ^ Thompson, Frank Charles, ed. The Thompson Chain-Reference Bible. Zondervan Bible Publishers, Grand Rapids. 1983. p. 1563.
- ^ Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article Messiah
- ^ a b Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity by Larry W. Hurtado 2005 ISBN 0-8028-3167-2 page 288
- ^ Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity by Larry W. Hurtado 2005 ISBN 0-8028-3167-2 pages 363-363
- ^ Dunn, James (1980). Christology in the Making. SCM Press. p. xiii. "There is no question in my mind that the doctrine of incarnation comes to clear expression within the NT...John 1:14 ranks as a classic formulation of the Christian belief in Jesus as incarnate God" .
- ^ Hebblethwaite, Brian (1987). The Incarnation. Cambridge University Press. p. 74. "it is no longer possible to defend the divinity of Jesus by reference to the claims of Jesus"
- ^ Robinson, John AT (1963). Honest to God. Westminster Press. p. 47. "It is, indeed, an open question whether Jesus ever claimed to be the Son of God, let alone God."
- ^ Christianity by Donald W. Ekstrand 2008 ISBN 1-60477-929-2 page 81
- ^ Themes of St. Luke by John Navone 1970 ISBN 88-7652-358-8 page 132
- ^ Mercer dictionary of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 pages 520-525
- ^ a b The Christology of the New Testament by Oscar Cullmann 1959 ISBN 0-664-24351-7 pages 234-237
- ^ The Christology of the New Testament by Oscar Cullmann 1959 ISBN 0-664-24351-7 page 202
- ^ a b Great Themes of the Bible, Volume 2 by Sarah S. Henrich 2007 ISBN 0-664-23064-4 page 18
- ^ a b Prophet and teacher: an introduction to the historical Jesus by William R. Herzog 2005 ISBN 0-664-22528-4 page 15
- ^ God with us by Mark Allan Powell 1995 ISBN 0-8006-2881-0 pages 80-82
- ^ a b Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi by Karl Rahner 2004 ISBN 0-86012-006-6 page 1082
- ^ a b c d Hurtado, Larry W. (June 2003). Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity. Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B. Eerdmans. ISBN 0-8028-6070-2 pages 370-371
- ^ Ramsey, Michael (1980). Jesus and the Living Past. Oxford University Press. p. 39. "Jesus did not claim deity for himself"
- ^ Dunn, James (1980). Christology in the Making. SCM Press. p. 254. "We cannot claim that Jesus believed himself to be the incarnate Son of God"
- ^ John Hick, The Metaphor of God Incarnate, (Westminster John Knox Press, 2006) page 27.
- ^ Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon: logos, 1889.
- ^ The Christology of the New Testament by Oscar Cullmann 1959 ISBN 0-664-24351-7 page 258
- ^ a b The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1988 ISBN 0-8028-3785-9 page 106
- ^ Mercer dictionary of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 page 520
- ^ Introduction to theology by Owen C. Thomas, Ellen K. Wondra 2002 ISBN 0-8192-1897-9 page 173
- ^ A Complete Introduction to the Bible by Christopher Gilbert 2009 ISBN 0-8091-4552-9 page 216
- ^ Stagg, Frank (1962). New Testament Theology. Broadman Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8054-1613-8.
- ^ Vermes (1981).
- ^ a b c Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey' by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 pages 431-436
- ^ a b The new complete works of Josephus by Flavius Josephus, William Whiston, Paul L. Maier ISBN 0-8254-2924-2 pages 662-663
- ^ a b Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee by Mark Allan Powell 1998 ISBN 0-664-25703-8 pages 168-173
- ^ Brown (1994) p. 964
- ^ Dunn, JG (2003). Jesus Remembered. Eerdmans. p. 142. "about once every generation someone reruns the thesis that Jesus never existed and that the Jesus tradition is a wholesale invention"
- ^ a b Wright, Marcus J (1999). "A Vision of the Christian Life". The Meaning of Jesus: Two Visions. HarperCollins. p. 236. "some judgements are so probable as to be certain; for example, Jesus really existed"
- ^ Walter P. Weaver, The Historical Jesus in the Twentieth Century, Continuum International, 1999 page 71
- ^ Van Voorst (2000) pp. 39-53
- ^ Josephus XX by Louis H. Feldman 1965, ISBN 0-674-99502-3 page 496
- ^ Van Voorst, Robert E. (2000). Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence ISBN 0-8028-4368-9. page 83
- ^ Flavius Josephus; Maier, Paul L. (December 1995). Josephus, the essential works: a condensation of Jewish antiquities and The Jewish war ISBN 978-0-8254-3260-6 pages 284-285
- ^ The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings by Bart D. Ehrman 1999 ISBN 0-19-512639-4 page 248
- ^ Jesus-God and Man by Wolfhart Pannenberg 1983 ISBN 0-664-24468-8 page 316
- ^ a b The God Delusion by Richard Dawkins 2006 ISBN 0-618-68000-4 page 122
- ^ Jesus in history, thought, and culture: an encyclopedia, Volume 1 by James Leslie Houlden 2003 ISBN 1-57607-856-6 page 660
- ^ Ed Hindson, Ergun Caner, The Popular Encyclopedia of Apologetics: Surveying the Evidence for The Truth of Christianity, page 179 (Harvest House Publishers, 2008). ISBN 978-0-7369-2084-1
- ^ The Oxford handbook of early Christian studies by Susan Ashbrook Harvey, David G. Hunter 2008 ISBN 0-19-927156-9 page 378
- ^ Graham Stanton, The Gospels and Jesus 2002 ISBN 0-19-924616-5 Oxford University Press page 145
- ^ Cambridge companion to Jesus by Markus N. A. Bockmuehl 2001 Cambridge Univ Press ISBN 978-0-521-79678-1 pages 123-124
- ^ Joel B. Green, Scot McKnight, I. Howard Marshall, Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels (InterVarsity Press, 1992), page 442
- ^ a b James Barr, Which language did Jesus speak, Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester, 1970; 53(1) pages 9-29 [4]
- ^ a b Handbook to exegesis of the New Testament by Stanley E. Porter 1997 ISBN 90-04-09921-2 pages 110-112
- ^ Discovering the language of Jesus by Douglas Hamp 2005 ISBN 1-59751-017-3 page 3-4
- ^ Jesus in history and myth by R. Joseph Hoffmann 1986 ISBN 0-87975-332-3 page 98
- ^ James Barr's review article Which language did Jesus speak (referenced above) states that Aramaic has the widest support among scholars.
- ^ Amy-Jill Levine in The Historical Jesus in Context edited by Amy-Jill Levine et al. Princeton Univ Press 2006 ISBN 978-0-691-00992-6 page 10
- ^ a b c d e Jesus: the complete guide by Leslie Houlden 2006 082648011X pages 63-99
- ^ a b Teaching Christianity: a world religions approach by Clive Erricker 1987 ISBN 0-7188-2634-5 page 44
- ^ a b c d e Robin M. Jensen "Jesus in Christian art", Chapter 29 of The Blackwell Companion to Jesus edited by Delbert Burkett 2010 ISBN 1-4051-9362-X page 477-502
- ^ a b c The likeness of the king: a prehistory of portraiture in late medieval France by Stephen Perkinson 2009 ISBN 0-226-65879-1 page 30
- ^ a b c The forging of races: race and scripture in the Protestant Atlantic world by Colin Kidd 2006 ISBN 0-521-79324-6 pages 48-51
- ^ Revelation by William C. Pender 1998 ISBN 0-664-22858-5 pages 14-16
- ^ Revelation 1-11 by John MacArthur, Jr. ISBN pages 37-39
- ^ The Cross of Christ by John R. W. Stott, Alister McGrath 2006 ISBN 0-8308-3320-X page 145
- ^ Christianity, art, and transformation by John W. De Gruchy 2001 ISBN 0-521-77205-2 page 122
- ^ Brother Jesus: the Nazarene through Jewish eyes by Schalom Ben-Chorin 2001 ISBN 0-8203-2256-3 page 111
- ^ Understanding early Christian art by Robin Margaret Jensen 2000 ISBN 0-415-20454-2 page 127
- ^ a b The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined by David Friedrich Strauss 2010 ISBN 1-61640-309-8 pages 114-116
- ^ The legacy of John: second-century reception of the Fourth Gospel by Tuomas Rasimus 2009 ISBN 90-04-17633-0 page 251
- ^ The written gospel by Markus N. A. Bockmuehl, Donald Alfred Hagner 2005 ISBN 0-521-83285-3 page 233
- ^ Contra Celsum by Origen, Henry Chadwick 1980 ISBN 0-521-29576-9 page 32
- ^ Patrick, John The Apology of Origen in Reply to Celsus 2009 ISBN 1-110-13388-X pages 22–24
- ^ Mary in the New Testament by Raymond Edward Brown, et al. 1978 ISBN 0-8091-2168-9 page 262
- ^ Marcus Borg, John Dominic Crossan (2007). The First Christmas: What the Gospels Really Teach About Jesus's Birth. HarperOne. p. 104. ISBN 0-06-143070-6.
- ^ The Oxford companion to the Bible 1993 ISBN 0-19-504645-5 page 41
- ^ Making Sense of the New Testament by Craig L. Blomberg 2004 ISBN 0-8010-2747-0 pages 3-4
- ^ Pontius Pilate: portraits of a Roman governor by Warren Carter 2003 ISBN 0-8146-5113-5 pages 6-9
- ^ The Aryan Jesus: Christian theologians and the Bible in Nazi Germany by Susannah Heschel 2008 ISBN 0-691-12531-7 page 32
- ^ Jesus and the origins of Christianity by Maurice Goguel, New York, Harper, 1960 page 255
- ^ "The Black Christ" Chapter 25 of The Blackwell Companion to Jesus edited by Delbert Burkett 2010 ISBN 1-4051-9362-X pages 410-420
- ^ Wells, Matt (March 27, 2001). "Is this the real face of Jesus Christ?". The Guardian (London: Guardian). ISSN 0261-3077. OCLC 60623878. http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2001/mar/27/broadcasting.uknews2. Retrieved 2011-05-12.
- ^ Wilson, Giles (October 27, 2004). "So what color was Jesus?". London: BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/3958241.stm. Retrieved 2011-05-12.
- ^ Politics and film: the political culture of film in the United States by Daniel P. Franklin 2006 ISBN 0-7425-3809-5 page 112-114
- ^ Cinéma divinité: religion, theology and the Bible in film by Eric S. Christianson 2011 ISBN 0-334-02988-0 page 327
- ^ Dillenberger 1999, p. 5
- ^ Thurston, Herbert (1913). "Holy Nails". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
- ^ Pope John Paul II (1998-05-24), Pope John Paul II's address in Turin Cathedral, Holy See, http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/travels/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_24051998_sindone_en.html
- ^ a b c d e The New Westminster Dictionary of Church History by Robert Benedetto 2006 ISBN 0-8264-8011-X pages 51-53
- ^ The image of God the Father in Orthodox theology and iconography by Steven Bigham 1995 ISBN 1-879038-15-3 pages 226-227
- ^ Archimandrite Vasileios of Stavronikita, "Icons as Liturgical Analogies" in Hymn of entry: liturgy and life in the Orthodox church 1997 ISBN 978-0-88141-026-6 pages 81-90
- ^ a b The image of St Francis by Rosalind B. Brooke 2006 ISBN 0-521-78291-0 pages 183-184
- ^ The tradition of Catholic prayer by Christian Raab, Harry Hagan, St. Meinrad Archabbey 2007 ISBN 0-8146-3184-3 pages 86-87
- ^ a b The vitality of the Christian tradition by George Finger Thomas 1944 ISBN 0-8369-2378-2 page 110-112
- ^ La vida sacra: contemporary Hispanic sacramental theology by James L. Empereur, Eduardo Fernández 2006 ISBN 0-7425-5157-1 pages 3-5
- ^ Philippines by Lily Rose R. Tope, Detch P. Nonan-Mercado 2005 ISBN 0-7614-1475-4 page 109
- ^ Experiencing Art Around Us by Thomas Buser 2005 ISBN 978-0-534-64114-6 pages 382-383
- ^ Leonardo da Vinci, the Last Supper: a Cosmic Drama and an Act of Redemption by Michael Ladwein 2006 pages 27 and 60
- ^ Arthur Barnes, 2003 Holy Shroud of Turin Kessinger Press ISBN 0-7661-3425-3 pages 2-9
- ^ William Meacham, The Authentication of the Turin Shroud:An Issue in Archaeological Epistemology, Current Anthropology, Volume 24, No 3, June 1983
- ^ "Zenit, May 5, 2010". Zenit.org. 2010-05-05. http://www.zenit.org/rssenglish-29146. Retrieved 2011-11-04.
- ^ Catherine M. Odell, 1998, Faustina: Apostle of Divine Mercy OSV Press ISBN 978-0-87973-923-2 page 165
- ^ Am With You Always by Benedict Groeschel 2010 ISBN 978-1-58617-257-2 page 548
- ^ The Challenge of the Silver Screen (Studies in Religion and the Arts) ISBN By Freek L. Bakker 2009 ISBN 90-04-16861-3 page 1
- ^ Encyclopedia of early cinema by Richard Abel2005 ISBN 0-415-23440-9 page 518
- ^ The Blackwell Companion to Jesus edited by Delbert Burkett 2010 ISBN 1-4051-9362-X page 526
- ^ a b Ehrman, Bart D.. Jesus, Interrupted, HarperCollins, 2009. ISBN 0-06-117393-2
- ^ Kenneth Keulman, Critical Moments in Religious History, Mercer University Press, p. 56
- ^ Andrew F. Gregory, Christopher Mark Tuckett, The Reception of the New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers, Oxford University Press, p. 178
- ^ "The New Testament was complete, or substantially complete, about AD 100, the majority of the writings being in existence twenty to forty years before this...the situation is encouraging from the historian's point of view, for the first three gospels were written at a time when many were alive who could remember the things that Jesus said and did... At any rate, the time elapsing between the evangelic events and the writing of most of the New Testament books was, from the standpoint of historical research, satisfactorily short." Bruce, F. F.: The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?, pp. 12–14, InterVarsity Press, USA, 1997.
- ^ "There is no reason to doubt that we have in the Gospel tradition several authentic fragments of His [Jesus Christ's] teaching (albeit in Greek translation)." "Jesus Christ". Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
- ^ Peter, Kirby (2001–2007). "Early Christian Writings: Gospel of Mark". http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/mark.html. Retrieved 2008-01-15.
- ^ Achtemeier, Paul J. (1991–). "The Gospel of Mark". The Anchor Bible Dictonary. 4. New York, New York: Doubleday. p. 545. ISBN 0-385-19362-9.
- ^ Meier, John P. (1991). A Marginal Jew. New York, New York: Doubleday. pp. v.2 955–6. ISBN 0-385-46993-4.
- ^ Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. "The Gospels" p. 266-268
- ^ "Matthew, Gospel acc. to St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
- ^ a b Boyd, Gregory. "The Jesus Legend: The Case for the Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition". P 370-380. 2007. Baker Academic. ISBN 0-8010-3114-1
- ^ a b Strobel, Lee. ”The Case for Christ”. 1998.
- ^ a b c d Bruce, F.F. (1981). The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable?. InterVarsity Press.
- ^ Meier, John P., A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, Doubleday: 1991. vol 1: pp. 168–171.
- ^ a b Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. Introduction, pp. 1–38
- ^ a b c d Jesus as a figure in history: how modern historians view the man from Galilee by Mark Allan Powell 1998 ISBN 0-664-25703-8 pages 13-26
- ^ Schaeffer, Francis A (1968). The God Who is There. Downers Grove, Il.: InterVarsity Press. pp. 72–73. ISBN 0-8308-1947-9.
- ^ J. G. Dunn, Jesus Remembered, Volume 1 of Christianity in the Making, Eerdmans Publishing, 2003 pp. 125-27.
- ^ Ancient Christian gospels: their history and development by Helmut Köster 1992 ISBN 0-334-02450-1 pages 7-10
- ^ For a comparison of the Jesus movement to the Zealots, see S. G. F. Brandon, Jesus and the Zealots: a study of the political factor in primitive Christianity, Manchester University Press (1967) ISBN 0-684-31010-4
- ^ For a general comparison of Jesus' teachings to other schools of first century Judaism, see John P. Meier, Companions and Competitors (A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, Volume 3) Anchor Bible, 2001. ISBN 0-385-46993-4.
- ^ Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium by Bart D. Ehrman 1999 ISBN 0-19-512473-1 page 164
- ^ Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 page 24
- ^ Christina M. Kreinecker (University of Salzburg), How Power and Province Communicate: Some Remarks on the Language of (Non-) Conversation between Pilate and Jesus, in Light from the East: Papyrologische Kommentare zum Neuen Testament, (Verlag, 2010) page 169
- ^ Sanders (1993) p. 57
- ^ Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium by Bart D. Ehrman 1999 ISBN 0-19-512473-1 pages 22-23
- ^ a b Studying the Historical Jesus: Evaluations of the State of Current Research by Craig A. Evans 1998 ISBN 90-04-11142-5 pages 337-341
- ^ The Galilean Jewishness of Jesus: retrieving the Jewish origins of Christianity, Bernard J. Lee, (Paulist Press, 1988), page 119-120
- ^ Mercer Dictionary of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Edgar V. McKnight and Roger A. Bullard 2001 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 page
- ^ Studies in Early Christology by Martin Hengel 1995 ISBN 0-567-09705-6 page 93
- ^ a b Theissen (1998)
- ^ Funk, Robert W., Roy W. Hoover, and the Jesus Seminar. The five gospels. HarperSanFrancisco. 1993. "Introduction," pp. 1–30
- ^ Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005—article "Historical Jesus, Quest of the"
- ^ Crossan, John Dominic. The essential Jesus. Edison: Castle Books. 1998. p. 146
- ^ See Schwietzer, Albert The Quest of the Historical Jesus: A Critical Study of its Progress from Reimarus to Wrede, pp. 370–371, 402. Scribner (1968), ISBN 0-02-089240-3; Ehrman, Bart Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium, Oxford University Press USA, 1999. ISBN 0-19-512474-X. Also see Crossan, John Dominic, The Birth of Christianity: Discovering What Happened in the Years Immediately After the Execution of Jesus, pp. 305–344. Harper Collins, 1998. ISBN 0-06-061659-8
- ^ The Jesus Quest: The Third Search for the Jew of Nazareth by Ben Witherington 1997 ISBN 0-8308-1544-9 pages 161-163
- ^ The Jesus Quest: The Third Search for the Jew of Nazareth by Ben Witherington 1997 ISBN 0-8308-1544-9 pages 116-120
- ^ Jesus and Virtue Ethics by Daniel J. Harrington 2005 ISBN pages 9-10
- ^ Theissen (1998) p. 569–572
- ^ Haim Cohn, The Trial and Death of Jesus, Ktav Publishing House, 1977:129,133-134.
- ^ A Brief Introduction to the New Testament by Bart D. Ehrman 2008 ISBN 0-19-536934-3 page 136
- ^ Crossan, John Dominic (1995). Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography. HarperOne. p. 145. ISBN 0-06-061662-8. "That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be, since both Josephus and Tacitus...agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact."
- ^ Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 pages 211-214
- ^ a b A Century of Theological and Religious Studies in Britain, 1902-2002 by Ernest Nicholson 2004 ISBN 0-19-726305-4 pages 125-126
- ^ John P. Meier "How do we decide what comes from Jesus" in The Historical Jesus in Recent Research by James D. G. Dunn and Scot McKnight 2006 ISBN 1-57506-100-7 pages 126-128
- ^ John P. Meier "How do we decide what comes from Jesus" in The Historical Jesus in Recent Research by James D. G. Dunn and Scot McKnight 2006 ISBN 1-57506-100-7 pages 132-136
- ^ a b c Early Christian literature by Helen Rhee 2005 ISBN 0-415-35488-9 pages 159-161
- ^ a b Experiencing Rome: culture, identity and power in the Roman Empire by Janet Huskinson 1999 ISBN 978-0-415-21284-7 page 81
- ^ Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus by Gerald O'Collins 2009 ISBN 0-19-955787-X pages 1-3 "As regards the 'things which Jesus did', let me note that he left no letters or other personal documents."—page 2
- ^ a b c Jonathan L. Reed, "Archaeological contributions to the study of Jesus and the Gospels" in The Historical Jesus in Context edited by Amy-Jill Levine et al. Princeton Univ Press 2006 ISBN 978-0-691-00992-6 pages 40-47
- ^ Archaeology and the Galilean Jesus: a re-examination of the evidence by Jonathan L. Reed 2002 ISBN 1-56338-394-2 pages xi-xii
- ^ a b Craig A. Evans (Mar 26, 2012). The Archaeological Evidence For Jesus. The Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/craig-a-evans/archaeological-evidence-for-jesus_b_1370995.html.
- ^ a b "Jesus Research and Archaeology: A New Perspective" by James H. Charlesworth in Jesus and archaeology edited by James H. Charlesworth 2006 ISBN 0-8028-4880-X pages 11-15
- ^ a b c d What are they saying about the historical Jesus? by David B. Gowler 2007 ISBN 0-8091-4445-X page 102
- ^ Craig A. Evans (Mar 16, 2012). Jesus and His World: The Archaeological Evidence. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-23413-5. http://books.google.com/?id=_DGjygAACAAJ&dq=Jesus+and+His+World.
- ^ a b Archaeology and the Galilean Jesus: a re-examination of the evidence by Jonathan L. Reed 2002 ISBN 1-56338-394-2 page 18
- ^ Historical Dictionary of Jesus by Daniel J. Harrington 2010 ISBN 0-8108-7667-1 page 32
- ^ Studying the historical Jesus: evaluations of the state of current research by Bruce Chilton, Craig A. Evans 1998 ISBN 90-04-11142-5 page 465
- ^ "Jesus and Capernaum: Archeological and Gospel Stratigraohy" in Archaeology and the Galilean Jesus: a re-examination of the evidence' by Jonathan L. Reed 2002 ISBN 1-56338-394-2 page 139-156
- ^ Jesus and archaeology edited by James H. Charlesworth 2006 ISBN 0-8028-4880-X page 127
- ^ Who Was Jesus? by Paul Copan and Craig A. Evans 2001 ISBN 0-664-22462-8 page 187
- ^ "Pharisees", Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
- ^ Based on a comparison of the gospels with the Talmud and other Jewish literature. Maccoby, Hyam Jesus the Pharisee, Scm Press, 2003. ISBN 0-334-02914-7; Falk, Harvey Jesus the Pharisee: A New Look at the Jewishness of Jesus, Wipf & Stock Publishers (2003). ISBN 1-59244-313-3.
- ^ Neusner, Jacob (2000). A Rabbi Talks With Jesus. Montreal; Ithaca: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-2046-2. Rabbi Neusner contends that Jesus' teachings were closer to the House of Shammai than the House of Hillel.
- ^ Funk, Robert W. and the Jesus Seminar. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSanFrancisco. 1998.
- ^ "Sadducees". Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
- ^ Based on a comparison of the gospels with the Dead Sea Scrolls, especially the Teacher of Righteousness and Pierced Messiah. Eisenman, Robert James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Penguin (Non-Classics), 1998. ISBN 0-14-025773-X; Stegemann, Hartmut The Library of Qumran: On the Essenes, Qumran, John the Baptist, and Jesus. Grand Rapids MI, 1998. See also Broshi, Magen, "What Jesus Learned from the Essenes", Biblical Archaeology Review, 30:1, pg. 32–37, 64. Magen notes similarities between Jesus' teachings on the virtue of poverty and divorce, and Essene teachings as related in Josephus' The Jewish Wars and in the Damascus Document of the Dead Sea Scrolls, respectively. See also Akers, Keith The Lost Religion of Jesus. Lantern, 2000. ISBN 1-930051-26-3
- ^ Joseph Ratzinger, Pope Benedict XVI, Jesus of Nazareth, p. 14
- ^ a b "Zealots". Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
- ^ "Jesus Christ". Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
- ^ a b A theory of primitive Christian religion by Gerd Theissen 2003 ISBN 0-334-02913-9 pages 23-27
- ^ a b The historical Jesus: ancient evidence for the life of Christ by Gary Habermas 1996 ISBN 0-89900-732-5 pages 27-31
- ^ a b Van Voorst (2000) pp. 7-8
- ^ a b The historical Jesus: ancient evidence for the life of Christ by Gary Habermas 1996 ISBN 0-89900-732-5 pages 47-51
- ^ The Jesus legend: a case for the historical reliability of the synoptic gospels' by Paul R. Eddy, Gregory A. Boyd 2007 ISBN 0-8010-3114-1 page 162
- ^ a b c The Cambridge companion to Jesus by Markus N. A. Bockmuehl 2001 Cambridge Univ Press ISBN 978-0-521-79678-1 pages 141-144
- ^ Dictionary of biblical criticism and interpretation by Stanley E. Porter 2009 ISBN 0-415-20100-4 page 94
- ^ a b c d The historical Jesus in the twentieth century, 1900-1950 by Walter P. Weaver 1999 ISBN 1-56338-280-6 page 45-50
- ^ a b The historical Jesus question by Gregory W. Dawes 2001 ISBN 0-664-22458-X pages 77-79
- ^ The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined by David Friedrich Strauss 2010 ISBN 1-61640-309-8 pages 39-43 and 87-91
- ^ The making of the new spirituality by James A. Herrick 2003 ISBN 0-8308-2398-0 pages 58–65
- ^ a b The Blackwell Guide to Continental Philosophy edited by Robert Solomon, David Sherman 2008 ISBN 978-1-4051-4304-2 page 64
- ^ Biographical dictionary of literary influences: the nineteenth century by John Powell 2000 ISBN 0-313-30422-X page 37
- ^ The philosophy and politics of Bruno Bauer by Douglas Moggach 2003 ISBN 0-521-81977-6 page 62
- ^ Bruno Bauer and Karl Marx: the influence of Bruno Bauer on Marx's thought by Zvi Rosen 1977 ISBN 90-247-1948-8 pages 127-129
- ^ The logic of religion by Jude P. Dougherty 2003 ISBN 0-8132-1308-8 pages 95–96
- ^ Van Voorst (2000) pp. 11–15
- ^ a b c The historical Jesus in the twentieth century, 1900-1950 by Walter P. Weaver 1999 ISBN 1-56338-280-6 pages 55-59
- ^ a b c Jesus: the complete guide by Leslie Houlden page 729
- ^ Russia after Lenin: politics, culture and society, 1921-1929 by Vladimir N. Brovkin 1998 ISBN 0-415-17991-2 pages 96-98
- ^ Culture and customs of Russia by Sydney Schultze 2000 ISBN 0-313-31101-3 page 28
- ^ The Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity, Volume 1 by John Anthony McGuckin 2011 ISBN 1-4051-8539-2 pages 383-384
- ^ Stanton, Graham. The Gospels and Jesus. Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 145 (first published 1989).
- Wells, G. A. "Jesus, Historicity of" Tom Flynn (ed.) The New Encyclopedia of Disbelief. Prometheus, 2007, p. 446.
- For a summary of the mainstream position, see Eddy, Paul R. and Boyd, Gregory A. The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition. Baker Academic, 2007, pp. 24–27.
- Also see Dickson, March 21, 2008.
- ^ a b Jesus in history, thought, and culture: an encyclopedia, Volume 1 by James Leslie Houlden 2003 ISBN 1-57607-856-6 page 660
- ^ a b Van Voorst (2000) p. 14
- ^ Stanton, Graham. The Gospels and Jesus. Oxford University Press, 2002; first published 1989, p. 143.
- ^ James D.G. Dunn, 1985 The Evidence for Jesus ISBN 0-664-24698-2 page 29
- ^ Familiar stranger: an introduction to Jesus of Nazareth by Michael James McClymond 2004 ISBN 0-8028-2680-6 page 163
- ^ For Well's views see: G.A. Wells, The Jesus Myth, Open Court 1999, ISBN 0-8126-9392-2
- ^ Jackson, Gregory Lee, Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant: a doctrinal comparison 1993 ISBN 978-0-615-16635-3 Part One: "Areas of Agreement", pages 11-17
- ^ The Orthodox Church: An Introduction to Its History, Doctrine by John Anthony McGuckin 2010 pages 6-7
- ^ Basic Christian doctrine by John H. Leith 1993 ISBN 0-664-25192-7 pages 1-2
- ^ Second Vatican Council, Dei Verbum (V.19); Thomas Aquinas, Whether in Holy Scripture a word may have several senses?; c.f. Catechism of the Catholic Church, §116; R.C. Sproul, Knowing Scripture pp. 45–61; Greg Bahnsen, A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics (art. 6); Scott Foutz, Martin Luther and Scripture
- ^ "Great Schism", Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3
- ^ Oxford Companion to the Bible p.649
- ^ The Christology of Anselm of Canterbury by Dániel Deme 2004 ISBN 0-7546-3779-4 pages 199-200
- ^ Systematic Theology, Volume 2 by Wolfhart Pannenberg 2004 0567084663 ISBN pages 297-303
- ^ Leo Donald Davis The First Seven Ecumenical Councils (325-787): Their History and Theology 1990 by Leo Davis ISBN 978-0-8146-5616-7 page 68
- ^ Acts 2:24, Romans 10:9, 1Cor 15:15, Acts 2:31-32, 3:15, 3:26, 4:10, 5:30, 10:40-41, 13:30, 13:34, 13:37, 17:30-31, 1Cor 6:14, 2Cor 4:14, Gal 1:1, Eph 1:20, Col 2:12, 1Thess 1:10, Heb 13:20, 1Pet 1:3, 1:21
- ^ Mark 16:19, Luke 22:69, Acts 2:33, 5:31, 7:55-56, Romans 8:34, Eph 1:20, Col 3:1, Hebrews 1:3, 1:13, 10:12, 12:2, 1Peter 3:22
- ^ Acts 1:9-11
- ^ Outlines of dogmatic theology, Volume 2 by Sylvester Hunter 2010 ISBN 1-146-98633-5 page 443
- ^ a b Jesus: the complete guide by Leslie Houlden 2006 ISBN 0-8264-8011-X page 426
- ^ Ta'anit (2:1)
- ^ Exodus Rabba
- ^ Simmons, Shraga, "Why Jews Do not Believe in Jesus", Retrieved 2007-04-15; "Why Jews Do not Believe in Jesus", Ohr Samayach — Ask the Rabbi, Retrieved 2007-04-15; "Why do not Jews believe that Jesus was the Messiah?", AskMoses.com, Retrieved 2007-04-15
- ^ Van Voorst (2000)
- ^ Daniel Boyarin, Dying for God: Martyrdom and the Making of Christianity and Judaism Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999
- ^ Jeffrey Rubenstein Rabbinic Stories (The Classics of Western Spirituality) New York: The Paulist Press, 2002
- ^ Hilchot Malachim (laws concerning kings) (Hebrew)", MechonMamre.org, Retrieved 2007-04-15
- ^ Waxman, Jonathan (2006). "Messianic Jews Are Not Jews". United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism. Archived from the original on 2008-01-09. http://web.archive.org/web/20080109024012/http://uscj.org/Messianic_Jews_Not_J5480.html. Retrieved 2008-01-15. "Judaism has held that the Mashiach will come and usher in a new era; not that he will proclaim his arrival, die and wait centuries to finish his task. To continue to assert that Jesus was the Mashiach goes against the belief that the Mashiach will transform the world when he does come, not merely hint at a future transformation at some undefined time to come... Judaism rejects the claim that a new covenant was created with Jesus and asserts instead that the chain of Tradition reaching back to Moshe continues to make valid claims on our lives, and serve as more than mere window dressing."
- ^ Contemporary American Reform Responsa, #68, "Question 18.3.4: Reform's Position On...What is unacceptable practice?", faqs.org. Retrieved 2007-04-15.
- ^ The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, p.158
- ^ "Jesus, Son of Mary" in Oxford Islamic Studies Online
- ^ "Jesus in the Quran". islam101.com. http://www.islam101.com/history/people/prophets/jesus/christ_in_islam2.htm. Retrieved 2011-07-08.
- ^ a b c Christianity, Islam, and the West by Robert A. Burns, 2011, ISBN 0-7618-5559-9 page 32
- ^ a b Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians by F. E. Peters 2005 Princeton University Press ISBN 0-691-12233-4 page 23
- ^ a b Holy people of the world: a cross-cultural encyclopedia, Volume 1 by Phyllis G. Jestice 2004 ISBN 1-57607-355-6 pages 558-559
- ^ Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. VI, pg. 629
- ^ a b c "Isa", Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ Fasching, deChant (2001) p. 241
- ^ a b Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, Jesus
- ^ Qur'an, 5th Surah, vs. 116.
- ^ "Jesus in India". Alislam.org. http://www.alislam.org/library/books/jesus-in-india/index.html. Retrieved 2010-11-19.
- ^ Rice, Edward (1978). Eastern Definitions: A Short Encyclopedia of Religions of the Orient. New York. p. 7. ISBN 0-385-08563-X.
- ^ http://reluctant-messenger.com/issa.htm The Life of Saint Issa, Nicolas Notovitch
- ^ Schäfer, Peter; Cohen, Mark R. (1998). Toward the Millennium: Messianic Expectations from the Bible to Waco. Leiden/Princeton: Brill/Princeton UP. p. 306. ISBN 90-04-11037-2.
- ^ Günter Grönbold, Jesus In Indien, München: Kösel 1985, ISBN 3-466-20270-1.
- ^ Norbert Klatt, Lebte Jesus in Indien?, Göttingen: Wallstein 1988.
- ^ Hazrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1996). The Four Questions Answered (PDF). Ahmadiyya Anjuman Isha'at Islam Lahore Inc. U.S.A.. p. ix. ISBN 0-913321-52-4. http://www.muslim.org/bookspdf/fourques.pdf.
- ^ Stockman, Robert (1992). "Jesus Christ in the Baha'i Writings". Bahá'í Studies Review (1). OCLC 30061083. http://bahai-library.com/stockman_jesus_bahai_writings.
- ^ Beverley, James A., Hollywood's Idol, Christianity Today, "Jesus Christ also lived previous lives", he said. "So, you see, he reached a high state, either as a Bodhisattva, or an enlightened person, through Buddhist practice or something like that". Retrieved 2007-04-20.
- ^ Nyogen Senzaki and Paul Reps, ed. (1998). "Story 16: Not far from Buddhahood". Zen Flesh Zen Bones: A Collection of Zen and Pre-Zen Writings. Tuttle Publishing. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-8048-3186-4. http://www.101zenstories.com/index.php?story=16. Retrieved 2011-12-09.
- ^ Jawarharlal Nehru (1942). Glimpses of World History. New York: John Day Co.. p. 84.
- ^ "Mandaean Scriptures and Fragments: The Haran Gawaitha". http://www.gnosis.org/library/haran.htm. Retrieved 2007-04-20.
- ^ Bevan, A. A. (1930). "Manichaeism". In James Hastings. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics. 8. London.
- ^ Bailey, Alice; Khul, Djwhal (2005) [1932]. A Treatise on Cosmic Fire. Lucis Publishing Company. p. 1193. ISBN 978-0-85330-117-2.
- ^ Reece, Erik (Dec 2005). "Jesus Without The Miracles - Thomas Jefferson's Bible and the Gospel of Thomas". Harper's Magazine 311 (1867): 33–41. Archived from the original on 2011-12-09. http://www.webcitation.org/63nm56xLe.
- ^ Tradition and incarnation: foundations of Christian theology by William L. Portier 1993 ISBN 0-8091-3467-5 page 218
- ^ Chadwick, H., Origen:Contra Celsum, CUP (1965), p. xxviii
- ^ J. Stevenson, A New Eusebius: Documents illustrating the history of the Church to AD 337 1957; New Edition, revised by W. H. C. Frend, page 257, 1987. ISBN 0-281-04268-3
- ^ Friedrich Nietzsche, 1895, Twilight of the Idols, Morality as Anti-nature, 1.
- ^ Russel, Bertrand (1927). Why I am not a Christian in "Why I am Not a Christian: And Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects," 2004, Routledge Classics, p.13.
Bibliography[link]
- The Bible
- Allison, Dale. Jesus of Nazareth: Millenarian Prophet. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1999. ISBN 0-8006-3144-7
- Raymond E. Brown An Introduction to the New Testament. New York: Doubleday, 1997. ISBN 0-385-24767-2
- Brown, Raymond E. (1994). The Death of the Messiah: from Gethsemane to the Grave: A Commentary on the Passion Narratives in the Four Gospels. New York: Doubleday, Anchor Bible Reference Library. ISBN 978-0-385-19397-9.
- Brown, Raymond E. (1999). The birth of the Messiah. ISBN 0-385-49447-5.
- D. A. Carson, Douglas J. Moo and Leon Morris. An Introduction to the New Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992.
- Cohen, Shaye J.D.. From the Maccabees to the Mishnah. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1987. ISBN 978-0-664-21911-6
- Cohen, Shaye J.D. The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001. ISBN 0-520-22693-3
- Cox, Steven L.; Easley, Kendell H (2007). Harmony of the Gospels. ISBN 0-8054-9444-8.
- Crossan, John Dominic.
- The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1993. ISBN 0-06-061629-6
- Who Killed Jesus?: exposing the roots of anti-semitism in the Gospel story of the death of Jesus. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1995. ISBN 978-0-06-061671-7
- Davenport, Guy; and Urrutia, Benjamin (trans.) The Logia of Yeshua: The sayings of Jesus. Washington, DC: Counterpoint, 1996. ISBN 978-1-887178-70-9
- De La Potterie, Ignace. The hour of Jesus: The passion and the resurrection of Jesus according to John. New York: Alba House, 1989. ISBN 978-0-8189-0575-9
- Durant, Will. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1944. ISBN 0-671-11500-6
- Ehrman, Bart. The Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-514183-0
- Ehrman, Bart. The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-515462-2
- Fredriksen, Paula. Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity. New York: Vintage, 2000. ISBN 0-679-76746-0
- Fredriksen, Paula. From Jesus to Christ: The origins of the New Testament images of Christ. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-300-08457-3
- Finegan, Jack. Handbook of Biblical Chronology, revised ed. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1998. ISBN 1-56563-143-9
- Fuller, Reginald H., The Foundations of New Testament Christology. New York: Scribners, 1965. ISBN 0-227-17075-X
- Michael Grant, Jesus: An Historian’s Review of the Gospels, Scribner’s, 1977.
- Grudem, Wayne (1994). Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. ISBN 0-310-28670-0.
- Meier, John P., A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, New York: Anchor Doubleday,
- V. 1, The Roots of the Problem and the Person, 1991. ISBN 0-385-26425-9
- V. 2, Mentor, Message, and Miracles, 1994. ISBN 0-385-46992-6
- V. 3, Companions and Competitors, 2001. ISBN 0-385-46993-4
- Newbigin, J.E.L. The Gospel In a Pluralist Society. London: SPCK, 1989.
- O'Collins, Gerald. Interpreting Jesus. "Introducing Catholic theology". London: G. Chapman; Ramsey, NJ: Paulist Press, 1983. ISBN 978-0-8091-2572-2
- Pelikan, Jaroslav. Jesus Through the Centuries: His Place in the History of Culture. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-300-07987-7
- Robinson, John A. T. Redating the New Testament. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2001 (original 1977). ISBN 1-57910-527-0.
- Sanders, E.P. The Historical Figure of Jesus. London: Allen Lane Penguin Press, 1993. ISBN 978-0-7139-9059-1
- Sanders, E.P. Jesus and Judaism. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1987. ISBN 0-8006-2061-5
- Theissen, Gerd; Merz, Annette (1998). The historical Jesus : a comprehensive guide. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. ISBN 0-8006-3122-6.
- Van Voorst, Robert E (2000). Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0-8028-4368-9.
- Vermes, Géza.
- Jesus the Jew Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1973.
- Jesus in his Jewish Context. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2003. ISBN 0-8006-3623-6
- Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1981. ISBN 0-8006-1443-7
- The Religion of Jesus the Jew. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1993. ISBN 0-8006-2797-0
- Vermes, Geza (2004). The authentic gospel of Jesus. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-100360-3.
- Vermes, Géza (2006). The Nativity: History and Legend. London: Penguin.
- Wilson, A.N. Jesus. London: Pimlico, 2003. ISBN 0-7126-0697-1
- Ben Witherington III, "Primary Sources," Christian History 17 (1998)
- Wright, N.T.
- Jesus and the Victory of God. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1997. ISBN 0-8006-2682-6
- The Resurrection of the Son of God: Christian Origins and the Question of God. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2003. ISBN 0-8006-2679-6
External links[link]
| Find more about Jesus on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
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Quotations from Wikiquote |
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- Complete Sayings of Jesus Christ In Parallel Latin & English
- "Jesus Christ." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12 Nov. 2009
- From Jesus to Christ: The First Christians — documentary about Jesus' life and the early Church.
- The Jewish Roman World of Jesus
- Works by or about Jesus in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Jesus |
| Alternative names | Jesus Christ (honorific); Jesus of Nazareth (traditional); יֵשׁ֣וּעַ (Hebrew); Yeshua (transliteration); Isa (Islam) |
| Short description | Religious figure, founded Christianity |
| Date of birth | c. 4 BC/BCE |
| Place of birth | Bethlehem, Iudaea Province (traditionally) |
| Date of death | c. 30 |
| Place of death | Jerusalem, Iudaea Province |
http://wn.com/Jesus
Related pages:
http://de.wn.com/Jesus Christus
http://es.wn.com/Jesús de Nazaret
http://ru.wn.com/Иисус Христос
http://cs.wn.com/Ježíš Kristus
http://pt.wn.com/Jesus
http://pl.wn.com/Jezus Chrystus
http://hi.wn.com/ईसा मसीह
http://it.wn.com/Gesù
http://id.wn.com/Yesus
http://nl.wn.com/Jezus (traditioneel-christelijk)
http://fr.wn.com/Jésus-Christ
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Santhosh Pandit | |
|---|---|
 Santhosh Pandit in 2011 |
|
| Native name | സന്തോഷ് പണ്ഡിറ്റ് |
| Born | (1973-04-08) April 8, 1973 (age 39) Peruvannamuzhi,[1] Kozhikode, Kerala, India |
| Nationality | Indian |
| Other names | Alien star [2] |
| Citizenship | India |
| Occupation | Film actor, Producer, Director |
| Years active | 2011–present |
| Parents | Appunni Pandit Sarojini[1] |
| Website | |
| www.santhoshpandit.com[citation needed] | |
Santhosh Pandit (Malayalam: സന്തോഷ് പണ്ഡിറ്റ്) is a Malayalam film actor and director. He is known for his directorial debut film Krishnanum Radhayum in which he appeared in the lead role and handled almost all the major departments of the film. The songs and trailers of the film went viral in YouTube after it was released there before the release of the film.
As per Google Trends, he was the 10th most popular search from India on November 10, 2011.[3] However, his website claims that he was at the 6th on Google Trends,[4] probably due to fluctuations in ranking during the course of the day. India stood only fifth among the countries that had searched for him. NRI Malayalees gave more attention to him, as Qatar stood top of the list, followed by Bahrain, United Arab Emirates and Kuwait.[5]
Contents |
Career[link]
Santosh Pandit's first movie Krishananum Radhayum, which got released on 21 October 2011,[6][7] became an unexpected crowd puller and saw some success in theaters. Some critics attribute the moderate success of the film to the general curiosity after the unprecedented abuses and negative comments posted on the YouTube clips related to the songs in the film.[8][9] Santhosh is credited as an actor, director, script-writer, editor, music director, lyric writer, editor and playback singer in the film and he stands a chance for entering record books for the maximum credits for a single person in a released film.[10][11] Currently he is engaged in the production of his second film, Jithu Bhai Enna Chocolate Bhai,[12] where again he is handling all the major departments in production.But the film name was later changed to "Superstar Santhosh Pandit" because the name 'Jithubhai enna chocolate bai' was already registered by someone else.[13][14] Amidst criticism, Santosh Pandit received some praise from National Award winner Salim Kumar, complimenting his effort and commented "This is indeed a big achievement considering the fact that even superstar flicks are continuously bombing at the box office these days." [15]
Awards[link]
For handling 8 departments of the film from direction to acting, Santhosh Pandit received the 2011 Ekalavya Karma Sreshta Award by Ekalavya Charitable Trust. The award was presented by veteran Malayalam actor Madhu[16] in the presence of K.B. Ganesh Kumar, Minister for Forests & Environment, Sports and Cinema, Government of Kerala.
Personal life[link]
Santhosh was born in Peruvannamuzhi village[1] and was brought up in Kozhikode city.[1] He went to school at Chelannur AKKR High School and the Government Arts College. After his parents died, he inherited three houses, one of which he sold to raise funds for his first film.Even though he was a Hindu by birth he is living as an atheist. He is divorced and has a son.[17]
Filmography[link]
| Sl. No: | Year | Film title | Director | Role | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 2011 | Krishnanum Radhayum | Santhosh Pandit | John | Released on 21 October |
| 2 | 2012 | Jithu Bhai Enna Chocolate Bhai aka Superstar Santhosh Pandit | Santhosh Pandit | Jithu Bhai | Filming in progress, songs released in YouTube |
| 3 | 2012 | Kalidasan Kavithayezhuthukayanu | Santhosh Pandit | Announced |
TeleFilm[link]
- Premaswaroopanum Koottukarum (director)
- Kalyaniyude Kalayanam (director)
Discography[link]
| No. | Title | Artist(s) | Length | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | "Rathri Shubharathri" | Santhosh Pandit | 5:03 | |
| 2. | "Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Ma Mayavi" | Santhosh Pandit, Nimmy | 4:51 | |
| 3. | "Gokulanathanayi" | Santhosh Pandit, Bhavya, Praseetha | 3:47 |
References[link]
- ^ a b c d "Santhosh Pandit interview in ManoramaOnline.com". http://www.manoramaonline.com/cgi-bin/MMOnline.dll/portal/ep/malayalamContentView.do?contentId=10399735&tabId=4&BV_ID=@@@.
- ^ "Santhosh Pandit draws techies to Nedumangad". IBN Live. http://ibnlive.in.com/news/santhosh-pandit-draws-techies-to-nedumangad/198507-60-123.html. Retrieved Nov 02, 2011.
- ^ "Google Trends Nov 10,2011". Google Inc.. http://www.google.co.in/trends/hottrends?sa=X&date=2011-11-10. Retrieved November 10, 2011.
- ^ "Santosh Pandit claims to be 6th in Google Trends list". Santhosh Pandit.. http://www.santhoshpandit.com/latest-news/pandit-hits-6th-place-on-google-trends.html. Retrieved November 10, 2011.
- ^ "Santosh Pandit second in Google Trends list". Deccan chronicle.. http://www.deccanchronicle.com/channels/showbiz/others/santosh-pandit-second-google-trends-list-483. Retrieved November 7, 2011.
- ^ "Mathrubhumi Krishananum Radhayum". Mathrubhumi. http://www.mathrubhumi.com/movies/review/224033/. Retrieved October 24, 2011.
- ^ "The Curious Case of Santosh Pandit". Malayala Manorama. http://english.manoramaonline.com/cgi-bin/MMOnline.dll/portal/ep/contentView.do?contentId=10441155&channelId=-1073865029&programId=1080133016. Retrieved November 16, 2011.
- ^ "India Vison". http://www.indiavisiontv.com/news/22-October-2011/entertainment-pandit.html. Retrieved October 24, 2011.
- ^ "In Kerala, they boo the film and make it a hit". IBN Live. http://ibnlive.in.com/news/in-kerala-they-boo-the-film-and-make-it-a-hit/205723-8-70.html. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
- ^ "Audience cheer for Santhosh". The Times Of India. October 22, 2011. http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-10-22/news-interviews/30310699_1_music-album-playback-singer-film. Retrieved October 24, 2011.
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- ^ Santhosh Pandit’s next- “Jithu Bhai enna Chocolate Bhai”. kottaka.com. September 28, 2011
- ^ "Times Of India". The Times Of India. October 22, 2011. http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-10-22/news-interviews/30310699_1_music-album-playback-singer-film. Retrieved October 25, 2011.
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- ^ "Asianet News Network :: ഒടുവില് സന്തോഷ് പണ്ഡിറ്റിന് അവാര്ഡും". http://www.asianetnews.tv/news/1783-an-award-for-santosh-pandit. Retrieved 10 November 2011.
- ^ "Unknown side of Santhosh | Deccan Chronicle". http://www.deccanchronicle.com/tabloid/all-rounders/unknown-side-santhosh-214.
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Pandit, Santhosh |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Film actor and director |
| Date of birth | January 4, 1977 |
| Place of birth | Narikkuni,
Kozhikode, Kerala, India |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Santhosh_Pandit
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santhosh_Pandit
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
