Brisbane River
Brisbane River, showing the Story Bridge and the CBD.
Country	Australia
State	Queensland
Tributaries
- left	Stanley River, Moggill Creek, Breakfast Creek
- right	Lockyer Creek, Bremer River, Oxley Creek, Norman Creek, Bulimba Creek
City	Brisbane
Source	Mount Stanley
- location	east of Nanango, Qld
- coordinates	26°39′S 152°22′E / 26.65°S 152.367°E / -26.65; 152.367
Mouth	Moreton Bay
- location	east of Brisbane, Qld
- elevation	0 m (0 ft)
- coordinates	27°24′S 153°9′E / 27.4°S 153.15°E / -27.4; 153.15
Length	344 km (214 mi)
Basin	13,600 km2 (5,300 sq mi) approx.
Wikimedia Commons: Brisbane River

The Brisbane River is the longest river in south east Queensland, Australia, and flows through the city of Brisbane, before emptying into Moreton Bay. John Oxley was the first European to explore the river who named it after the Governor of New South Wales, Thomas Brisbane in 1823. The penal colony of Moreton Bay later adopted the same name.

Early travellers along the waterway admired the natural beauty, abundant fish and rich vegetation along its banks. From 1862 the Brisbane River has been dredged for navigation purposes. The river served as an important carriageway between Brisbane and Ipswich before a railway linking the towns was built in 1875. By the late 1920s, water quality in the river was significantly deteriorated. The river contains excess nutrients, hydrocarbons, pesticides, bacteria and is murky.

The river travels 344 km (214 mi) from Mount Stanley. The river is dammed by the Wivenhoe Dam, forming Lake Wivenhoe, the main water supply for Brisbane. The waterway is a habitat for the rare Queensland lungfish, Brisbane River cod and bull sharks. The largest ship built on the river was the Robert Miller. The 66,000 tonne vessel became un-moored in the 1974 Brisbane flood. While not the highest experienced along the river since European settlement, this flood was the most damaging. Major floods also occurred in January 2011 and multiple times during 1893.

Extensive port facilities have been constructed on Fisherman's Island, now known as the Port of Brisbane. There are 16 major bridges that cross the river. The Clem Jones Tunnel, opened in 2010, is the river's first underground crossing for road transport. The CityCat ferry service collects and delivers passengers along the inner-city reaches of the river.

Course[link]

Course of the lower reaches of the Brisbane River from Ipswich to Moreton Bay.
Legend

  Brisbane River and Moreton Bay

  Road bridges

  Rail bridges

  Pedestrian only bridges

  Bus and pedestrian only bridges

Brisbane River's source is located in the Brisbane Range, east of Kingaroy.^[1] It then makes its way south, past Mount Stanley, and townships including Moore and Toogoolawah before being joined by the Stanley River, just south of Somerset Dam.

The river runs from there into Lake Wivenhoe, created by the Wivenhoe Dam. Beyond the dam, the river meanders eastward, meeting the Bremer River near Ipswich, then making its way through Brisbane's western suburbs, including Jindalee, Indooroopilly and Toowong. The river is travelled upon by CityCats and other ferries in Brisbane, winding its way through the city centre.

Water from the highest point in the catchment has fallen from Mount Langley in the Conondale Range, 868 m above sea level. The Brisbane River then flows past wharves including Pinkenba Wharf and Portside Wharf, past Bulwer Island and Luggage Point through the Port of Brisbane and into southern Bramble Bay an embayment of Moreton Bay.

Kangaroo Point Cliffs[link]

On the southern side of the river, opposite Gardens Point, are the Kangaroo Point Cliffs. The Kangaroo Point Cliffs were created by a quarrying operation that, according to Allan Cunninghams' Field Book, was underway prior to 1829 when he observed a "stone wharf presumably used for landing the blocks of stone ferried across the river for the construction of buildings in the settlement". This was in the vicinity of Edward Street ferry terminal. The volcanic rock Ignimbrite which formed the cliffs was deposited in the Triassic period about 220 million years ago.^[2] They currently form the banks of the Brisbane River.

Tributaries[link]

The following major tributaries flow into the Brisbane River from the north; Breakfast Creek, Moggill Creek and the Stanley River

On the southside Bulimba Creek, Norman Creek, Oxley Creek, Bremer River and Lockyer Creek waterways enter the Brisbane River.

The following smaller creeks also flow into the river; Cressbrook Creek, Cooyar Creek, Cubberla Creek, Wolston Creek, Woogaroo Creek, Goodna Creek, Six Mile Creek, Bundamba Creek, Pullen Pullen Creek and Kholo Creek.

History[link]

Aerial view of Brisbane and the Brisbane River.

The Brisbane River a short distance downstream of Wivenhoe Dam near Fernvale, while the spillway is open.

Before European settlement, the Brisbane River was spiritually important and a vital food source for the Aboriginal people of the Turrbal nation, primarily through fishing in the tidal sections downstream, with fishing and firestick farming in the upper reaches where there was freshwater, depending on the season. The language group common to most of the area was the Yugarabul language group.^[3]

Four European navigators, namely Captain Cook, Matthew Flinders, John Bingle^[4] and William Edwardson,^[5] all visited Moreton Bay but failed to discover the river. The exploration by Flinders took place during his expedition from Port Jackson north to Hervey Bay in 1799. He spent a total of 15 days in the area, touching down at Woody Point and several other spots, but failed to discover the mouth of the river although there were suspicions of its existence. This is consistent with accounts of many other rivers along the east coast of Australia, which could not be found by seaward exploration but were discovered by inland travellers.^[6]

On 21 March 1823, four ticket-of-leave convicts sailing south from Sydney on a timber getting mission to Illawarra, Thomas Pamphlett, John Finnegan, Richard Parsons and John Thompson were blown north by a storm. They went 21 days without water, continuing north in the belief they had been blown south, during which time Thompson died. They landed on Moreton Island on 16 April and made it to the mainland on the south of the Brisbane River. They immediately began trekking north in order to return to Sydney, still believing themselves to be somewhere south of Jervis Bay.^[7] Subsequently they became the first known Europeans to discover the river, stumbling across it somewhere near the entrance. They walked upstream along its banks for nearly a month before making their first crossing at 'Canoe Reach', the junction of Oxley Creek. It was here they stole a small canoe left by the Australian Aborigines of the region.

John Oxley was Surveyor General of New South Wales when, in the same year and under orders from Governor Brisbane, he sailed into Moreton Bay looking for a suitable new site for a convict settlement to be established. An entry in Oxley's diary on 19 November 1823 describes his surprise meeting with one of the shipwrecked men:

"We rounded the Point Skirmish about 5 o'clock and observed a number of natives running along the beach towards the vessel, the foremost much lighter in colour than the rest. We were to the last degree astonished when he came abreast the vessel to hear him hail us in good English."

By that time Pamplett and Finnegan were living with natives near Bribie Island. Parsons, who had continued to travel north in search of Sydney, was never heard of again.

On 2 December 1823, Oxley and Stirling, with Finnegan as a somewhat reluctant guide, entered the river and sailed upstream as far as present-day Goodna.^[8][9] Oxley noted the abundant fish and tall pine trees. Early European explorers marvelled at the sheer natural beauty they witnessed while travelling up the lower reaches.^[10]

Reports by early European explorers such as Allan Cunningham and Oxley indicate rainforest once fringed the Brisbane River and its major tributaries, especially on the broader floodplains such as St Lucia and Seventeen Mile Rocks. The coastal lowlands were extensively vegetated with Melaleuca woodlands in low lying, poorly drained coastal areas. When first described by Europeans, the lower reaches of the Brisbane River were fringed by a mosaic of open forest, closed forest and rainforest.^[10]

An historic photo of the Brisbane River

In the same year of 1823, the river was named after Sir Thomas Brisbane, the then Governor of New South Wales. Upon the establishment of a local settlement in 1824, other explorers such as Allan Cunningham, Patrick Logan and Major Edmund Lockyer made expeditions and surveys further upstream, and, in 1825, the Moreton Bay penal colony at Redcliffe relocated to North Quay.^[11]

The first small private wharves were built on the river in about 1848.^[12] and the once popular, shark-proof river baths were first built in 1857 at Kangaroo Point.^[13]

From 1862 the Brisbane River has been dredged for navigation purposes.^[14] Throughout much of the 20th century large quantities of sand and gravel were extracted from the estuary of the river. Since the rate of materials being deposited is not as high as that which was removed, the river has acted as a subaqueous mine.

In 1866 there was a breakwater built at the junction of the Bremer and Brisbane rivers that was designed to stop shingle from blocking the access to the Bremer's boat channel. The first pile light using kerosene was built in 1882.^[15] The steel framed light also served as an early port signal station.

20th century[link]

Goodwill Bridge and CityCat from Victoria Bridge.

By 1928, due to the early settlement of Brisbane, the water quality had deteriorated to the point where several public baths had to cease sourcing water from the river.^[16] yet even up to the 1930s, the water was said to be very clear, with reports of people seeing the river bed 5 or 6 m below the surface. Swimming was once popular at Oxley Point under the Walter Taylor Bridge.^[17] In the middle tidal reaches in more recent times, visibility has been about 0.2m.^[18] As Brisbane grew, the condition of the river worsened until at its worst it was no more than an open sewer and waste dump. The banks were cleared of timber and introduced animals and plants rapidly changed the river's ecology to its detriment.^[19]

On 25 March 1941, a USA goodwill flotilla arrived in the city docking at wharves along the River.^[20] The largest ship built on the river was the Robert Miller.^[21] Construction was near complete when the 66,000 tonne vessel became un-moored in the 1974 Brisbane flood. In 1977, Queen Elizabeth II switched on a floating fountain positioned in front of the proposed Queensland Cultural Centre. The jets pushed the floodlit river water up to 75 m in the air.^[22] 1987 was proclaimed the "Year of the River" by the Lord Mayor of Brisbane at the time, Sallyanne Atkinson.

Floods[link]

The 1893 Brisbane flood.

The Brisbane River floods frequently, although the occurrence and magnitude of flooding has diminished following the construction of the Wivenhoe Dam on the upper reaches of the River.

Past floods have resulted in both deepening and reduction in river depth, creation of new sand banks and shoals as well as increased transport of suspended sediment from upstream. Before the invention of modern dredging techniques the sediment deposited by flooding created hazards to ships navigating the river. Even medium sized vessels no longer travel up the Brisbane River beyond the city reach, and dredging of the upper reaches has ceased, allowing the river to recover substantially from the fine silt dislodged by gravel and sand extraction.

Significant floods have occurred several times since the European settlement of Brisbane. The most significant of these events was the 1974 Brisbane Flood. Notable instances of flooding include:

• 14 January 1841 (Highest flood level to date)
• March 1890
• February 1893, a sequence of flood peaks over some three weeks saw the highest recorded flood level in the Brisbane central business district. Seven lives were lost in the Eclipse Colliery at North Ipswich as a direct result of the flooding. Several other lives were lost to drownings.
• February 1931
• 27 January 1974 (Largest flood to affect Brisbane City in the 20th Century)
• 11 January 2011

Flooding along the Brisbane River has the potential to be devastating as documented in 1974 and 2011.^[23] For much of the river's length its banks are relatively high, but topped by a broad plain. The river's sinuous course means that flood waters from upstream cannot be quickly discharged into Moreton Bay. Thus higher than normal flows cause river levels to rise rapidly and once the top of the banks are breached the floodwaters can spread over wide areas of the city.

Navigation[link]

Brisbane River, taken from the grounds of Newstead House

There has been much dredging and widening work done over the years to allow ships to transport cargo to and from Brisbane. The river served as an important carriageway between Brisbane and Ipswich before a railway linking the towns was built in 1875.^[11] By early 1825 buoys were being laid along the South Passage and shortly after that the first pilots were commissioned to guide ships entering from Moreton Bay and another service for those travelling upstream.^[24] Flying boats used the waters of the river in Pinkenba, to take-off for domestic and international destinations in the 1930s.^[25]

The river depth was progressively increased and narrow points widened to allow larger vessels into the river and further upstream. For navigation and safety reasons the Seventeen Mile Rocks were completely removed in 1965 after numerous partially successful attempts in the past. The northern river bank at the mouth of the river has undergone reclamation projects over the years, especially in the suburbs of Hamilton and Pinkenba. More recently, extensive port facilities have been constructed on Fisherman's Island which has also seen significant land reclamation into the bay.

Early rivers crossings were made using small oared boat ferries, beginning in 1843,^[26] followed by steam ferries. In 1865 the first Victoria Bridge, later destroyed in a flood, was built across the river. Professor Hawken of the University of Queensland undertook a study in 1914 to identify the future crossing points for the river.

Historically, the Brisbane River contained upstream bars and shallows and had a natural tidal limit of only 16 km. The current tidal limit now extends 85 km upstream due to continual channel dredging.^[27]

Crossings[link]

As of 2012^[update] the Brisbane River is crossed by 16 major bridges(new second Gateway Bridge), including the historic Story Bridge and the tolled Sir Leo Hielscher Bridges. There are two other major bridges upstream west of Brisbane, on the D'Aguilar Highway and the Brisbane Valley Highway. The Clem Jones Tunnel, opened in 2010, is the river's first underground crossing for road transport.

Brisbane Riverwalk[link]

The Brisbane Riverwalk

The Brisbane City Council has been developing a network of riverwalk pavements along the banks of the Brisbane River.^[28] Jim Soorley, a former mayor of Brisbane, encouraged serious investment into the quality and capacity of the Brisbane riverwalk.

An interesting section is the floating walkway between the Story Bridge and Merthyr Street New Farm. Brisbane City planners require many developers of formerly private riverfront blocks to create new sections of the Brisbane Riverwalk that are accessible to the public.

During the flood in January 2011, the Lord Mayor of Brisbane, Campbell Newman authorised the destruction of the Brisbane Riverwalk to prevent it floating away and becoming a hazard downstream.^[29] The proposed demolition of the Riverwalk was later cancelled.^[30]

Early in the morning of 13 January 2011 a several hundred metre long section of the Riverwalk broke away from the main structure and floated downstream. Queensland Police temporarily closed the Sir Leo Hielscher Bridges (commonly known as the Gateway Bridge) several times as there were fears that sections of Riverwalk could collide with and damage the bridge. The largest part of the floating boardwalk was safely guided under the bridge by a tugboat and past other infrastructure before being safely secured. Other tugs and Water Police guided other Riverwalk sections under the bridge.^[30] The damaged Riverwalk will be rebuilt as a fixed structure by the Brisbane City Council.^[31] The 18 months construction is expected to commence in early 2013.^[32]

Environmental concerns[link]

During the 19th century and early 20th century, the river's surface was periodically choked by large swathes of the noxious weed known as water hyacinth. The plant was originally imported from South America.^[33]

Brisbane River from West End

Environmentally, the river is in a poor condition and has been so for many years. In 2000, the Brisbane River estuary did not meet the national guidelines for environmental standards.^[34] The lower reaches received a very poor rating in the 2008 Healthy Waterways report, an annual assessment of river water quality.^[17] The major causes of pollution are excess nutrients, hydrocarbons, pesticides and bacteria which become concentrated in the river and its sediment after flowing off surrounding lands. The river is also considered too murky and it is not recommended to swim in its waters.^[35]

Mangroves on the Brisbane River at the CityCat wharf near the QUT

Historically, the river was actively dredged by Boral Sands Inc, ostensibly to make the river navigable. The constant extraction of river bed material by dredges has had considerable effect on the river. These impacts include increased turbidity, bed and bank erosion and changes in tidal hydraulics. The tidal nature of the river and the generally muddy nature of the sands removed by dredging created a woefully sludgy clayey sediment load in the river which did not clear.

The efficacy of dredging the river upstream of the city reach to make it "navigable" was always in doubt, and the effect of the artificial sediment load in Moreton Bay grew to concern environmentalists worried that sediment was choking sea grass paddocks which were grazing territory for dugong. In a meeting concerning the matter in October 1996, including two State Government Ministers and three Mayors, an agreement to cease the dredging of sand and gravel from the river by September 30, 1997 was formed. Boral Resources Pty. Ltd. resisted the agreement, but ultimately all dredging was stopped by the agreed date.

Flora[link]

The river has several important ecological areas where remnant populations of mangroves exist; these include areas around drainage culverts, in Breakfast Creek, New Farm, a small preserve at the city bend, near the Queensland University of Technology and around the shipping terminals at the river's terminus into Moreton Bay. These mangroves have recently become classified as protected nature reserves. The noxious water hyacinth weed is still growing in stretches between Fernvale and the Mount Crosby Weir but only poses a minimal risk to drinking water supplies.^[36]

Fauna[link]

The Brisbane River at Linville, upstream from Lake Wivenhoe

The waterway is a habitat for the rare Queensland lungfish.^[37]

Brisbane River cod[link]

The freshwater reaches of the Brisbane River once supported a unique species of cod, the Brisbane River cod, which was similar to Murray cod and closely related to eastern freshwater cod and Mary River cod. Unfortunately this unique native fish became extinct somewhere between the 1930s and 1950s due to habitat degradation and overfishing. The river has been restocked with cod from the Mary River.^[38][39]

Bull sharks[link]

The Brisbane River is home to a very large population of bull sharks, thus swimming is not advised due to the dangers imposed by this predatory fish. Ipswich City Council warns against swimming as far up as Colleges Crossing.^[17] There have been three recorded shark attack deaths in the river (1880, 1901 and 1921), and one other unconfirmed death of an Aboriginal boy in 1862.^[40] The shark can be aggressive, grow up to 3 m in length and is unusual for a shark species because it can inhabit water containing less than 50% seawater.^[41]

Events[link]

It has been suggested that Riverfestival be merged into this article or section. (Discuss) Proposed since September 2010.

The Brisbane River hosts numerous events including the Riverfestival, Riverfire and the Brisbane River Classic fishing competition. Many schools and clubs use the river to conduct rowing regattas on Milton Reach. Sailing regattas are also held on this reach as well as the Hamilton reach.

See also[link]

Queensland portal

• Bridges over the Brisbane River
• Brisbane River Stage
• List of Brisbane ferry wharves
• List of rivers of Australia

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Department of Harbours and Marine 1986 "Harbours and Marine Port and Harbour Development in Queensland from 1824 to 1985" pp. 25 Queensland Government Department of Harbours and Marine
• J. G. Steele 1975 Brisbane Town in Convict Days 1824-42 pp. 118 University of Queensland Press
• Longhurst, Robert; William Douglas. The Brisbane River: A pictoral history. Brisbane, W.D. Incorporated Pty. Ltd.
• McLeod, G Roderick (1990). "Some aspects of the History of the Brisbane River". In Peter Davie, Errol Stock, Darryl Low Choy (Ed.), The Brisbane River: a source-book for the future, Australian Littoral Society in association with the Queensland Museum.

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Brisbane River

• Historical Brisbane River Map
• History of Brisbane flooding — Bureau of Meteorology official website

Brisbane Queensland
The Brisbane skyline from Kangaroo Point
Brisbane
Population:	2,074,222 (2011)[1] (3rd)
• Density:	346.0/km² (896.1/sq mi) (2006)[2]
Established:	1824
Coordinates:	27°28′22″S 153°01′40″E / 27.47278°S 153.02778°E / -27.47278; 153.02778Coordinates: 27°28′22″S 153°01′40″E / 27.47278°S 153.02778°E / -27.47278; 153.02778
Area:	5904.8 km² (2,279.9 sq mi) [3]
Time zone:	AEST (UTC+10)
Location:	931 km (578 mi) N of Sydney 1692 km (1,051 mi) NNE of Melbourne 1969 km (1,223 mi) NE of Adelaide 4262 km (2,648 mi) E of Perth 1450 km (901 mi) NNE of Canberra
LGA:	Brisbane Ipswich Logan Moreton Bay Redland Scenic Rim (part)
Region:	South East Queensland
County:	Stanley, Canning, Ward
State electorate:	41 divisions
Federal Division:	17 divisions
Mean max temp Mean min temp Annual rainfall 26.4 °C 80 °F 16.2 °C 61 °F 965.7 mm 38 in

Brisbane ( /ˈbrɪzbən/)^[4] is the capital and most populous city in the Australian state of Queensland and the third most populous city in Australia. Brisbane's metropolitan area has a population of approximately 2.1 million, and the South East Queensland urban conurbation, centred around Brisbane, encompasses a population of more than 3 million.^[5] The Brisbane central business district stands on the original European settlement and is situated inside a bend of the Brisbane River, approximately 23 km (14 mi) from its mouth at Moreton Bay. The metropolitan area extends in all directions along the floodplain of the Brisbane River valley between the bay and the Great Dividing Range. While the metropolitan area is governed by several municipalities, a large portion of central Brisbane is governed by the Brisbane City Council, which is by far Australia's largest Local Government Area by population. The demonym of Brisbane is Brisbanite.

Brisbane is named after the river on which it sits, which, in turn, was named after Scotsman Sir Thomas Brisbane, the Governor of New South Wales from 1821 to 1825. The first European settlement in Queensland was a penal colony at Redcliffe, 28 kilometres (17 mi) north of the Brisbane central business district, in 1824. That settlement was soon abandoned and moved to North Quay in 1825. Free settlers were permitted from 1842. Brisbane was chosen as the capital when Queensland was proclaimed a separate colony from New South Wales in 1859.

The city played a central role in the Allied campaign during World War II as the South West Pacific headquarters for General Douglas MacArthur. Furthermore, Brisbane has hosted many large cultural and sporting events, including the 1982 Commonwealth Games, World Expo '88 and the final Goodwill Games in 2001. Brisbane is the largest economy between Sydney and Singapore, and as of 2008 is classified as a Global city.^[6] It was also rated the 16th most livable city in the world in 2009 by the Economist Intelligence Unit.

History[link]

The Old Windmill in Wickham Park, built by convicts in 1824.

RAAF recruits marching along Queen Street, August 1940.

Nineteenth century[link]

Prior to European settlement, the Brisbane area was inhabited by the Turrbal and Jagera people.^[7] They knew the area that is now the central business district as Mian-jin, meaning "place shaped as a spike".^[8] The Moreton Bay area was initially explored by Matthew Flinders. On 17 July 1799, Flinders landed at what is now known as Woody Point, which he named "Red Cliff Point", after the red-coloured cliffs visible from the bay.^[9] In 1823, Governor of New South Wales, Thomas Brisbane, instructed that a new northern penal settlement be developed, and an exploration party led by John Oxley further explored Moreton Bay.^[10]

Oxley discovered, named and explored the Brisbane River as far as Goodna, 20 kilometres (12 mi) upstream from the Brisbane central business district.^[10] Oxley recommended Red Cliff Point for the new colony, reporting that ships could land at any tide and easily get close to the shore.^[11] The party settled in Redcliffe on 13 September 1824, under the command of Lieutenant Henry Miller with 14 soldiers (some with wives and children) and 29 convicts. However, this settlement was abandoned after a year, and the colony was moved to a site on the Brisbane River now known as North Quay, 28 kilometres (17 mi) south, which offered a more reliable water supply. Chief Justice Forbes gave the new settlement the name of Edenglassie before it was named Brisbane.^[12] Non-convict European settlement of the Brisbane region commenced in 1838.^[13] German missionaries settled at Zions Hill, Nundah, as early as 1837, five years before Brisbane was officially declared a free settlement. The band consisted of two ministers, Christopher Eipper (1813–1894) and Carl Wilhelm Schmidt, and lay missionaries Haussmann, Johann Gottried Wagner, Niquet, Hartenstein, Zillman, Franz, Rode, Doege and Schneider.^[14] They were allocated 260 hectares and set about establishing the mission, which became known as the German Station.^[15]

Free settlers entered the area over the following five years and by the end of 1840 Robert Dixon began work on the first plan of Brisbane Town, in anticipation of future development.^[16] Queensland was proclaimed a separate colony on 6 June 1859,^[17] with Brisbane chosen as its capital, although it was not incorporated as a city until 1902.

Twentieth century[link]

ANZAC Square and the Shrine of Remembrance in 1930.

World Expo 88 at South Bank Parklands.

Over twenty small municipalities and shires were amalgamated in 1925, to form the City of Brisbane, governed by the Brisbane City Council.^[18][19] 1930 was a significant year for Brisbane, with the completion of Brisbane City Hall, then the city's tallest building and the Shrine of Remembrance, in ANZAC Square, which has become Brisbane's main war memorial.^[20] These historic buildings along with the Story Bridge, opened in 1940^[21] are key landmarks that help define the character of the city.

During World War II, Brisbane became central to the Allied campaign when the AMP Building (now called MacArthur Central) was used as the South West Pacific headquarters for General Douglas MacArthur, chief of the Allied Pacific forces, until his headquarters were moved to Hollandia in August 1944. MacArthur had previously rejected use of the University of Queensland complex as his headquarters, as the distinctive bends in the river at St Lucia could have aided enemy bombers. Also used as a headquarters by the American troops during World War II was the T & G Building.^[22] Approximately 1 million US troops passed through Australia during the war, as the primary coordination point for the South West Pacific.^[23] In 1942 Brisbane was the site of a violent clash between visiting US military personnel and Australian servicemen and civilians which resulted in one death and several injuries. This incident became known colloquially as the Battle of Brisbane.^[24]

Postwar Brisbane had developed a "big country town" stigma, an image the city's politicians and marketers were very keen to remove.^[25] In the late 1950s an anonymous poet known as The Brisbane Bard generated much attention on the city which helped to shake this stigma.^[26][27] Despite steady growth, Brisbane's development was punctuated by infrastructure problems. The State government under Joh Bjelke-Petersen began a major program of change and urban renewal, beginning with the central business district and inner suburbs. Trams in Brisbane were a popular mode of public transport, until the network was closed in 1969, leaving Melbourne as the last Australian city to operate a tram network. The 1974 Brisbane flood was a major disaster which temporarily crippled the city. During this era, Brisbane grew and modernised rapidly becoming a destination of interstate migration. Some of Brisbane's popular landmarks were lost, including the Bellevue Hotel in 1979 and Cloudland in 1982, demolished in controversial circumstances by the Deen Brothers demolition crew. Major public works included the Riverside Expressway, the Gateway Bridge, and later, the redevelopment of South Bank, starting with the Queensland Art Gallery.

Brisbane hosted the 1982 Commonwealth Games and the 1988 World Exposition (known locally as World Expo 88). These events were accompanied by a scale of public expenditure, construction and development not previously seen in the state of Queensland.^[28][29] Brisbane's population growth has exceeded the national average every year since 1990 at an average rate of around 2.2% per year.

Twenty-first century[link]

After two decades of record population growth, Brisbane was again hit by a major flood in January 2011. The Brisbane River did not reach the same height as the previous 1974 flood but still caused extensive damage and disruption to the city.^[30][31]

Geography[link]

Satellite image of Brisbane Metropolitan Area.

Brisbane is in the southeast corner of Queensland, Australia. The city is centred along the Brisbane River, and its eastern suburbs line the shores of Moreton Bay. The greater Brisbane region is on the coastal plain east of the Great Dividing Range. Brisbane's metropolitan area sprawls along the Moreton Bay floodplain from Caboolture in the north to Beenleigh in the south, and across to Ipswich in the south west.

The city of Brisbane is based on a hilly surface.^[32] The urban area, including the central business district, are partially elevated by spurs of the Herbert Taylor Range, such as the summit of Mount Coot-tha, reaching up to 300 metres (980 ft) and the smaller Enoggera Hill. Other prominent rises in Brisbane are Mount Gravatt and nearby Toohey Mountain. Mount Petrie at 170 metres (560 ft) and the lower rises of Highgate Hill, Mount Ommaney, Stephens Mountain and Whites Hill are dotted across the city.

The city is on a low-lying floodplain.^[33] Many suburban creeks criss-cross the city, increasing the risk of flooding. The city has suffered three major floods since colonisation, in February 1893, January 1974, and January 2011. The 1974 Brisbane flood occurred partly as a result of "Cyclone Wanda". Heavy rain had fallen continuously for three weeks before the Australia Day weekend flood (26 – 27 January 1974).^[34] The flood damaged many parts of the city, especially the suburbs of Oxley, Bulimba, Rocklea, Coorparoo, Toowong and New Farm. The City Botanic gardens were inundated, leading to a new colony of mangroves forming in the City Reach of the Brisbane River.^[35]

Urban structure[link]

Brisbane's skyline, viewed from Kangaroo Point is one of the most extensive in the Southern hemisphere.

The Brisbane central business district (CBD) lies in a curve of the Brisbane river. The CBD covers 2.2 km² (0.8 sq mi) and is walkable. Central streets are named after members of the royal family. Queen Street is Brisbane's traditional main street. Streets named after female members (Adelaide, Alice, Ann, Charlotte, Elizabeth, Margaret, Mary) run parallel to Queen Street and Queen Street Mall (named in honour of Queen Victoria) and perpendicular to streets named after male members (Albert, Edward, George, William). The city has retained some heritage buildings dating back to 1820's. The Old Windmill, in Wickham Park, built by convict labour in 1824,^[36][37] is the oldest surviving building in Brisbane. The Old Windmill was originally used for the grinding of grain and a punishment for the convicts who manually operated the grinding mill. The Old Windmill tower’s other significant claim to fame, largely ignored, is that the first television signals in the southern hemisphere were transmitted from it by experimenters in April 1934 – long before TV commenced in most places. These experimental TV broadcasts continued until World War II.^[36] The Old Commissariat Store, on William Street, built by convict labour in 1828, was originally used partly as a grainhouse, has also been a hostel for immigrants and used for the storage of records. Built with Brisbane tuff from the nearby Kangaroo Point Cliffs and sandstone from a quarry near today's Albion Park Racecourse, it is now the home of the Royal Historical Society of Brisbane. It contains a museum and can also be hired for small functions.^[38][39][40] The city has a density of 379.4 people per square kilometre, which is high for an Australian city and comparable to that of Sydney. However like many western cities, Brisbane sprawls into the greater metropolitan area. This results from the fact that most of Brisbane's housing stock consists of detached houses.

Early legislation decreed a minimum size for residential blocks resulting in few terrace houses being constructed in Brisbane. Recently the density of the city and inner city neighbourhoods has increased with the construction of apartments, with the result that the population of the central business district has doubled over the last 5 years.^[41] The high density housing that historically existed came in the form of miniature Queenslander-style houses which resemble the much larger traditional styles but are sometimes only one quarter the size. These miniature Queenslanders are becoming scarce but can still be seen in the inner city suburbs. Multi residence accommodations (such as apartment blocks) are relatively new to Brisbane, with few such blocks built before 1970, other than in inner suburbs such as New Farm. Pre-1950 housing was often built in a distinctive architectural style known as a Queenslander, featuring timber construction with large verandahs and high ceilings. The relatively low cost of timber in South-East Queensland meant that until recently most residences were constructed of timber, rather than brick or stone. Many of these houses are elevated on stumps (also called "stilts"), that were originally timber, but are now frequently replaced by steel or concrete. Brisbane is home to several of Australia's tallest buildings. Brisbane's tallest buildings are Soleil at 243 metres, Aurora Tower at 207 metres, Riparian Plaza at 200 metres, One One One Eagle Street at 195 metres, and Infinity, at 249 metres, which is currently under construction.^[42]

Walter Taylor Bridge (road) (left), Albert Bridge (rail) (centre), unnamed bridge (rail) (right), Jack Pesch Bridge (far right) Eleanor Schonell Bridge (Green Bridge) (pedestrians, pedal cycles, buses) Merivale Bridge (rail) William Jolly Bridge (road) Victoria Bridge Captain Cook Bridge Story Bridge Pacific Motorway Suncorp Stadium (Lang Park) (Rugby league/Rugby Union/Soccer ground) Norman Creek (Anglican Church Grammar School) Oxley Creek Brisbane River Indooroopilly Shoppingtown "The Gabba" (Brisbane Cricket Ground) South Bank arts and recreation precinct Central business district University of Queensland (UQ) St Lucia Campus City Botanic Gardens Queensland University of Technology (QUT) Gardens Point Campus Goodwill Bridge (pedestrians and pedal cycles) The Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital and the Royal Children's Hospital Mater Private Hospital Roma Street Rail Station Roma Street Parkland New Farm Park and Powerhouse Victoria Park Golf Course Brisbane Exhibition Ground Brisbane Riverwalk (Destroyed in 2011 floods) Inner City Bypass (rail) (left) (road) (right) Indooroopilly Golf Course (Long Pocket)

Climate[link]

This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates flooding in suburbs of the Brisbane metropolitan region during early 2011.

Brisbane has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa) with warm to hot and humid summers and dry, moderately warm winters.^[43][44] From November to March, thunderstorms are common over Brisbane, with the more severe events accompanied by large damaging hail stones, torrential rain and destructive winds.

The city's highest recorded temperature was 43.2 °C (110 °F) on 26 January 1940. On 19 July 2007, Brisbane's temperature fell below the freezing point for the first time since records began, registering −0.1 °C (31.8 °F) at the airport.^[45] In 2009 Brisbane recorded its hottest winter day at 35.4 °C (95.7 °F) on 24 August.^[46] Brisbane's wettest day occurred on 21 January 1887, when 465 millimetres (18.3 in) of rain fell on the city, the highest maximum daily rainfall of Australia's capital cities.

From 2001 until 2010, Brisbane and surrounding temperate areas had been experiencing the most severe drought in over a century, with dam levels dropping to 16.9% of their capacity on 10 August 2007. Residents were mandated by local laws to observe level 6 water restrictions on gardening and other outdoor water usage. Per capita water usage is below 140 litres per day, giving Brisbane one of the lowest per capita usages of water of any developed city in the world.^[47] On Sunday 9 January 2011, an upper low crossed north of Brisbane and dropped rainfall on an already saturated southeast coast of Queensland, resulting in severe flooding and damage in Brisbane and the surrounding area,^[48] ironically the same storm season also resulted in the water storage climbing to over 98% of maximum capacity and breaking the drought.^[49] Water restrictions have been replaced with water conservation measures that aim at a target of 200 litres per day/per person, but consumption is rarely over 160 litres. Dust storms in Brisbane are extremely rare; on 23 September 2009, however, a severe dust storm blanketed Brisbane, as well as other parts of eastern Australia.^[50][51]

Brisbane also lies in the Tropical Cyclone risk area. Although cyclones hitting Brisbane are rare, they have happened in the past. The last cyclone to affect Brisbane but not directly cross the city was Tropical Cyclone Hamish in March 2009, although the cyclone remained approx 350 km (220 mi) north of Brisbane^[52] but caused significant damage to beaches and caused the worst oil spill in Moreton Bay.^[53] Average annual temperature of the sea is 24 °C (75 °F), from 21 °C (70 °F) in July to 27 °C (81 °F) in February.^[54]

In November 2011, Brisbane saw 22 days with no recorded rainfall, which is the driest start to November since 1919.^[55]