- published: 18 Sep 2009
- views: 88862
- author: AllHistories
Vimeo results:
Youtube results:
More Videos
Loading...
Open Collage in a new Window
Email the Collage
- Loading...
Loading suggestions ...
- Abaqa Khan
- Abbasid Caliphate
- Abbasids
- Achaemenid Empire
- Acre, Israel
- Adal Sultanate
- Afghanistan
- Afsharid dynasty
- Aimak
- Aju
- Ajuuraan State
- Akkadian Empire
- Al-Mustasim
- Al-Nasir Yusuf
- Alania
- Alans
- Alaouite dynasty
- Albania
- Alghu
- Almaliq, China
- Almohad Caliphate
- Almoravid dynasty
- Altai Range
- Ambaghai
- Anatolia
- Ancient history
- Anda (Mongol)
- Angevin Empire
- Antioch
- Arghun
- Arghun the Elder
- Ariq Boke
- Ariq Böke
- Armenia
- Assassins
- Astrakhan Khanate
- Ata al-Mulk Juvayni
- Austria-Hungary
- Austrian Empire
- Avarga
- Ayyubid
- Ayyubid dynasty
- Azania
- Azaq
- Azerbaijan
- Babenberg
- Babur
- Banknote
- Bantam Books
- Bashkirs
- Battle of Ain Jalut
- Battle of Bhamo
- Battle of Bun'ei
- Battle of Kōan
- Battle of Legnica
- Battle of Mohi
- Battle of Pagan
- Battle of Xiangyang
- Batu Khan
- Bayan (khan)
- Bayan of the Baarin
- Beijing
- Bela IV
- Belarus
- Benin Empire
- Berdibek
- Berke
- Berke–Hulagu war
- Biological weapon
- Bixi (tortoise)
- Black Death
- Blackwell
- Blackwell Publishing
- Bo'orchu
- Bohemia
- Bolghar
- Bordeaux
- Borjigin
- Bornu Empire
- Borokhul
- Borte
- Boydell & Brewer
- British Empire
- Buddhism
- Buddhist
- Buddhist monasteries
- Bukhara
- Bulgarian Empire
- Bulgars
- Burma
- Burundai
- Buyid dynasty
- Byzantine Empire
- Büri
- Caliphate
- Caliphate of Córdoba
- Carolingian Empire
- Caspian Sea
- Cathay
- Caucasus
- Central Asia
- Chagatai Khan
- Chagatai Khanate
- Chagatai khans
- Champa
- Chao (currency)
- Chilaun
- China
- Chinese culture
- Chola Dynasty
- Chormaqan
- Christian
- Christian churches
- Christianity
- Christopher Columbus
- Chupan
- Chuvash people
- Cilicia
- Coin
- Colin McEvedy
- Colonial empire
- Commodity
- Crimea
- Crimean Khanate
- Croats
- Crown of Aragon
- Dali Kingdom
- Darqan
- Darugachi
- Decimal
- Delhi Sultanate
- Dervish State
- Diffusion
- Dirham
- Divide and rule
- Dogsled
- Dutch Empire
- Duwa
- Dzungars
- Eastern Europe
- Eastern world
- Edict
- Elective monarchy
- Eljigidei
- Eljigidey
- Emperor of China
- Empire
- Empire of Brazil
- Empire of Japan
- Ertenids
- Esen Buqa I
- Ethiopian Empire
- Eurasia
- Fatimid Caliphate
- Feodosiya
- First French Empire
- First Mexican Empire
- Flag of the Mongols
- Freedom of religion
- Gaeseong
- Game
- Ganghwa Island
- Genghis Khan
- Genghisids
- Gengis Khan
- George Vernadsky
- Georgia (country)
- German Empire
- Ghana Empire
- Ghazan
- Ghaznavids
- Gobroon Dynasty
- Gojong of Goryeo
- Golden Horde
- Goryeo
- Great Horde
- Great Khan
- Great Seljuq Empire
- Greenwood Press
- Guillaume Boucher
- Guo Kan
- Gupta Empire
- Gurjara-Pratihara
- Güyük
- Güyük Khan
- Han Chinese
- Han Dynasty
- Hashshashin
- Hazara people
- Hedwig of Poland
- Historical powers
- History of China
- History of France
- History of Germany
- History of Haiti
- History of India
- History of Iran
- History of Manchuria
- History of Mongolia
- History of Morocco
- History of Siberia
- Holy Roman Empire
- Hospitallers
- House of Ogedei
- Huai River
- Hulagu
- Hulegu
- Hunnic Empire
- Hyperinflation
- Ideology
- Idrisid dynasty
- Ifat Sultanate
- Il-Khanate
- Ilkhanate
- Imperial Guard
- Inca Empire
- India
- Indian subcontinent
- Indiana University
- Infobase Publishing
- Inner Mongolia
- Iran
- Iraq
- Islam
- Islamic world
- Ismailis
- Italian Empire
- Ivan III of Russia
- Jalayir
- Jami' al-tawarikh
- Jamukha
- Janibeg
- Jared Diamond
- Jarliq
- Jebe
- Jelme
- Jinong
- Jochi
- Jurchens
- Jöchi Khasar
- Kaaba
- Kadan
- Kaidu
- Kaifeng
- Kaiping
- Kalmyk Republic
- Kanem Empire
- Karakorum
- Kashmir
- Kaykaus II
- Kazakh language
- Kazakhstan
- Kazan Khanate
- Kebek
- Kelly DeVries
- Kereit
- Khabul Khan
- Khagan
- Khagan Khayisan
- Khaghan
- Khalkha
- Khamag Mongol
- Khan (title)
- Khanate of Sibir
- Khanates
- Khanbaliq
- Khanum
- Khatun
- Kheshig
- Khevtuul
- Khmer Empire
- Khong Tayiji
- Khorchin
- Khubilai (General)
- Khwarazmian dynasty
- Khwarezmid Empire
- Kiev
- Kievan Rus'
- Kilij Arslan IV
- King Gongmin
- Kingdom of Aksum
- Kingdom of Hungary
- Kingdom of Kush
- Kitbuqa
- Knights Templar
- Konye-Urgench
- Korean Empire
- Korean Peninsula
- Kubilai Khan
- Kublai
- Kublai Khan
- Kurultai
- Kusala
- Kushan Empire
- Kypchak
- Kyrgyzstan
- Köchü
- Lahore
- Land of Punt
- Laos
- Legnica
- Lesser Armenia
- Liao Dynasty
- List of empires
- List of Mongol Khans
- Lithuania
- London
- Longman
- Macmillan of Canada
- Maghas
- Majapahit
- Majar
- Majeerteen Sultanate
- Mali Empire
- Manchuria
- Manchus
- Mangudai
- Manichaeism
- Maragheh
- Maratha Empire
- Marco Polo
- Marco Polo Bridge
- Marinid dynasty
- Maurya Empire
- Medes
- Mengjiang
- Meritocracy
- Merkit
- Mexican Empire
- Michael Prawdin
- Middle Ages
- Middle East
- Mikhail of Tver
- Ming Dynasty
- Modern history
- Moghulistan
- Moko Shurai Ekotoba
- Moldova
- Mongke Khan
- Mongke Temur
- Mongol
- Mongol Army
- Mongol conquests
- Mongol Empire
- Mongol invasions
- Mongolia
- Mongolian language
- Mongolian nobility
- Mongolian plateau
- Mongolian script
- Mongols
- Moravia
- Mordvin
- Moscow principality
- Mosques
- Mounted archer
- Mughal Empire
- Mughan
- Muhi
- Multan
- Muqali
- Muslim
- Myanmar
- Möngke Khan
- Naimans
- Navy
- Nazi Germany
- Negudar
- Neo-Assyrian Empire
- New Kingdom
- Nikolay Kradin
- Nizari
- Nogai Horde
- Nogai Khan
- North China
- North Korea
- North Sea Empire
- Northern Yuan
- Novgorod
- Noyan
- Ogedei
- Oghul Qaimish
- Orda Khan
- Ordo (palace)
- Ortoo
- Ottoman Empire
- Outer Mongolia
- Oyo Empire
- Ozbeg
- Pahlavi dynasty
- Paiza
- Pakistan
- Pala Empire
- Parliament
- Parthian Empire
- Pax Mongolica
- Persian architecture
- Persian Empire
- Persian language
- Persian miniature
- Persianate society
- Philip IV of France
- Poland
- Poles
- Pony Express
- Pope Innocent IV
- Pope John XXII
- Portuguese Empire
- Predecessor state
- Ptolemaic Kingdom
- Puxian Wannu
- Qajar dynasty
- Qara Hülëgü
- Qarshi
- Qazvin
- Qin Dynasty
- Qing Dynasty
- R. J. Rummel
- Rabban Bar Sauma
- Rashidun Caliphate
- Red Turban Rebellion
- Religion
- René Grousset
- Republic of Buryatia
- Republic of China
- Republic of Genoa
- Richard Foltz
- Rogerius of Apulia
- Roman Empire
- Romania
- Rukn ud-Din
- Rum
- Rus' (region)
- Russia
- Russian Empire
- Ryazan
- Saadi dynasty
- Safavid dynasty
- Sajó
- Sakhalin
- Sallarid
- Samanids
- Samarkand
- Sarai (city)
- Saray-Jük
- Sartaq
- Sassanid Empire
- Sea of Japan
- Seattle
- Second French Empire
- Selection
- Seleucid Empire
- Seljuks
- Serbia
- Serbian Empire
- Shah
- Shamanism
- Shan people
- Shangdu
- Shiites
- Siberia
- Sichuan
- Siege of Bilär
- Sikh Empire
- Silk Road
- Sinicize
- Solomonic dynasty
- Soltaniyeh
- Somali people
- Song Dynasty
- Songhai Empire
- Sorghaghtani Beki
- South Asia
- South Central China
- South Korea
- Southeast Asia
- Southern Song
- Spanish Empire
- Srivijaya
- St. Martin's Press
- Subutai
- Sufi
- Sui Dynasty
- Sukhe
- Sultanate of Hobyo
- Sunni
- Suzdal
- Swedish Empire
- Syria
- Tabriz
- Tahirid Dynasty
- Taipei, Taiwan
- Tajikistan
- Takezaki Suenaga
- Tang Dynasty
- Tangut people
- Tanguts
- Taoism
- Tatar confederation
- Tax system
- Technology
- Template Empires
- Temuge
- Temur Khan
- Tengrism
- Teotihuacan
- Teutonic Knights
- Thailand
- Thomas Dunne Books
- Three Rivers Press
- Tibet
- Timur
- Timurid dynasty
- Timurid Empire
- Togha Temür
- Toghan Temur
- Tokhta
- Tolui
- Toqta
- Toregene
- Torghuds
- Trade
- Transcaucasia
- Transoxiana
- Transylvania
- Trebuchet
- Tripoli
- Trần Dynasty
- Tu'i Tonga Empire
- Tugh Temur
- Tumen
- Turkey
- Turkic peoples
- Turkmenistan
- Töregene Khatun
- Uchch
- Ukek
- Ukraine
- Umayyad Caliphate
- Uyghur language
- Uyghur people
- Uyghur script
- Uzbeg Khan
- Uzbekistan
- Vasily Vereshchagin
- Vienna
- Vietnam
- Vladimir
- Volga Bulgaria
- W.W. Norton & Co.
- Wang Khan
- Warsangali Sultanate
- Water Tatars
- Western Roman Empire
- Western world
- Western Xia
- White Horde
- Wikipedia Media help
- William of Rubruck
- WP NOTRS
- Wuchang District
- Xacitarxan
- Yam (route)
- Yangtze River
- Yassa
- Yesü Möngke
- Yuan Dynasty
- Yunnan
- Zagwe dynasty
- Zand dynasty
- Zawkhan River
- Ziyarid dynasty
- Zunghar Khanate
- Ögedei Khan
- Öljaitü
-
Achaemenid Empire
The Achaemenid Empire (/ækəˈmɛnɪˌdi/; Old Persian: Parsā, name of ruling dynasty: Haxāmanišiya) (c. 550–330 BCE), sometimes known as First Persian Empire, was an Iranian empire in Southwest Asia, founded in the 6th century BCE by Cyrus the Great who overthrew the Median confederation. It expanded to eventually rule over significant portions of the ancient world which at around 500 BCE stretched from the Indus Valley in the east, to Thrace and Macedon on the northeastern border of Greece making it the biggest empire the world had yet seen. The Achaemenid Empire would eventually control Egypt as well. It was ruled by a series of monarchs who unified its disparate tribes and nationalities by constructing a complex network of roads.
Calling themselves the Parsa after their original Aryan tribal name Parsua, Persians settled in a land which they named Parsua, bounded on the west by the Tigris River and on the south by the Persian Gulf. This became their heartland for the duration of the Achaemenid Empire. It was from this region that eventually Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II of Persia) would advance to defeat the Median, the Lydian, and the Babylonian Empires, opening the way for subsequent conquests into Egypt and Asia minor.
wn.com/Achaemenid_Empire -
Acre, Israel
Acre (Hebrew: עַכּוֹ, Akko; Arabic: عكّا, ʻAkkā), is a city in the Western Galilee region of northern Israel at the northern extremity of Haifa Bay. Acre is one of the oldest continuously inhabited sites in the country.
Historically, it was a strategic coastal link to the Levant. Acre is the holiest city of the Bahá'í Faith. In 2009, the population was 46,300. Acre is a mixed city, 72 percent Jewish and 28 percent Arab. The mayor is Shimon Lankri, who was re-elected in 2011.
The source of the name Akko is unknown. The Egyptians used it as long ago as the second millennium BC, but as it appears in the hieroglyphics as merely two consonants, its pronunciation is unknown.
In the Amarna letters, written in Akkadian, the letter "H" is used to signify the guttural Hebrew letters alef-heh-chet-ayin, and therefore it was possible to write the name of the city as if it were "Haca" or "Aca". Had the name not been preserved, we would not have been able to identify it with certainty with the name that appears in hieroglyphics. In Assyrian the name has been preserved with the spelling "AKK".
wn.com/Acre,_Israel -
Afghanistan
Afghanistan
i/æfˈɡænɨstæn/ (Persian/Pashto: افغانستان, Afġānistān), officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located in the centre of Asia, forming part of South Asia, Central Asia, and Greater Middle East, it is also considered to be part of a broader West Asia. With a population of about 29 million, it has an area of 647,500 km2 (250,001 sq mi), making it the 42nd most populous and 41st largest nation in the world. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and the east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China in the far northeast.
Afghanistan has been an ancient focal point of the Silk Road and human migration. Archaeologists have found evidence of human habitation from as far back as 50,000 BC. Urban civilization may have begun in the area as early as 3,000 to 2,000 BC. Sitting at an important geostrategic location that connects the Middle East with Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent, the land has been home to various peoples through the ages and witnessed many military campaigns, notably by Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, and in modern era Western forces. The land also served as a source from which the Greco-Bactrians, Kushans, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Timurids, Mughals and many others have risen to form major empires.
wn.com/Afghanistan -
Aju
Aju (or Achu) (1227–1287) was a general and chancellor of the Mongol Empire and the Yuan Dynasty. He was from the Jarchud clan of the Mongol Uriankhai.
His grandfather was Subutai, the honored general and Noyan of Genghis Khan, his father was Uryankhadai.
In 1253 he followed his father and subdued western Chinese people and conquered the Kingdom of Dali. Uryankhadai and Aju led 3,000 Mongols and more than 10,000 troops from Dali tribes to northern Vietnam in 1255. The king of the Tran Dynasty agreed to send tributes after his defeat in open battle; this lasted until the reign of Kublai.
He and his father supported the Great Khan Mongke and Kublai's forces in 1258. Aju commanded a tumen, 10,000 men in his earlier career. They conquered 13 cities within 2 years and destroyed 40,000 troops of the Song Dynasty while his father was ill. After the occupation of Chingzhoua and Yovajiyu, Uryankhadai met prince Kublai at Echjou.
When Kublai succeeded the throne in 1260, Aju stayed in his palace. The following year, he was ordered to lead Yuan troops in Lianshui (涟水). He crushed Song armies and navies from 1261 to 1275. He captured Fancheng (樊城) by using Khotan artillery during the Battle of Xiangyang and its governor committed suicide.
wn.com/Aju -
Akkadian Empire
Coordinates: 33°6′N 44°6′E / 33.1°N 44.1°E / 33.1; 44.1
The Akkadian Empire (Akkadian URUAkkad KI, Hittite KUR A.GA.DÈ.KI "land of Akkad"; Biblical Hebrew אַכַּד Akkad) was an empire centered in the city of Akkad (Sumerian: Agade) and its surrounding region in Mesopotamia.
During the 3rd millennium BC, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the Sumerians and the Akkadians, which included widespread bilingualism.Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate).
The Akkadian Empire reached its political peak between the 24th and 22nd centuries BC, following the conquests of its founder Sargon of Akkad (2334–2279 BC). Under Sargon and his successors, Akkadian language was briefly imposed on neighboring conquered states such as Elam. Akkad is sometimes regarded as the first empire in history, though there are earlier Sumerian claimants.[citation needed]
The precise archaeological site of the city of Akkad has not yet been found.[citation needed] The form Agade appears in Sumerian, for example in the Sumerian King List; the later Assyro-Babylonian form Akkadû ("of or belonging to Akkad") was likely derived from this. The etymology and meaning of Akkad (written a.ga.dèKI or URIKI) are unknown. Centuries later, the neo-Babylonian king Nabonidus mentioned in his archaeological records that Ishtar's worship in Agade was later superseded by that of the goddess Anunit, whose shrine was at Sippar—suggesting proximity of Sippar and Agade. Despite numerous searches, the city has never been found. One theory holds that Agade was situated opposite Sippar on the left bank of the Euphrates, and was perhaps the oldest part of the city of Sippar. Another theory is that the ruins of Akkad are to be found beneath modern Baghdad. Reputedly it was destroyed by invading Gutians with the fall of the Akkadian Empire.
wn.com/Akkadian_Empire -
Albania
Albania (i/ælˈbeɪniə/ al-BAY-nee-ə, Albanian: Shqipëri/Shqipëria; Gheg Albanian: Shqipnia), officially known as the Republic of Albania (Albanian: Republika e Shqipërisë pronounced Albanian pronunciation: [ɾɛpuˈblika ɛ ʃcipəˈɾiːs]), is a country in Southern Europe. It is bordered by Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, the Republic of Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south and southeast. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea to the west, and on the Ionian Sea to the southwest. It is less than 72 km (45 mi) from Italy, across the Strait of Otranto which links the Adriatic Sea to the Ionian Sea.
Albania is a member of the UN, NATO, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Council of Europe, World Trade Organisation, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and one of the founding members of the Union for the Mediterranean. Albania has been a potential candidate for accession to the European Union since January 2003, and it formally applied for EU membership on 28 April 2009.
wn.com/Albania -
Almaliq, China
Almalik (Chinese: 阿力麻里; pinyin: Ālìmálǐ, also transcribed Almaliq) was a medieval city in northwest China's Ili river basin. Its site is located within the present-day Huocheng County in the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture of China's Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, between the city of Yining and the border with Kazakhstan.
Almalik was originally one of Karluk cities in the Turkic Kaganates. It is known from the accounts of the Persian historians and Chinese travellers of the Mongol era (13th to 15th centuries), in particular the Daoist Qiu Chuji (a.k.a. Chang Chun) (1221).
According to the travel notes of Genghis Khan's chief adviser Yelü Chucai, the city of Almalik was situated between Tian Shan and Ili River. There were plenty of crab apple trees around Almalik. The native people called the crab apple "almalik", giving the name to the city.
An account by a Persian historian tells that in 1211, Prince Ozar of Almalik acknowledged the supremacy of Genghis Khan. The king was later killed by the Gurkhan of Karakitai. Genghis Khan ordered the king's son Siknak Tekin to succeed him as king of Almalik, and gave him the only daughter of his elder son Jochi for marriage. In 1219, when Genghis Khan led his host on campaign to Persia, Siknak Tekin followed him.
wn.com/Almaliq,_China -
Anatolia
Coordinates: 39°N 32°E / 39°N 32°E / 39; 32
Anatolia (from Greek Ἀνατολή Anatolē — "east" or "(sun)rise"; also Asia Minor, from Greek: Μικρὰ Ἀσία Mikrá Asía "small Asia"; in modern Turkish: Anadolu) is a geographic and historical term denoting the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey. The region is bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the south and the Aegean Sea to the west. The Sea of Marmara forms a connection between the Black and Aegean Seas through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits, and separates Anatolia from Thrace on the European mainland. Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line between the Gulf of Iskenderun and the Black Sea, approximately corresponding to the western two-thirds of the Asian part of Turkey. However, since Anatolia is now often considered to be synonymous with Asian Turkey, its eastern and southeastern borders are widely taken to be the Turkish borders with the neighboring countries, which are Georgia, Armenia, Iran, Iraq and Syria, in clockwise direction.
wn.com/Anatolia -
Antioch
Antioch on the Orontes (Greek: Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου; or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Δάφνῃ, "Antioch on Daphne"; or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ Μεγάλη, "Antioch the Great"; Syriac: ܐܢܛܝܘܟܝܐ Anṭiokia; Hebrew: אנטיוכיה, antiyokhya; Georgian: ანტიოქია; Armenian: Անտիոք Antiok; Latin: Antiochia ad Orontem; Arabic:انطاکیه, Anṭākiya; also Syrian Antioch) was an ancient city on the eastern side of the Orontes River. It is near the modern city of Antakya, Turkey.
Founded near the end of the 4th century BC by Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander the Great's generals, Antioch eventually rivaled Alexandria as the chief city of the Near East and was a cradle of Christianity. It was one of the four cities of the Syrian tetrapolis. Its residents are known as Antiochenes. Once a great metropolis of half a million people, it declined to insignificance during the Middle Ages because of repeated earthquakes, the Crusaders' invasions, and a change in trade routes following the Mongol conquests, which then no longer passed through Antioch from the far east.
wn.com/Antioch -
Armenia
Armeniai/ɑrˈmiːniə/ (Armenian: Հայաստան Hayastan [hɑjɑsˈtɑn]), officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն, Hayastani Hanrapetut’yun, [hɑjɑstɑˈni hɑnɾɑpɛtuˈtʰjun]), is a landlocked, mountainous country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bordered by Turkey to the west, Georgia to the north, the de facto independent Nagorno-Karabakh Republic and Azerbaijan to the east, and Iran and the Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan to the south.
A former republic of the Soviet Union, Armenia is a unitary, multiparty, democratic nation-state with an ancient and historic cultural heritage. The Kingdom of Armenia became the first state in the world to adopt Christianity as its religion, in the early years of the 4th century (the traditional date is 301 AD). The modern Republic of Armenia recognizes the Armenian Apostolic Church, the world's oldest national church, as the country's primary religious establishment. Armenians have their own unique alphabet invented by Mesrob Mashtots in 406 AD.
wn.com/Armenia -
Austrian Empire
The Austrian Empire (German: Kaiserthum Oesterreich, modern spelling Kaisertum Österreich) was a modern era successor empire, which was centered on what is today's Austria and which officially lasted from 1804 to 1867. It was followed by the Empire of Austria-Hungary, whose proclamation was a diplomatic move that elevated Hungary's status within the Austrian Empire as a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. The Austro-Hungarian Empire (1867 to 1918) was itself dissolved by the victors at the end of World War I and broken into separate new states.
The term "Austrian Empire" is also used for the Habsburg possessions before 1804, which had no official collective name, although Austria is more frequent; the term of Austria-Hungary has also been used.[citation needed]
The Austrian Empire was founded by the Habsburg monarch Holy Roman Emperor Francis II (who became Emperor Francis I of Austria), as a state comprising his personal lands within and outside of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.
wn.com/Austrian_Empire -
Azaq
Azov (Russian: Азов; IPA: [aˈzof]) is a town in Rostov Oblast, Russia, situated on the Don River just 16 kilometers (9.9 mi) from the Sea of Azov, which derives its name from the town. Population: 82,882 (2010 Census preliminary results); 82,090 (2002 Census); 80,297 (1989 Census).
The mouth of the Don River has always been an important commercial center. At the start of the 3rd century BCE, the Greeks from the Bosporan Kingdom founded a colony here, which they called Tanais (after the Greek name of the river). Several centuries later, in the last third of 1st century BCE, the settlement was burnt down by king Polemon I of Pontus. The introduction of Greek colonists restored its prosperity, but the Goths practically annihilated it in the 3rd century. The site of ancient Tanais, now occupied by the khutor of Nedvigovka, has been excavated since the mid-19th century.
In the 10th century, the area passed under control of the Slavic princedom of Tmutarakan. The Kipchaks, seizing the area in 1067, renamed it Azaq (i.e., lowlands), from which appellation the modern name is derived. The Golden Horde claimed most of the coast in the 13th and 14th centuries, but the Venetian and Genoese merchants were granted permission to settle on the site of modern-day Azov and founded there a colony which they called Tana (or La Tana).
wn.com/Azaq -
Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan (
i/ˌæzərbaɪˈdʒɑːn/ AZ-ər-by-JAHN; Azerbaijani: Azərbaycan), officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azerbaijani: Azərbaycan Respublikası) is the largest country in the Caucasus region located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bounded by the Caspian Sea to the east, Russia to the north, Georgia to the northwest, Armenia to the west, and Iran to the south. The exclave of Nakhchivan is bounded by Armenia to the north and east, Iran to the south and west, while having a short borderline with Turkey to the northwest.
Azerbaijan has an ancient and historic cultural heritage. Aside from having been the first Muslim-majority country to have operas, theater and plays, Azerbaijan today is among the Muslim-majority countries where support for secularism and tolerance is the highest. The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, the first democratic and secular republic in the Muslim world, was established in 1918, but was incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1920. Azerbaijan regained independence in 1991. Shortly thereafter, during the Nagorno-Karabakh War, neighboring Armenia occupied Nagorno-Karabakh, its surrounding territories and the enclaves of Karki, Yukhary Askipara, Barkhudarly and Sofulu. The Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, which emerged in Nagorno-Karabakh, continues to be not diplomatically recognized by any nation and the region is still considered a de jure part of Azerbaijan, despite being de facto independent since the end of the war. Azerbaijan has come under repeated international criticism for its record on human rights.
wn.com/Azerbaijan -
Beijing
Beijing (
/beɪˈdʒɪŋ/; Chinese: 北京; pinyin: Běijīng, [peɪ˨˩ t͡ɕiŋ˥]), formerly romanized as Peking ( /piːˈkɪŋ/ or /peɪˈkɪŋ/), is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The metropolis, located in northern China, is governed as a direct-controlled municipality under the national government, with 14 urban and suburban districts and two rural counties. Beijing Municipality is surrounded by Hebei Province with the exception of neighboring Tianjin Municipality to the southeast.
Beijing is China's second largest city by urban population after Shanghai and is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's largest state-owned companies. Beijing is a major transportation hub in the national highway, expressway, railway and high-speed rail network. Beijing's Capital International Airport is the second busiest in the world by passenger traffic.
wn.com/Beijing -
Belarus
Belarus (i/bɛləˈruːs/ bel-ə-ROOSS; Belarusian: Беларусь, Russian pronunciation: [bʲɛlaˈrusʲ] Russian: Беларусь, Белоруссия, Belarus', Belorussiya), officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered clockwise by Russia to the northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Its capital is Minsk; other major cities include Brest, Grodno (Hrodna), Gomel (Homiel), Mogilev (Mahilyow) and Vitebsk (Vitsebsk). Over forty percent of its 207,600 square kilometres (80,200 sq mi) is forested, and its strongest economic sectors are agriculture and manufacturing.
Until the 20th century, the lands of modern-day Belarus belonged to several countries, including the Principality of Polotsk, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Russian Empire. In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution, Belarus became a founding constituent republic of the Soviet Union and was renamed as the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR). The borders of Belarus took their modern shape in 1939 when some lands of the Second Polish Republic were incorporated into it after the Soviet invasion of Poland. The nation and its territory were devastated in World War II, during which Belarus lost about a third of its population and more than half of its economic resources. The republic was redeveloped in the post-war years. In 1945 the Belorussian SSR became a founding member of the United Nations, along with the Soviet Union and the Ukrainian SSR.
wn.com/Belarus -
Bolghar
Coordinates: 54°59′7″N 49°3′23″E / 54.98528°N 49.05639°E / 54.98528; 49.05639
Bolghar (Tatar Cyrillic: Болгар, Latin: Bulgar, Bolgar, Bolğar, Chuvash: Пăлхар) was intermittently capital of Volga Bulgaria from the 8th to the 15th centuries, along with Bilyar and Nur-Suvar. It was situated on the bank of the Volga River, about 30 km downstream from its confluence with the Kama River and some 130 km from modern Kazan. North of it lies a small modern town, since 1991 known as Bolgar.
The city is supposed to have been the capital of Volga Bulgaria from as early as the 8th century. Regular Russian incursions along the Volga, and internecine fights forced the Volga Bulgar kings to intermittently move their capital to Bilyar. After a destruction of Bilar during the Mongol invasion, the older capital became a centre of a separate province (or duchy) within the Golden Horde. During the period of Mongol domination Bolgar acquired immense wealth, many imposing buildings, and grew tenfold in size.
The Tokhtamysh-Timur war saw a marked decline in its fortunes. It was sacked by Bulaq-Temir in 1361, endangered by Timur, looted by Russian pirates (ushkuiniki), and destroyed in 1431 by Vasily the Blind of Muscovy. As a Muslim religious center Bolgar persevered until the mid-16th century when the Khanate of Kazan was conquered by the Russian czar Ivan IV and incorporated into the Russian state.
wn.com/Bolghar -
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1922 the British Empire held sway over about 458 million people, one-fifth of the world's population at the time, and covered more than 33,700,000 km2 (13,012,000 sq mi), almost a quarter of the Earth's total land area. As a result, its political, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was often said that "the sun never sets on the British Empire" because its span across the globe ensured that the sun was always shining on at least one of its numerous territories.
During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia. A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England (and then, following union between England and Scotland in 1707, Great Britain) the dominant colonial power in North America and India. The loss of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after a war of independence deprived Britain of some of its oldest and most populous colonies.
wn.com/British_Empire -
Bukhara
Bukhara (Tajik: Бухоро Bukhoro, Persian: بخارا; Uzbek: Buxoro; Russian: Бухара Bukhara), from the Soghdian βuxārak ("lucky place"), is the capital of the Bukhara Province (viloyat) of Uzbekistan. The nation's fifth-largest city, it has a population of 263,400 (2009 census estimate). The region around Bukhara has been inhabited for at least five millennia, and the city has existed for half that time. Located on the Silk Road, the city has long been a center of trade, scholarship, culture, and religion. The historic center of Bukhara, which contains numerous mosques and madrassas, has been listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. Ethnic Uzbek may constitute the largest element in Bukhara, with the native Tajiks being as numerous. The city long has had a mixed population including Jews and other ethnic minorities.
Bukhara was known as Bokhara in 19th and early 20th century English publications and as Buhe/Puhe（捕喝） in Tang Chinese.
Persian-speaking Soghdians inhabited the area, and some centuries later the Persian language became dominant among them. Encyclopædia Iranica mentions that the name Bukhara is possibly derived from the Soghdian βuxārak (Place of Good Fortune).
wn.com/Bukhara -
Burma
Burmai/ˈbɜrmə/ BUR-mə, also known as Myanmar i/ˌmjɑːnˈmɑr/ MYAHN--MAR, is a country in South Asia and Southeast Asia. It is bordered by India, Bangladesh, China, Laos and Thailand. One-third of Burma's total perimeter of 1,930 kilometres (1,200 mi) forms an uninterrupted coastline along the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. At 676,578 km2 (261,227 sq mi), it is the 40th largest country in the world and the second largest country in Southeast Asia. Burma is also the 24th most populous country in the world with over 60.28 million people.
Burma is home to some of the early civilizations of Southeast Asia including the Pyu and the Mon. In the 9th century, the Burmans of the Kingdom of Nanzhao, entered the upper Irrawaddy valley and, following the establishment of the Pagan Empire in the 1050s, the Burmese language and culture slowly became dominant in the country. During this period, Theravada Buddhism gradually became the predominant religion of the country. The Pagan Empire fell due to the Mongol invasions (1277–1301), and several warring states emerged. In the second half of the 16th century, the country was reunified by the Taungoo Dynasty which for a brief period was the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia. The early 19th century Konbaung Dynasty ruled over an area that included modern Burma as well as Manipur and Assam. The country was colonized by Britain following three Anglo-Burmese Wars (1824–1885).
wn.com/Burma -
Caucasus
The Caucasus, also Caucas or Caucasia (for endonyms, see below), is a geopolitical region at the border of Europe and Asia, and situated between the Black and the Caspian sea. It is home to the Caucasus Mountains, which contain Europe's highest mountain, Mt. Elbrus. Politically, the Caucasus region is separated between northern and southern parts.
The northern portion of the Caucasus is known as the Ciscaucasus and the southern portion as the Transcaucasus.
The Ciscaucasus contains the larger majority of the Greater Caucasus Mountain range, also known as the Major Caucasus mountains. It includes Southwestern Russia and northern parts of Georgia and Azerbaijan.
The Transcaucasus is bordered on the north by Russia, on the west by the Black Sea and Turkey, on the east by the Caspian Sea, and on the south by Iran. It includes the Caucasus Mountains and surrounding lowlands. All of Armenia, Azerbaijan (excluding the northern parts) and Georgia (excluding the northern parts) are in South Caucasus.
wn.com/Caucasus -
China
China (i/ˈtʃaɪnə/; Chinese: 中国; pinyin: Zhōngguó; see also Names of China), officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is the world's most-populous country, with a population of over 1.3 billion. Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometres, the East Asian state is the world's second-largest country by land area, and the third- or fourth-largest in total area, depending on the definition of total area.
The People's Republic of China is a single-party state governed by the Communist Party of China. It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four directly controlled municipalities (Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing), and two mostly self-governing special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau). Its capital city is Beijing. The PRC also claims Taiwan—which is controlled by the Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity—as its 23rd province, a claim controversial due to the complex political status of Taiwan and the unresolved Chinese Civil War. The PRC government denies the legitimacy of the ROC.
wn.com/China -
Crimea
Crimea ( /kraɪˈmiːə/), or the Autonomous Republic of Crimea (Ukrainian: Автономна Республіка Крим, Avtonomna Respublika Krym; Russian: Автономная Республика Крым, Avtonomnaya Respublika Krym; Crimean Tatar: Qırım Muhtar Cumhuriyeti, Къырым Мухтар Джумхуриети), is a sub-national unit, an autonomous republic, of Ukraine. It is located on the northern coast of the Black Sea, occupying a peninsula of the same name. It was often referred to with the definite article, as the Crimea, until well into the 20th century.
The territory of Crimea was conquered and controlled many times throughout its history. The Cimmerians, Greeks, Scythians, Goths, Huns, Bulgars, Khazars, the state of Kievan Rus', Byzantine Greeks, Kipchaks, Ottoman Turks, Golden Horde Tatars and the Mongols all controlled Crimea in its early history. In the 13th century, it was partly controlled by the Venetians and by the Genovese; they were followed by the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire in the 15th to 18th centuries, the Russian Empire in the 18th to 20th centuries, Germany during World War II and the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and later the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, within the Soviet Union during most of the rest of the 20th century.
wn.com/Crimea -
Dali Kingdom
Dali or Great Li (simplified Chinese: 大理国; traditional Chinese: 大理國; pinyin: Dàlǐguó) was a Bai kingdom centred in what is now Yunnan Province of China. Established by Duan Siping in 937, it was ruled by a succession of 22 kings until the year 1253, when it was conquered by an invasion of the Mongol Empire. The capital city was at Dali.
The Kingdom of Dali was preceded by the Nanzhao Dynasty, which was overthrown in 902. Three dynasties followed in quick succession, until Duan Siping seized power in 937 and established Dali.Gao Shengtai forced the puppet king Duan Zhengming to abdicate and become a monk in 1095, and renamed the state Dazhong. He returned the power to the Duan family upon his death. Duan Zhengchun renamed the state Hou Li (lit. "Later Li") in the next year.
The 11th king of Nanzhao established Buddhism as the state religion. Ten of the 22 kings of Dali gave up the throne and became monks..
It is claimed that despite their military prowess and superior numbers, the Mongols could not breach the defenses of the Erhai valley, which was so suited to defense that even just a few defenders could hold out for years. It is said that the Mongols found a traitor who led them over the Cangshan mountains along a secret path, and only in this way were they able to penetrate and overrun the Bai defenders. Thus ended three centuries of independence. In 1274 the Province of Yunnan was created, and thus the region has since been incorporated within China as the result of the expansion of the Mongol Empire at the beginning of Yuan China.
wn.com/Dali_Kingdom -
Empire of Brazil
The Empire of Brazil was a 19th-century state that broadly comprised the territories which form modern Brazil. Its government was a representative parliamentary constitutional monarchy under the rule of Emperors Dom Pedro I and his son Dom Pedro II, both members of the House of Braganza—a branch of the Capetian dynasty. A colony of the Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil became the seat of the Portuguese colonial Empire in 1808, when the Portuguese Prince regent, later King Dom João VI (John VI), fled from Napoleon I's invasion of Portugal and established himself and his government in the Brazilian city of Rio de Janeiro. João VI later returned to Portugal, leaving his eldest son and heir, Pedro, to rule Brazil as regent.
wn.com/Empire_of_Brazil -
Feodosiya
Feodosiya (Ukrainian: Феодо́сія, Feodosiia; Russian: Феодо́сия, Greek: Θεοδοσία; sometimes spelled as Theodosia) is a port and resort city in Crimea, Ukraine, on the Black Sea coast. During much of its history the town was known as Caffa (Ligurian:Cafà) or Kaffa (Crimean Tatar: Kefe).
The city was founded as Theodosia (Θεοδοσία) by Greek colonists from Miletos in the 6th century BC. Noted for its rich agricultural lands, on which its trade depended, it was destroyed by the Huns in the 4th century AD.
Theodosia remained a minor village for much of the next nine hundred years. It was at times part of the sphere of influence of the Khazars (excavations have revealed Khazar artifacts dating back to the ninth century) and of the Byzantine Empire.
Like the rest of Crimea, it fell under the domination of the Kipchaks and was conquered by the Mongols in the 1230s.
Between 1204–1261 and again in 1296–1307, the city of Caffa was ruled by Genoa's chief rival, the Republic of Venice. In the late 13th century, traders from the Republic of Genoa arrived and purchased the town from the ruling Golden Horde. They established a flourishing trading settlement called Caffa (or Kaffa), which virtually monopolised trade in the Black Sea area and served as the chief port and administrative centre for the Genoese settlements around the Sea. It came to house one of Europe's biggest slave markets. Under Genoa since 1266, Caffa was governed by a Genoese consul, who since 1316 was in charge of all Genoese Black Sea colonies.
wn.com/Feodosiya -
Gaeseong
Kaesŏng (Gaeseong; Korean pronunciation: [kɛsɔŋ]) is a city in North Hwanghae Province, southern North Korea (DPRK), a former Directly Governed City, and the capital of Korea during the Koryo Dynasty. The city is near Kaesŏng Industrial Region and it contains the remains of the Manwoldae palace. It was formally named Songdo while it was the ancient capital of Koryo. It prospered as a trade center that produced Korean ginseng, which is famous internationally. It is now the DPRK's light industry centre. It has a population of 308,440 as of 2008.
The earliest archaeological signs of habitation in the Kaesong area date from the Neolithic Age. Artifacts such as Jeulmun pottery, stone ware, and stone axes have been excavated from Mount Osong and Kaesong Nasong (double-walled fortress of Kaesong). As Kaesong has been occupied by various states throughout centuries, its name has changed as well. It was realm of Mahan confederacy, and was referred to as Busogap during the rule of Goguryeo. Before the strength of Baekje was retreated to the southwest of Jungnyeong, Joryeong, and Asan Bay in 475, the area had been a part of Baekje for about 100 years. However, it became a territory of Silla since 555, the 16th year of King Jinheung and its name was changed to "Songak-gun" during the period. According to Samguk Sagi, when a castle was built in the site in 694, the third year of King Hyoso's reign, Kaesong was referred to as "Songak (송악; 松嶽)". Therefore, it is assumed that the name Songak had been used at least before the time.
wn.com/Gaeseong -
Georgia (country)
Georgiai/ˈdʒɔrdʒə/ (Georgian: საქართველო Sakartvelo, IPA: [sɑkʰɑrtʰvɛlɔ] (
listen)) is a sovereign state in the Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bounded to the west by the Black Sea, to the north by Russia, to the south by Turkey and Armenia, and to the southeast by Azerbaijan. The capital of Georgia is Tbilisi. Georgia covers a territory of 69,700 km² and its population is almost 4.7 million. Georgia is a unitary, semi-presidential republic, with the government elected through a representative democracy.
During the classical era independent kingdoms became established in what is now Georgia. The kingdoms of Colchis and Iberia adopted Christianity in the early 4th century. A unified Georgia reached the peak of its political and economic strength during the reign of King David IV and Queen Tamar in the 11th–12th centuries. At the beginning of the 19th century, Georgia was annexed by the Russian Empire. After a brief period of independence following the Russian Revolution of 1917, Georgia was occupied by Soviet Russia in 1921, becoming the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic and part of the Soviet Union. After independence in 1991, post-communist Georgia suffered from civil unrest and economic crisis for most of the 1990s. This lasted until the Rose Revolution of 2003, after which the new government introduced democratic and economic reforms.
wn.com/Georgia_(country) -
German Empire
The German Empire (German: Deutsches Kaiserreich) is the common name given to the state officially named the Deutsches Reich (literally: "German Realm"), designating Germany from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871, to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Emperor, Wilhelm II.
The German Empire consisted of 27 constituent territories (most of them ruled by royal families). While the Kingdom of Prussia contained most of the population and most of the territory of the Reich; the Prussian leadership became supplanted by German leaders and Prussia itself played a lesser role. As Dwyer (2005) points out, Prussia's "political and cultural influence had diminished considerably" by the 1890s. Its three largest neighbors were rivals Imperial Russia to the east and France to the west and ally Austria-Hungary to the south.
After 1850, Germany industrialized rapidly, with a foundation in coal, iron (and later steel), chemicals and railways. From a population of 41 million people in 1871, it grew to 68 million in 1913. From a heavily rural nation in 1815, it was now predominantly urban. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire operated as an industrial, technological and scientific giant, receiving more Nobel Prizes in science than Britain, France, Russia and the United States combined.
wn.com/German_Empire -
Goryeo
The Goryeo Dynasty or Koryŏ (Hangul: 고려; Hanja: 高麗; 918–1392) was a Korean dynasty established in 918 by Emperor Taejo. This kingdom later came to be pronounced Korea. It united the Later Three Kingdoms in 936 and ruled most of the Korean peninsula until it was removed by the leader of the Joseon dynasty in 1392. Goryeo expanded its borders to present-day Wonsan in the north-east (936–943) and the Amnok River (993) and finally almost the whole of the Korean peninsula (1374).
Two of this period's most notable products are Goryeo celadon pottery and the Tripitaka Koreana — the Buddhist scriptures (Tripitaka) carved onto roughly 80,000 woodblocks and stored, and still in, Haeinsa. Goryeo also created the world's first metal-based movable type in 1234 and the oldest surviving movable metal type book, the Jikji, was made in 1377.
In 668, Silla conquered Baekje and Goguryeo with alliance of Tang Dynasty, but by the late 9th century it was tottering, its monarchs being unimaginative and pressed by the power of powerful statesmen. Many robbers and outlaws agitated and in 900 Gyeon Hwon revolted from Silla control in the Jeolla region as Hubaekje and next year Gung Ye revolted from the northern regions as Hugoguryeo (Taebong). A son of a regional lord, Wang Geon went into Hugoguryeo as a general.
wn.com/Goryeo -
Gurjara-Pratihara
The Gurjara Pratihara (Sanskrit: गुर्जर प्रतिहार, Gurjara Pratihâra), often simply called Pratihara Empire, was an imperial Indian dynasty that ruled much of Northern India from the 6th to the 11th centuries. At its peak of prosperity and power (c. 836–910), the Gurajara-Pratihara Empire rivaled or even exceeded the Gupta Empire in the extent of its territory.
Kannauj was the capital of imperial Gurjara Pratiharas. The Gurjara Pratihara rulers in the tenth century was entitled as Maharajadhiraja of Āryāvarta (i.e. Lords of Northern India).
The word "Pratihara" means protector or "who takes over the enemy/opponent" and was used by the Gurjara-Pratihara rulers as self-designation.It is derived mainly from buddhist term "Pratiharya" wich is quoted in many buddhist sutra, as title awarded to them for defending the vedic realm of Aryavarta . The Pratihara rulers claim descent from the Hindu mythological character Lakshmana, who had performed the duty of a gaurdian ("pratihara") for his elder brother Rama. They were thus Suryavansh dynasty according to traditional Indology.
wn.com/Gurjara-Pratihara -
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty (simplified Chinese: 汉朝; traditional Chinese: 漢朝; pinyin: Hàn Cháo; Wade–Giles: Han Ch'ao; IPA: [xân tʂʰɑ̌ʊ̯]) (206 BCE – 220 CE) was an imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BCE) and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms (220–280 CE). It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty (9–23 CE) of the former regent Wang Mang. This interregnum separates the Han into two periods: the Western Han (206 BCE – 9 CE) and Eastern Han (25–220 CE). Spanning over four centuries, the period of the Han Dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history. To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to itself as the "Han people" and Chinese characters are referred to as "Han characters".
wn.com/Han_Dynasty -
Huai River
The Huai River (Chinese: 淮河; pinyin: Huái Hé) is a major river in China. The Huai River is located about mid-way between the Yellow River and Yangtze River, the two largest rivers in China, and like them runs from west to east. However, the Huai River does not flow all the way to the sea, making it notoriously vulnerable to flooding.
The Huai River-Qin Mountains line is generally regarded as the geographical dividing line between North China and South China. This line approximates the 0 degree January isotherm and the 800 mm isohyet in China.
The Huai river has a length of 1,078 kilometers and a drainage area of 174,000 square kilometers.
The Huai River originates in Tongbai Mountain in Henan province. It flows through southern Henan, northern Anhui, and northern Jiangsu, entering the Yangtze River at Jiangdu, Yangzhou.
wn.com/Huai_River -
Idrisid dynasty
The Idrisids (Arabic: الأدارسة al-Idārisah, Berber: Idrisiyen) were a Zaydi-Shia dynasty of Morocco, ruling from 788 to 985. It was named after its founder Idriss I, the great grandchild of Hasan ibn Ali. Idrisids are traditionally regarded as the founders of the Moroccan state.
The founder of the dynasty was Idris ibn Abdallah (788–791), who traced his ancestry back to Ali ibn Abi Talib and his wife Fatimah, daughter of the Prophet Muhammad. After the battle of Fakh, near Mecca, between the Abbasids and a Shiite party, he fled to the Maghreb. He first arrived in Tangier, at that time the most important city of Morocco, and by 788 he had settled in Volubilis.
wn.com/Idrisid_dynasty -
India
India (i/ˈɪndiə/), officially the Republic of India (Bhārat Gaṇarājya), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the south-west, and the Bay of Bengal on the south-east, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west;China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Burma and Bangladesh to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; in addition, India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia.
Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history. Four of the world's major religions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism—originated here, whereas Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived in the 1st millennium CE and also helped shape the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by and brought under the administration of the British East India Company from the early 18th century and administered directly by the United Kingdom from the mid-19th century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by non-violent resistance led by Mahatma Gandhi.
wn.com/India -
Inner Mongolia
Coordinates: 44°N 113°E / 44°N 113°E / 44; 113
Inner Mongolia (Mongolian: s
, Öbür Monggol and c Өвөр Монгол, Övör Mongol; Chinese: 内蒙古; pinyin: Nèi Měnggǔ, but officially romanized to Nei Mongol) is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China, located in the northern region of the country. Inner Mongolia shares an international border with the countries of Mongolia and the Russian Federation. Its capital is Hohhot and the largest city is Baotou.
Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region was established in 1947 on the area of former Republic of China provinces of Suiyuan, Chahar, Rehe, Liaobei and Xing'an along with the northern parts of Gansu and Ningxia. It is the third-largest subdivision of China spanning about 1,200,000 km² (463,000 sq mi) or 12% of China's total land area. It has a population of about 24 million as of 2004. The majority of the population in the region are Han Chinese, with a substantial Mongol minority. The official languages are Chinese and Mongolian, the latter written in the Mongolian script, as opposed to the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet used in the state of Mongolia.
wn.com/Inner_Mongolia -
Iran
Coordinates: 32°N 53°E / 32°N 53°E / 32; 53
Iran (i/ɪˈrɑːn/ or /aɪˈræn/;Persian: ایران [ʔiˈɾɒn] ( listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ایران Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān), is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran", which in Persian means "Land of the Aryans", has been in use natively since the Sassanian era. It came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia ( /ˈpɜrʒə/ or /ˈpɜrʃə/). Both "Persia" and "Iran" are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, "Iran" is the name used officially in political contexts.
The 18th-largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi), Iran has a population of around 79 million. It is a country of particular geopolitical significance owing to its location in the Middle East and central Eurasia. Iran is bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan. As Iran is a littoral state of the Caspian Sea, which is an inland sea, Kazakhstan and Russia are also Iran's direct neighbors to the north. Iran is bordered on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by Iraq and on the northwest by Turkey. Tehran is the capital, the country's largest city and the political, cultural, commercial and industrial center of the nation. Iran is a regional power, and holds an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Iran has the second largest proven natural gas reserves in the world and the fourth largest proven petroleum reserves.
wn.com/Iran -
Iraq
Iraq (/ɪˈræk/ ori/ɪˈrɑːk/; Arabic: العراق al-‘Irāq); officially the Republic of Iraq (Arabic: 
جمهورية العراق (help·info) Jumhūriyyat al-‘Irāq), is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert.
Iraq borders Syria to the northwest, Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, Jordan to the southwest and Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to the south. Iraq has a narrow section of coastline measuring 58 km (36 mi) on the northern Persian Gulf. The capital city, Baghdad is in the center-east of the country.
Two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run through the center of Iraq, flowing from northwest to southeast. These provide Iraq with agriculturally capable land and contrast with the steppe and desert landscape that covers most of Western Asia.
Historically, Iraq was the center of the Abbasid Arabic Islamic Empire. Iraq has been known to the west by the Greek toponym 'Mesopotamia' (Land between the rivers) and has been home to continuous successive civilizations since the 6th millennium BC. The region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is often referred to as the cradle of civilization and the birthplace of writing, law and the wheel. At different periods in its history, Iraq was the center of the indigenous Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Abbasid empires. It was also part of the Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires, and under British control as a League of Nations mandate.
wn.com/Iraq -
Italian Empire
The Italian Empire (Italian: Impero Italiano) was created after the Kingdom of Italy joined other European powers in establishing colonies overseas during the "scramble for Africa". Modern Italy as a unified state only existed from 1861. By this time France, Spain, Portugal, Britain, and the Netherlands, had already carved out large empires over several hundred years. One of the last remaining areas open to colonisation was on the African continent.
By the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Italy had annexed Eritrea and Somalia, and had wrested control of portions of the Ottoman Empire, including Libya, though it was defeated in its attempt to conquer Ethiopia. The Fascist government under Italian dictator Benito Mussolini which came to power in 1922 sought to increase the size of the empire further. Ethiopia was successfully taken, four decades after the previous failure, and Italy's European borders were expanded. An official "Italian Empire" was proclaimed on 9 May 1936 following the conquest of Ethiopia. Italy sided with Nazi Germany during World War II and initially enjoyed successes. However, Allied forces eventually captured Italian overseas colonies and by the time Italy itself was invaded in 1943, its empire had all but ceased to exist.
wn.com/Italian_Empire -
Kaifeng
Kaifeng (simplified Chinese: 开封; traditional Chinese: 開封; pinyin: Kāifēng; Wade–Giles: K'aifeng), known previously by several names (see below), is a prefecture-level city in east-central Henan province, Central China. Nearly 5 million people live in the metropolitan area. Located along the southern bank of the Yellow River, it borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the west, Xinxiang to the northwest, Shangqiu to the east, Zhoukou to the southeast, Xuchang to the southwest, and the province of Shandong to the northeast.
The Chinese Postal Map Romanisation for the city is Kaifeng whilst its abbreviation is biàn (汴). Historically it has also been known as:
The name "Kaifeng" first appeared as the area's name after the Qin Dynasty's conquering of China in the 2nd century BC, and literally means "expand the borders".
The prefecture-level city of Kaifeng administers five districts and five counties.
Kaifeng is one of the Seven Ancient Capitals of China. As with Beijing, there have been many reconstructions during its history.
wn.com/Kaifeng -
Karakorum
Coordinates: 47°11′53″N 102°49′16″E / 47.19806°N 102.82111°E / 47.19806; 102.82111
Karakorum (Khalkha Mongolian: Хархорин Kharkhorin, Classical Mongolian: ᠬᠠᠷᠠᠬᠣᠷᠣᠮ Qara Qorum) was the capital of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, and of the Northern Yuan in the 14-15th century. Its ruins lie in the northwestern corner of the Övörkhangai Province of Mongolia, near today's town of Kharkhorin, and adjacent to the Erdene Zuu monastery. They are part of the upper part of the World Heritage Site Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape.
The Orkhon valley was a center of the Xiongnu, Göktürk and Uyghur empires. To the Göktürks, the nearby Khangai Mountains had been the location of the Ötüken, and the Uighur capital Karabalgasun was located close to where later Karakorum would be erected. This area is probably also one of the oldest farming areas in Mongolia.
In 1218/19, Genghis Khan rallied his troops for the campaign against the Khwarezm Empire in a place called Karakorum, but the actual foundation of a city is usually said to have only occurred in 1220. Until 1235, Karakorum seems to have been little more than a yurt town; only then, after the defeat of the Jin empire, did Genghis' successor Ögedei erect walls around the place and build a fixed palace.
wn.com/Karakorum -
Kashmir
Kashmir (Balti, Gojri, Poonchi/Chibhali, Dogri: कश्मीर; Kashmiri: कॅशीर, کٔشِیر; Ladakhi: ཀཤམིར; Uyghur: كەشمىر; Shina: کشمیر) is the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term Kashmir geographically denoted only the valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal mountain range. Today Kashmir denotes a larger area that includes the Indian-administered state of Jammu and Kashmir (the Kashmir valley, Jammu and Ladakh), the Pakistani-administered Gilgit–Baltistan and the Azad Kashmir provinces, and the Chinese-administered regions of Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract.
In the first half of the first millennium, the Kashmir region became an important center of Hinduism and later of Buddhism; later still, in the ninth century, Kashmir Shaivism arose. In 1349, Shah Mir became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir and inaugurated the Salatin-i-Kashmir or Swati dynasty. For the next five centuries, Muslim monarchs ruled Kashmir, including the Mughals, who ruled from 1526 until 1751, then the Afghan Durrani Empire that ruled from 1747 until 1820. That year, the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir. In 1846, upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar, the Dogras—under Gulab Singh—became the new rulers. Dogra Rule, under the paramountcy (or tutelage) of the British Crown, lasted until 1947, when the former princely state became a disputed territory, now administered by three countries: India, Pakistan, and the People's Republic of China.
wn.com/Kashmir -
Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan (i/ˌkɑːzəkˈstɑːn/ or /ˌkæzəkˈstæn/) (Kazakh: Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, pronounced [qɑzɑqstɑ́n]; Russian: Казахстан [kəzɐxˈstan]), officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country in Central Asia and Europe. The ninth largest country in the world by land area, it is also the world's largest landlocked country; its territory of 2,727,300 square kilometres (1,053,000 sq mi) is larger than Western Europe. It is neighbored clockwise from the north by Russia, China, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and also borders on a significant part of the Caspian Sea. Although Kazakhstan does not share a border with Mongolia, its most easterly point is only 38 kilometres (24 mi) from Mongolia's western tip. The terrain of Kazakhstan ranges from flatlands, steppes, taigas, rock-canyons, hills, deltas, and snow-capped mountains to deserts. With 16.6 million people (2011 estimate) Kazakhstan has the 62nd largest population in the world, though its population density is less than 6 people per square kilometre (15 per sq. mi.). The capital was moved in 1998 from Almaty, Kazakhstan's largest city, to Astana.
wn.com/Kazakhstan -
Kingdom of Aksum
The Kingdom of Aksum or Axum, also known as the Aksumite Empire and Abyssinia, was an important trading nation in northeastern Africa, existing from approximately 100–940 AD. It grew from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period ca. 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD, and was a major player in the commerce between the Roman Empire and Ancient India. The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own currency, the state established its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian peninsula, eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom.
Under Ezana (fl 320–360), Aksum became the first major empire to convert to Christianity, and was named by Mani (216–276) as one of the four great powers of his time along with Persia, Rome, and China. In the 7th century the Muslims, who originated in Mecca, sought refuge from Quraysh persecution by travelling to Aksum (Abyssinia), a journey famous in Islamic history as the First Hijra. Aksum's ancient capital is found in northern Ethiopia. The Kingdom used the name "Ethiopia" as early as the 4th century. It is also the alleged resting place of the Ark of the Covenant and the purported home of the Queen of Sheba.[citation needed].
wn.com/Kingdom_of_Aksum -
Kingdom of Hungary
The Kingdom of Hungary was a country in Central Europe covering what is today Hungary, Slovakia, Transylvania (now part of Romania), Carpatho Ruthenia (now part of Ukraine), Vojvodina (now part of Serbia), Burgenland (now part of Austria), and other smaller territories surrounding present-day Hungary's borders. From 1102 it also included Croatia (except Istria), being in personal union with it, united under the Hungarian king. The kingdom existed for almost one thousand years (1000–1918 and 1920–1946) and at various points was regarded as one of the cultural centers of the Western world.
The Latin Regnum Hungariae/Vngarie (Regnum meaning kingdom); Regnum Marianum (Kingdom of St. Mary); or simply Hungaria was the form used in official Latin documents from the beginning of the kingdom to the 1840s. The German name (Königreich Ungarn) was used from 1849 to the 1860s, and the Hungarian name (Magyar Királyság) was used in the 1840s, and again from the 1860s to 1918. The names in other languages of the kingdom were: Polish: Królestwo Węgier, Romanian: Regatul Ungariei, Croatian: Kraljevina Ugarska, Slovene: Kraljevina Ogrska, Czech: Uherské království, Slovak: Uhorské kráľovstvo, Italian (for the city of Fiume), Regno d'Ungheria.
wn.com/Kingdom_of_Hungary -
Konye-Urgench
Konye-Urgench (Turkmen: Köneürgenç, Russian: Куня Ургенч, from Persian Kuhna Gurgānj کهنه گرگانج) also known as Konya-Urgench, Old Urgench or Urganj, is a municipality of about 30,000 inhabitants in north-eastern Turkmenistan, just south from its border with Uzbekistan. It is the site of the ancient town of Ürgenç (Urgench), which contains the unexcavated ruins of the 12th-century capital of Khwarezm. Since 2005, the ruins of Old Urgench have been protected by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. (See List of World Heritage Sites in Turkmenistan)
Formerly situated on the Amu-Darya River, Old Ürgenç was one of the greatest cities on the Silk Road. Its foundation date is uncertain, but the extant ruins of the Kyrkmolla fortress have been dated (rather ambitiously) to the Achaemenid period. The 12th and early 13th centuries were the golden age of Ürgenç, it became the capital of Khorezm Empire and it surpassed in population and fame all other Central Asian cities barring Bukhara. In 1221, Genghis Khan razed it to the ground in one of the bloodiest massacres in human history.
wn.com/Konye-Urgench -
Korean Empire
The Korean Empire (Hangul: 대한제국; Hanja: 大韓帝國; Daehan Jeguk; literally Great Korean Empire) is the name of the state of Korea that existed from the Proclamation of the Korean Empire in October 1897 to the Annexation of Korea by Japan on August 20, 1910. It succeeded the Joseon Dynasty.
In October 1897, Emperor Gojong proclaimed the new entity at Gyeongungung Palace and oversaw the partially successful modernization of the military, economy, land system, education system, and various industries. Japan became terrified by the speed of the modernisation the Korean Empire was having and decided to speed up its plans for annexation. This was further speeded by the assassination of Ito Hirobumi. On August 22, 1910, Korea was annexed by Imperial Japan, which defeated the Russian Empire in 1905.
The Sino-Japanese War marked the rapid decline of any power the Joseon Dynasty of Korea had managed to hold against foreign interference, as the battles of the conflict itself had been fought on Korean soil and the surrounding seas. With its newfound preeminence over the waning and weak Qing Dynasty, Japan had delegates negotiate the Treaty of Shimonoseki with the Qing emissaries, through which Japan wrested control over the Liaodong Peninsula from the Qing (a move designed to prevent the southern expansion of Japan's new rival, Russia), and, more importantly over Korea. However, Russia recognized this agreement as an act against its interests in northeastern China and eventually brought France and Germany to its side in saying that the Liaodong Peninsula should be repatriated to the Qing China.
wn.com/Korean_Empire -
Lahore
Lahore (Punjabi: لہور, Urdu: لاہور) is the capital of the Pakistani province of Punjab and the second largest city in the country. With a rich history dating back over a millennium, Lahore is a main cultural centre of Pakistan. One of the most densely populated cities in the world, Lahore remains an economic, political, transportation, entertainment, and educational hub.
Lahore successively served as regional capital of the empires of the Shahi kingdoms in the 11th century, the Ghaznavids in the 12th century, the Ghurid State in the 12th and 13th centuries the Mughal Empire in the 16th century, the Sikh expansion in the early 19th century, and it was the capital of the Punjab region under the British Raj in the mid 19th and early 20th century. The traditional capital of Punjab for a thousand years, Lahore was the cultural center of the northern Indian subcontinent which extends from the eastern banks of the Indus River to New Delhi. Mughal structures such as the Badshahi Mosque, the Lahore Fort, Shalimar Gardens, and the mausolea of Jehangir and Nur Jehan are tourist attractions. Lahore is also home to many British colonial structures built in the Indo-Saracenic style, such as the Lahore High Court, the General Post Office, Lahore Museum and many older universities including the University of the Punjab. The Lahore Zoo, thought to be the fourth oldest in the world, is also situated here.
wn.com/Lahore -
Laos
Laos ((i/ˈlaʊs/, /ˈlɑː.ɒs/, /ˈlɑː.oʊs/, or /ˈleɪ.ɒs/) Lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ, pronounced [sǎː.tʰáː.laʔ.naʔ.lat páʔ.sáː.tʰiʔ.páʔ.tàj páʔ.sáː.són.láːw] Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao), officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma and China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the south and Thailand to the west. Its population was estimated to be 6.5 million in 2012.
Laos traces its history to the Kingdom which existed from the 14th to the 18th century when it split into three separate kingdoms. In 1893, it became a French protectorate, with the three kingdoms, Luang Phrabang, Vientiane and Champasak, uniting to form what is now known as Laos. It briefly gained independence in 1945 after Japanese occupation, but returned to French rule until it was granted autonomy in 1949. Laos became independent in 1953, with a constitutional monarchy under Sisavang Vong. Shortly after independence, a long civil war ended the monarchy, when the Communist Pathet Lao movement came to power in 1975.
wn.com/Laos -
Legnica
Legnica [lɛɡˈɲit͡sa] ( listen) (former Lignica, German: Liegnitz, Czech: Lehnice, Latin: Lignitium) is a town in south-western Poland, in Silesia, in the central part of Lower Silesia, on the plain of Legnica, riverside: Kaczawa (left tributy of the Oder) and Czarna Woda. Between 1 June 1975 and 31 December 1998 Legnica was the capital of the Legnica Voivodeship. It is currently the seat of the county. Since 1992 the city is the seat of the Diocese of Legnica.
As of 31 December 2009 (2009 -12-31)[update] Legnica has 104,178 inhabitants and is the third largest city in the voivodeship (after Wrocław and Wałbrzych) and 38th in Poland. It also constitutes the southernmost and the largest urban center of Legnicko-Głogowski Okręg Miedziowy with agglomeration of 448.617 inhabitants. Legnica is the largest city of the Legnicko-Głogowski Okręg Miedziowy conurbation. Legnica is a member of the Association of Polish Cities.
The area of Legnica was at the intersection of travel routes of Celtic and East Germanic tribes. Tacitus in his Germania and Ptolemy recorded the Lugii (Lygii) in Magna Germania, and mentioned their town of Lugidunum, which has been attributed to both Legnica and Głogów. When the East Germanic tribes left for southern Europe, West Slavic tribes moved in and were the first group to settle it permanently.
wn.com/Legnica -
Liao Dynasty
The Liao Dynasty (simplified Chinese: 辽朝; traditional Chinese: 遼朝; pinyin: Liáo Cháo; Khitan language: Mos Jælut), also known as the Khitan Empire (simplified Chinese: 契丹国; traditional Chinese: 契丹國; pinyin: Qìdān Guó; Khitan: Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur), was an empire in East Asia that ruled over Mongolia and portions of Kazakhstan, the Russian Far East, and northern China proper between 907–1125. It was founded by the Khitan Great Khan Abaoji around the time of the collapse of the Han Chinese Tang Dynasty.
The Liao Empire was destroyed by the Jurchen of the Jin Dynasty in 1125. However, remnants of its people, led by Yelü Dashi, established Western Liao Dynasty, also known as Kara-Khitan Khanate, which ruled over parts of Central Asia for almost a century before being conquered by Genghis Khan's Mongolian army.
The Khitan were a Mongolic tribe who originally formed a part of Tanshihuai's Xianbei state before submitting along with the Kumo Xi to the Yuwen chieftains after the state's disintegration. They considered themselves descendants of the legendary Qishou Khagan, who was descended from Tanshihuai (reigned 157–181). The Kumo Xi and Khitan separated as one body from the Yuwen after the Yuwen were defeated by Murong Huang of the Murong tribe in 344. In 388 the Khitan separated from the Kumo Xi. This began the written history of the Khitan as an independent tribe. In the period of Zhenjun (r. 440–449) they 'asked for paying tribute' (any presentation of gifts by foreigners were seen as submissive 'tribute') and presented famous steeds to the court of the Northern Wei. In the Xianzu period (466–470) Mofuhe Hechen of the Khitan leading the eight Khitan tribes (Xiwandan, Hedahe, Fufuyu, Yuling, Rilian, Pijie, Li and Tuliuyu) presented famous steeds and high quality fur to the Northern Wei at their capital Datong and the Khitan were 'allowed' to trade in the area of modern-day Miyun County of Beijing City.
wn.com/Liao_Dynasty -
Lithuania
Lithuania (i/ˌlɪθuːˈeɪniə/ or /ˌlɪθjuːˈeɪniə/; Lithuanian: Lietuva), officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lithuanian: Lietuvos Respublika) is a country in Northern Europe, the largest of the three Baltic states. It is situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, whereby to the west lie Sweden and Denmark. It borders Latvia to the north, Belarus to the east and south, Poland to the south, and a Russian exclave (Kaliningrad Oblast) to the southwest. Lithuania has an estimated population of 3.2 million as of 2011, and its capital and largest city is Vilnius. The Lithuanians are a Baltic people, and the official language, Lithuanian, is one of only two living languages (together with Latvian) in the Baltic branch of the Indo-European language family.
For centuries, the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea was inhabited by various Baltic tribes. In the 1230s the Lithuanian lands were united by Mindaugas, who was crowned as King of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the first Lithuanian state, on 6 July 1253. During the 14th century, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was the largest country in Europe: present-day Belarus, Ukraine, and parts of Poland and Russia were territories of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. With the Lublin Union of 1569, Lithuania and Poland formed a voluntary two-state union, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Commonwealth lasted more than two centuries, until neighboring countries systematically dismantled it from 1772 to 1795, with the Russian Empire annexing most of Lithuania's territory.
wn.com/Lithuania -
London
Londoni/ˈlʌndən/ is the capital city of England and the United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its founding by the Romans, who named it Londinium. London's ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its square-mile mediaeval boundaries. Since at least the 19th century, the name London has also referred to the metropolis developed around this core. The bulk of this conurbation forms the London region and the Greater London administrative area, governed by the elected Mayor of London and the London Assembly.
London is a leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism and transport all contributing to its prominence. It is the world's leading financial centre alongside New York City and has the fifth-largest city GDP in the world (and the largest in Europe). London has been described as a world cultural capital. It was the world's most visited city during 2011 and London Heathrow is the world's busiest airport by number of international passengers. London's 43 universities form the largest concentration of higher education in Europe. In 2012 London will become the first city to host the modern Summer Olympic Games three times.
wn.com/London -
Marco Polo Bridge
The Marco Polo Bridge or Lugou Bridge (simplified Chinese: 卢沟桥; traditional Chinese: 盧溝橋; pinyin: Lúgōu Qiáo) is a famous stone bridge located 15 km southwest of the Beijing city center in the Fengtai District. It bridges the Yongding River—a major tributary of Hai River (although, in recent years, the water of Yongding River has been diverted to different areas of Beijing so often there is no water under the bridge). Situated at the eastern end of the bridge is the Wanping Fortress, a historic 17th century fortress.
Construction of the original bridge on this site commenced in 1189, the final year of Emperor Shizong of Jin's reign and was completed under his successor in 1192. Following damage from the flooding Yongding, the bridge was reconstructed under the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing Dynasty in 1698. The Marco Polo Bridge is well-known because it was highly praised by the Venetian traveler Marco Polo during his visit to China in the 13th century (leading the bridge to become known in Europe simply as the Marco Polo Bridge), and for the 20th century Marco Polo Bridge Incident, which marked the beginning of the Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945).
wn.com/Marco_Polo_Bridge -
Medes
The Medes (/midz/) (from Old Persian Māda-) were an ancient Iranian people who lived in Iran in an area known as Media and spoke a northwestern Iranian language referred to as the Median language. Their arrival to the region is associated with the first wave of Iranian tribes in the late second millennium BCE (the Bronze Age collapse) through the beginning of the first millennium BCE.
In the 7th century BCE a unified Median state was formed which together with Babylonia, Lydia, and Egypt became one of the four major powers of the ancient Near East. An alliance with the Babylonians helped the Medes to capture Nineveh in 612 BCE which resulted in the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Medes were subsequently able to establish their Median kingdom (with Ecbatana as their royal centre) beyond their original homeland (central-western Iran) and had eventually a territory stretching roughly from northeastern Iran to the Halys River in Anatolia. The Median kingdom was conquered in 550 BCE by Cyrus the Great who established the next Iranian dynasty—the Achaemenid Empire.
wn.com/Medes -
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China for 276 years (1368–1644) following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, described by some as "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic Han Chinese. Although the Ming capital Beijing fell in 1644 to a rebellion led by Li Zicheng (who established the Shun Dynasty, soon replaced by the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty), regimes loyal to the Ming throne—collectively called the Southern Ming—survived until 1662.
Ming rule saw the construction of a vast navy and a standing army of one million troops. Although private maritime trade and official tribute missions from China had taken place in previous dynasties, the tributary fleet under the Muslim eunuch admiral Zheng He in the 15th century far surpassed all others in size. There were enormous construction projects, including the restoration of the Grand Canal and the Great Wall and the establishment of the Forbidden City in Beijing during the first quarter of the 15th century. Estimates for the late-Ming population vary from 160 to 200 million.
wn.com/Ming_Dynasty -
Moldova
Moldovai/mɒlˈdoʊvə/, officially the Republic of Moldova (Moldovan/Romanian: Republica Moldova pronounced [reˈpublika molˈdova]) is a landlocked state in Eastern Europe located between Romania to the west and Ukraine to the north, east, and south. It declared itself an independent state with the same boundaries as the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1991 as part of the dissolution of the Soviet Union. On 29 July 1994, the new constitution of Moldova was adopted. A strip of Moldova's internationally recognized territory on the east bank of the river Dniester has been under the de facto control of the breakaway government of Transnistria since 1990.
The nation is a parliamentary republic with a president as head of state and a prime minister as head of government. Moldova is a member state of the United Nations, Council of Europe, WTO, OSCE, GUAM, CIS, BSEC and other international organizations. Moldova currently aspires to join the European Union, and has implemented the first three-year Action Plan within the framework of the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP).
wn.com/Moldova -
Mongolia
Mongoliai/mɒŋˈɡoʊliə/ (Mongolian: Монгол улс (help·info), literally Mongol country/state) is a landlocked country in East and Central Asia. It is bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south, east and west. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its western-most point is only 38 kilometres (24 mi) from Kazakhstan's eastern tip. Ulan Bator, the capital and largest city, is home to about 45% of the population. Mongolia's political system is a parliamentary republic.
The area of what is now Mongolia has been ruled by various nomadic empires, including the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Rouran, the Gökturks and others. The Mongol Empire was founded by Genghis Khan in 1206. After the collapse of the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongols returned to their earlier pattern of constant internal conflict and occasional raids on the Chinese borderlands. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Mongolia came under the influence of Tibetan Buddhism. At the end of the 17th century, all of Mongolia had been incorporated into the area ruled by the Qing Dynasty. During the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1911, Mongolia declared independence, but had to struggle until 1921 to firmly establish de facto independence from the Republic of China, and until 1945 to gain international recognition.
wn.com/Mongolia -
Mongolian language
The Mongolian language (in Mongolian script:
,Mongγol kele; in Mongolian Cyrillic: Монгол хэл, Mongol khel) is the official language of Mongolia and the best-known member of the Mongolic language family. The number of speakers across all its dialects may be 5.2 million, including the vast majority of the residents of Mongolia and many of the Mongolian residents of the Inner Mongolia autonomous region of China. In Mongolia, the Khalkha dialect, written in Cyrillic, is predominant, while in Inner Mongolia, the language is more dialectally diverse and is written in the traditional Mongolian script. In the discussion of grammar to follow, the variety of Mongolian treated is Standard Khalkha Mongolian (i.e., the standard written language as formalized in the writing conventions and in the school grammar), but much of what is to be said is also valid for vernacular (spoken) Khalkha and other Mongolian dialects, especially Chakhar.
Mongolian has vowel harmony and a complex syllabic structure for a Mongolic language that allows clusters of up to three consonants syllable-finally. It is a typical agglutinative language that relies on suffix chains in the verbal and nominal domains. While there is a basic word order, subject–object–predicate, ordering among noun phrases is relatively free, so grammatical roles are indicated by a system of about eight grammatical cases. There are five voices. Verbs are marked for voice, aspect, tense, and epistemic modality/evidentiality. In sentence linking, a special role is played by converbs.
wn.com/Mongolian_language -
Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire, Shahan-e-Gurkhani, Shahan-e-Mughal, Sultanate-e-Mughliya, Daulat-e-Mughliya (Persian: شاهان گورکانی Shāhān-e Gūrkānī; Urdu: مغلیہ سلطنت; self-designation: گوركانى Gūrkānī ), or Mogul (also Moghul) Empire in traditional English usage, was an imperial power from the Indian Subcontinent. The Mughal emperors were direct descendants of Genghis Khan through Chagatai Khan and Timur. The Mughal Empire began in 1526; at the height of their power in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, they controlled most of the Indian Subcontinent—extending from Bengal in the east to Balochistan in the west, Kashmir in the north to the Kaveri basin in the south. According to "Babur-Nama", Kazakh tribal aristocracy along with number of other Turkic soldiers participated actively in the campaign of Babur, which made great influence over the development of Mughal Empire. Its population at that time has been estimated as between 110 and 150 million, over a territory of more than 3.2 million square kilometres (1.2 million square miles).
wn.com/Mughal_Empire -
Muhi
Muhi is a village in Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén county, Hungary.
The area has been inhabited since prehistoric times. In the thirteenth century, two villages stood here.
In the Battle of Muhi in 1241, the Mongols decisively defeated the forces of King Bela IV of Hungary. The village was destroyed.
wn.com/Muhi -
Multan
Multan (Saraiki, Punjabi, Urdu: : مُلتان pronunciation (help·info)), is a city in the Punjab province of Pakistan.According to area its 3rd largest city of Pakistan,but according to population its on 5th number. It is located in the southern part of the province on the east bank of the Chenab River, more or less in the geographic centre of the country and about 562 km (349 mi) from Islamabad, 356 km (221 mi) from Lahore and 966 km (600 mi) from Karachi. Multan District has a population of 3.1 million (1998).
Multan is known as the City of Sufis or City of Saints and Madinah-Tul-Awleyah due to the large number of shrines and Sufi saints from the city. According to area its 3rd largest city of Pakistan,but according to population its on 3rd number. The city is full of bazaars, mosques, shrines and ornate tombs. Multan is also the birthplace of Fariduddin Ganjshakar popularly known as Baba Farid who is considered a father of Punjabi language and one of the pioneers in developing Shahmukhī script of Punjabi language which was later adopted by almost all Muslim saints and intellectuals in Punjab region and even in whole of India. Celebrated sufi saint of Punjab and North India Khwaja Ghulam Farid also adopted Shahmukhī script of Punjabi language to convey his teachings.Multan is located in a bend created by five rivers of central Pakistan. The Sutlej River separates it from Bahawalpur and the Chenab River from Muzaffar Garh. The city has grown to become an influential political and economical center for the country, with a dry port and excellent transport links. Multan is famous for its crops: wheat, cotton and sugar cane as well as mangoes, citrus, guavas and pomegranates.
wn.com/Multan -
Nazi Germany
The Third Reich, also Nazi Germany, is the common name for Germany when it was a totalitarian state ruled by Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP). On 30 January 1933 Hitler became chancellor of Germany, quickly eliminating all opposition to rule as sole leader. The state idolized Hitler as its Führer ("leader"), centralizing all power in his hands. Historians have emphasized the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. Kessel writes, "Overwhelmingly...Germans speak with mystification of Hitler's 'hypnotic' appeal..." Under the "leader principle", the Führer's word was above all other laws. Top officials reported to Hitler and followed his policies, but they had considerable autonomy. The government was not a coordinated, cooperating body, but rather a collection of factions struggling to amass power and curry favor with the Führer. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazi government restored prosperity and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending and a mixed economy of free-market and central-planning practices. Extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of the Autobahns. The return to prosperity gave the regime enormous popularity; the suppression of all opposition made Hitler's rule mostly unchallenged.
wn.com/Nazi_Germany -
Neo-Assyrian Empire
The Neo-Assyrian Empire was an empire in Mesopotamian history which began in 934 BC and ended in 605 BC. During this period, Assyria assumed a position as the most powerful nation on earth, successfully eclipsing Babylonia, Egypt, Urartu/Armenia and Elam for dominance of the Near East, Asia Minor, Caucasus, North Africa and east Mediterranean, though not until the reforms of Tiglath-Pileser III in the 8th century BC did it become a vast empire. Assyria was originally an Akkadian kingdom which evolved in the 25th to 24th Centuries BC. The earliest Assyrian kings such as Tudiya were relatively minor rulers, and after the founding of the Akkadian Empire, which lasted from 2334 BC to 2154 BC, these kings became subject to Sargon of Akkad, who united all the Akkadian and Sumerian speaking peoples of Mesopotamia under one rule.
wn.com/Neo-Assyrian_Empire -
North Korea
Coordinates: 40°00′N 127°00′E / 40°N 127°E / 40; 127 The Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK; Chosŏn'gŭl: 조선민주주의인민공화국), commonly referred to as "North Korea" ( listen), is a country in East Asia, occupying the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. Its capital and largest city is Pyongyang. The Korean Demilitarized Zone serves as the buffer zone between North Korea and South Korea. The Amnok, or Yalu, and the Tumen rivers form the border between North Korea and China. A section of the Tumen River in the far northeast is the border with Russia.
The peninsula was governed by the Korean Empire until it was annexed by Japan after the Russo-Japanese War in 1910. It was divided into Soviet- and American-occupied zones in 1945, after the end of World War II. North Korea refused to participate in a United Nations–supervised election held in the south in 1948, which led to the creation of separate Korean governments for the two occupation zones. North and South Korea each claimed sovereignty over the whole Korean Peninsula, which led to the Korean War of 1950. The Armistice Agreement of 1953 ended the fighting; but the two countries are officially still at war against each other, for a peace treaty was never signed. Both states were accepted into the United Nations in 1991.
wn.com/North_Korea -
Pakistan
Pakistan (i/ˈpækɨstæn/ or i/pɑːkiˈstɑːn/; Urdu: پاکستان) (Urdu pronunciation: [paːkɪˈst̪aːn] (
listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (Urdu: اسلامی جمہوریۂ پاکستان), is a sovereign country in South Asia. It sits at the crossroads of the strategically important regions of South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East. It has a 1,046-kilometre (650 mi) coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by India to the east, Afghanistan to the west and north, Iran to the southwest and China in the far northeast. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistan's narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, and it shares a marine border with Oman.
The territory of modern Pakistan was the site of several ancient cultures, including the Neolithic Mehrgarh and the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation, and has undergone invasions or settlements by Hindu, Persian, Indo-Greek, Islamic, Turco-Mongol, Afghan and Sikh cultures. Thus the area has been ruled by numerous empires and dynasties, including the Indian Mauryan Empire, the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the Arab Umayyad Caliphate, the Mongol Empire, the Mughal Empire, the Durrani Empire, the Sikh Empire and the British Empire. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and India's struggle for independence, Pakistan was created in 1947 as an independent nation for Muslims from the regions in the east and west of India where there was a Muslim majority. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a new constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic. A civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh.
wn.com/Pakistan -
Parthian Empire
The Parthian (pronounced /ˈpɑrθiən/) Empire (247 BC – 224 AD), also known as the Arsacid (/ˈɑrsəsɪd/) Empire (Modern Persian: اشکانیان Ashkāniān), was a major Iranian political and cultural power in ancient Persia. Its latter name comes from Arsaces I of Parthia who, as leader of the Parni tribe, founded it in the mid-3rd century BC when he conquered the Parthia region in Iran's northeast, then a satrapy (province) in rebellion against the Seleucid Empire. Mithridates I of Parthia (r. c. 171–138 BC) greatly expanded the empire by seizing Media and Mesopotamia from the Seleucids. At its height, the Parthian Empire stretched from the northern reaches of the Euphrates, in what is now south-eastern Turkey, to eastern Iran. The empire, located on the Silk Road trade route between the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean Basin and Han Empire of China, became a center of trade and commerce.
The Parthians largely adopted the art, architecture, religious beliefs, and royal insignia of their culturally heterogeneous empire, which encompassed Persian, Hellenistic, and regional cultures. For about the first half of its existence, the Arsacid court adopted elements of Greek culture, though it eventually saw a gradual revival of Iranian traditions. The Arsacid rulers were titled the "King of Kings", as a claim to be the heirs to the Achaemenid Empire; indeed, they accepted many local kings as vassals where the Achaemenids would have had centrally appointed, albeit largely autonomous, satraps. The court did appoint a small number of satraps, largely outside Iran, but these satrapies were smaller and less powerful than the Achaemenid potentates. With the expansion of Arsacid power, the seat of central government shifted from Nisa, Turkmenistan to Ctesiphon along the Tigris (south of modern Baghdad, Iraq), although several other sites also served as capitals.
wn.com/Parthian_Empire -
Persian Empire
The Achaemenid Empire (/ækəˈmɛnɪˌdi/; Old Persian: Parsā, name of ruling dynasty: Haxāmanišiya) (c. 550–330 BCE), sometimes known as First Persian Empire, was an Iranian empire in Southwest Asia, founded in the 6th century BCE by Cyrus the Great who overthrew the Median confederation. It expanded to eventually rule over significant portions of the ancient world which at around 500 BCE stretched from the Indus Valley in the east, to Thrace and Macedon on the northeastern border of Greece making it the biggest empire the world had yet seen. The Achaemenid Empire would eventually control Egypt as well. It was ruled by a series of monarchs who unified its disparate tribes and nationalities by constructing a complex network of roads.
Calling themselves the Parsa after their original Aryan tribal name Parsua, Persians settled in a land which they named Parsua, bounded on the west by the Tigris River and on the south by the Persian Gulf. This became their heartland for the duration of the Achaemenid Empire. It was from this region that eventually Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II of Persia) would advance to defeat the Median, the Lydian, and the Babylonian Empires, opening the way for subsequent conquests into Egypt and Asia minor.
wn.com/Persian_Empire -
Poland
Polandi/ˈpoʊlənd/ (Polish: Polska), officially the Republic of Poland (Polish: Rzeczpospolita Polska; Kashubian: Pòlskô Repùblika; Silesian: Polsko Republika), is a country in Central Europe, bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north. The total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres (120,726 sq mi), making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. Poland has a population of over 38 million people, which makes it the 34th most populous country in the world and the sixth most populous member of the European Union, being its most populous post-communist member. Poland is a unitary state made up of 16 voivodeships. Poland is a member of the European Union, NATO, the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), European Economic Area, International Energy Agency, Council of Europe, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, International Atomic Energy Agency, G6, Council of the Baltic Sea States, Visegrád Group, Weimar Triangle and Schengen Agreement.
wn.com/Poland -
Portuguese Empire
The Portuguese Empire (Portuguese: Império Português), also known as the Portuguese Overseas Empire (Ultramar Português) or the Portuguese Colonial Empire (Império Colonial Português), was the first global empire in history. In addition, it was the longest-lived of the modern European colonial empires, spanning almost six centuries, from the capture of Ceuta in 1415 to the handover of Macau in 1999 or the grant of sovereignty to East Timor in 2002. The empire spread throughout a vast number of territories that are now part of 53 different sovereign states.
Portuguese sailors began exploring the coast of Africa in 1419, using recent developments in navigation, cartography and maritime technology such as the caravel, in order that they might find a sea route to the source of the lucrative spice trade. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India. In 1500, either by an accidental landfall or by the crown's secret design, Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil on the South American coast. Over the following decades, Portuguese sailors continued to explore the coasts and islands of East Asia, establishing forts and factories as they went. By 1571, a string of outposts connected Lisbon to Nagasaki along the coasts of Africa, the Middle East, India, and Asia. This commercial network brought great wealth to Portugal.
wn.com/Portuguese_Empire -
Qarshi
Qarshi (Uzbek: Qarshi / Қарши; Persian: نخشب / Nakhshab; Russian: Karshi / Карши; Mongolian: Kharsh-khot / Харш-хот) is a city in southern Uzbekistan. It is the capital of Qashqadaryo Province and has a population of 197,600 (1999 census estimate). It is about 520 km south-southwest of Tashkent, and about 335 km north of Uzbekistan's border with Afghanistan. It is located at latitude 38° 51' 48N; longitude 65° 47' 52E at an altitude of 374 meters. The city is important in natural gas production, but Qarshi is also famous for its production of woven flat carpets.
Originally the Sogdian city of Nakhshab, and the Islamic Uzbek (Turkic) city of Nasaf, and the Mongolian Uzbek (East Asian) city of Kharsh-khot, Qarshi was the second city of the Emirate of Bukhara. It is in the center of a fertile oasis that produces wheat, cotton, and silk and was a stop on the 11 day caravan route between Balkh and Bukhara. The Chagatai's Mongolian Khans Kebek and Qazan built palaces here on the site of Chinggis Khaan's summer pasture. In 1364, Timur also built a fortified palace with moats in what is now the southern part of the city. The modern name "Qarshi" means fort.
wn.com/Qarshi -
Qazvin
Qazvin (English pronunciation: /kæzˈviːn/, Persian: قزوین, IPA: [ɢæzˈviːn], also Romanized as Qazvīn, Kazvin, Qazwin, Ghazvin is the largest city and capital of the Province of Qazvin in Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 349,821, in 96,420 families.
Located some 165 km northwest of Tehran, in the Qazvin Province, it is at an altitude of about 1800 meters above sea level. The climate is cold but dry, due to its position south of the rugged Alborz range.
The city was a former capital of the Persian Empire. It is a provincial capital today that has been an important cultural center throughout history.
Archeological findings in the Qazvin plain reveal urban agricultural settlements for at least nine millennia. Qazvin geographically connects Tehran, Isfahan, and the Persian Gulf to the Caspian seacoast and Asia Minor, hence its strategic location throughout the ages.
The city today known as Qazvin is thought to have been founded by Shapur II, King of Persia in 250 CE, under the name Shad Shahpur, when he built a fortification there to control regional tensions.
wn.com/Qazvin -
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China.
The dynasty was founded by the Jurchen Aisin Gioro clan in contemporary Northeastern China. The Aisin Gioro leader, Nurhachi, who was originally a vassal of the Ming emperors, began unifying the Jurchen clans in the late sixteenth century. By 1635, Nurhachi's son Hong Taiji could claim they constituted a single and united Manchu people and began forcing the Ming out of Liaoning in southern Manchuria. In 1644, the Ming capital Beijing was sacked by a peasant revolt led by Li Zicheng, a former minor Ming official who became the leader of the peasant revolt, who then proclaimed the Shun dynasty. The last Ming ruler, the Chongzhen Emperor, committed suicide when the city fell. When Li Zicheng moved against Ming general Wu Sangui, the latter made an alliance with the Manchus and opened the Shanhai Pass to the Manchurian army. Under Prince Dorgon, they seized control of Beijing and overthrew Li Zicheng's short-lived Shun Dynasty. Complete pacification of China was accomplished around 1683 under the Kangxi Emperor.
wn.com/Qing_Dynasty -
Republic of Buryatia
The Republic of Buryatia (Russian: Респу́блика Буря́тия, tr. Respublika Buryatiya; IPA: [rʲɪsˈpublʲɪkə bʊˈrʲætʲɪjə]; Buryat: Буряад Республика, Buryaad Respublika) is a federal subject of Russia (a republic). Its capital is the city of Ulan-Ude. Its area is 351,300 square kilometers (135,600 sq mi) with a population of 972,021 (2010 Census).
The republic is located in the south-central region of Siberia along the eastern shore of Lake Baikal.
Major rivers include:
Over 80% of the republic's territory is located in the mountainous region, including the Baikal Mountains on the northern shores of Lake Baikal.
The republic's natural resources include gold, tungsten, zinc, uranium, and more.
Population: 972,021 (2010 Census); 981,238 (2002 Census); 1,041,119 (1989 Census).
Source:
According to the 2010 Census, ethnic Russians make up two thirds of the republic's population, while the ethnic Buryats are only 30%. Other groups include Ukrainians (0.6%), Tatars (0.7%), and a host of smaller groups, each accounting for less than 0.5% of the total population.
wn.com/Republic_of_Buryatia -
Republic of China
Taiwan (i/ˌtaɪˈwɑːn/ TY-WAHN; Chinese: 臺灣 or 台灣; pinyin: Táiwān; see below), officially the Republic of China (ROC; Chinese: 中華民國; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Mínguó), is a state in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China now governs the island of Taiwan (formerly known as Formosa), which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, and other minor islands. Neighboring states include the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east and northeast, and the Philippines to the south. Taipei is the capital city and economic and cultural centre of the country, and New Taipei is the most populous city.
The earliest evidence of inhabitation of Taiwan dates back to the late Paleolithic era. The island of Taiwan was mainly inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before being colonized in the 17th century by the Dutch and the Spanish Empire. The first Han Chinese polity on Taiwan began when Koxinga's troops defeated Dutch forces and established the Kingdom of Tungning. The island was subsequently ruled by the Qing Dynasty after the kingdom's defeat in the Battle of Penghu in 1683, a period that lasted for over 200 years. Following Japan's victory over the Qing Dynasty in the first Sino-Japanese war, Taiwan was ceded to Japan under the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895.
wn.com/Republic_of_China -
Romania
Romania (i/roʊˈmeɪniə/ roh-MAY-nee-ə; dated: Roumania; or Rumania;Romanian: România [romɨˈni.a] ( listen)) is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea. Romania shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and Moldova to the northeast and east, and Bulgaria to the south.
At 238,400 square kilometers (92,000 sq mi), Romania is the ninth largest country of the European Union by area, and has the seventh largest population of the European Union with over 19 million people. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest, the tenth largest city in the EU with about two million people.
The Kingdom of Romania emerged when the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were united under Prince Alexander Ioan Cuza in 1859. Independence from the Ottoman Empire was declared on 9 May 1877, and was internationally recognized the following year. At the end of World War I, Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia united with the Kingdom of Romania. Greater Romania emerged into an era of progression and prosperity that would continue until World War II. By the end of the War, many north-eastern areas of Romania's territories were occupied by the Soviet Union, and Romania forcibly became a socialist republic and a member of the Warsaw Pact.
wn.com/Romania -
Russia
Russiai/ˈrʌʃə/ or /ˈrʊʃə/ (Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijə] ( listen)), also officially known as the Russian Federation (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə] ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, and the US state of Alaska by the Bering Strait. At 17,075,400 square kilometres (6,592,800 sq mi), Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than one eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area. Russia is also the eighth most populous nation with 143 million people. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning nine time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources and is the largest producer of oil and natural gas globally. Russia has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.
wn.com/Russia -
Ryazan
Ryazan (Russian: Ряза́нь; IPA: [rʲɪˈzanʲ]) is a city and the administrative center of Ryazan Oblast, Russia. It is located on the Oka River 196 kilometers (122 mi) southeast of Moscow. Population: 525,062 (2010 Census preliminary results); 521,560 (2002 Census); 514,638 (1989 Census).
It is argued that the Ryazan kremlin was founded in 800, by Slavic settlers,[citation needed] as a part of their drive into territory previously populated by Finnic peoples.[citation needed] Initially it was built of wood, gradually replaced by masonry. The oldest preserved part of the kremlin dates back to the 12th century.
However, the first written mention of the city, under the name of Pereslavl, dates to 1095. At that time the city was part of the independent Principality of Ryazan, which had existed since 1078 and which was centered on the old city of Ryazan. The first ruler of Ryazan was supposedly Yaroslav Sviatoslavich, Prince of Ryazan and Murom (cities of Kievan Rus').
The lands of Ryazan, situated on the border of forest and steppe, suffered numerous invasions from the south as well as from the north, carried out by a variety of military forces including Cumans, but particularly the Principality was in a conflict with Vladimir-Suzdal. By the end of the 12th century, the capital of Duchy was burnt several times by the armies of Suzdal. Ryazan was the first Russian city to be sacked by the Mongol horde of Batu Khan. On December 21, 1237, it was thoroughly devastated and never fully recovered. As result of the sack, the seat of the principality was moved about 55 kilometers (34 mi) to the town of Pereslavl-Ryazansky, which subsequently took the name of the destroyed capital. The site of the old capital now carries the name of Staraya Ryazan (Old Ryazan), close to Spassk-Ryazansky.
wn.com/Ryazan -
Sajó
The Sajó (-Hungarian; Slovak: Slaná) is a river in Slovakia and Hungary.
Its length is 229 km, of which 110 km is in Slovakia. Its source is in the Stolica Mountains range of the Slovak Ore Mountains. It flows through the Slovak town Rožňava and the Hungarian city Miskolc. In Hungary it flows through the county of Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén. It flows into the River Tisza near Tiszaújváros.
Coordinates: 47°56′N 21°07′E / 47.933°N 21.117°E / 47.933; 21.117
wn.com/Sajó -
Sakhalin
Sakhalin (Russian: Сахалин, pronounced [səxɐˈlʲin]; also known as Kuye (simplified Chinese: 库页; traditional Chinese: 庫頁; pinyin: Kùyè); Japanese: Karafuto (樺太?) or Saharin (サハリン?)) or Saghalien, is a large island in the North Pacific, lying between 45°50' and 54°24' N.
It is part of Russia, and is Russia's largest island, and is administered as part of Sakhalin Oblast. Sakhalin, which is about one fifth the size of Japan, is just off the east coast of Russia, and just north of Japan.
The indigenous peoples of the island are the Ainu, Oroks, and Nivkhs. Most Ainu relocated to Hokkaidō when the Japanese were displaced from the island in 1949.
Sakhalin was claimed by both Russia and Japan in the course of the 19th and 20th centuries, which led to bitter disputes between the two countries over control of the island.
The European names derive from misinterpretation of a Manchu name sahaliyan ula angga hada ("peak/craggy rock at the mouth of the Amur River"). Sahaliyan, the word that has been borrowed in the form of "Sakhalin", means "black" in Manchu and is the proper Manchu name of the Amur River (sahaliyan ula, literally "Black River" ; see Sikhote-Alin). Its Japanese name, Karafuto (樺太?), supposedly comes from Ainu kamuy kar put ya mosir (カムイ・カラ・プト・ヤ・モシリ, shortened to Karput カラ・プト), which means "Land/Island/Country at the Shore of the God-Made (River) Mouth/Confluence."[citation needed] The name was used by the Japanese during their possession of its southern part (1905–1945).
wn.com/Sakhalin -
Samarkand
Coordinates: 39°39′15″N 66°57′35″E / 39.65417°N 66.95972°E / 39.65417; 66.95972
Samarkand (Tajik: Самарқанд; Persian: سمرقند; Uzbek: Samarqand; from Sogdian: "Stone Fort" or "Rock Town") is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Samarqand Province. The city is most noted for its central position on the Silk Road between China and the West, and for being an Islamic centre for scholarly study. In the 14th century it became the capital of the empire of Timur (Tamerlane) and is the site of his mausoleum (the Gur-e Amir). The Bibi-Khanym Mosque remains one of the city's most notable landmarks. The Registan was the ancient center of the city.
In 2001, UNESCO added the city to its World Heritage List as Samarkand – Crossroads of Cultures.
The city was known by an abbreviated name of Marakanda when Alexander the Great took it in 332BC. There are various theories of how Marakanda evolved into Samarkanda/Samarkan. One derives the name from the Old Persian asmara, "stone", "rock", and Sogdian kand, "fort", "town". Others less convincingly derive the name from the old Turkic "Semiz-Kent" meaning "Rich City".[citation needed]. Since the name Marakanda was already in existence 2300 years ago and long before anyone had heard of Turks in that region of Transoxiana, this version is likely a folk etymology.
wn.com/Samarkand -
Saray-Jük
Saray-Jük or Saraychyq (literally, "Little Sarai", to distinguish it from Old Sarai) was a medieval city on the border between Europe and Asia in the 10th-16th centuries. It was located on the Ural River, modern Kazakhstan, Atyrau Province, near Sarayshyq village, 50 km above Atyrau. There was a major trade route from Europe to China across the city.
It was believed till recently that Saray-Jük was founded by Batu Khan, but excavations uncovered that it was founded as early as in 10th or 11th century. In 13th Saray-Jük turned into a major trade center. After the disintegration of the Golden Horde in 14th century the city fell into decay: in 1395 it was ruined by Timur, but Saray-Jük was rebuilt in 1430s-1440s. However, it stayed the main city of the Nogai Horde. The Kazakh khan also had headquarters there later. In 1580 it was ruined by "thief Cossacks"—that is, Cossacks uncontrolled by Russian government.
Saray-Jük was one of the biggest cities of the Golden Horde, a center of a metropolitan agglomeration: the ruins of the suburb Aqtöbe, located near Atyrau were preserved until the 20th century.
wn.com/Saray-Jük -
Sea of Japan
The Sea of Japan is a marginal sea of the western Pacific Ocean, between the Asian mainland, the Japanese archipelago and Sakhalin. It is bordered by Japan, North Korea, Russia and South Korea. Like the Mediterranean Sea, it has almost no tides due to its nearly complete enclosure from the Pacific Ocean. This isolation also reflects in the fauna species and in the water salinity, which is lower than in the ocean. The sea has no large islands, bays or capes. Its water balance is mostly determined by the inflow and outflow through the straits connecting it to the neighboring seas and Pacific Ocean. Few rivers discharge into the sea and their total contribution to the water exchange is within 1%.
The seawater is characterized by the elevated concentration of dissolved oxygen that results in high biological productivity. Therefore, fishing is the dominant economic activity in the region. The intensity of shipments across the sea has been moderate owing to political issues, but it is steadily increasing as a result of the growth of East Asian economies. A controversy exists about the sea name, with South Korea promoting the appellation East Sea.
wn.com/Sea_of_Japan -
Seattle
Seattle (pronounced /siːˈætɫ̩/ ( listen) see-AT-əl or /siːˈæɾɫ̩/) is the county seat of King County, in the U.S. state of Washington. With 608,660 residents as of the 2010 Census, Seattle is the largest city in the Northwestern United States. The Seattle metropolitan area of about 3.4 million inhabitants is the 15th largest metropolitan area in the country. The city is a major coastal seaport situated on a narrow isthmus between Puget Sound (an arm of the Pacific Ocean) and Lake Washington, about 114 miles (183 km) south of the Canada–United States border. In 2010, Seattle was the sixth busiest port in the United States, serving as a major gateway for trade with Asia.
The Seattle area had been inhabited by Native Americans for at least 4,000 years before the first permanent white settlers.Arthur A. Denny and his group of travelers, subsequently known as the Denny Party, arrived at Alki Point on November 13, 1851. The settlement was moved to its current site and renamed "Seattle" in 1853, after Chief Seattle of the local Duwamish and Suquamish tribes.
wn.com/Seattle -
Second French Empire
The Second French Empire (French: Le Second Empire Français) was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France.
Although the machinery of government was almost the same under the Second Empire as it had been under the First, its founding principles were different. The function of the Empire, as Emperor Napoleon III often repeated, was to guide the people internally towards justice and externally towards perpetual peace. Holding his power by universal male suffrage, and having frequently, from his prison or in exile, reproached previous oligarchical governments with neglecting social questions, he set out to solve them by organising a system of government based on the principles of the "Napoleonic Idea", i.e. of the emperor, the elect of the people as the representative of the democracy, and as such supreme; and of himself, the representative of the great Napoleon I of France, "who had sprung armed from the French Revolution like Minerva from the head of Jove", as the guardian of the social gains of the revolutionary period.
wn.com/Second_French_Empire -
Serbia
Serbiai/ˈsɜrbiə/, officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian: Република Србија / Republika Srbija, pronounced [rɛpǔblika sř̩bija]), is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Carpathian basin and the central part of the Balkans. Serbia borders Hungary to the north; Romania and Bulgaria to the east; the Republic of Macedonia to the south; and Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro to the west; additionally, it borders Albania through Kosovo, whose status as part of Serbia is disputed. Serbia covers an area of 88,361 km2 and has a population of just over 7.1 million, while the capital and largest city is Belgrade.
The arrival of the Serbs to the Balkans in the 7th century, established several states, eventually forming the Serbian Empire in the 14th century. By the 16th century, Serbia was conquered and occupied by the Ottoman Empire, at times interrupted by the Habsburgs. In the early 19th century the Serbian revolution re-established the country as the region's first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory and pioneered the abolition of feudalism in the Balkans. The former Habsburg crownland of Vojvodina united with Serbia in 1918. Following World War I, Serbia formed Yugoslavia with other South Slavic peoples which existed in several forms up until 2006, when the National Assembly of Serbia declared independence and the legal succession to the former State Union. In February 2008 the parliament of UNMIK-governed Kosovo, Serbia's southern province, declared independence, with mixed responses from international governments.
wn.com/Serbia -
Siberia
Coordinates: 60°0′N 105°0′E / 60°N 105°E / 60; 105
Siberia (/saɪˈbɪəriə/; Russian: Сиби́рь, tr. Sibir'; IPA: [sʲɪˈbʲirʲ] ( listen)) is an extensive region constituting almost all of Northern Asia. Comprising the central and eastern portion of the Russian Federation, it was part of the Soviet Union (USSR) from its beginning, as its predecessor states, the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire, conquered it during the 16th to 19th centuries.
Encompassing much of the Eurasian Steppe, the territory of Siberia extends eastward from the Ural Mountains to the watershed between the Pacific and Arctic drainage basins, and southward from the Arctic Ocean to the hills of north-central Kazakhstan and the national borders of Mongolia and China. Siberia makes up about 77% of Russia's territory (13.1 million square kilometres), but has only 28% (40 million people) of Russia's population.
Some sources say that the word Siberia originates from the Turkic for "sleeping land". Another version is that this name was the ancient tribal name of the Sabirs, Turkic nomads later assimilated to Siberian Tatars. The modern usage of the name appeared in the Russian language after the conquest of the Siberian Khanate.
wn.com/Siberia -
Sichuan
Coordinates: 30°N 103°E / 30°N 103°E / 30; 103
Sichuan (help·info) (Chinese: 四川, known formerly in the West by its postal map spellings of Szechwan or Szechuan) is a province in Southwest China with its capital in Chengdu. The current name of the province, "四川", is an abbreviation of "四川路" (Sì Chuānlù), or "Four circuits of rivers", which is itself abbreviated from "川峡四路" (Chuānxiá Sìlù), or "Four circuits of rivers and gorges", named after the division of the existing circuit into four during the Northern Song Dynasty.
The province and its vicinity were the cradle of unique local civilizations, which can be dated back to at least the fifteenth century BC (coinciding with the later years of the Shang Dynasty). Beginning from the ninth century BC, Shu (today Chengdu) and Ba (today Chongqing City) emerged as cultural and administrative centers where two rival kingdoms were established.
Shu's existence was unknown until an archaeological discovery in 1986 at a small village named Sanxingdui (三星堆) in Guanghan County. It is believed to be an ancient city of the Shu Kingdom, where excavations have yielded invaluable archaeological information.
wn.com/Sichuan -
Soltaniyeh
Soltaniyeh (Persian: سلطانيه, also Romanized as Solţānīyeh, Solţāneyyeh, Sultaniye, and Sultānīyeh; also known as Sa‘īdīyeh) is a city in and capital of Soltaniyeh District of Abhar County, Zanjan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 5,684, in 1,649 families. Soltaniyeh, located some 240 kilometres (150 mi) to the north-west of Tehran, used to be the capital of Mongol Ilkhanid rulers of Persia in the 14th century. Its name translates as "the Imperial". In 2005, UNESCO listed Soltaniyeh as one of the World Heritage Sites.
William Dalrymple notes that Öljaitü intended Soltaniyeh to be "the largest and most magnificent city in the world" but that it "died with him" and is now "a deserted, crumbling spread of ruins."
The central magnet of Soltaniyeh's several ruins is the Mausoleum of Il-khan Öljeitü (Persian اولجايتو) also known as Muhammad Khodabandeh, traditionally known as the Dome of Soltaniyeh.
The structure, erected from 1302 to 1312 AD, has the oldest double-shell dome in Iran. Its importance in the Muslim world may be compared to that of Brunelleschi's cupola for Christian architecture. It is one of the largest brick domes in the world, just at the theoretical engineering limit for a brick dome and the third largest dome in the world after domes of Florence Cathedral and Hagia Sophia. The Dome of Soltaniyeh paved the way for more daring Iranian-style cupola constructions in Muslim world, such as the Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasavi and Taj Mahal. Much of its exterior decoration has been lost, but the interior retains superb mosaics, faience, and murals. People have described the architecture of the building as “anticipating the Taj Mahal.”
wn.com/Soltaniyeh -
South Korea
South Korea ( listen), officially the Republic of Korea (Hangul: 대한민국; Hanja: 大韓民國; Daehan Minguk listen), is a sovereign state in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. The name "Korea" is derived from Goryeo, a dynasty which ruled in the Middle Ages (an initial "G" in Korean is pronounced like an English "K").
Its neighbors are China to the west, Japan to the east, North Korea to the north, and the Korea Strait to the south. South Korea lies in the north temperate zone with a predominantly mountainous terrain. It covers a total area of 99,392 square kilometers and has a population of almost 50 million. The capital and largest city is Seoul, with a population of 9,794,304.
Archaeological findings show that the Korean Peninsula was occupied by the Lower Paleolithic period.Korean history begins with the founding of Gojoseon in 2333 BC by the legendary Dan-gun. Following the unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea under Silla 668 AD, Korea went through the Goryeo Dynasty and Joseon Dynasty as one nation until the end of the Korean Empire in 1910, when it was annexed by Japan. After liberation and occupation by Soviet and U.S. forces at the end of World War II, the nation was divided into North and South Korea. The latter was established in 1948 as a democracy, though political turmoil and times of military rule and martial law characterized much of the period until the foundation of the Sixth Republic in 1987.
wn.com/South_Korea -
Spanish Empire
The Spanish Empire (Spanish: Imperio Español) comprised territories and colonies administered by Spain in Europe, the Americas, Africa, Asia and Oceania. It originated during the Age of Exploration and was one of the first global empires. At the time of Habsburgs, Spain reached the peak of its political and economic power when it became the foremost global power. Its establishment in the 15th century ushered in the modern global era and five centuries of European dominance of global affairs. Spain's territorial reach beyond Europe spanned six centuries, from the first voyages to the Americas in 1492 until the independence of its last African colonies in the 1970s.
After the War of the Castilian Succession (1475–1479), Spain had emerged with a personally unified monarchy, with the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs or los Reyes Catolicos between the Queen of Castile and the King of Aragon: the internal and foreign policy was coordinated although the rule was separate. In 1492, the Spanish monarchs completed the Reconquista with the incorporation of Granada to the Kingdom of Castile. That same year Christopher Columbus commanded the first Spanish exploratory voyage west across the Atlantic Ocean, leading to the Discovery of America and Europe's eventual colonial engagement in the New World. The Americas thereby became the focus of Spanish exploration and colonization.
wn.com/Spanish_Empire -
Suzdal
Suzdal (Russian: Су́здаль) is a town in Vladimir Oblast, Russia, situated northeast of Moscow, 26 kilometers (16 mi) from the city of Vladimir, on the Kamenka River. Population: 10,535 (2010 Census preliminary results); 11,357 (2002 Census); 12,063 (1989 Census).
The history of the town dates back to at least the year 1024. It is called Sursdalar or Sudrdala (the southern valley) in the Norse Sagas - which probably also is the origin of the town's name. For centuries it functioned as the capital of several Russian principalities. It forms part of the Golden Ring. It was granted city status in 1777.
After a decline in political importance, the town rose in prominence as a religious center with numerous monasteries and a remarkable ratio of churches to citizens: at one point, forty churches for four hundred families. Today, the town operates as an important tourist center, featuring many fine examples of old Russian architecture — most of them churches and monasteries. Walking through the town one might get the feeling that every third building is a church. Although having over ten thousand residents, Suzdal still retains the look and feel of a small village with streams and meadows everywhere nearby, and chicken and livestock a common sight on the city streets, some of which are unpaved. This juxtaposition of stunning medieval architecture with its pastoral setting lends Suzdal a picturesque charm, and in the summer artists and easels are a common sight.
wn.com/Suzdal -
Syria
Syria (/ˈsɪriə/ ( listen) SIRR-ee-ə; Arabic: سورية Sūriyya or سوريا Sūryā; Syriac: ܣܘܪܝܐ; Kurdish: Sûrî), officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية al-Jumhūriyyah al-‘Arabīyah as-Sūriyyah Arabic pronunciation (help·info)), is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest.
In English, the name Syria was formerly synonymous with the Levant, known in Arabic as Sham, while the modern state encompasses the sites of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the Eblan civilization of the third millennium BC. In the Islamic era, its capital city, Damascus, the oldest continuously inhabited city in the world, was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate, and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt.
The population of Syria is 74% Sunni, 12% Alawi, 10% Christian, and 3% Druze. Combined, 87% of the Syrian population is Muslim, while the other 10% is Christian, which includes mainly Arab Christians but also Assyrians and Armenians. Major ethnic minorities in Syria include Kurds (9%), Assyrians, Armenians, Turkmens and Circassians. The majority of the population is Arab (90%).
wn.com/Syria -
Tabriz
Tabriz (Persian/Azerbaijani:تبریز) ( pronunciation (help·info)) is the fifth largest city and one of the historical capitals of Iran and the capital of East Azerbaijan Province. Situated at an altitude of 1,350 meters at the junction of the Quru River and Aji River, it was the second largest city in Iran until the late 1960s, one of its former capitals, and residence of the crown prince under the Qajar dynasty. The city has proven extremely influential in the country’s recent history. Tabriz is located in a valley to the north of the long ridge of the volcanic cone of Sahand, south of the Eynali mountain. The valley opens out into a plain that slopes gently down to the northern end of Lake Urmia, 60 km to the west. With cold winters and temperate summers the city is considered a summer resort.
The estimated population of the city is around 1,400,000 based on results of the Iranian census bureau. Tabriz is the fourth most populous city in Iran after Tehran, Mashhad, and Esfahan, and is also a major Iranian heavy industrial and manufacturing center. Some of these industries include automobile, machine tools, oil and petrochemical and cement production.
wn.com/Tabriz -
Taipei, Taiwan
Taipei City (/ˌtaɪˈpeɪ/; [tʰǎipèi]; Chinese: 臺北市 or 台北市; pinyin: Táiběi Shì) is the capital of the Republic of China (Taiwan). Situated at the northern tip of the island of Taiwan, Taipei is located on the Tamsui River; it is about 25 km southwest of Keelung, a port city on the Pacific Ocean. It lies in the two relatively narrow valleys of the Keelung (基隆河) and Xindian (新店溪) rivers, which join to form the Tamsui River along the city's western border. The city proper (Taipei City) is home to an estimated 2,618,772 people. Taipei, New Taipei, and Keelung together form the Taipei metropolitan area with a population of 6,900,273. However, they are administered under different local governing bodies. "Taipei" sometimes refers to the whole metropolitan area, while "Taipei City" refers to the city proper. Taipei City proper is surrounded on all sides by New Taipei.
Taipei is the political, economic, and cultural center of Taiwan. The National Palace Museum which has one of the largest collections of Chinese artifacts and artworks in the world is located in Taipei. Considered to be a global city, Taipei is part of a major industrial area. Railways, high speed rail, highways, airports, and bus lines connect Taipei with all parts of the island. The city is served by two airports – Taipei Songshan and Taiwan Taoyuan.
wn.com/Taipei,_Taiwan -
Tajikistan
Tajikistan (i/tɑːˈdʒiːkɨstɑːn/, /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/, or /tæˈdʒiːkiːstæn/; Тоҷикистон [ˈtɔjikɪsˈtɔn]), officially the Republic of Tajikistan (Tajik: Ҷумҳурии Тоҷикистон, Cumhuriyi Tocikiston; Persian: جمهوری تاجیکستان Jomhuri-ye Tajikestan; Russian: Республика Таджикистан, Respublika Tadzhikistan), is a mountainous landlocked country in Central Asia. It borders Afghanistan to the south, Uzbekistan to the west, Kyrgyzstan to the north, and China to the east. Gilgit Baltistan as well as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa of Pakistan are separated from Tajikistan by the narrow Wakhan Corridor of Afghanistan in the south.
Most of Tajikistan's population belongs to the Persian-speaking Tajik ethnic group, who share language, culture and history with Afghanistan and Iran. Once part of the Samanid Empire, Tajikistan became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union in the 20th century, known as the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic (Tajik SSR). Mountains cover over 90% of this Central Asian republic.
After independence, Tajikistan suffered from a devastating civil war which lasted from 1992 to 1997. Since the end of the war, newly established political stability and foreign aid have allowed the country's economy to grow. Trade in commodities such as cotton, aluminium and uranium has contributed greatly to this steady improvement.
wn.com/Tajikistan -
Teotihuacan
Coordinates: 19°41′33″N 98°50′37.68″W / 19.6925°N 98.8438°W / 19.6925; -98.8438
Teotihuacan – also written Teotihuacán, with a Spanish orthographic accent on the last syllable – is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, just 30 miles (48 km) northeast of Mexico City, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas. Apart from the pyramidal structures, Teotihuacan is also known for its large residential complexes, the Avenue of the Dead, and numerous colorful, well-preserved murals. Additionally, Teotihuacan produced a thin orange pottery style that spread through Mesoamerica.
The city is thought to have been established around 100 BC and continued to be built until about 250 AD. The city may have lasted until sometime between the 7th and 8th centuries AD. At its zenith, perhaps in the first half of the 1st millennium AD, Teotihuacan was the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas, with a population of perhaps 125,000 or more, placing it among the largest cities of the world in this period. Teotihuacan began as a new religious center in the Mexican Highland around the first century AD. This city came to be the largest and most populated center in the New World. Teotihuacan was even home to multi-floor apartment compounds built to accommodate this large population. The civilization and cultural complex associated with the site is also referred to as Teotihuacan or Teotihuacano.
wn.com/Teotihuacan -
Thailand
Thailand ( /ˈtaɪlænd/ TY-land or /ˈtaɪlənd/;Thai: ประเทศไทย, RTGS: Prathet Thai), officially the Kingdom of Thailand (Thai: ราชอาณาจักรไทย, RTGS: Ratcha Anachak Thai; IPA: [râːt.tɕʰā ʔāːnāːtɕàk tʰāj] ( listen)), formerly known as Siam (Thai: สยาม; RTGS: Sayam), is a country located at the centre of the Indochina peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered to the north by Burma and Laos, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the west by the Andaman Sea and the southern extremity of Burma. Its maritime boundaries include Vietnam in the Gulf of Thailand to the southeast, and Indonesia and India in the Andaman Sea to the southwest.
The country is a constitutional monarchy, headed by King Rama IX, the ninth king of the House of Chakri, who, having reigned since 1946, is the world's longest-serving head of state and the longest-reigning monarch in Thai history. The king of Thailand is titled Head of State, Head of the Armed Forces, the Upholder of the Buddhist religion, and the Defender of all Faiths.
wn.com/Thailand -
Tripoli
Tripoli is the capital and largest city in Libya. It is also known as Tripoli-of-the-West (Arabic: طرابلس الغرب Ṭarābulus al-Gharb), to distinguish it from Tripoli, Lebanon. It is affectionately called The Mermaid of the Mediterranean (Arabic: عروسة البحر ʼarūsat el-baḥr; lit: "bride of the sea"), describing its turquoise waters and its whitewashed buildings. Tripoli (English pronunciation: /ˈtrɪpɵli/) is a Greek name that means "Three Cities", introduced in Western European languages through the Italian Tripoli. In Arabic: طرابلس it is called Ṭarābulus ( pronunciation (help·info), Libyan Arabic: Ṭrābləs pronunciation (help·info), Berber: Ṭrables, from Ancient Greek: Τρίπολις Trípolis). As of 2011, the Tripoli metropolitan area (district area) had a population of 2.2 million. The city is located in the northwest part of the country on the edge of the desert, on a point of rocky land projecting into the Mediterranean and forming a bay.
The city includes the Port of Tripoli and the country's largest commercial and manufacturing centre. It is also the site of the University of Tripoli. The vast Bab al-Azizia barracks, which includes the former family compound of Muammar Gaddafi, is also located in the city; Gaddafi largely ruled the country from his residence in this barracks.
wn.com/Tripoli -
Turkey
Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye), known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( Türkiye Cumhuriyeti (help·info)), is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia (mostly in the Anatolian peninsula) and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe. Turkey is bordered by eight countries: Bulgaria to the northwest; Greece to the west; Georgia to the northeast; Armenia, Azerbaijan (the exclave of Nakhchivan) and Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria to the southeast. The Mediterranean Sea and Cyprus are to the south; the Aegean Sea is to the west; and the Black Sea is to the north. The Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles (which together form the Turkish Straits) demarcate the boundary between East Thrace and Anatolia; they also separate Europe and Asia.
Turkey is one of the six independent Turkic states. The vast majority of the population are Muslims. The country's official language is Turkish, whereas Kurdish and Zazaki languages are spoken by Kurds and Zazas, who constitute 18% of the population.
wn.com/Turkey -
Turkmenistan
Turkmenistan (i/tɜrkˈmɛnɨstæn/ or i/tɜrkmɛnɨˈstɑːn/; Turkmen: Türkmenistan), formerly also known as Turkmenia (Russian: Туркмения), is one of the Turkic states in Central Asia. Until 1991, it was a constituent republic of the Soviet Union, the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic (Turkmen SSR). Turkmenistan is one of the six independent Turkic states. It is bordered by Afghanistan to the southeast, Iran to the south and southwest, Uzbekistan to the east and northeast, Kazakhstan to the north and northwest and the Caspian Sea to the west.
Turkmenistan's GDP growth rate of 11% in 2010[update] ranks 4th in the world, but these figures are subject to wide margins of error. It possesses the world's fourth largest reserves of natural gas resources. Although it is wealthy in natural resources in certain areas, most of the country is covered by the Karakum (Black Sand) Desert.
The Turkmen government operates as a single-party system. Turkmenistan was ruled by President for Life Saparmurat Niyazov (called "Türkmenbaşy" — "leader of the Turkmens") until his sudden death on 21 December 2006. Gurbanguly Berdymukhammedov was elected the new president on 11 February 2007.
wn.com/Turkmenistan -
Uchch
Uch or Uch Sharif Urdu: اوچ شریف) (Greek: Alexandria En Indo Potamo) is located in 75 km from Bahawalpur in Bahawalpur District, South Punjab, Pakistan Uch is an important historical city, being founded by Alexander the Great. Formerly located at the confluence of the Indus and Chenab rivers, it is now removed to Mithankot, some 100 km from that confluence. It was an important center in medieval India, as an early stronghold of the Delhi Sultanate in the 13th century during the Muslim conquest. Uch Sharif contains the tombs of Bibi Jawindi, Baha'al-Halim and Jalaluddin Bukhari, which are considered master pieces of Islamic architecture and are on the UNESCO World Heritage Site tentative list.
It is believed that in 325 BCE Alexander the Great founded a city called Alexandria on the Indus at the site of the last confluence of Punjab rivers with the Indus. Nevertheless, some historians believe that Uch predates the advent of Bikramjit when Jains and Buddhists ruled over the area, and that Mithankot or Chacharan Sharif was the true settlement of Alexandria.[citation needed] In AD 712, Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the city and during the Muslim period Uch was one of the centres of Islamic studies of South Asia. There are several tombs of famous mystics (Sufis) in Uch, notably the tombs of Syed Jalaluddin Bukhari and his family. These structures were joined by a series of domed tombs; the first is said to have been built for Baha’ al-Halim by his pupil, the Suharwardiya Sufi saint Jahaniyan Jahangasht (1307–1383), the second for the latter’s great grant daughter, Bibi Jawindi, in 1494, and the third for the latter’s architect.
wn.com/Uchch -
Ukraine
Ukraine (i/juːˈkreɪn/ yew-KRAYN; Ukrainian: Україна, transliterated: Ukrayina, [ukrɑˈjinɑ]; Russian: Украина; Crimean Tatar: Ukraina) is a country in Central and Eastern Europe. Ukraine borders the Russian Federation to the east and northeast, Belarus to the northwest, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania and Moldova to the southwest, and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south and southeast, respectively. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after the Russian Federation.
According to a popular and well established theory, the medieval state of Kievan Rus was established by the Varangians in the 9th century as the first historically recorded East Slavic state which emerged as a powerful nation in the Middle Ages until it disintegrated in the 12th century. By the middle of the 14th century, Ukrainian territories were under the rule of three external powers—the Golden Horde, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Kingdom of Poland. After the Great Northern War (1700–1721) Ukraine was divided between a number of regional powers and, by the 19th century, the largest part of Ukraine was integrated into the Russian Empire with the rest under Austro-Hungarian control. A chaotic period of incessant warfare ensued, with several internationally recognized attempts at independence from 1917 to 1921, following World War I and the Russian Civil War. Ukraine emerged from its own civil war, and on December 30, 1922 Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic became one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. The Ukrainian SSR's territory was enlarged westward during the civil war shortly before, and after World War II, and further south in 1954 with the Crimea transfer. In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations.
wn.com/Ukraine -
Uzbekistan
Uzbekistani/ʊzˌbɛkɨˈstɑːn/, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan (Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi, Ўзбекистон Республикаси) is the only doubly landlocked country in Central Asia and one of only two such countries worldwide. It shares borders with Kazakhstan to the west and to the north, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan to the east, and Afghanistan and Turkmenistan to the south. Before 1991, it was part of the Soviet Union.
Uzbekistan is one of the Turkic states in Central Asia.
Once part of the Persian Samanid and later Timurid empires, the region was conquered in the early 16th century by Uzbek nomads, who spoke an Eastern Turkic language. Most of Uzbekistan’s population today belong to the Uzbek ethnic group and speak the Uzbek language, one of the family of Turkic languages.
Uzbekistan was incorporated into the Russian Empire in the 19th century, and in 1924 became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union, known as the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (Uzbek SSR). It became independent on 31 August 1991 (officially, from the following day).
wn.com/Uzbekistan -
Vienna
Vienna ( /viːˈɛnə/; German: Wien (help·info) [viːn]) is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.723 million (2.4 million within the metropolitan area, more than 25% of Austria's population), and is by far the largest city in Austria, as well as its cultural, economic, and political centre. It is the 9th-largest city by population in the European Union. Until the beginning of the 20th century it was the largest German speaking city in the world, and before the first world war and the splitting of the Austro-Hungarian empire the city had 2 million inhabitants. Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city lies in the east of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region. Along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
wn.com/Vienna -
Vietnam
Vietnam ( listen), formally the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (Cộng hòa xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam; listen), is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 91.5 million inhabitants as of 2012, it is the world's 13th-most-populous country, and the eighth-most-populous Asian country. The name Vietnam translates as "South Viet", and was officially adopted in 1945. The country is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea to the east.
The Vietnamese became independent from Imperial China in 938 AD, following the Battle of Bạch Đằng River. Successive Vietnamese royal dynasties flourished as the nation expanded geographically and politically into Southeast Asia, until the Indochina Peninsula was colonized by the French in the mid-19th century. The First Indochina War eventually led to the expulsion of the French in 1954, leaving Vietnam divided politically into two states, North and South Vietnam. Conflict between the two sides intensified, with heavy foreign intervention, during the Vietnam War, which ended with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975.
wn.com/Vietnam -
Vladimir
Vladimir (Russian: Влади́мир; IPA: [vlɐˈdʲimʲɪr]) is a city and the administrative center of Vladimir Oblast, Russia, located on the Klyazma River, 200 kilometers (120 mi) to the east of Moscow along the M7 motorway. Population: 345,598 (2010 Census preliminary results); 315,954 (2002 Census); 349,702 (1989 Census).
Vladimir was one of the medieval capitals of Russia, and two of its cathedrals are a World Heritage Site. It is served by the Semyazino Airport, and during the Cold War Vladimir was host to Dobrynskoye air base.
The area occupied by the city of Vladimir has been inhabited by humans (at least intermittently) for approximately 25,000 years (see Sungir). Traditionally, the founding date of Vladimir has been acknowledged as 1108, as the first mention of Vladimir in the Primary Chronicle appears under that year. This view attributes the founding of the city, and its name, to Vladimir Monomakh, who inherited the region as part of the Rostov-Suzdal Principality in 1093. In 1958, the 850th anniversary of the city foundation was celebrated, with many monuments from the celebrations adorning the city squares.
wn.com/Vladimir -
Warsangali Sultanate
The Warsangali Sultanate (Somali: Saldanadda Warsangeli, Arabic: سلطنة الورسنجلي) was a Somali imperial ruling house centered in northeastern and in some parts of southeastern Somalia. It was one of the largest sultanates ever established in the territory, and, at the height of its power, included the Sanaag region and parts of the northeastern Bari region of the country, an area historically known as Maakhir or the Maakhir Coast. The Sultanate was founded in the late 13th century in northern Somalia by a group of Somalis from the Warsangali branch of the Darod clan, and was ruled by the descendants of the Gerad Dhidhin. In the late 19th century, the influential Sultan Mohamoud Ali Shire governed the Sultanate, assuming control during some of its most turbulent years. The Akil Dhahar ruled south of Sanaag and some portions of the Bari region. In 1884, the United Kingdom established the protectorate of British Somaliland through various treaties with the northern Somali sultanates, including the Warsangali Sultanate.
wn.com/Warsangali_Sultanate -
Western Xia
The Western Xia Dynasty (Chinese: 西夏; pinyin: Xī Xià; Wade-Giles: Hsi Hsia; literally "Western Xia") or the Tangut Empire, was known to the Tanguts and the Tibetans as Minyak.
The state existed from 1038 to 1227 AD in what are now the northwestern Chinese provinces of Ningxia, Gansu, eastern Qinghai, northern Shaanxi, northeastern Xinjiang, southwest Inner Mongolia, and southernmost Outer Mongolia, measuring about eight hundred thousand square kilometers. The state suffered from devastating destruction by the Mongols who founded Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), including most of its written records and architecture. Its founders and history therefore remained controversial until recent research conducted both in the West and within China. They occupied the area of important trade route between North China and Central Asia, the Hexi Corridor. The Western Xia made significant achievements in literature, art, music, and architecture, which was characterized as "shining and sparkling". Their extensive stance among the other empires of the Liao, Song, and Jin was attributable to their effective military organizations that integrated cavalry, chariots, archery, shields, artillery (cannons carried on the back of camels), and amphibious troops for combats on land and water.
wn.com/Western_Xia -
Wuchang District
Wuchang (simplified Chinese: 武昌区; traditional Chinese: 武昌區; pinyin: Wǔchāng Qū) was one of the three cities that merged into modern-day Wuhan, the capital of Hubei province, China. It stood on the right (southeastern) bank of the Yangtze River, opposite the mouth of the Han River. The two other sister towns, Hanyang and Hankou, were on the left (northwestern) bank, separated from each other by the Han.
The Wuchang fish (Megalobrama amblycephala; 武昌鱼 Wǔchāng yú) is named after the town.
The name "Wuchang" remains in common use for the part of urban Wuhan south of the Yangtze River. Administratively, however, it is split between several districts of the City of Wuhan. The historic center of Wuchang lies within the modern Wuchang District, which has an area of 82.4 square kilometres (31.8 sq mi) and a population of 1,003,400. Other parts of what's colloquially known as Wuchang are within Hongshan District (south and south-east) and Qingshan District (north-east).
In 221, warlord Sun Quan moved the capital of Eastern Wu from Gong'an county, Jingzhou (northwest of present day Gong'an county, Hubei) to È county (in present day Ezhou City), and renamed È to Wuchang (literally prospering from military, regarding its logistics role of the military bases established before the Battle of Red Cliffs). Later in the year Cao Pi proclaimed himself the emperor of Cao Wei. Sun Quan declared independence in the following year, and started to build forts and palaces in Wuchang. Sun Quan proclaimed himself the emperor of Eastern Wu in 229, and moved the capital to Jianye. Sun Hao, the emperor of Eastern Wu between 264 and 280, moved the capital back to Wuchang in 265. In 589, the Wuchang commandery was abolished and the Wuchang county was transferred to a new commandery named Ezhou (headquartered in present day Wuchang District), and remained in the administration since then.
wn.com/Wuchang_District -
Yuan Dynasty
The Yuan Dynasty (Chinese: 元朝, p Yuán Cháo; Mongolian: Их Юань улс) was the branch of Mongol Borjigin dynasty established by Kublai Khan. Although the Mongols had ruled northern China for decades, it was not until 1271 that Kublai Khan officially proclaimed the dynasty in the traditional Chinese style. His realm – the Great Yuan Empire (t 大元帝國, s 大元帝国, p Dà Yuán Dìguó) – was by this point isolated from the other khanates and controlled only most of present-day China and its surrounding areas including modern Mongolia. It was the first non-Han dynasty to rule all of China and lasted until 1368, after which its remnants in Mongolia were known as the Northern Yuan.
The Yuan is considered both a successor to the Mongol Empire and as an imperial Chinese dynasty. In official Chinese histories, the Yuan Dynasty bore the Mandate of Heaven, following the Song Dynasty and preceding the Ming Dynasty. Although the dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, he placed his grandfather Genghis Khan on the imperial records as the official founder of the dynasty as Taizu.
wn.com/Yuan_Dynasty
-
Abagha
Abaqa Khan (1234–1282), also Abaga (Mongolian: Abaga Khaan, “paternal uncle”; Mongolian Cyrillic: Аваг хаан), or Abagha Khan, was the second Mongol ruler (Il-khan) of the Persian Ilkhanate. The son of Hulagu Khan and Yesuncin Khatun, he reigned from 1265–1282 and was succeeded by his brother Tekuder Khan. Much of Abaqa's reign was consumed with civil wars in the Mongol Empire, such as those between the Ilkhanate and the northern khanate of the Golden Horde. Abaqa also engaged in unsuccessful attempts at military invasion of Syria, including the Second Battle of Homs.
Abaqa was born in February 1234, son of Ilkhanate founder Hulagu Khan. His stepmother was Hulagu's Kerait princess bride, Doquz Khatun. Doquz, a devout Nestorian Christian, was regarded as a spiritual leader of the Mongols, who were generally tolerant of many religions. Abaqa himself was marginally Buddhist, though he was also very sympathetic to Christianity due to his mother's influence. A favored son of Hulagu, he was made governor of Turkestan.
wn.com/Abagha -
Abaqa Khan
Abaqa Khan (1234–1282), also Abaga (Mongolian: Abaga Khaan, “paternal uncle”; Mongolian Cyrillic: Аваг хаан), or Abagha Khan, was the second Mongol ruler (Il-khan) of the Persian Ilkhanate. The son of Hulagu Khan and Yesuncin Khatun, he reigned from 1265–1282 and was succeeded by his brother Tekuder Khan. Much of Abaqa's reign was consumed with civil wars in the Mongol Empire, such as those between the Ilkhanate and the northern khanate of the Golden Horde. Abaqa also engaged in unsuccessful attempts at military invasion of Syria, including the Second Battle of Homs.
Abaqa was born in February 1234, son of Ilkhanate founder Hulagu Khan. His stepmother was Hulagu's Kerait princess bride, Doquz Khatun. Doquz, a devout Nestorian Christian, was regarded as a spiritual leader of the Mongols, who were generally tolerant of many religions. Abaqa himself was marginally Buddhist, though he was also very sympathetic to Christianity due to his mother's influence. A favored son of Hulagu, he was made governor of Turkestan.
wn.com/Abaqa_Khan -
Aju
Aju (or Achu) (1227–1287) was a general and chancellor of the Mongol Empire and the Yuan Dynasty. He was from the Jarchud clan of the Mongol Uriankhai.
His grandfather was Subutai, the honored general and Noyan of Genghis Khan, his father was Uryankhadai.
In 1253 he followed his father and subdued western Chinese people and conquered the Kingdom of Dali. Uryankhadai and Aju led 3,000 Mongols and more than 10,000 troops from Dali tribes to northern Vietnam in 1255. The king of the Tran Dynasty agreed to send tributes after his defeat in open battle; this lasted until the reign of Kublai.
He and his father supported the Great Khan Mongke and Kublai's forces in 1258. Aju commanded a tumen, 10,000 men in his earlier career. They conquered 13 cities within 2 years and destroyed 40,000 troops of the Song Dynasty while his father was ill. After the occupation of Chingzhoua and Yovajiyu, Uryankhadai met prince Kublai at Echjou.
When Kublai succeeded the throne in 1260, Aju stayed in his palace. The following year, he was ordered to lead Yuan troops in Lianshui (涟水). He crushed Song armies and navies from 1261 to 1275. He captured Fancheng (樊城) by using Khotan artillery during the Battle of Xiangyang and its governor committed suicide.
wn.com/Aju -
Al-Mustasim
Al-Musta'sim Billah (full name: al-Musta'sim-Billah Abu-Ahmad Abdullah bin al-Mustansir-Billah; Arabic: المستعصم بالله أبو أحمد عبد الله بن المستنصر بالله; 1213 – February 20, 1258) was the last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad; he ruled from 1242 until his death.
Al-Musta'sim succeeded his father in the late 1242.
He is noted for his opposition to the rise of Shajar al-Durr to the Egyptian throne during the Seventh Crusade. He sent a message from Baghdad to the Mamluks in Egypt that said: "If you do not have men there tell us so we can send you men.". However, Al-Musta'sim had to face the greatest menace against the caliphate since its establishment in 632, the invasion of the Mongol forces that, under Hulagu Khan, had already wiped out any resistance in Transoxiana and Khorasan. In 1255/1256 Hulagu forced the Abbasid to lend their forces for the campaign against Alamut.
In 1258 Hulagu invaded the Abbasid domain, comprising a little more than what is now Iraq and Syria. In an advance on Baghdad, Hulagu Khan had several columns advance simultaneously on the city, and laid siege to it. The Caliph had been deluded by promises from his Vizier that the Mongols could be driven off literally by the women of the city throwing stones at them, and did the worst of all things: nothing. He neither raised an army to defend Baghdad from the largest Mongol army ever assembled – one Mongol in ten had been conscripted into the forces advancing on the Caliphate – nor did he attempt to negotiate with Hulagu. Instead he sent weak threats to the Mongol warlord.
wn.com/Al-Mustasim -
Alans
The Alans, or the Alani, occasionally termed Alauni or Halani, were a group of Sarmatian tribes, nomadic pastoralists of the 1st millennium AD who spoke an Eastern Iranian language which derived from Scytho-Sarmatian and which in turn evolved into modern Ossetian.
The various forms of Alan — Greek: Αλανοί, Αλαννοί; Chinese: 阿蘭聊 Alanliao (Pinyin) in the 2nd century, 阿蘭 Alan (Pinyin) in the 3rd century — and Iron (a self-designation of the Alans' modern Ossetian descendants, indicating early tribal self-designation) are Iranian dialectical forms of Aryan. These and other variants of Aryan (such as Iran), were common self-designations of the Indo-Iranians, the common ancestors of the Indo-Aryans and Iranian peoples to whom the Alans belonged.
The Alans were also known over the course of their history by another group of related names including the variations Asi, As, and Os (Bulgarian Uzi, Hungarian Jász, Russian Jasy, Georgian Osi). It is this name that is the root of the modern Ossetian.
<timeline> ImageSize = width:680 height:200 PlotArea = left:72 right:8 bottom:20 top:2 AlignBars = justify Define $wide = width:35
wn.com/Alans -
Almohad Caliphate
The Almohad Dynasty (Berber: Imweḥḥden, from Arabic الموحدون al-Muwaḥḥidun, "the monotheists" or "the Unitarians"), was a MoroccanBerber-Muslim dynasty founded in the 12th century that established a Berber state in Tinmel in the Atlas Mountains in roughly 1120.
The movement was started by Ibn Tumart in the Masmuda tribe, followed by Abd al-Mu'min al-Gumi between 1130 and his death in 1163, the Almohads defeated the ruling Almoravids, extending their power over all of the Maghreb. Al-Andalus, Moorish Iberia (modern Portugal and southern Spain) under the Almoravid dynasty, followed the fate of Africa.
The Almohad dominance of Iberia continued until 1212, when Muhammad III, "al-Nasir" (1199–1214) was defeated at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in the Sierra Morena by an alliance of the Christian princes of Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal. Nearly all of the Moorish dominions in Iberia were lost soon after, with the great Moorish cities of Córdoba and Seville falling to the Christians in 1236 and 1248 respectively.
wn.com/Almohad_Caliphate -
Almoravid dynasty
The Almoravids (Berber: ⵉⵎⵕⴰⴱⴹⴻⵏ Imṛabḍen, Arabic: المرابطون Al-Murābiṭūn) were a Berber dynasty of Morocco, who formed an empire in the 11th-century that stretched over the western Maghreb and Al-Andalus. Their capital was Marrakesh, a city which they founded in 1062 CE. The dynasty originated amongst the Lamtuna and the Gudala, which were nomadic Berber tribes of the Sahara traversing the territory between southern Morocco, the Niger river and the Senegal river.
The Almoravids were crucial in avoiding a precipitated fall of Al-Andalus to the Iberian Christian kingdoms, when they decisively beat a coalition of the Castilian and Aragonese armies at the Battle of Sagrajas. This enabled them to control an empire that stretched 3,000 kilometers north to south. However, the rule of the dynasty was relatively short-lived and the Almoravids fell - at the height of their power - when they failed to quell the Masmuda-led rebellion initiated by Ibn Tumart. As a result, their last king Ishaq ibn Ali was killed in Marrakesh in April 1147 CE by the Almohads who replaced them as a ruling dynasty both in Morocco and Al-Andalus.
wn.com/Almoravid_dynasty -
Arghun
Arghun Khan aka Argon (Mongolian Cyrillic: Аргун хан) (c. 1258 – March 7, 1291) was the fourth ruler of the Mongol empire's Ilkhanate, from 1284 to 1291. He was the son of Abaqa Khan, and like his father, was a devout Buddhist (although pro-Christian). He was known for sending several embassies to Europe in an unsuccessful attempt to form a Franco-Mongol alliance against the Muslims in the Holy Land. It was also Arghun who requested a new bride from his great-uncle Kublai Khan. The mission to escort the young Kökötchin across Asia to Arghun was reportedly taken by Marco Polo. Arghun died before Kökötchin arrived, so she instead married Arghun's son, Ghazan.
Arghun was born to Abaqa Khan and his Christian princess wife, Haimash Khatun. Arghun himself had multiple wives, and his mother-in-law Bulughan Khatun raised Arghun's two sons Ghazan (whose birth mother was Qutlugh) and Öljeitü (whose birth mother was Uruk Khatun), both of whom later succeeded him and eventually converted to Islam. Arghun had Öljeitü baptized as a Christian at birth, and gave him the name "Nicholas" after Pope Nicholas IV. According to the Dominican missionary Ricoldo of Montecroce, he was "a man given to the worst of villainy, but for all that a friend of the Christians".
wn.com/Arghun -
Arghun the Elder
Arghun Agha, also Arghun Aqa or Arghun the Elder (d. 1278) was a Mongol noble of the Oirat clan in the 13th century. He was a governor in the Mongol-controlled area of Persia from 1243 to 1255, before the Ilkhanate was created by Hulagu. Arghun Agha was in control of the four districts of eastern and central Persia, as decreed by the great khan Möngke Khan.
When he was young, his father sold his son Arghun to Ilugei of the Jalayir, tutor of Ogedei Khan. During his years with the Ogedeyid family, he gained reputation among the members of the Royal blood because he was well educated. Arghun started his career as court official during the reign of the Qaghan Ogedei. Later on, the latter's consort, Toregene Khatun, appointed him civil governor in Transoxiana in c.1242. Ascelin of Lombardia might have met him while he was at the court of Baiju in c.1247. He is described as faithful servant of the Qaghan in Persian sources while the Georgian and Armenian sources say he was cruel and violent overseer. However, one Georgian chronicle mentions he was a friend of equity, trustful in his language, a deep thinker, and profound in counsel. It also says Arghun conducted the empire-wide census in Russia, Arctic, Alania, Pontic steppe, Georgia, Armenia and Anatolia.
wn.com/Arghun_the_Elder -
Ariq Boke
Ariq Böke (1219–1266), the components of his name also spelled Arigh, Arik, Bukha, Buka (Mongolian: Аригбөх; Chinese: 阿里不哥), was the youngest son of Tolui (1192–1232), a son of Genghis Khan. After the death of his brother the Great Khan Mongke, Ariq Boke briefly took power while his brothers Kublai (more commonly known as Kublai Khan) and Hulegu (or Hulagu) were absent. When Kublai returned for an election in 1260, rival factions could not agree, and elected simultaneous claimants Kublai and Ariq Boke to the throne, resulting in a war for succession which marked the beginning of civil war in the Mongol Empire. Ariq Boke was supported by the traditionalists of the Mongol Empire, while his brother Kublai Khan was supported by the senior princes of North China and Manchuria.
Ariq Boke was the youngest son of Sorghaghtani Beki and Tolui, the youngest son of Genghis Khan. When Genghis died in 1227, the leadership of the Empire passed to Genghis' son (Ariq Boke's uncle), Ogedei. He peacefully attended the elections of both his uncle Great Khan Ogedei and Ogedei's successor Guyuk. After his eldest brother Mongke was enthroned in 1250, his family became even more powerful among the Chingisids. Ariq Böke is also known for being sympathetic towards Christianity; this is known from the account of Franciscan William of Rubruck, who was an envoy of French King Louis IX.
wn.com/Ariq_Boke -
Ariq Böke
Ariq Böke (1219–1266), the components of his name also spelled Arigh, Arik, Bukha, Buka (Mongolian: Аригбөх; Chinese: 阿里不哥), was the youngest son of Tolui (1192–1232), a son of Genghis Khan. After the death of his brother the Great Khan Mongke, Ariq Boke briefly took power while his brothers Kublai (more commonly known as Kublai Khan) and Hulegu (or Hulagu) were absent. When Kublai returned for an election in 1260, rival factions could not agree, and elected simultaneous claimants Kublai and Ariq Boke to the throne, resulting in a war for succession which marked the beginning of civil war in the Mongol Empire. Ariq Boke was supported by the traditionalists of the Mongol Empire, while his brother Kublai Khan was supported by the senior princes of North China and Manchuria.
Ariq Boke was the youngest son of Sorghaghtani Beki and Tolui, the youngest son of Genghis Khan. When Genghis died in 1227, the leadership of the Empire passed to Genghis' son (Ariq Boke's uncle), Ogedei. He peacefully attended the elections of both his uncle Great Khan Ogedei and Ogedei's successor Guyuk. After his eldest brother Mongke was enthroned in 1250, his family became even more powerful among the Chingisids. Ariq Böke is also known for being sympathetic towards Christianity; this is known from the account of Franciscan William of Rubruck, who was an envoy of French King Louis IX.
wn.com/Ariq_Böke -
Ayyubid
The Ayyubid dynasty (Arabic: الأيوبيون) was a Muslim dynasty of Kurdish origin, founded by Saladin and centered in Egypt. The dynasty ruled much of the Middle East during the 12th and 13th centuries CE. The Ayyubid family, under the brothers Ayyub and Shirkuh, originally served as soldiers for the Zengids until they supplanted them under Saladin, Ayyub's son. In 1174, Saladin proclaimed himself Sultan following the death of Nur al-Din. The Ayyubids spent the next decade launching conquests throughout the region and by 1183, the territories under their control included Egypt, Syria, northern Mesopotamia, Hejaz, Yemen, and the North African coast up to the borders of modern-day Tunisia. Most of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and beyond Jordan River fell to Saladin after his victory at the Battle of Hattin in 1187. However, the Crusaders regained control of Palestine's coastline in the 1190s.
After the death of Saladin, his sons contested control over the sultanate, but Saladin's brother al-Adil eventually established himself as Sultan in 1200. In the 1230s, the Ayyubid rulers of Syria attempted to assert their independence from Egypt and remained divided until Egyptian Sultan as-Salih Ayyub restored Ayyubid unity by taking over most of Syria, excluding Aleppo, by 1247. By then, local Muslim dynasties had driven out the Ayyubids from Yemen, the Hejaz, and parts of Mesopotamia. After repelling a Crusader invasion of the Nile Delta, as-Salih Ayyub's Mamluk generals overthrew al-Mu'azzam Turanshah who succeeded Ayyub as Sultan after his death in 1250. This effectively ended Ayyubid power in Egypt and a number of attempts by the rulers of Syria, led by an-Nasir Yusuf of Aleppo, to recover it failed. In 1260, the Mongols sacked Aleppo and wrested control of what remained of the Ayyubid territories soon after. The Mamluks, who forced out the Mongols after the destruction of the Ayyubid dynasty, maintained the Ayyubid principality of Hama until deposing its last ruler in 1341.
wn.com/Ayyubid -
Ayyubid dynasty
The Ayyubid dynasty (Arabic: الأيوبيون) was a Muslim dynasty of Kurdish origin, founded by Saladin and centered in Egypt. The dynasty ruled much of the Middle East during the 12th and 13th centuries CE. The Ayyubid family, under the brothers Ayyub and Shirkuh, originally served as soldiers for the Zengids until they supplanted them under Saladin, Ayyub's son. In 1174, Saladin proclaimed himself Sultan following the death of Nur al-Din. The Ayyubids spent the next decade launching conquests throughout the region and by 1183, the territories under their control included Egypt, Syria, northern Mesopotamia, Hejaz, Yemen, and the North African coast up to the borders of modern-day Tunisia. Most of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and beyond Jordan River fell to Saladin after his victory at the Battle of Hattin in 1187. However, the Crusaders regained control of Palestine's coastline in the 1190s.
After the death of Saladin, his sons contested control over the sultanate, but Saladin's brother al-Adil eventually established himself as Sultan in 1200. In the 1230s, the Ayyubid rulers of Syria attempted to assert their independence from Egypt and remained divided until Egyptian Sultan as-Salih Ayyub restored Ayyubid unity by taking over most of Syria, excluding Aleppo, by 1247. By then, local Muslim dynasties had driven out the Ayyubids from Yemen, the Hejaz, and parts of Mesopotamia. After repelling a Crusader invasion of the Nile Delta, as-Salih Ayyub's Mamluk generals overthrew al-Mu'azzam Turanshah who succeeded Ayyub as Sultan after his death in 1250. This effectively ended Ayyubid power in Egypt and a number of attempts by the rulers of Syria, led by an-Nasir Yusuf of Aleppo, to recover it failed. In 1260, the Mongols sacked Aleppo and wrested control of what remained of the Ayyubid territories soon after. The Mamluks, who forced out the Mongols after the destruction of the Ayyubid dynasty, maintained the Ayyubid principality of Hama until deposing its last ruler in 1341.
wn.com/Ayyubid_dynasty -
Babur
Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur (February 14, 1483 – December 26, 1530; sometimes also spelt Baber or Babar) was a conqueror from Central Asia who, following a series of setbacks, finally succeeded in laying the basis for the Mughal dynasty in the Indian Subcontinent and became the first Mughal emperor. He was a direct descendant of Timur through his father, and a descendant also of Genghis Khan through his mother. Babur identified his lineage as Timurid and Chaghatay-Turkic. He was greatly influenced by Persian culture and this affected both his own actions and those of his successors, giving rise to a significant expansion of the Persianate ethos in the Indian subcontinent.
Ẓahīr ad-Dīn Muḥammad (Persian: ﻇﻬﻴﺮﺍﻟﺪﻳﻦ محمد, also known by his royal titles as al-ṣultānu 'l-ʿazam wa 'l-ḫāqān al-mukkarram bādshāh-e ġāzī), is more commonly known by his nickname, Bābur (بابر).
According to Stephen Frederic Dale, the name Babur is derived from the Persian word babr, meaning "tiger", a word that repeatedly appears in Firdawsī's Shāhnāma and had also been borrowed by the Turkic languages of Central Asia. This thesis is supported by the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, explaining that the Turko-Mongol name Timur underwent a similar evolution, from the Sanskrit word cimara ("iron") via a modified version *čimr to the final Turkicized version timür, with -ür replacing -r due to the Turkish vowel harmony (hence babr → babür).[citation needed]
wn.com/Babur -
Batu Khan
Batu Khan (/ˈbɑːtuː ˈkɑːn/; Mongolian: Бат хан, Russian: хан Батый; c. 1207–1255) was a Mongol ruler and founder of the Ulus of Jochi (or Golden Horde), the sub-khanate of the Mongol Empire. Batu was a son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan. His ulus was the chief state of the Golden Horde (or Kipchak Khanate), which ruled Rus and the Caucasus for around 250 years, after also destroying the armies of Poland and Hungary. "Batu" or "Bat" literally means "firm" in the Mongolian language. After the deaths of Genghis Khan's sons, he became the most respected prince called agha (elder brother) in the Mongol Empire.
After his son Jochi's death, Genghis assigned the latter's appanages to his sons. But the Great Khan installed Batu as Khan of the Ulus of Jochi. He had an elder brother Orda Khan who agreed that Batu should succeed his father. Genghis Khan's youngest brother Temuge attended the coronation ceremony as an official representative of Genghis. When Genghis Khan died in 1227, he left 4,000 Mongol men to Jochi's family. Jochi's lands were divided between Batu and his older brother Orda. Orda's White Horde ruled the lands roughly between the Volga river and Lake Balkhash, while Batu's Horde ruled the lands west of the Volga.
wn.com/Batu_Khan -
Bayan of the Baarin
Bayan of the Baarin (1236–January 11, 1295), also known as "Bayan chingsang" (Mongolian: Баян, Chinese: 伯顔丞相; pinyin: Bàyán chéngxiàng) or, to Marco Polo, as "Bayan Hundred Eyes" (probably from a misunderstanding of Chinese: 百眼; pinyin: Bǎiyǎn), was a Mongol general. He commanded the army of Kublai Khan against the Song Dynasty (960–1279) of China, ushering in the Song collapse and the conquest by the Yuan Dynasty of southern China.
"Bayan" literally means "rich" in the Mongolian language.
Born a grandnephew of Nayagha, a general under Genghis Khan, Bayan came from the Mongol Baarin tribe. Nayagha, together with Bayan's grandfather Alagh and Alagh's and Nayagha's father Shirgügetü Ebügen, appear in the Secret History of the Mongols. However, at least one well-respected scholar presents Bayan as a Turk whose family had long served the Great Khans.
His grandfather Alagh was the viceroy in Khorazm province under the Mongol Empire. Bayan's father died during the Mongol siege of the stronghold of the Assassins (Hashshashin). While Bayan served in Persia with Hulegu's army, Kublai Khan recalled him. Kublai liked him, but he did not hold commanding rank in the Yuan army. After the success of the Battle of Xiangyang in 1273, Kublai appointed Bayan as the commander of the Yuan army and general Aju agreed the decision. Bayan married the niece of Kublai's Khatun Chabi of the Kunggirat.
wn.com/Bayan_of_the_Baarin -
Beijing
Beijing ( /beɪˈdʒɪŋ/; Chinese: 北京; pinyin: Běijīng, [peɪ˨˩ t͡ɕiŋ˥]), formerly romanized as Peking ( /piːˈkɪŋ/ or /peɪˈkɪŋ/), is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The metropolis, located in northern China, is governed as a direct-controlled municipality under the national government, with 14 urban and suburban districts and two rural counties. Beijing Municipality is surrounded by Hebei Province with the exception of neighboring Tianjin Municipality to the southeast.
Beijing is China's second largest city by urban population after Shanghai and is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's largest state-owned companies. Beijing is a major transportation hub in the national highway, expressway, railway and high-speed rail network. Beijing's Capital International Airport is the second busiest in the world by passenger traffic.
wn.com/Beijing -
Bela IV
Béla IV (English: /ˈbɛlə/; 1206–1270), King of Hungary (1235–70) and of Croatia (1235–70), duke of Styria 1254–58. One of the most famous kings of Hungary, he distinguished himself through his policy of strengthening of the royal power following the example of his grandfather Bela III, and by the rebuilding Hungary after the catastrophe of the Mongolian invasion in 1241. For this reason he is called by the Hungarians "the second founder of our country".
Béla was the eldest son of King Andrew II of Hungary and his first wife, Gertrude of Merania. Upon Pope Innocent III's request, the ecclesiastic and temporal dignitaries of the Kingdom of Hungary took an oath before his birth that they would accept him as his father's successor.
The infant Béla was probably present when a group of conspirators murdered his mother on 28 September 1213. Following the murder, his father ordered only the execution of the conspirators' leader and forgave the other members of the group, which resulted in Béla's emerging antipathy against his father.
wn.com/Bela_IV -
Berke
Berke Khan (died 1266) (also Birkai; Mongolian: Бэрх хаан) was the ruler of the Ulus of Jochi or Golden Horde who effectively consolidated the power of the Blue Horde and White Hordes from 1257 to 1266. He succeeded his brother Batu Khan of the Blue Horde (West) and was responsible for the first official establishment of Islam in a khanate of the Mongol Empire. He allied with the Egyptian Mamlukes against another Mongol khanate based in Persia, the Ilkhanate.
Berke is a name used by both Turkic and Mongols. "Berkh" literally means "difficult", in the Mongolian language. "Berk" also has many meanings like "solid", "hard", "difficult" and "steep" in Turkic languages.
Berke was one of the sons of Jochi, the eldest son of Genghis Khan, and Sultan Khatun. Berke was present, with several of his brothers, at the inauguration of his uncle Ogedei as Great Khan in 1229.
In 1236, Berke joined his brothers Orda, Sinkur, and Siban and an assortment of cousins under the leadership of Batu Khan. The vast army, comprising some 150,000 soldiers, marched from Siberia and into the territory of the Muslim Volga Bulgars and Kipchaks, whom they subdued. Batu and Subotai sent Berke to the country north of the Caucasus to conquer the Kipchaks there. Next they devastated the principalities of Ryazan and Suzdal in 1237, and marched further into Russia. During the winter of 1238-39, Berke defeated the Kipchaks and imprisoned the chief of the Merkits. He afterwards subdued the steppe watered by the Kuma and the Terek.
wn.com/Berke -
Borjigin
Borjigin (plural Borjigid; Mongolian: Боржигин, Borjigin; Russian: Борджигин, Bordžigin; simplified Chinese: 博尔济吉特; traditional Chinese: 博爾濟吉特; pinyin: Bó'ěrjìjítè), also known as the Altan urug (Mongolian: Алтан ураг, Altan urag, Golden kin), were the imperial clan of Genghis Khan and his successors.
The Mongolian Borjigin clan is the most renowned family in Inner Asia. The senior Borjigids provided ruling princes for Mongolia and Inner Mongolia until the 20th century. The clan formed the ruling class among the Mongols, Kazakhs, and other peoples of Inner Asia. Today, the Borjigid are found in most of Mongolia, Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang. Also there are many living in Kazakhstan as Tore, "AkSuyek", or "White Bone".
The patrilineage began with Blu-grey Wolf (Borte Chino) and Fallow Doe (Gua Maral). As in the Secret History of the Mongols, their 11th generation descendant Dobu Mergen's widow Alan Gua the Fair was impregnated by a ray of light. Her youngest son became the ancestor of the later Borjigid. He was Bodonchar Munkhag (the Simple), who along with his brothers sired the entire Mongol nation. According to Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, many of Mongolian old clans were founded by Borjigin members - Barulas, Urud, Manghud, Taichiut, Chonos, Kiyat etc. The first Khan of the Mongol was Bodonchar Munkhag's great-great-grandson Khaidu Khan. Khaidu's grandsons Khabul Khan and Ambaghai Khan (founder of the Taichiut clan) succeeded him. Thereafter, Qabul's sons, Hotula Khan and Yesugei, and great-grandson Temujin (Genghis Khan) ruled the Khamag Mongol. By the unification of the Mongols in 1206, virtually all of Temujin's uncles and first cousins died, and from then on only the descendants of Yesugei Baghatur formed the Borjigid.
wn.com/Borjigin -
Borte
Börte (simply Borte, also Börte Üjin; Cyrillic: Бөртэ үжин; 1161–1230) was the first wife of Genghis Khan, the founder of the Mongol Empire. Börte became the head of the first Court of Genghis Khan, and Grand Empress of his Empire. Little is known about the details of her early life, but she was betrothed to him at a young age, married at 17, and then kidnapped by a rival tribe. The decision by her husband to rescue her may have been one of the key decisions that started him on his path to conquer the world. She gave birth to four sons and five daughters, who, along with their own descendants, were the key bloodline which further expanded the Mongol Empire.
Few historical facts are known about her life, but Mongolians have many legends about her. What little is known is generally from The Secret History of the Mongols.
Börte was born around 1161 into the Olkhunut of Onggirat, where her father, Dei Seichen, was a chieftain. Her mother's name was Tacchotan. This tribe was friendly to the Khiyad tribe, into which Temüjin was born. Much is known about the details of her meeting with Temüjin, although it is probable their marriage was set up by Yesükhei, Genghis' father, to solidify relations between their two tribes. It was decided, perhaps by others, that Börte was to marry Temüjin at the marriageable age of 17.[citation needed]
wn.com/Borte -
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy indigenous to the Indian subcontinent and encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs, and practices largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, who is commonly known as the Buddha (meaning "the awakened one" in Sanskrit and Pāli). The Buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. He is recognized by Buddhists as an awakened or enlightened teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end ignorance (avidyā), craving (taṇhā), and suffering (dukkha), by recognizing dependent origination and sunyata, and attain Nirvana.
Two major branches of Buddhism are recognized: Theravada ("The School of the Elders") and Mahayana ("The Great Vehicle"). Theravada has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana is found throughout East Asia and includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Shingon, Tiantai (Tendai) and Shinnyo-en. In some classifications, Vajrayana—practiced mainly in Tibet and Mongolia, and adjacent parts of China and Russia—is recognized as a third branch, while others classify it as a part of Mahayana. There are other categorisations of these three Vehicles or Yanas.
wn.com/Buddhism -
Buddhist
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy indigenous to the Indian subcontinent and encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs, and practices largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, who is commonly known as the Buddha (meaning "the awakened one" in Sanskrit and Pāli). The Buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. He is recognized by Buddhists as an awakened or enlightened teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end ignorance (avidyā), craving (taṇhā), and suffering (dukkha), by recognizing dependent origination and sunyata, and attain Nirvana.
Two major branches of Buddhism are recognized: Theravada ("The School of the Elders") and Mahayana ("The Great Vehicle"). Theravada has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana is found throughout East Asia and includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Shingon, Tiantai (Tendai) and Shinnyo-en. In some classifications, Vajrayana—practiced mainly in Tibet and Mongolia, and adjacent parts of China and Russia—is recognized as a third branch, while others classify it as a part of Mahayana. There are other categorisations of these three Vehicles or Yanas.
wn.com/Buddhist -
Bulgars
The Bulgars (also Bolgars, Bulghars, Huno-Bulgars) were a semi-nomadic people who flourished in the Pontic Steppe and the Volga basin in the 7th century. Ethnically, the Bulgars comprised Turkic and probably Scytho-Sarmatian elements. They had enveloped also other ethnic groups by their migration westwards across the Eurasian steppe.
The Bulgars emerged after the collapse of the Hunnic Empire in the 5th century. Initially, they conquered the Pontic-Caspian steppe and around the lower Volga basin, by the 7th century dispersing further towards Bessarabia. Originating as nomadic equestrians of Central Asia, they became sedentary during the 7th century, establishing the polities (khanates) of Old Great Bulgaria in the Pontic steppe and Volga Bulgaria on the middle Volga.
Old Great Bulgaria was absorbed by the Khazar Empire in the 8th century, but in the 680s, Khan Asparukh conquered Scythia Minor, opening access to Moesia, and established the First Bulgarian Empire, which was however Slavicized by the 10th century. Volga Bulgaria preserved their national identity well into the 13th century by repelling the first Mongol attacks in 1223. But they were eventually subdued, and their capital Bolghar city became one of major cities of the Mongol Golden Horde. Later, Volga Bulgars mixed with Tatars of Kazan.
wn.com/Bulgars -
Burundai
Boroldai (or Burulday, Borolday), also known as Burundai, (Cyrillic: Боролдай) (died 1262) was a notable Mongol general of the mid 13th century. He participated in the Mongol invasion of Russia and Europe in 1236-1242.
The clan of Borolday is not clear. He was probably from one of four tribes that Chinggis Khaan (1162–1227) assigned to his eldest son, Jochi,: the Sanchi'ud (or Salji'ud), Keniges, Uushin, and Je'ured clans.
Serving under Jochi's successor and son, Batu Khan, Borolday's vanguard surprised and crushed the great army of Yuri II, the Grand Prince of Vladimir, at the battle of the Sit River in 1238. He also participated the Siege of Kiev in 1240. After the conquest of Rus, the Mongols invaded Eastern and eastern Central Europe. His name appears as Bujgai or Bujakh in The Secret History of the Mongols. According to the Secret History of the Mongols, Ogedei, Khagan of the Mongol Empire, praised Subotai and Bujgai's merit when he blamed his son Guyuk's arrogant behaviour. Borolday assisted Subotai to prepare the strategy of the final assault during the battle of Mohi (1241). Borolday's division directly attacked the main camp of King Béla IV of Hungary. Batu's brother Shiban's vanguard supported this attack. After a very hard fight, Batu's army crushed the Hungarians and their allies, Croats and Templar Knights at Mohi on April 11, 1241.
wn.com/Burundai -
Büri
Buri was a son of Mutugen and a grandson of Chagatai khan. His name - Buri - means Wolf. According to Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, Buri's mother was a wife of Chagatai khan's one official. She was a beauty, and Mutuken was attracted by her while she served in Khan's ger. Mutuken made her pregnant. Instead of marrying her, Mutuken took her baby, Buri.
Mutuken was killed during the siege of Bamiyan. Chagatai raised Buri because Mutugen was his favorite son.
Buri loved drinking and was a hothead. He humiliated Batu Khan with Guyuk (future Great khan) during the campaign of Russia. Both of them were recalled by Great khan Ogodei, and Buri was sent to his grandfather Chagatai when Batu complained about them to his uncle. After a year in Mongolia, he returned to Batu to participate in the invasion of Europe. When the Mongols advanced into Central Europe, he ravaged Wallachia.
He had German miners and teutons worked in Zungaria. They were captives of the Battle of Legnica.
After Guyuk's death in 1248, he sided with regent Oghul Qaimish khatun. Batu and Mongke had Buri murdered by a Golden Horde general who disliked him in 1252.
wn.com/Büri -
Carolingian Empire
Carolingian Empire (800–888) is a historiographical term which has been used to refer to the realm of the Franks under the Carolingian dynasty in the Early Middle Ages. This dynasty is seen as the founders of France and Germany, and its beginning date is based on the crowning of Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, and ends with the death of Charles the Fat. Depending on one's perspective, this Empire can be seen as the later history of the Frankish Realm or the early history of France and of the Holy Roman Empire.
The term refers to the coronation of Charlemagne by Pope Leo III in 800. Because Charles and his ancestors had been rulers of the Frankish realm earlier (his grandfather Charles Martel had essentially founded the empire during his lifetime), the coronation did not actually constitute a new empire. Most historians prefer to use the term "Frankish Kingdoms" or "Frankish Realm" to refer to the area covering parts of today's Germany and France from the 5th to the 9th century.
Though Charles Martel chose not to take the title King, as his son Pepin III the Short would, or Emperor, as his grandson Charlemagne would be titled, he was absolute ruler of virtually all of today's continental Western Europe north of the Pyrenees. Only the remaining Saxon realms, which he partly conquered, Lombardy, and the Marca Hispanica north of the Pyrenees were significant additions to the Frankish realms after his death.
wn.com/Carolingian_Empire -
Chagatai Khan
Chagatai Khan (Mongolian: Цагадай, Tsagadai; c. 1183–1241 or 1242) was the second son of Genghis Khan and first khan and origin of the names of the Chagatai Khanate, Chagatai language and Chagatai Turks.
He inherited most of what are now the five Central Asian states after the death of his father and ruled until his death in 1241. He was also appointed by Genghis Khan to oversee the execution of the Yassa, the written code of law created by Genghis Khan, though that lasted only until Genghis Khan was crowned Khan of the Mongol Empire. The Empire later came to be known as the Chagatai Khanate, a descendant empire of the Mongol Empire.
The true founder of the state was Chagatai's grandson Alghu. The state was much less influenced by Islam than the Ilkhanate to the southwest, but there were Muslims within the state and some did convert. However, they kept to old nomadic traits much longer. Some historians have said this was a major reason for the decline in urbanism and agriculture in this area which is known to have occurred. The first ruler who actually converted to Islam was Mubarak Shah (note the Arab name). His conversion occurred in 1256. However, this was very problematic because in less than 30 years other rulers would renounce Islam and return to older beliefs, although Tarmashirin converted to Islam and tried to turn the dynasty back toward Islam. His conversion provoked a huge backlash from nomadic groups in the eastern part of the realm who eventually killed him in 1334. After his death the Chagatai state lost its status and disintegrated. Tamerlane would later marry into this family. By the early 16th century they had reasserted themselves in the region that is present-day Uzbekistan and maintained a realm there until the 18th century as the Shaybanid ruling house of the Uzbeks.
wn.com/Chagatai_Khan -
Chagatai Khanate
The Chagatai Khanate (Mongolian: Tsagadai Khan Uls/Цагадайн улс) was a Turko-Mongolkhanate that comprised the lands ruled by Chagatai Khan, second son of Genghis Khan, and his descendents and successors. Initially it was considered a part of the Mongol Empire, but it later became fully independent.
At its height in the late 13th century, the Khanate extended from the Amu Darya south of the Aral Sea to the Altai Mountains in the border of modern-day Mongolia and China.
The khanate lasted in one form or another from 1220s until the late 17th century, although the western half of the khanate was lost to Tamerlane in the 1360s. The eastern half remained under Chagatai khans who were, at times, allied or at war with Timur's successors. Finally, in the 17th century, the remaining Chagatai domains fell under the theocratic regime of Apaq Khoja and his descendants, the Khojijans, who ruled East Turkestan under Dzungar and Manchu overlordships consecutively.
Genghis Khan's empire was inherited by his third son, Ögedei, the designated Great Khan who personally controlled the lands east of Lake Balkash as far as Mongolia. Tolui, the youngest, the keeper of the hearth, was accorded the northern Mongolian homeland. Chagatai, the second son, received Transoxania, between the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers in modern Uzbekistan, and the area around Kashgar. He made his capital at Almalik near what is now Kulja in northwestern China. Apart from problems of lineage and inheritance, the Mongol Empire was endangered by the great cultural and ethnic divide between the Mongols themselves and their mostly Islamic Turkic subjects.
wn.com/Chagatai_Khanate -
China
China (i/ˈtʃaɪnə/; Chinese: 中国; pinyin: Zhōngguó; see also Names of China), officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is the world's most-populous country, with a population of over 1.3 billion. Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometres, the East Asian state is the world's second-largest country by land area, and the third- or fourth-largest in total area, depending on the definition of total area.
The People's Republic of China is a single-party state governed by the Communist Party of China. It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four directly controlled municipalities (Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing), and two mostly self-governing special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau). Its capital city is Beijing. The PRC also claims Taiwan—which is controlled by the Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity—as its 23rd province, a claim controversial due to the complex political status of Taiwan and the unresolved Chinese Civil War. The PRC government denies the legitimacy of the ROC.
wn.com/China -
Chormaqan
Chormaqan (also Chormagan or Chormaqan Noyan) (died 1241) was one of the most famous generals of the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan. He was also a member of the keshik.
Chormaqan is mentioned in The Secret History of Mongols many times. He probably participated in the Mongol campaigns in North China and later in the Subutai's and Jebe's famous journey through Caucasus and Russian steppes. Appointed by Ögedei in the winter of 1230 to renew the Mongol conquests in Persia, which had languished since Genghis Khan's assault on and near destruction of the Khwarezmid Empire from 1218 to 1223.
At the approach of Chormagan and the new Mongol army, the Khwarezmids under Jalal ad-Din were swept away. Further campaigns in the mid-1230s, based from the steppes in Azerbaijan around Tabriz, firmly established Georgia and Armenia (that is, the Lesser Armenia in Cilicia) as vassals. It is theorized that these moves may have been made to secure communications for the attack westward led by Batu that followed shortly thereafter.
wn.com/Chormaqan -
Christopher Columbus
Christopher Columbus (before 31 October 1451 – 20 May 1506) was an explorer, colonizer, and navigator, born in the Republic of Genoa, in what is today northwestern Italy. Under the auspices of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, he completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean that led to general European awareness of the American continents. Those voyages, and his efforts to establish permanent settlements in the island of Hispaniola, initiated the process of Spanish colonization, which foreshadowed the general European colonization of what became known as the "New World".
In the context of emerging western imperialism and economic competition between European kingdoms seeking wealth through the establishment of trade routes and colonies, Columbus's speculative proposal to reach the East Indies by sailing westward received the support of the Spanish crown, which saw in it a promise, however remote, of gaining the upper hand over rival powers in the contest for the lucrative spice trade with Asia. During his first voyage in 1492, instead of reaching Japan as he had intended, Columbus landed in the Bahamas archipelago, at a locale he named San Salvador. Over the course of three more voyages, Columbus visited the Greater and Lesser Antilles, as well as the Caribbean coast of Venezuela and Central America, claiming them for the Spanish Empire.
wn.com/Christopher_Columbus -
Chuvash people
The Chuvash people (Chuvash: Чăвашсем; Russian: Чуваши) are a Turkic ethnic group, native to an area stretching from the Volga Region to Siberia. Most of them live in Republic of Chuvashia and surrounding areas, although Chuvash communities may be found throughout all Russia.
There is no universally accepted etymology of the word Chuvash. However, there are two main theories that try to explain it.
According to one theory, "Chuvash" is a Shaz-Turkic adaptation of Lir-Turkic Suvar, an ethnonym of people that are widely considered to be the ancestors of modern Chuvashes. Compare Lir-Turkic Chuvash: huran to Shaz-Turkic Tatar: qazan (cauldron).
Another theory suggests that the word "Chuvash" may be derived from Common Turkic jăvaš ("friendly", "peaceful") as opposed to şarmăs ("warlike").
There are rival schools of thought on the origin of Chuvash people. One is that they originated from a mixing between the Turkic Suar and Sabir tribes of Volga Bulgaria with local Mari tribes and also the Finno-Ugrian population of the Volga Basin. Another is that the Chuvash are a remainder of the pre-Volga Bulgar population of the Volga region, merged with Scythians, Volga Bulgars and Mari.
wn.com/Chuvash_people -
Colin McEvedy
Colin Peter McEvedy (6 June 1930 – 1 August 2005), was a British polymath scholar, psychiatrist, historian, demographer and non-fiction author. He was born in Salford, Lancashire and died in London.
McEvedy's profession was psychiatry, in which he had a distinguished career. He became perhaps better known, though, as a historian and demographer, and certainly so by the public at large. Between 1961 and 2002 he produced a number of historical atlases which, unlike most such atlases, feature fixed base-maps; in most cases, each atlas uses a single principal base-map, which is shown repeatedly, at many dates, as the atlas goes along, thus illustrating changes over the ages, from ancient down to modern, within the chosen area. The accompanying text, typically, is mostly a running commentary on what the maps of a given atlas show. Another feature of the atlases is McEvedy's witty and engaging writing-style, which he used on occasion to challenge established opinions among historians and demographers. Although he was not, strictly speaking, a professional in those fields, he became professionally respected in them, with his views making their way into standard textbooks.
wn.com/Colin_McEvedy -
Croats
Croats (Croatian: Hrvati) are a South Slavic ethnic group mostly living in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and nearby countries. There are around 4 million Croats living inside Croatia and up to 4.5 million throughout the rest of the world. Responding to political, social and economic pressure, many Croats have migrated throughout the world, and established a notable Croatian diaspora. Large Croat communities exists in The United States, Chile, Argentina, Germany, Austria, Australia, Peru, Canada, Serbia, New Zealand and South Africa. Croats are noted for their culture, which has been influenced by a number of other neighbouring cultures through the ages. The strongest influences came from Central Europe and the Mediterranean where, at the same time, Croats have made their own contribution. The Croats are predominantly Catholic with minor groups of Protestants, Muslims, Orthodox, Jews and secular non religious atheists and agnostics. Their language is Croatian.
Croatia is the nation state of the Croats, while in the adjacent Bosnia and Herzegovina they are one of the three constituent peoples alongside Bosniaks and Serbs.
wn.com/Croats -
Eljigidei
Eljigidei was a Mongol commander in Persia, fl. (1206–1251/2)
He supposedly commanded a strong contingent when Chingis Khan invaded Khwarizm in 1219–1223. Ogedei was close to Eljihidey. That's why Eljigidei was given command over the Mongol forces in Persia, by the new khan Güyük in 1246, replacing Baiju. Supposedly possessed of Christian sympathies like the khan, Eljigidei was ordered to advance into Syria, and planned an advance on Baghdad. This advance was, ideally, to be conducted in alliance with Louis IX of France, in concert with the Seventh Crusade. However, Güyük's sudden death made Eljigidei postpone operations until after the interregnum.
After the election of Möngke, however, Eljigidei's children were implicated in an aborted conspiracy to declare the election invalid. Though supposedly innocent, Eljigidei was arrested and put to death as well in 1251 or 1252. Baiju was subsequently returned to command in Persia.
wn.com/Eljigidei -
Emperor of China
The Emperor of China (Chinese: 皇帝; pinyin: Huángdì, pronounced [xu̯ɑ̌ŋ tî]) refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning between the founding of Qin Dynasty of China, united by the King of Qin in 221 BCE, and the fall of Yuan Shikai's Empire of China in 1916. When referred to as the Son of Heaven (Chinese: 天子; pinyin: tiānzǐ, pronounced [ti̯ɛ́n tsɨ̀]), a title that predates the Qin unification, the Emperor was recognized as the ruler of "All under heaven" (i.e., the world). In practice not every Emperor held supreme power, though this was most often the case.[citation needed]
Emperors from the same family are generally classified in historical periods known as Dynasties. Most of China's imperial rulers have commonly been considered members of the Han ethnicity, although recent scholarship tends to be wary of applying current ethnic categories to historical situations. During the Yuan and Qing dynasties China was ruled by ethnic Mongols and Manchus respectively after being conquered by them. The orthodox historical view over the years sees these as non-native dynasties that were sinicized over time, though some more recent scholars argue that the interaction between politics and ethnicity was far more complex. Nevertheless, in both cases these rulers had claimed the Mandate of Heaven to assume the role of traditional emperors in order to rule over China proper.
wn.com/Emperor_of_China -
Esen Buqa I
Esen Buqa I was Khan of the Chagatai Khanate (1310 – c. 1318). He was the son of Duwa.
In 1309 Esen Buqa's brother Kebek ordered a meeting (quriltai) to determine the future of the khanate following his seizure of power. The meeting resulted in Esen Buqa being proclaimed khan.
Esen Buqa spent the bulk of his reign in conflict with two of his neighbors, the Yuan dynasty of China and the Ilkhanate of Persia. The Chaghadaids feared a Yuan-Ilkhanate alliance against the state; this fear was caused by the testimony of the Yuan's emissary to the Ilkhanate, Abishqa. The diplomat, while travelling through Central Asia, revealed to a Chaghadaid commander that such an alliance had been created, and Yuan-Ilkhanate forces were mobilizing to attack the khanate. Abishqa's testimony was never corroborated with any evidence, but Esen Buqa remained convinced of the truth of his statement.
Yuan forces had, in fact, already for a long time been entrenched in the east. This was originally meant to keep Chapar in submission, but since the latter's defeat in 1310, the garrisons were perceived as a threat to the Chaghadaid state. In order to solve the shortages of pasture grounds, Esen Buqa in 1312 sent envoys in an attempt to negotiate with the border garrison commander Tughaji Jinsank in order to convince them to adjust their position. The negotiations, however, did not go well, and strained relations between the two. Esen Buqa sent tribute to the Yuan court in 1312 and 1313, but Yuan attempts to restrict trade between the two states kept tensions high. Esen Buqa attempted to gain the support of Uzbeg Khan of the Golden Horde, but without success.
wn.com/Esen_Buqa_I -
Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan (/ˈɡɛŋɡɪs ˈkɑːn/ or /ˈdʒɛŋɡɪs ˈkɑːn/,Mongol: [tʃiŋɡɪs xaːŋ] ( listen); 1162? – August 1227), born Temujin, was the founder and Great Khan (emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death.
He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia. After founding the Mongol Empire and being proclaimed "Genghis Khan", he started the Mongol invasions that resulted in the conquest of most of Eurasia. These included raids or invasions of the Kara-Khitan Khanate, Caucasus, Khwarezmid Empire, Western Xia and Jin dynasties. These campaigns were often accompanied by wholesale massacres of the civilian populations – especially in Khwarezmia. By the end of his life, the Mongol Empire occupied a substantial portion of Central Asia and China.
Before Genghis Khan died, he assigned Ögedei Khan as his successor and split his empire into khanates among his sons and grandsons. He died in 1227 after defeating the Western Xia. He was buried in an unmarked grave somewhere in Mongolia at an unknown location. His descendants went on to stretch the Mongol Empire across most of Eurasia by conquering or creating vassal states out of all of modern-day China, Korea, the Caucasus, Central Asian countries, and substantial portions of modern Eastern Europe, Russia and the Middle East. Many of these invasions resulted in the large-scale slaughter of local populations, which have given Genghis Khan and his empire a fearsome reputation in local histories.
wn.com/Genghis_Khan -
Gengis Khan
Genghis Khan (/ˈɡɛŋɡɪs ˈkɑːn/ or /ˈdʒɛŋɡɪs ˈkɑːn/,Mongol: [tʃiŋɡɪs xaːŋ] ( listen); 1162? – August 1227), born Temujin, was the founder and Great Khan (emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death.
He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia. After founding the Mongol Empire and being proclaimed "Genghis Khan", he started the Mongol invasions that resulted in the conquest of most of Eurasia. These included raids or invasions of the Kara-Khitan Khanate, Caucasus, Khwarezmid Empire, Western Xia and Jin dynasties. These campaigns were often accompanied by wholesale massacres of the civilian populations – especially in Khwarezmia. By the end of his life, the Mongol Empire occupied a substantial portion of Central Asia and China.
Before Genghis Khan died, he assigned Ögedei Khan as his successor and split his empire into khanates among his sons and grandsons. He died in 1227 after defeating the Western Xia. He was buried in an unmarked grave somewhere in Mongolia at an unknown location. His descendants went on to stretch the Mongol Empire across most of Eurasia by conquering or creating vassal states out of all of modern-day China, Korea, the Caucasus, Central Asian countries, and substantial portions of modern Eastern Europe, Russia and the Middle East. Many of these invasions resulted in the large-scale slaughter of local populations, which have given Genghis Khan and his empire a fearsome reputation in local histories.
wn.com/Gengis_Khan -
George Vernadsky
George Vernadsky (August 20, 1887 – June 20, 1973), Russian: Гео́ргий Влади́мирович Верна́дский) was a Russian-American historian and an author of numerous books on Russian history.
Born in Saint Petersburg on August 20, 1887, Vernadsky stemmed from a respectable family of the Ukrainian intelligentsia. His father was Vladimir Vernadsky, the first President of the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences. He entered the Moscow University (where his father was professor) in 1905 but, due to the disturbances of the First Russian Revolution, had to spend the next two years in Germany, at the Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg and the University of Berlin, where he imbibed the doctrines of Heinrich Rickert.
Back in Russia, Vernadsky resumed his course at the Moscow University, graduating with honors in 1910. His instructors included the historians Vasily Klyuchevsky and Robert Vipper. The young scholar declined to continue his career in the university after the 1910 Kasso affair and moved to Saint Petersburg University where he taught for the next seven years, during which he was awarded the Master's degree for his dissertation on the effects of Freemasonry on the Russian Enlightenment.
wn.com/George_Vernadsky -
Great Horde
The Great Horde was the steppe remnant of the Golden Horde from about 1466 until 1502.
The peripheral regions of the Golden Horde broke off as follows: 1438: Kazan Khanate, 1441: Crimean Khanate, 1466: Astrakhan Khanate The remnant, which became known as the Great Horde, was left with the steppe between the Dnieper and Yaik, the capital Sarai and a claim to represent the tradition of the Golden Horde. By the 1470s the Nogais north of the Caspian were hostile to the Great Horde and, in the west, and Poland-Lithuania was expanding along the Dnieper.
In 1480 Muscovy and Crimea formed an alliance against the Great Horde which in turn allied with Lithuania. In 1480 the Great Horde's attempt to invade Muscovy failed. In 1481, its ruler Akhmat Khan was killed by the Nogais. He was succeeded by his son Shaikh 'Ali. After this, the Horde was weakened by conflicts among Akhmat's sons.
In the spring of 1491 the Crimean Khan suggested that Moscow send troops to finish off the Great Horde since he had ‘seized all the Horde's horses'. Moscow sent some Tatar and Russian cavalry and the Ottomans sent 2,000 Janissaries. By November part of the Horde had seceded and the remainder had been routed by the Nogais. By 1500 it was reported near the Kuban and in very bad shape after having been beaten by the Kabardinians. In 1501 Sheikh Ahmad Khan and 20,000 of his people moved north of the Don. Many of his people deserted.
wn.com/Great_Horde -
Great Seljuq Empire
The Great Seljuq Empire (Turkish: Büyük Selçuklu Devleti, Persian: دولت سلجوقیان) was a medieval Persianate,Turko-PersianSunni Muslim empire, originating from the Qynyq branch of Oghuz Turks. The Seljuq Empire controlled a vast area stretching from the Hindu Kush to eastern Anatolia and from Central Asia to the Persian Gulf. From their homelands near the Aral sea, the Seljuqs advanced first into Khorasan and then into mainland Persia before eventually conquering eastern Anatolia.
The Seljuq empire was founded by Tughril Beg in 1037 after the efforts by the founder of the Seljuq dynasty, Seljuq Beg, back in the first quarter of the eleventh century. Seljuq Beg's father was in a higher position in the Oghuz Yabgu State, and gave his name both to the state and the dynasty. The Seljuqs united the fractured political scene of the Eastern Islamic world and played a key role in the first and second crusades. Highly Persianized in culture and language, the Seljuqs also played an important role in the development of the Turko-Persian tradition, even exporting Persian culture to Anatolia. The Seljuqs conquest gave impetus to the progressive Turkicization of parts of Anatolia, Iran and the Caucasus.
wn.com/Great_Seljuq_Empire -
Guo Kan
Guo Kan or Kuo K'an simplified Chinese: 郭侃; traditional Chinese: 郭侃; pinyin: Guō Kǎn, (1217–1277) was a famous general of Han Chinese descent that served the Mongolian Khans in their Western conquests and the conquest of China itself. He was descended from a lineage of Chinese generals. Both his father and grandfather had served the Khan, while his ancestor is Guo Ziyi, a famed general of the Tang Dynasty.
He was one of the foreign legions that served for the Mongol Empire, and some of the later conquests of the Mongols were done by armies under his command. The biography of this Han Chinese commander in the Yuan Shi ("History of Yuan") said that Guo Kan's presence struck so much fear in his foes, that they called him the "Divine Man".
Guo Kan was raised in the household of Prime Minister Shi Tianzhe (who was also a Han Chinese, and whose father and two brothers all served the Yuan).
He took part in the final drive in the conquest of the Jin Dynasty, including the capture of Kaifeng, and may have served in the European campaign with Subutai a few years following the fall of the Jin Dynasty. He then served in Hulagu's invasion of the Middle East, playing a major role in the capture and Battle of Baghdad, reportedly devising the strategy of using the dikes to drown the Caliph's army, and supervising the reduction of Baghdad's walls. He was then appointed Governor of Baghdad by Hulagu. and at some point after Khubilai Khan's accession as Khan, Guo Kan went to serve him, instead of his brother, and assisted Khubilai Khan in the conquest of the Southern Song, and ultimately the unification of China proper under the Yuan Dynasty.
wn.com/Guo_Kan -
Güyük
Güyük (or Kuyuk; Mongolian Cyrillic: Гүюг хаан) (c. 1206–1248) was the third Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. As the eldest son of Ögedei Khan and a grandson of Genghis Khan, he reigned from 1246 to 1248. He was given temple name (Chinese: 元定宗; pinyin: Yuán Dìngzōng; Wade–Giles: Ting-Tsung) later by Kublai Khan who founded the Yuan Dynasty.
Güyük received military training and served as an officer under Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan. He married Oghul Qaimish of the Merkit clan. In 1233, Guyuk, along with his maternal cousin Alchidai and the Mongol general Tangghud, conquered the short-lived Dongxia Kingdom of Puxian Wannu, who was a rebellious Jin official, in a few months. After the death of Tolui, Ogedei proposed that Sorghaghtani, the widow of Tolui, marry his son Guyuk. Sorghaghtani declined, saying that her prime responsibility was to her own sons.
He participated in the invasion of Russia and Central Europe in 1236-1241 with other Mongol princes, including his cousin Batu and half-brother Khadan. Guyuk led his corps in the siege of Ryazan and the lengthy siege of the Ossetian capital Maghas. During the course of the conquest, Güyük quarreled violently with Batu at the victory banquet and screamed at Batu "Batu is just an old woman with a quiver". Guyuk and Büri, a grandson of Chagatai, stormed out of the banquet and rode away swearing and cursing. When word reached the Great Khan, they were recalled for a time to Mongolia. Ogedei refused to see them and threatened to have his son Guyuk executed. When Ogedei calmed down and finally admitted Guyuk into his ger. Ogedei criticized Guyuk, "Do you think that the Russians surrendered because how mean you were to your own men. ...Because you captured 1 or 2 warriors, you think that you won the war. But you didn't capture even a single kid goat." Ogedei reprimanded his son harshly for fighting within the family and for mistreating his soldiers. Guyuk was dispatched again to Europe.
wn.com/Güyük -
Güyük Khan
Güyük (or Kuyuk; Mongolian Cyrillic: Гүюг хаан) (c. 1206–1248) was the third Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. As the eldest son of Ögedei Khan and a grandson of Genghis Khan, he reigned from 1246 to 1248. He was given temple name (Chinese: 元定宗; pinyin: Yuán Dìngzōng; Wade–Giles: Ting-Tsung) later by Kublai Khan who founded the Yuan Dynasty.
Güyük received military training and served as an officer under Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan. He married Oghul Qaimish of the Merkit clan. In 1233, Guyuk, along with his maternal cousin Alchidai and the Mongol general Tangghud, conquered the short-lived Dongxia Kingdom of Puxian Wannu, who was a rebellious Jin official, in a few months. After the death of Tolui, Ogedei proposed that Sorghaghtani, the widow of Tolui, marry his son Guyuk. Sorghaghtani declined, saying that her prime responsibility was to her own sons.
He participated in the invasion of Russia and Central Europe in 1236-1241 with other Mongol princes, including his cousin Batu and half-brother Khadan. Guyuk led his corps in the siege of Ryazan and the lengthy siege of the Ossetian capital Maghas. During the course of the conquest, Güyük quarreled violently with Batu at the victory banquet and screamed at Batu "Batu is just an old woman with a quiver". Guyuk and Büri, a grandson of Chagatai, stormed out of the banquet and rode away swearing and cursing. When word reached the Great Khan, they were recalled for a time to Mongolia. Ogedei refused to see them and threatened to have his son Guyuk executed. When Ogedei calmed down and finally admitted Guyuk into his ger. Ogedei criticized Guyuk, "Do you think that the Russians surrendered because how mean you were to your own men. ...Because you captured 1 or 2 warriors, you think that you won the war. But you didn't capture even a single kid goat." Ogedei reprimanded his son harshly for fighting within the family and for mistreating his soldiers. Guyuk was dispatched again to Europe.
wn.com/Güyük_Khan -
Hazara people
Hazāra (Persian: هزاره) are a Persian-speaking people who mainly live in central Afghanistan and in Pakistan. They are overwhelmingly Shiite Muslims and comprise the third largest ethnic group of Afghanistan, forming about 9% (according to other sources up to 18%) of the total population. Over half a million Hazaras live in neighbouring Pakistan (mostly in Quetta) and a similar number in Iran.
Babur, the founder of the Mughal reign in India, used the name Hazara in his records during the early 16th century for the first time. He, for the most part, referred to the populace of the mountainous region located west of Kabul, as far as Ghor and Ghazni. The word Hazara most likely derives from the Persian word for Thousand (Persian: هزار - hazār). It may be the translation of the Mongol word ming (or minggan), a military unit of 1000 soldiers at the time Gengis Khan. In the passage of time the term Hazar could have substituted the Mongol word and now stands for the group of people.
The origins of the Hazaras have not been fully reconstructed. At least partial Mongol descent is difficult to rule out, because the Hazaras' physical attributes and parts of their culture and language resemble those of Mongolians. Thus, it is widely accepted that Hazaras have Mongolian ancestry, especially after genetic testing showed Hazaras carried the highest frequency of the Y chromosome attributed to Genghis Khan anywhere. Some Hazara tribes are named after famous Mongol generals, for example the Tulai Khan Hazara who are named after Tolui, the youngest son of Genghis Khan. Theories of Mongol or partially Mongol descent are plausible, given that the Il-Khanate Mongol rulers, beginning with Oljeitu, embraced Shia Islam. Today, the majority of the Hazaras adhere to Shi'ism, whereas Afghanistan's other major ethnic groups are mostly Sunni. However, the Sunni and Ismaili Hazara population, while existent, have not been extensively researched by scholars.
wn.com/Hazara_people -
Hedwig of Poland
Jadwiga (1373/4 – 17 July 1399) was monarch of Poland from 1384 to her death. Her official title was 'king' rather than 'queen', reflecting that she was a sovereign in her own right and not merely a royal consort. She was a member of the Capetian House of Anjou, the daughter of King Louis I of Hungary and Elizabeth of Bosnia. She is known in Polish as Jadwiga, in English and German as Hedwig, in Lithuanian as Jadvyga, in Hungarian as Hedvig, and in Latin as Hedvigis.
Queens regnant being relatively uncommon in Europe at the time, Jadwiga was officially crowned a King. She is venerated by the Roman Catholic Church as Saint Hedwig, where she is the patron saint of queens.[citation needed]
Jadwiga was the youngest daughter of Louis I of Hungary and of Elizabeth of Bosnia. Jadwiga could claim descent from the House of Piast, the ancient native Polish dynasty on both her mother's and her father's side. Her paternal grandmother Elisabeth of Kujavia was the daughter of King Władysław I the Elbow-high, who had reunited Poland in 1320.
wn.com/Hedwig_of_Poland -
History of Germany
The concept of Germany as a distinct region in central Europe can be traced to Roman commander Julius Caesar, who referred to the unconquered area east of the Rhine as Germania, thus distinguishing it from Gaul (France), which he had conquered. The victory of the Germanic tribes in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest (AD 9) prevented annexation by the Roman Empire. Following the fall of the Roman Empire, the Franks conquered the other West Germanic tribes. When the Frankish Empire was divided among Charlemagne's heirs in 843, the eastern part became East Francia. In 962, Otto I became the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, the medieval German state.
In the High Middle Ages, the dukes and princes of the empire gained power at the expense of the emperors. Martin Luther led the Protestant Reformation against the Catholic Church after 1517, as the northern states became Protestant, while the southern states remained Catholic. They clashed in the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), which was ruinous to the twenty million civilians. 1648 marked the effective end of the Holy Roman Empire and the beginning of the modern nation-state system, with Germany divided into numerous independent states, such as Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony.
wn.com/History_of_Germany -
Hulagu
Hulagu Khan, also known as Hülegü, Hulegu (Mongolian: Hülegü Khaan, "Warrior"; Mongolian Cyrillic: Хүлэг хаан; Turkish: Hülâgü Han; Chagatai/Urdu: ہلاکو Hulaku; Persian/Arabic: هولاكو خان; Chinese: 旭烈兀; c. 1217 – 8 February 1265), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of Southwest Asia. Son of Tolui and the Kerait princess Sorghaghtani Beki, he was a grandson of Genghis Khan, and the brother of Arik Boke, Möngke Khan and Kublai Khan. Hulagu's army greatly expanded the southwestern portion of the Mongol Empire, founding the Ilkhanate of Persia, a precursor to the eventual Safavid dynasty, and then the modern state of Iran. Under Hulagu's leadership, the Mongols destroyed the greatest center of Islamic power, Baghdad, and also weakened Damascus, causing a shift of Islamic influence to the Mamluks in Cairo. During Hulagu's reign historians began writing in Persian instead of Arabic[citation needed].
Hulagu was born to Tolui, one of Genghis Khan's sons, and Sorghaghtani Beki, an influential Kerait princess. Sorghaghtani successfully navigated Mongol politics, arranging for all of her sons to become Mongol leaders. She was a Nestorian Christian, and Hulagu was friendly to Christianity. Hulagu's favorite wife, Dokuz Khatun, was also a Christian, as was his closest friend and general, Kitbuqa. It is recorded however that he was a Buddhist as he neared his death, against the will of Dokuz Khatun.
wn.com/Hulagu -
Hulegu
Hulagu Khan, also known as Hülegü, Hulegu (Mongolian: Hülegü Khaan, "Warrior"; Mongolian Cyrillic: Хүлэг хаан; Turkish: Hülâgü Han; Chagatai/Urdu: ہلاکو Hulaku; Persian/Arabic: هولاكو خان; Chinese: 旭烈兀; c. 1217 – 8 February 1265), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of Southwest Asia. Son of Tolui and the Kerait princess Sorghaghtani Beki, he was a grandson of Genghis Khan, and the brother of Arik Boke, Möngke Khan and Kublai Khan. Hulagu's army greatly expanded the southwestern portion of the Mongol Empire, founding the Ilkhanate of Persia, a precursor to the eventual Safavid dynasty, and then the modern state of Iran. Under Hulagu's leadership, the Mongols destroyed the greatest center of Islamic power, Baghdad, and also weakened Damascus, causing a shift of Islamic influence to the Mamluks in Cairo. During Hulagu's reign historians began writing in Persian instead of Arabic[citation needed].
Hulagu was born to Tolui, one of Genghis Khan's sons, and Sorghaghtani Beki, an influential Kerait princess. Sorghaghtani successfully navigated Mongol politics, arranging for all of her sons to become Mongol leaders. She was a Nestorian Christian, and Hulagu was friendly to Christianity. Hulagu's favorite wife, Dokuz Khatun, was also a Christian, as was his closest friend and general, Kitbuqa. It is recorded however that he was a Buddhist as he neared his death, against the will of Dokuz Khatun.
wn.com/Hulegu -
Hunnic Empire
The Hunnic empire was formed under the reign of Attila, centered in present-day Hungary; its territory included parts of Germany, the Balkans, and Ukraine. It bordered the Eastern Roman Empire to the southeast and the Western Roman Empire to the west and southwest; its other boundaries are uncertain. The empire dissolved after Attila's death in 453 as a result of struggles over succession and leadership, finally disappearing around 469.
The origins of the Huns that swept through Europe during the 4th Century remain unclear; they may have been connected with the Xiongnu and the later Northern Xiongnu, defeated and dispersed by China some three centuries before. However, most mainstream historians consider them as a group of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with mixed origin.[citation needed] There was a Hunnic language, and Gothic seems also to have been used as a lingua franca.
European accounts first mention the Huns in the lands north-west of the Caspian Sea about 370, when they conquered a tribe of Alans to their west. Pushing further westward, the Huns subjugated many Ostrogoths. In 395, a Hun raid across the Caucasus mountains devastated Armenia, then captured Erzurum, besieged Edessa and Antioch, and even reached Tyre.
wn.com/Hunnic_Empire -
Inca Empire
The Inca Empire, or Inka Empire (Quechua: Tawantinsuyu), was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru. The Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century.
From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean mountain ranges, including, besides Peru, large parts of modern Ecuador, western and south central Bolivia, northwest Argentina, north and central Chile, and southern Colombia into a state comparable to the historical empires of Eurasia.
The official language of the empire was Quechua, although hundreds of local languages and dialects of Quechua were spoken. The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu which can be translated as The Four Regions or The Four United Provinces.
There were many local forms of worship, most of them concerning local sacred "Huacas", but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of Inti—the sun god—and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that of Pachamama. The Incas considered their King, the Sapa Inca, to be the "child of the sun."
wn.com/Inca_Empire -
Inner Mongolia
Coordinates: 44°N 113°E / 44°N 113°E / 44; 113
Inner Mongolia (Mongolian: s, Öbür Monggol and c Өвөр Монгол, Övör Mongol; Chinese: 内蒙古; pinyin: Nèi Měnggǔ, but officially romanized to Nei Mongol) is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China, located in the northern region of the country. Inner Mongolia shares an international border with the countries of Mongolia and the Russian Federation. Its capital is Hohhot and the largest city is Baotou.
Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region was established in 1947 on the area of former Republic of China provinces of Suiyuan, Chahar, Rehe, Liaobei and Xing'an along with the northern parts of Gansu and Ningxia. It is the third-largest subdivision of China spanning about 1,200,000 km² (463,000 sq mi) or 12% of China's total land area. It has a population of about 24 million as of 2004. The majority of the population in the region are Han Chinese, with a substantial Mongol minority. The official languages are Chinese and Mongolian, the latter written in the Mongolian script, as opposed to the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet used in the state of Mongolia.
wn.com/Inner_Mongolia -
Ivan III of Russia
Ivan III (The Great) Vasilyevich (Russian: Иван III Васильевич) (22 January 1440, Moscow – 27 October 1505, Moscow), also known as Ivan the Great, was a Grand Prince of Moscow and "Grand Prince of all Rus" (Великий князь всея Руси). Sometimes referred to as the "gatherer of the Russian lands," he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde over the Rus, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. He was one of the longest-reigning Russian rulers in history.
Ivan was born to Vasily II the Blind and Yelena of Borovsk. He was co-regent with his disabled father during the later years of the latter's life, and was only 22 years old when his father died. He tenaciously pursued the unifying policy of his predecessors; nevertheless, he was cautious to the point of timidity. He avoided as far as possible any violent collision with his neighbors until all the circumstances were exceptionally favorable, always preferring to attain his ends gradually and indirectly. The Grand Duchy of Moscow had, at the time of his reign, become a compact and powerful state, whilst her rivals had grown weaker, which was well-suited to the speculative nature of a statesman of Ivan III's peculiar character. Regarding the arts, he centered his efforts on attracting and hiring Italian artists and craftsmen. Because of this plan, new buildings were erected in the Kremlin, and the walls were strengthened and furnished with towers and gates. Ivan III reigned for forty three years, dying on 27 October 1505. He left his empire to his son Vasili.
wn.com/Ivan_III_of_Russia -
Jared Diamond
Jared Mason Diamond (born September 10, 1937) is an American scientist and author best known for his popular science books The Third Chimpanzee, Guns, Germs, and Steel, and Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. Originally trained in physiology, Diamond's work is known for drawing from a variety of fields, and he is currently Professor of Geography at the University of California, Los Angeles.
Diamond was born in Boston, Massachusetts, to a Bessarabian Jewish family. His father Louis K. Diamond was a physician and his mother Flora Kaplan a teacher, musician, and linguist. He attended the Roxbury Latin School and earned an A.B. from Harvard College in 1958 and a Ph.D. in physiology and membrane biophysics from the University of Cambridge in 1961.
After graduating from Cambridge, Diamond returned to Harvard as a Junior Fellow until 1965, and, in 1968, became Professor of Physiology at UCLA Medical School. While in his twenties, he developed a second, parallel, career in ornithology and ecology, specialising in New Guinea and nearby islands. Then in his fifties, Diamond developed a third career in environmental history and became Professor of Geography at UCLA, his current position. He was awarded the National Medal of Science in 1999 and an honorary doctorate by Westfield State University in 2009.
wn.com/Jared_Diamond -
Jebe
Jebe (or Jebe or Jebei) (Mongolian: Зэв, Zev) (died 1225) was one of the prominent Noyans (generals) of Genghis Khan. His clan was Besud, which belonged to the Taichud tribe, which was at the time of Genghis Khan under Targudai Khiriltug's leadership.
In 1201, during Battle of the Thirteen sides, Genghis Khan was wounded by the arrow to the neck, then his loyal subordinate Zelme cared for the injured Genghis Khan.
After the battle, Genghis Khan asked the defeated to reveal who shot "his horse" in the neck (euphemizing his own injury as his horse's in an apparent attempt to conceal his injury, or possibly to prevent false confessions). Jebe is said to have voluntarily confessed that he shot Genghis Khan himself and not his horse, and further said, that "if Genghis Khan desired to kill him, it was his choice, but if he would let him live, he would serve Genghis Khan loyally". Genghis Khan, in his own usual custom, highly valued honesty and loyalty in his soldiers and so, in the traditions of nomadic chivalry, pardoned him and praised him on this account. He then gave him a new name, Jebe, which means both "arrow" and "rust" in Mongolian. Jebe was not his birth name (which was Zurgadai), but a nickname based on this occasion.
wn.com/Jebe -
Jochi
Jochi (Mongolian: Зүчи, Züchi, Crimean Tatar: Cuçi; also spelled Jöchi and Juchi) (c. 1181–1227) was the eldest of the Mongol chieftain Genghis Khan's four sons by his principal wife Börte. An accomplished military leader, he participated in his father's conquest of Central Asia, along with his brothers and uncles.
There is some question as to Jochi's true paternity. Shortly after her marriage to Genghis Khan (known as Temüjin at the time), Börte was abducted by members of the Mergid confederation. She was given to a certain Chilger Bökh, who was the brother of the Yehe Chiledu, as a spoil of war. She remained in Chilger Bökh's captivity for a few months before she was recovered by Temüjin. Shortly afterwards she gave birth to Jochi. By all accounts, Genghis Khan treated Jochi as his first son, but a doubt always remained among the Mongols whether Temüjin or Chilger Bökh was the real father of Jochi. This uncertainty about his paternity was not without consequences. Jochi’s descendants, although they formed the oldest branch of Genghis Khan’s family, were never considered for the succession in claiming their father’s heritage and there were signs of estrangement between Jochi and Genghis Khan.
wn.com/Jochi -
Jöchi Khasar
Hasar (also known as Jo'chi Hasar; Mongolian: Хасар) was one of Genghis Khan's three full brothers. According to the Jami' al-Tawarikh, his given name was Jo'chi and he got the nickname Khasar after his distinguished bravery. He was also called Habutu Hasar (Хавт Хасар, Hasar the Skillful (archer)) because he was skilled with a bow.
Hasar, as a child, was thrown out of the Borjigin tribe along with the rest of the family by the Taichud warlord Targhutai Hiriltug. Food was scarce and Behter, his older half-brother, stole food, and so he and his brother Temüjin killed him as he returned from a fresh hunt. After the defeat of Temüjin at Khalakhaljid Sands (1203), Hasar was lost and hid himself, along with his sons and followers, in the forest. Temüjin had gathered new adherents among the Mongols, tricked his rival Ong Khan with a fake message of surrender from his brother Hasar, and crushed the Keraits in late 1203.
Being given the people and territories by the khan, Genghis Khan's full brothers Hasar, Hachiun, and Temuge formed the Left Wing of the Mongol Empire in the eastern edge of Inner Mongolia, while Genghis Khan's three sons, Jochi, Chaghatai, and Ögedei, made up the Right Wing in the western edge. The Right Wing saw a significant expansion to the west but the Left Wing did not have so much land to be conquered. Hasar's mother, Hoelun defended him against accusations of disloyalty stemming from Teb Tengri, a shaman. Stiffened by his mother Hoelun and wife Börte, who saw Teb Tengri as threat to the dynastic succession, Genghis allowed Khasar or Temüge to kill Teb Tengri in a wrestling match.
wn.com/Jöchi_Khasar -
Kadan
Kadan (also Khadan) was the son of the second Great Khan of the Mongols Ögedei and a concubine. He was the grandson of Genghis Khan and the brother of Güyük Khan. During the Mongol invasion of Europe, Kadan, along with Baidar (son of Chagatai Khan) and Orda Khan (the eldest brother of Batu Khan and khan of the White Horde), led the Mongol diversionary force that attacked Poland, while the main Mongol force struck the Kingdom of Hungary.
In early 1241, Kadan's forces sacked the Polish towns of Lublin, Zawichost and Sandomierz. Kadan then attacked Masovia, while Baidar burned the evacuated Polish capital, Kraków and then Bytom, and Orda Khan ravaged the southwestern border of Lithuania and the Polish Baltic coast. The three leaders were then to attack the Silesian capital Breslau. Baidar began to besiege the town, but marched north with Kadan and Orda to Liegnitz to defeat the forces of Henry II the Pious, Duke of Silesia, before the Polish duke could join King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia. After defeating some forces of Konrad I of Masovia, Kadan's forces joined with Baidar's and Orda's at Liegnitz. The Christian army was crushed in the ensuing Battle of Liegnitz of April 9, 1241.
wn.com/Kadan -
Kaidu
Kaidu (or Qaidu; Mongolian: Хайду, Khaidu) (1230–1301) was the leader of the House of Ogedei and the de facto khan of the Chagatai Khanate. He ruled part of modern-day Xinjiang and Central Asia during the 13th century, and actively opposed his uncle, Kublai Khan, who established the Yuan Dynasty in China until his death in 1301. Medieval chroniclers often mistranslated Kadan as Kaidu, mistakenly placing Kaidu at the Battle of Legnica. Kadan was the brother of Güyük, and Kaidu's uncle.
Kaidu was the son of Kashin a grandson of Ögedei Khan and a great-grandson of Genghis Khan and Börte. His mother's name was Shabkana Khatun from the Bekrin tribe in Uighurstan.
In 1260, Marco Polo described Yarkand, part of the area under Kaidu as "five days' journey in extent"; that its inhabitants were mostly Muslim although there were also some Nestorian and Jacobite Assyrians; and that it had plenty of food and other necessities, "especially cotton." Since about 1260, when Kublai Khan was warring with his own brother Ariq Böke, who was proclaimed Great Khan at Karakorum, Kaidu began to have major conflicts with Kublai and his ally, the Ilkhanate.
wn.com/Kaidu -
Kaykaus II
Kaykaus II or Kayka'us II (Arabic/Persian: عز الدين كيكاوس بن كيخسرو, 'Izz al-Dīn Kaykā'ũs bin Kaykhusraw; Turkish: II. Izzeddin Keykavus) was the eldest of three sons of Kaykhusraw II. He was a youth at the time of his father’s death in 1246 and could do little to prevent the Mongol subjugation of Anatolia. For most of his tenure as the Seljuq Sultan of Rûm, he shared the throne with one or both of his brothers, Kilij Arslan IV and Kayqubad II. His mother was the daughter of a Greek priest, and it was the Greeks of Nicaea from whom he consistently sought aid throughout his life. Baiju threatened him and warned him of giving his Mongol cavalries new pastures in Anatolia and too late to pay tax. The Mongols defeated him and he,who defied Baiju, fled to the Byzantine Balkan in 1256. The Byzantine court detained him, though, they welcomed him as usual. So Kaykaus' brother Kayqubad appealed to Berke Khan of the Golden Horde. Nogai invaded the Empire in 1265 and released him and his men after Michael detained an envoy from Cairo to Berke. Berke gave Kaykaus appanage in Crimea and had him married the Mongol woman. He died an exile in 1279 or 1280 in the Crimea.
wn.com/Kaykaus_II -
Kelly DeVries
Kelly DeVries is an American historian specializing in the warfare of the Middle Ages. He is often featured as an expert commentator on television documentaries. As of 2012, he is Professor of History at Loyola University Maryland.
He received his PhD in Medieval Studies in 1987 from the University of Toronto.[1]
wn.com/Kelly_DeVries -
Kereit
The Kereit (Mongolian: Хэрэйд; Kazakh: Керей) tribe was the most dominant of the five major tribal confederations (khanlig) of the Mongolian plateau during the 12th century. As allies of Genghis Khan, they were influential in the rise of the Mongol Empire. In the 11th century, they converted to Nestorian Christianity and were a key example of prominent Christians among the Mongols.
The Kereit were located between the mountain ranges of Khangai and Khentii and were centered on the site of the present day city of Ulaanbaatar and in the willow groves of the Tuul River, to the west of the Khamag Mongol and to the east of the Naiman.
The last ruler, Toghrul, gained fame as far away as Europe for his battles with Muslims, and several women from the Kereit clan became influential women in the Mongol court. Sorghaghtani Bekhi, the younger daughter of Toghrul's brother Jakha Khambu, married a son of Genghis Khan, and their four sons, including Great Khans Kublai Khan and Mongke Khan, became prominent leaders of the Empire.
wn.com/Kereit -
Khalkha
Khalkha (Mongol: Халх, lit. "the Shield") is the largest subgroup of Mongol people in Mongolia since 15th century. The Khalkha together with Tsahar, Ordos and Tumed, were directly ruled by the Chinggisid Khans until the 20th century; unlike the Oirat people who were ruled by the Dzungar nobles or the Khorchins who were ruled by Khasar's descendants. There were originally two major Khalkha groups, of which each ruled by the direct male line descendants of Dayan Khan. The Baarin, Qongirat, Jaarut, Baigut, and the O'zeed became Dayan Khan's fifth son Achibolod's subjects, thus formed the Southern Five Halhs. The Kerait, Jalair, Olkhunut, Khatagin, Besut, Iljigin, Gorlos, Uriankhai, Sartuul, Tanghut, Khotogoid, Khuree, and Tsookhor became Dayan Khan's youngest (could be third) son Geresenje's (Mongolian: Гэрсэне Жалайр Хан) subjects, thus formed the "Аглагийн арван гурван хүрээ Халх" or The Thirteen Khalkhas of the Far North. There were also numerous direct descendants of Genghis Khan who had formed the ruling class of the Khalkha Mongols prior to the 20th century, but they were and still also regarded as Khalkha Mongols rather than belonging to a special unit. The Thirteen Khalkhas of the Far North are the major subethnic group of the independent state of Mongolia. They number 1,610,400, or 78.8 percent, of Mongolia's population (1989 figures). Khalkha dialect is the standard written language of Mongolia.
wn.com/Khalkha -
Khatun
Khatun (Persian: خاتون – Khātūn, Turkish: Hatun) is a female title of nobility and alternative to male "khan" prominently used in the First Turkic Empire and in the subsequent Mongol Empire. It is equivalent to "queen" or "empress" approximately.
Although the title gained prominence among the Turko-Mongol tribes of Inner Asia, it is – like the titles Tarkhan, Beg and Yabghu—not of Turko-Mongol, but of Indo-European Sogdian origin.
Before the advent of Islam in Central Asia, Khatun was the title of the Queen of Bukhara. According to the Encyclopaedia of Islam:
wn.com/Khatun -
Khorchin
Khorchin (Хорчин, ᠬᠤᠷᠴᠢᠨ Qorčin) is a subgroup of the Mongols that speak the Khorchin dialect of Mongolian and predominantly live in southeastern Inner Mongolia.
The Ming Dynasty put two surrendered Borjigin princes (descended from Genghis Khan's brothers) over the Taining guard of the Three Guards which was established in 1389. During invasions of Esen Tayisi from 1446–48, most of them fled, however, Fuyu Guard of the Three Guards remained along the Nen River and Onon River. Ruled by descendants of Khasar, they became direct ancestors of the Khorchins. Adai Khan of the Khorchin challenged the power of the Four Oirats and the Ming court over the succession struggle of Northern Yuan Dynasty, however, he was killed by them in Ejene in 1438 and his tribe was forced to flee southward. The Khorchin appeared again in Mongolian chronicles with the rise of Unebolad wang in the late 15th century. The Khorchins allied with Dayan Khan and defeated the Uriyangkhai at the battle of Dalan Terqin in 1510.
wn.com/Khorchin -
Kilij Arslan IV
Kilij Arslan IV (Arabic: ركن الدين قلج ارسلان بن كيخسرو, Rukn al-Dīn Qilij Arslān bin Kaykhusraw; Turkish: IV. Kılıç Arslan) was Seljuq Sultan of Rûm after the death of his father Kaykhusraw II in 1246. For part of his tenure as sultan he ruled with his two brothers Kaykaus II and Kayqubad II. He was executed in 1266 by the Pervane Mu‘in al-Din Suleyman.
wn.com/Kilij_Arslan_IV -
King Gongmin
King Gongmin (1330–1374) ruled Goryeo Dynasty Korea from 1351 until 1374. he was the second son of King Chungsuk. In addition to his various Korean names (see right), he bore the Mongolian name Bayàn Temür (伯顔帖木兒).
Goryeo had been a dependency of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty since Mongol invasion of Korea. Starting with King Chungnyeol, prospective rulers of Korea married Mongol princesses and were customarily sent to the Yuan Court, in effect, as hostages. As per this custom, King Gongmin spent many years in the Yuan court, being sent there in 1341, before ascending the Korean throne. He married the Mongol princess Queen Noguk. But in the mid-14th century Yuan was beginning to crumble, soon to be replaced by the Ming dynasty in 1368.
With the disintegration of Yuan, which had influenced the Korean peninsula since the Mongol invasions of Korea of 1238, Gongmin began efforts to reform Goryeo government. His first act was to remove all pro-Mongol aristocrats and military officers from their positions. These deposed people formed a dissident faction which plotted an unsuccessful coup against the king. High official Jo Il-sin even tried to take over the government, but this rebellion was put down by general Choe Yeong.
wn.com/King_Gongmin -
Kitbuqa
Kitbuqa Noyan (died 1260) (Turkic: Kitbuga, Mongolian: Хитбух) was a Nestorian Christian Naiman Turk, a group that was subservient to the Mongol Empire. He was a lieutenant and confidant of the Mongol Ilkhan Hulagu, assisting him in his conquests in the Middle East. When Hulagu withdrew the bulk of his forces, Kitbuqa was left in control of Syria, and was responsible for further Mongol raids southwards towards Egypt. He was killed at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260.
In 1252, Möngke Khan ordered Kitbuqa to battle the fortresses of the Ismaili Nizaris. He advanced with Hulagu into western Persia, mounting a series of sieges, and commanded one of the flanks that sacked Baghdad, before assisting in the conquest of Damascus in 1260. Historical accounts, quoting from the writings of the medieval historian Templar of Tyre, would often describe the three Christian rulers (Hetoum, Bohemond, and Kitbuqa) entering the city of Damascus together in triumph, though modern historians have characterized this story as apocryphal.
wn.com/Kitbuqa -
Kurultai
Kurultai (Mongolian: Khuruldai) is a political and military council of ancient Mongol and Turkic chiefs and khans. The root of the word "Khural" means political "meeting" or "assembly" in the Mongolian language, it is also a verb for "to be established". In Mongolian the verb root "khur-" means "to gather in large numbers", the suffix "-ld" means "amongst each other", while the suffix "-ai" or "-aan" is similar to the English suffix "-tion" and makes a noun of the verb. Khuraldai (written Khuruldai) or Khuraldaan means "a gathering", or more literally, "intergatheration". This root is the same in the Mongolian word khurim, which means "feast" and "wedding" and originally referred to large festive gatherings on the steppe, but is used mainly in the sense of wedding in modern times.
All Great Khans of the Mongol Empire, for example Genghis Khan and Ogedei Khan, were formally elected in a Kurultai; khans of subordinate Mongol states, such as the Golden Horde, were elected by a similar regional Kurultai. After the new khan has been elected, an elaborate enthronement procedure followed. Johann Schiltberger, a 15th-century German traveler, described the installation of a new Golden Horde khan as follows(, quoted in ):
wn.com/Kurultai -
Kusala
Khutughtu Khan (Mongolian: Хутагт хаан, Hutagt haan, Qutuγtu qaγan), also known as Emperor Mingzong of Yuan (Chinese: 元明宗, December 22, 1300 – August 30, 1329), born Kuśala (Qošila, Küsala, Küsele, Хүслэн Höslen), was a son of Khayishan who briefly ascended the throne of the Yuan Dynasty in 1329, but died soon after he seized the throne of Great Khan of the Mongols and Emperor of China.
He was the eldest son of Khayishan (Külüg Khan or Emperor Wuzong) and a Mongol-Ikhires woman. Since the Khayishan administration was founded on the unstable balance between Khayishan, his younger brother Ayurbarwada and their mother Dagi of the Khunggirad clan, Khayishan appointed Ayurbarwada as Crown Prince on the condition that he would pass the status to Kuśala after succession.
However, after Khayishan's death Ayurbarwada succeeded to the throne in 1311, Dagi, Temüder and other members of the Khunggirad faction installed Ayurbarwada's son Shidebala as the new ruler instead of Kuśala because his mother came from the Ikhires clan, not the Khunggirad clan.
wn.com/Kusala -
Kypchak
Kipchaks (also spelled as Kypchaks, Kipczaks, Qipchaqs, Qypchaqs, Kıpçaklar) (Turkic: Kıpçak, Georgian: ყივჩაყი, ყიფჩაღი), Crimean Tatar: Qıpçaq, Karachay-Balkar: Къыпчакъ, Uzbek: Qipchoq, Қипчоқ, Kazakh: Қыпшақ, Kumyk: Къыпчакъ, Kyrgyz: Кыпчак, Nogai: Кыпчак, Chinese: 欽察/钦察, Qīnchá, were a Turkic tribal confederation. Originating in the Kimek Khanate, they conquered large parts of the Eurasian steppe during the Turkic expansion of the 11th to 12th centuries together with the Cumans, and were in turn conquered by the Mongol invasions of the early 13th century. Many researchers also believe that Kipchaks were blond and blue-eyed, descended from the Dingling, who lived in the steppes of Southern Siberia in the end of the 1st millennium BC, and who were, according to the Chinese chroniclers, blonds.
Under Mongol rule, the Kipchak Khanate (Golden Horde) ruled much of Eastern Europe for another 150 years before disintegrating due to internal quarrels, its last remnants as the Tatar Crimean Khanate surviving into the 18th century before being absorbed into the Russian Empire.
wn.com/Kypchak -
Manichaeism
Manichaeism ( /ˈmænɨkiːɪzəm/; in Modern Persian آیین مانی Āyin e Māni; Chinese: 摩尼教; pinyin: Móní Jiào) was a major gnostic religion, originating in Sassanid era Babylonia. Although most of the original writings of the founding prophet Mani (in Persian: مانی, Syriac: ܡܐܢܝ, Latin: Manichaeus or Manes) (c. 216–276 CE) have been lost, numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived.
Manichaeism taught an elaborate cosmology describing the struggle between a good, spiritual world of light, and an evil, material world of darkness. Through an ongoing process which takes place in human history, light is gradually removed from the world of matter and returned to the world of light from which it came. Its beliefs, based on local Mesopotamian gnostic and religious movements, contained elements of Christianity, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism.
Manichaeism thrived between the third and seventh centuries, and at its height was one of the most widespread religions in the world. Manichaean churches and scriptures existed as far east as China and as far west as the Roman Empire. It was widespread among the legions of the Roman Empire, who considered it a soldier's religion, and it was briefly the main rival to Christianity in the competition to replace classical paganism. Manichaeism survived longer in the East than in the West, and it appears to have finally faded away after the 14th century in southern China, contemporary to the decline in China of the Church of the East – see Ming Dynasty.
wn.com/Manichaeism -
Marco Polo
Marco Polo (i/ˈmɑrkoʊ ˈpoʊloʊ/; Italian pronunciation: [ˈmarko ˈpɔːlo]; c. 1254 – January 9, 1324) was a Venetian merchant traveler from the Venetian Republic whose travels are recorded in Il Milione, a book which did much to introduce Europeans to Central Asia and China. He learned about trading whilst his father and uncle, Niccolò and Maffeo, travelled through Asia and apparently met Kublai Khan. In 1269, they returned to Venice to meet Marco for the first time. The three of them embarked on an epic journey to Asia, returning after 24 years to find Venice at war with Genoa; Marco was imprisoned, and dictated his stories to a cellmate. He was released in 1299, became a wealthy merchant, married and had three children. He died in 1324, and was buried in San Lorenzo.
Their pioneering journey inspired Christopher Columbus and others. Marco Polo's other legacies include Venice Marco Polo Airport, the Marco Polo sheep, and several books and films. He also had an influence on European cartography, leading to the introduction of the Fra Mauro map.
wn.com/Marco_Polo -
Marinid dynasty
The Marinid dynasty or Benemerine dynasty (Arabic: مرينيون Marīniyūn or بنو مرين Banū Marīn) was a Zenata Berber dynasty of Morocco. The Marinid dynasty overtook the Almohads controlling Morocco in 1244. They controlled most of the Maghreb from the mid-14th century to the 15th century and supported the Kingdom of Granada in Al-Andalus in the 13th and 14th centuries. The last Marinid fortress in the Iberian Peninsula fell to Castile in 1344.[citation needed] They were replaced in turn by the Wattasids in 1465.
They were the founders of Fes Jdid and built the most important monuments in Fes.
The Marinids were a nomadic Zenata Berber tribe from the area between Tlemcen and Tahert. They advanced through the Moulouya basin east of Morocco. As early as 1145, the Marinids engaged in several battles with the Almohads, the ruling dynasty at the time, who regularly defeated them until 1169. In that year, the Marinids began a dedicated pursuit to take Morocco from the Almohads. Following their expulsion from the south, the Marinids moved northwards under the command of Abu Yahya ibn Abd al-Haqq and took Fes in 1244, making it their capital. This date marks the beginning of the Marinid dynasty.
wn.com/Marinid_dynasty -
Medes
The Medes (/midz/) (from Old Persian Māda-) were an ancient Iranian people who lived in Iran in an area known as Media and spoke a northwestern Iranian language referred to as the Median language. Their arrival to the region is associated with the first wave of Iranian tribes in the late second millennium BCE (the Bronze Age collapse) through the beginning of the first millennium BCE.
In the 7th century BCE a unified Median state was formed which together with Babylonia, Lydia, and Egypt became one of the four major powers of the ancient Near East. An alliance with the Babylonians helped the Medes to capture Nineveh in 612 BCE which resulted in the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Medes were subsequently able to establish their Median kingdom (with Ecbatana as their royal centre) beyond their original homeland (central-western Iran) and had eventually a territory stretching roughly from northeastern Iran to the Halys River in Anatolia. The Median kingdom was conquered in 550 BCE by Cyrus the Great who established the next Iranian dynasty—the Achaemenid Empire.
wn.com/Medes -
Merkit
The Mergid (also known Merkit, Cyrillic: Мэргид, lit. "skillful ones") was one of the five major tribal confederations (khanlig) in Mongolian plateau in the 12th century.
The Mergids inhabited in basins of the Selenge River and lower Orkhon River. After a struggle that took over two decades, they were defeated in 1200 and incorporated into the Mongol Empire formed by Genghis Khan.
The Mergids were a confederation of three tribes, inhabiting the basin of the Selenge and Orkhon Rivers.
The ethnicity of the Mergids is somewhat obscure; it is likely that they were Turkic or Mongolic (related to Mongols, Naimans, Keraits, and Khitan), but it has also been postulated that they are more closely related to Paleosiberian,[citation needed] such as the Chukchi, or to Tungusic peoples, such as the Manchu and the Evenks.[citation needed]
Temüjin's mother Hoelun, originally from the Olkhunut tribe, had been engaged to the Mergid chief Yehe Chiledu by 1153. She was abducted by Temüjin's father Yesugei, while being escorted home by Yehe Chiledu.
wn.com/Merkit -
Mikhail of Tver
Mikhail Yaroslavich (Russian: Михаил Ярославич) (1271 – November 22, 1318), also known as Michael of Tver or Michael the Saint, was a Prince of Tver (from 1285) who ruled as Grand Prince of Vladimir from 1304 until 1314 and again from 1315–1318. He is counted among the saints of the Russian Orthodox Church.
Mikhail Yaroslavich was the second son of Yaroslav III (Yaroslav Yaroslavich), the younger brother of Aleksandr Nevsky) and succeeded him as Prince of Tver in 1285. His mother, Xenia was the second spouse to Yaroslav III and is known as the saint Xenia of Tarusa. Upon the death of Andrei Aleksandrovich (Aleksandr Nevsky's son and Yaroslav's nephew), Mikhail became the Grand Prince of Vladimir in 1304, as was consistent with the Rota System of collateral succession that had been practiced in Rus since the time of Yaroslav the Wise. He was confirmed in office by Tokhta, Khan of the Golden Horde.
While he seemed secure in the throne, being the legitimate heir and having been confirmed by the Khan in Sarai, Grand Prince Mikhail suffered a series of setbacks as grand prince which led to him losing the grand princely office for both himself and, in some ways, ultimately for his descendants. He was, like most Grand Princes of Vladimir, accepted as Prince of Novgorod the Great in 1309, but fought with Novgorod, going so far as to withdraw his lieutenants (namestniki) and cut off grain shipments into the city in 1312. While he was on decent terms with Tokhta Khan, and initially with his successor, Uzbeg Khan (Mikhail paid homage on Uzbeg's accession to the throne in 1313 and remained in Sarai until 1315), he eventually lost influence to Yury of Moscow, who gained influence in Novgorod while the grand prince was away in Sarai. Mikhail did manage to finally take control of the city in 1316 with Mongol aid, but the following year Uzbeg Khan gave the yarlik or patent of office of the Grand Prince of Vladimir to Yury, who also married Uzbeg's sister.
wn.com/Mikhail_of_Tver -
Mongke Khan
Möngke Khan (Mongolian: Мөнх хаан), born Möngke, (January 10, 1209 – August 11, 1259 ), was the fourth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire from July 1, 1251 – August 11, 1259. He was the first Great Khan from the Toluid line, and made significant reforms to improve the administration of the Empire during his reign. Under Möngke, the Mongols conquered Iraq and Syria as well as the kingdom of Nanzhao and the area of present-day Vietnam. He was given the temple name (traditional Chinese: 元憲宗; simplified Chinese: 元宪宗; pinyin: Yuán Xiànzōng; Wade–Giles: Hsien-Tsung) by his successor Kublai Khan, who founded the Yuan Dynasty.
Möngke was born on January 10, 1209 as the eldest son of Genghis Khan's teen-aged son Tolui and Sorghaghtani. Teb Tengri Khokhcuu, the powerful shaman, saw in the stars a great future for the child and bestowed on him the name Mongke, "eternal" in the Mongolian language. His uncle Ogedei's childless queen Angqui raised him at her ordo (nomadic palace). Ogedei instructed Persian scholar Idi-dan Muhammed to teach writing to Mongke.
wn.com/Mongke_Khan -
Mongol
Mongols (Mongolian: Монголчууд (help·info)), Mongolchuud) are a Central-East Asian ethnic group that lives mainly in the countries of Mongolia, China, and Russia. Owing to wars and migrations, Mongols are also found in some Central Asian states such as Kazakhstan. In China, ethnic Mongols can be found mainly in the central north region of China such as Inner Mongolia (a smaller number of Mongols can also be found in Xinjiang in northwest China). The Buryat branch of the Mongol ethnic group can be found in the autonomous republic of Buryatia, Russia. Ethnic Mongols are bound together by a common language and culture. They speak languages belonging to the Mongolic languages. The contiguous territories inhabited by ethnic Mongols is also known as Greater Mongolia[disambiguation needed 
]. There are approximately 10 million ethnic Mongols in total.
A definition includes the Mongols proper, who can be approximately divided into the eastern Mongols (the Khalkha Mongols, the Inner Mongolians, the Buryats), and the Oirats. In a wider sense, the Mongol people includes all people who speak a Mongolic language, such as the Kalmyks of eastern Europe.
wn.com/Mongol -
Mongols
Mongols (Mongolian: Монголчууд (help·info)), Mongolchuud) are a Central-East Asian ethnic group that lives mainly in the countries of Mongolia, China, and Russia. Owing to wars and migrations, Mongols are also found in some Central Asian states such as Kazakhstan. In China, ethnic Mongols can be found mainly in the central north region of China such as Inner Mongolia (a smaller number of Mongols can also be found in Xinjiang in northwest China). The Buryat branch of the Mongol ethnic group can be found in the autonomous republic of Buryatia, Russia. Ethnic Mongols are bound together by a common language and culture. They speak languages belonging to the Mongolic languages. The contiguous territories inhabited by ethnic Mongols is also known as Greater Mongolia[disambiguation needed ]. There are approximately 10 million ethnic Mongols in total.
A definition includes the Mongols proper, who can be approximately divided into the eastern Mongols (the Khalkha Mongols, the Inner Mongolians, the Buryats), and the Oirats. In a wider sense, the Mongol people includes all people who speak a Mongolic language, such as the Kalmyks of eastern Europe.
wn.com/Mongols -
Möngke Khan
Möngke Khan (Mongolian: Мөнх хаан), born Möngke, (January 10, 1209 – August 11, 1259 ), was the fourth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire from July 1, 1251 – August 11, 1259. He was the first Great Khan from the Toluid line, and made significant reforms to improve the administration of the Empire during his reign. Under Möngke, the Mongols conquered Iraq and Syria as well as the kingdom of Nanzhao and the area of present-day Vietnam. He was given the temple name (traditional Chinese: 元憲宗; simplified Chinese: 元宪宗; pinyin: Yuán Xiànzōng; Wade–Giles: Hsien-Tsung) by his successor Kublai Khan, who founded the Yuan Dynasty.
Möngke was born on January 10, 1209 as the eldest son of Genghis Khan's teen-aged son Tolui and Sorghaghtani. Teb Tengri Khokhcuu, the powerful shaman, saw in the stars a great future for the child and bestowed on him the name Mongke, "eternal" in the Mongolian language. His uncle Ogedei's childless queen Angqui raised him at her ordo (nomadic palace). Ogedei instructed Persian scholar Idi-dan Muhammed to teach writing to Mongke.
wn.com/Möngke_Khan -
Naimans
The Naimans, also Naiman Turkics, (kazakh language: Найман хандығы) Naiman in Mongolian language means "eight", because Naimans were direct descendants of the Segiz Ogyz poeple, "segiz" means "eight" in the Kazakh language. They were a Mongolian name given to a group of Turkic tribes dwelling on the steppe of Central Asia, having diplomatic relations with the Kara-Khitan, and subservient to them until 1177. The Naimans are most often classified as a Turkic people from Segiz Oghyz (means 'Eight Oghuz' in Turkic),
Like the Khitans and the Uyghurs, many of them were Nestorian Christians or Buddhists. When last Tayan Khan was killed after a battle with Genghis Khan in 1203, his son Kuchlug with his remaining Naiman troops fled to the Kara-Khitan. Kuchlug was well received there and the Khitan Khan gave him his daughter in marriage. Kuchlug soon began plotting against his new father-in-law, and after he usurped the throne, he began to persecute Muslims in the Hami Oases. But his action was opposed by local people and he was later defeated by the Mongols under Jebe.
wn.com/Naimans -
Negudar
Negudar (Nikudar, Neguder) was a Mongol general under Berke, and a Golden Horde Noyan. With many other Golden Horde generals, he embraced Islam in the late 13th century. He subsequently took the Muslim name of Ahmad Khan.
Before the conflicts between Berke and Hulegu, Negudar fostered peace in Eastern Khorasan and its surrounding areas in Central Asia. Neguder with other generals of the Mongol Empire raided northwest parts of the Delhi Sultanate in 1230s. When war hostilities broke out between Berke and Hulegu in 1260, Negudar assumed control over a sizeable portion of Berke's forces primarily in Ghazni and eastern Afghanistan.
Negudar and his forces ultimately settled in various parts of modern day Afghanistanincluding Kabul and Herat. Mongols and Turks in Afghanistan adopted his name later as they merged into Chagatai Khanate during the reign of Alghu. Today, Nikudari, an archaic form of the Mongolian language extinct in Mongolia, is preserved in Afghanistan and named after Negudar.
wn.com/Negudar -
Nikolay Kradin
Nikolay Nikolaevich Kradin (born in Onokhoy, Buryatia, USSR on April 17, 1962) is a Russian anthropologist and archaeologist. Since 1985 he has been a Research Fellow of the Institute of History, Archaeology and Ethnology, Far East Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Vladivostok. He was also (1999-2011) Head and Professor of the Department of Social Anthropology in the Far-Eastern National Technical University, and is also (since 2011) Head and Professor of the Department of World History, Archaeology and Anthropology in the Far-Eastern Federal University. Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences (2011).
Nikolay Kradin's major contributions belong to three fields:
Among other things Kradin has demonstrated that an alternative to the state seems to be represented by the supercomplex chiefdoms created by some nomads of Eurasia – the number of the structural levels within such chiefdoms appear to be equal, or even to exceed those within the average state, but they have an entirely different type of political organization and political leadership; such type of political entities do not appear to have been ever created by the agriculturists.
wn.com/Nikolay_Kradin -
Nogai Khan
Nogai (died 1299), also called Isa Nogai, was a general and de facto ruler of the Golden Horde and a great-great-grandson of Genghis Khan. His grandfather was Baul/Teval Khan, the 7th son of Jochi. His name is also spelled Nogay and Nogaj.
Pelliot wrote that Nogay meant a "dog." In fact, in the Mongolian language, "nokhoi" literally means a "dog"; however it does not necessarily mean a particularly negative and insulting name in its context, since people were called "dogs" among the Mongols at the time and sometimes presently as "nokhduud" as in "you dogs (guys/men/people)." Genghis Khan also called his capable generals "dogs of war" or "men of war." This probably came about because Mongols had a lot of dogs, and dogs were very useful for people's lives in hunting and warnings.
Nogai was born to Tartar (Tutar), a son of Terval who was a son of Jochi. He would rule his grandfather's appanage after his father died. After the Mongol invasion of Europe, Batu Khan left Nogai with a tumen (10,000 warriors) in modern-day Moldavia and Romania as a frontier guard. He was a nephew of Berke Khan as well as Batu Khan and Orda Khan, and under his uncle, he became a powerful and ambitious warlord.
wn.com/Nogai_Khan -
Ogedei
Ögedei Khan, born Ögedei (also Ogodei, Mongolian: ᠦᠭᠦᠳᠡᠢ, c. 1186 – December 11, 1241) was the third son of Genghis Khan and second Great Khan (Khagan) of the Mongol Empire by succeeding his father. He continued the expansion of the empire that his father had begun, and was a world figure when the Mongol Empire reached its farthest extent west and south during the invasions of Europe and Asia. Like all of Genghis' primary sons, he participated extensively in conquests in China, Iran and Central Asia. He was given temple name (Chinese: 元太宗; pinyin: Yuán Tàizōng; Wade–Giles: T'ai-Tsung) later by Kublai Khan who founded the Yuan Dynasty.
Ögedei was the third son of Genghis Khan and Börte Ujin. He participated in the turbulent events of his father's rise. When he was 17 years old, Genghis Khan experienced the disastrous defeat of Khalakhaljid Sands against the army of Jamukha. Ögedei was heavily wounded and lost on the battlefield. His father's adopted brother and companion Borokhula rescued him. Although already married, in 1204 his father gave him Toregene, the wife of a defeated Merkit chief. The addition of such a wife was not uncommon in steppe culture.
wn.com/Ogedei -
Oghul Qaimish
Oghul Qaimish was the principal wife of Güyük Khan and ruled as regent over the Mongol empire after the death of her husband in 1248. She was a descendant from the Mergid tribe. However, H.H.Howorth believed that she was an Oirat.
She was given as wife to Guyuk after Genghis Khan put down the rebellion of her clan in 1216-19. Oghul Qaimish bore Guyuk two sons, Khoja and Naqu. When her husband died in Qum-Sengir in Turkestan, she brought his ordo in the Ogedeids' appanage in Emil-Qobaq region in 1248. Guyuk's chief officials, Chinqai, Qadaq and Bala, helped Oghul to serve as regent. She spent her time with the Mongol shamans and lacked her mother-in-law, Toregene's political skills. While her sons, Naqu and Khoja, and Shiremun, the grandson of Ogedei, attempted to secure their claims on the throne, Chagatayid Khan Yesu Mongke primarily supported Oghul Qaimish.
Before or during the regency of Oghul, her husband's general Eljigidei sent the embassy to Louis IX of France to offer an alliance against the Muslims. Louis sent his men headed by André de Longjumeau in reply, but after she received them at her ordo on Emil, Oghul Qaimish sent them back with presents and letters announcing the Mongol demand for submission.
wn.com/Oghul_Qaimish -
Orda Khan
Orda Ichen (Lord Orda, Орд эзэн ("Ord ezen")) was a Mongol Khan and military strategist who ruled eastern part of the Ulus of Jochi during the 13th century.
Orda Ichen ( c. 1204-1251 CE) is credited for founding the Blue Horde; he was the eldest son of Jochi and the first grandson of Genghis Khan. At the death of his father and grandfather, Orda Khan inherited the Eastern portions of his father’s lands; while he was the elder, he nevertheless agreed that his younger brother Batu Khan ruled the whole Jochid Ulus (also known as the Golden Horde). This mainly consisted of the territories between Lake Balkhash and the Volga river; it was in these lands that Orda eventually founded the Blue Horde (also known as the Koke Orda). West of the Volga river were the lands of his younger brother Batu, who became the first ruler of the White Horde and the supreme Khan of the Golden Horde. The Great Khan Guyuk ordered Temuge Otchigin, who tried to illegally usurp the throne for himself, to be investigated by Orda and Mongke in c.1246.
wn.com/Orda_Khan -
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire or Turkish Empire or Sublime Ottoman State or sometimes also referred to as Turkey (Ottoman Turkish: دَوْلَتِ عَلِيّهٔ عُثمَانِیّه Devlet-i ʿAliyye-yi ʿOsmâniyye (also عثمانلى دولتى Osmanlı Devleti),Modern Turkish: Osmanlı Devleti or Osmanlı İmparatorluğu) was a Turkish empire which lasted from 27 July 1299 to 1 November 1922, when the Sultanate was abolished.
The Ottoman Empire was one of the largest and longest lasting empires in history; such that the Ottoman State, its politics, conflicts, and cultural heritage in a vast geography provide one of the longest continuous narratives. During the 16th and 17th centuries, in particular at the height of its power under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the empire was one of the most powerful states in the world – a multinational, multilingual empire that stretched from the southern borders of the Holy Roman Empire to the outskirts of Vienna, Royal Hungary (modern Slovakia) and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the north to Yemen and Eritrea in the south; from Algeria in the west to Azerbaijan in the east; controlling much of southeast Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. At the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states, some of which were later absorbed into the empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries.
wn.com/Ottoman_Empire -
Ozbeg
Sultan Mohammed Öz-Beg, better known as Uzbeg or Ozbeg (1282–1341, reign 1313–1341), was the longest-reigning khan of the Golden Horde, under whose rule the state reached its zenith. He was succeeded by his son Jani Beg.
He was the son of Toghrilcha and grandson of Mengu-Timur, who had been khan of the Golden Horde from 1267–1280.
Ozbeg's father Togrilcha was one of Genghisid princes that overthrew Tode-Mengu (r.1280–1287). Later, he was executed by Tokhta (1291–1312). Tokhta took Togrilcha's wife and sent his son Ozbeg to exile in a distant region of the Golden Horde: either Khorazm or the country of Circassians.
Converted to Islam by Ibn Abdul Hamid, a Sufi Bukharan sayyid and sheikh of the Yasavi order, Öz-Beg assumed the throne upon the death of his uncle Tokhta in January 1313 with the help of the former Khans' vizier Temur Qutlugh and of Bulaghan (or Bayalun) khatun. At first, many Mongol nobles were against him and organized a plot to kill the new Khan. Uzbeg discovered the plot and crushed the rebels. His adoption of Islam as a state religion led to a conspiracy of Shamanist and Buddhist princes, which he subdued severely. Ozbeg determinedly spread Islam amongst the Golden Horde and allowed missionary activities to expand in the surrounding regions. Ozbeg found out that his competitor was backed by the envoys of the Great Khan Ayurbarwada Buyantu and this fact helped deteriorate his relationship with the Yuan Dynasty. The last of his rebellious relatives was shamanist Khan Ilbasan of the White Horde, who was murdered in 1320. Uzbeg installed the Muslim Mubarak Khwaja as a replacement to the throne of the White Horde, but he discouraged their independence. In the long run, Islam enabled the Khan to eliminate interfactional struggles in the Horde and to stabilize state institutions. Russian scholar Lev Gumilev wrote that in this manner was Ozbeg able to turn the khanate into a sultanate.
wn.com/Ozbeg -
Philip IV of France
Philip IV (French: Philippe le Bel, April–June 1268 – 29 November 1314), called the Fair, was King of France from 1285 until his death. He was the husband of Joan I of Navarre, by virtue of which he was, as Philip I, King of Navarre and Count of Champagne from 1284 to 1305.
A member of the House of Capet, Philip was born at the Palace of Fontainebleau at Seine-et-Marne, the son of King Philip III and Isabella of Aragon. Philip was nicknamed the Fair (le Bel) because of his handsome appearance, but his inflexible personality gained him other epithets, from friend and foe alike. His fierce opponent Bernard Saisset, bishop of Pamiers, said of him, "He is neither man nor beast. He is a statue."
His education was guided by Guillaume d'Ercuis, the almoner of his father.[citation needed]
As prince, just before his father's death, he negotiated the safe passage of the royal family out of Aragon after the unsuccessful Aragonese Crusade.[citation needed]
Philip ascended to the throne and became King at age 17, although according to the publication titled "The Life And Times Of Jacques de Molay", Philip was 16. As a king, Philip was determined to strengthen the monarchy at any cost. He relied, more than any of his predecessors, on a professional bureaucracy of legalists. Because to the public he kept aloof and left specific policies, especially unpopular ones, to his ministers, he was called a "useless owl" by his contemporaries, among them Bishop Bernard Saisset. His reign marks the French transition from a charismatic monarchy – which could all but collapse in an incompetent reign – to a bureaucratic kingdom, a move, under a certain historical reading, towards modernity.
wn.com/Philip_IV_of_France -
Poles
The Polish people, or Poles (Polish: Polacy [pɔˈlat͡sɨ]; singular: Polak), are a nation indigenous to Poland. They speak the Polish language, which belongs to the historical Lechitic subgroup of West Slavic languages of Central Europe. The Polish word for a Polish person is "Polak" (masculine) and "Polka" (feminine).
The preamble to the Constitution of the Republic of Poland defines the Polish nation as comprising all the citizens of Poland. Poland's inhabitants live in the following historic regions of the country: Wielkopolska, Małopolska, Mazovia, Pomerania, Warmia, Mazury, Podlasie, Kujawy and Silesia. A wide-ranging Polish diaspora exists throughout Europe (Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Belarus, Lithuania and Ukraine), the Americas (the United States, Brazil and Argentina) and Australia. Chicago, in the United States, has the world's largest urban Polish population after Warsaw.
Over a thousand years ago, the Polans of Giecz, Gniezno and Poznań — an influential tribe in Wielkopolska — succeeded in uniting Lechitic tribes under what became the Piast dynasty, thus giving rise to the Polish state.
wn.com/Poles -
Pony Express
The Pony Express was a fast mail service crossing the Great Plains, the Rocky Mountains, and the High Sierra from St. Joseph, Missouri, to Sacramento, California, from April 3, 1860 to October 1861. It became the west's most direct means of east-west communication before the telegraph and was vital for tying California closely with the Union just before the American Civil War.
The Pony Express was a mail delivery system of the Leavenworth & Pike's Peak Express Company of 1849 which in 1850 became the Central Overland California and Pikes Peak Express Company. This firm was founded by William H. Russell, Alexander Majors, and William B. Waddell all of whom were notable in the freighting business.
Patee House served as the Pony Express headquarters from 1860 to 1861. It is one block away from the home of infamous outlaw Jesse James, where he was shot and killed by Robert Ford.
This original fast mail 'Pony Express' service had messages carried by horseback riders in staged relays to stations (with fresh horses and riders) across the prairies, plains, deserts, and mountains of the Western United States. During its 18 months of operation, it reduced the time for messages to travel between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts to about ten days, with telegraphic communication covering about half the distance across the continent and mounted couriers the rest.
wn.com/Pony_Express -
Pope Innocent IV
Pope Innocent IV (c. 1195 – 7 December 1254), born Sinibaldo Fieschi, was Pope from 25 June 1243 until his death in 1254.
Born in Genoa (although some sources say Manarola) in an unknown year, Sinibaldo was the son of Brumisan di Grillo and Ugo Fieschi, Count of Lavagna. The Fieschi were a noble merchant family of Liguria. Sinibaldo received his education at the universities of Parma and Bologna and, for a time, taught canon law at Bologna. He was considered one of the best canonists of his time and was called to serve the Pope in the Roman Curia in the year 1226.
Before his elevation to the papacy, Sinibaldo was Vice-Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church (1226–27), being created Cardinal Priest of San Lorenzo in Lucina on 18 September 1227 by Pope Gregory IX, later serving as governor of the March of Ancona from 1235 until 1240.
It is widely repeated from the 17th century on that he became bishop of Albenga in 1235, but there is no foundation to this claim.
Innocent's immediate predecessor was Pope Celestine IV, elected 25 October 1241, whose reign lasted a mere fifteen days. The events of Innocent IV's pontificate are therefore inextricably linked to the policies dominating the reigns of popes Innocent III, Honorius III and Gregory IX.
wn.com/Pope_Innocent_IV -
Pope John XXII
Pope John XXII (1244 – 4 December 1334), born Jacques Duèze (or d'Euse), was pope from 7 August 1316 until his death. He was the second Pope of the Avignon Papacy (1309–1377), elected by a conclave in Lyon assembled by King Philip V of France. Like his predecessor, Clement V, he centralized power and income in the Papacy and lived a princely life in Avignon. He opposed the political policies of Louis IV of Bavaria as Holy Roman Emperor, which prompted Louis to invade Italy and set up an antipope, Nicholas V. Pope John XXII faced controversy in theology involving his views on the Beatific Vision, and he opposed the Franciscan understanding of the poverty of Christ and his apostles. He canonized St. Thomas Aquinas.
The son of a shoemaker in Cahors, Jacques Duèze studied medicine in Montpellier and law in Paris.
The death of Pope Clement V in 1314 was followed by an interregnum of two years due to disagreements between the cardinals, who were split into two factions. After two years, Philip V of France finally in 1316 managed to arrange a papal conclave of twenty-three cardinals in Lyon. This conclave elected Jacques Duèze, who took the name John XXII and was crowned in Lyon. He set up his residence in Avignon rather than Rome, continuing the Avignon Papacy of his predecessor.
wn.com/Pope_John_XXII -
R. J. Rummel
Rudolph Joseph Rummel (born October 21, 1932, Cleveland, Ohio) is professor emeritus of political science at the University of Hawaii. He has spent his career assembling data on collective violence and war with a view toward helping their resolution or elimination. Rummel coined the term democide for murder by government (compare genocide), his research claiming that six times as many people died of democide during the 20th century than in all that century's wars combined. He concludes that democracy is the form of government least likely to kill its citizens and that democracies do not wage war against each other (see Democratic peace theory).
Rummel is the author of 24 scholarly books, and published his major results in Understanding Conflict and War (1975–81). He then spent the next fifteen years refining the underlying theory and testing it empirically on new data, against the empirical results of others, and on case studies. Power Kills (1997) sums up Rummel's research. Other works include Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocides and Mass Murders 1917-1987 (1990); China's Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900 (1991); Democide: Nazi Genocide and Mass Murder (1992); Death by Government (1994); and Statistics of Democide (1997). Extracts, figures, and tables from the books, including his sources and details regarding the calculations, are available online on his website. Rummel has also authored Understanding Factor Analysis (1970) and Understanding Correlation (1976). He is the author of the Never again series of alternative-history novels, in which a secret society sends two lovers armed with fabulous wealth and modern weapons back to 1906 with orders to create an alternative, peaceful century. These works are available online.
wn.com/R._J._Rummel -
Rabban Bar Sauma
Rabban Bar Sauma (c. 1220–1294) (ܪܒܢ ܒܪ ܨܘܡܐ; IPA: [Rɑbbɑn bɑrsˤɑuma]), also known as Rabban Ṣawma or Rabban Çauma, (Chinese:拉賓掃務瑪), was a Turkic/Mongol monk turned diplomat of the Nestorian Christian faith. He is known for embarking on a pilgrimage from Mongol-controlled China to Jerusalem with one of his students, Rabban Markos. Due to military unrest along the way, they never reached their destination, but instead spent many years in Mongol-controlled Baghdad. Markos was eventually chosen as Nestorian Patriarch, and later suggested his teacher Rabban Bar Sauma be sent on another mission, as Mongol ambassador to Europe. The elderly monk met with many of the European monarchs, as well as the Pope, in attempts to arrange a Franco-Mongol alliance. The mission bore no fruit, but in his later years in Baghdad, Rabban Bar Sauma documented his lifetime of travel. His written account of his journeys is of unique interest to modern historians, as it gives a picture of medieval Europe at the close of the Crusading period, painted by a keenly intelligent, broadminded and statesmanlike observer. His travels occurred prior to the return of Marco Polo to Europe, and his writings give a reverse viewpoint of the East looking to the West.
wn.com/Rabban_Bar_Sauma -
Rashidun Caliphate
The Rashidun Caliphate (Arabic: الخلافة الراشدية al-khilāfat ar-Rāshidīyah), (c. 632-661) comprising the first four caliphs in Islam's history, was founded after Muhammad's death in 632 (Year 10 A.H. in the Islamic calendar). At its height, the Caliphate extended from the Arabian Peninsula, to the Levant, Caucasus and North Africa in the west, to the Iranian highlands and Central Asia in the east. At its greatest extent it was one of the largest empires in history. It is also known as the Patriarchal Caliphate.
After Muhammad's death in 632, the Medinan Ansar debated which of them should succeed him in running the affairs of the Muslims while Muhammad's household was busy with his burial. Umar (a Quraish) and Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah pledged their loyalty to Abu Bakr, with the Ansar and the Quraish soon following suit. Abu Bakr thus became the first Khalifa Rasul Allah (Successor of the Messenger of God), and embarked on campaigns to propagate Islam. First, though, he would have to subdue the Arabian tribes which had gone back on their oaths of allegiance to Islam and the Islamic community. As a Khalifa or Caliph he was not a monarch and never claimed such a title nor did his three successors do so.
wn.com/Rashidun_Caliphate -
Rogerius of Apulia
Rogerius of Apulia (also Rogerios; Ruggero di Puglia in Italian) (c. 1205 – 1266) was a medieval Roman Catholic monk and chronicler, born in Torremaggiore, Apulia. He became bishop of Split in 1249, and is best known for his account of the Tatar invasions.
After 1241, he wrote a description of the conquest of Transylvania and the Pannonian Plain by the Tatars (see: Battle of Mohi) in his work Carmen Miserabile ("Sad Song"). Mongol-Tatar Golden Horde forces led by Batu Khan began attacking Europe in 1223, starting with Kievan Rus'. They continued to defeat Imperial, Polish, and Hungarian armies before turning back to go home, upon learning of the death of their Great Khan in 1241.
Rogerius survived the devastation by hiding in the marshes, and writes that the Tatars annihilated the population to the last infant, besides committing many other atrocities.
Rogerius subsequently assumed other posts, including dean of Sopron (1243), dean at Zagreb (1249), secretary to Johannes Toletanus in Lyon, and archbishop of Split, where he died.
wn.com/Rogerius_of_Apulia -
Sartaq
Sartaq (or Sartak, Sartach, Mongolian: Сартаг) Khan (died 1256) was the son of Batu Khan and Regent Dowager Khatun Boraqcin of Alchi Tatar. Sartaq succeeded Batu as khan of the Ulus of Jochi (Golden Horde or Kipchak Khanate).
In 1252, Alexander Nevsky met with Sartaq at Sarai. Alexander received yarlyk (license) to become Grand Duke of Vladimir in vassalage to the Kipchak Khanate. According to Lev Gumilev he became Sartaq’s anda (sworn brother, probably akin to blood brother) and an adopted son of Batu Khan.
Sartaq was reputed to be a Christian convert (presumably nestorianism); his father being a Shamanist. There are several stories of Sartaq's conversion. The Armenian writers, for example, alleged that Sartaq was brought up and baptized among the Russians.
However, a message dated August 29, 1254 by Sartaq addressed to Pope Innocent IV, stated that Sartaq, then a duke, was baptised as a Christian. The Pope heard the news from a priest whom the khan had sent as envoy to the papal court.
His reign as khan of the Golden Horde was short-lived. He died in 1256 before returning from Great Khan Mongke's court in Mongolia, less than one year after his father, probably having been poisoned by his uncles Berke and Berkhchir. The notable Russian historian Karamzin, along with Armenian and Muslim chroniclers, stated that they were hostile to one another because of tensions between religions. Sartaq was succeeded by Ulaqchi briefly in 1257, before his uncle Berke succeeded to the throne. It is not clear whether Ulaqchi was his brother or his son.
wn.com/Sartaq -
Seljuks
The Great Seljuq Empire (Turkish: Büyük Selçuklu Devleti, Persian: دولت سلجوقیان) was a medieval Persianate,Turko-PersianSunni Muslim empire, originating from the Qynyq branch of Oghuz Turks. The Seljuq Empire controlled a vast area stretching from the Hindu Kush to eastern Anatolia and from Central Asia to the Persian Gulf. From their homelands near the Aral sea, the Seljuqs advanced first into Khorasan and then into mainland Persia before eventually conquering eastern Anatolia.
The Seljuq empire was founded by Tughril Beg in 1037 after the efforts by the founder of the Seljuq dynasty, Seljuq Beg, back in the first quarter of the eleventh century. Seljuq Beg's father was in a higher position in the Oghuz Yabgu State, and gave his name both to the state and the dynasty. The Seljuqs united the fractured political scene of the Eastern Islamic world and played a key role in the first and second crusades. Highly Persianized in culture and language, the Seljuqs also played an important role in the development of the Turko-Persian tradition, even exporting Persian culture to Anatolia. The Seljuqs conquest gave impetus to the progressive Turkicization of parts of Anatolia, Iran and the Caucasus.
wn.com/Seljuks -
Shan people
The Shan (Shan: တႆး; IPA: [tɑ́ɪ], Burmese: ရှမ်းလူမျိုး; [ʃán lùmjó]; Chinese: 掸族 or 傣族; pinyin: Shànzú) are a Tai ethnic group of Southeast Asia. The Shan live primarily in the Shan State of Burma (Myanmar), but also inhabit parts of Mandalay Division, Kachin State, and Kayin State, and in adjacent regions of China and Thailand. Though no reliable census has been taken in Burma since 1935, the Shan are estimated to number approximately 6 million.
The capital of Shan State is Taunggyi, a small city of about 150,000 people. Other major cities include Thibaw (Hsipaw), Lashio, Kengtung and Tachileik.
The Shan people can be divided into five major groups:
There are various ethnic groups designated as Tai throughout Shan State and Kachin State. Some of these groups in fact speak Tibeto-Burman and Mon-Khmer languages, although they are assimilated into Shan society. The following list is drawn from Edmondson (2008).
The majority of Shan are Theravada Buddhists, and the Shan constitute one of the four main Buddhist ethnic groups in Burma; the others are the Bamar, the Mon and the Rakhine.
wn.com/Shan_people -
Sichuan
Coordinates: 30°N 103°E / 30°N 103°E / 30; 103
Sichuan (help·info) (Chinese: 四川, known formerly in the West by its postal map spellings of Szechwan or Szechuan) is a province in Southwest China with its capital in Chengdu. The current name of the province, "四川", is an abbreviation of "四川路" (Sì Chuānlù), or "Four circuits of rivers", which is itself abbreviated from "川峡四路" (Chuānxiá Sìlù), or "Four circuits of rivers and gorges", named after the division of the existing circuit into four during the Northern Song Dynasty.
The province and its vicinity were the cradle of unique local civilizations, which can be dated back to at least the fifteenth century BC (coinciding with the later years of the Shang Dynasty). Beginning from the ninth century BC, Shu (today Chengdu) and Ba (today Chongqing City) emerged as cultural and administrative centers where two rival kingdoms were established.
Shu's existence was unknown until an archaeological discovery in 1986 at a small village named Sanxingdui (三星堆) in Guanghan County. It is believed to be an ancient city of the Shu Kingdom, where excavations have yielded invaluable archaeological information.
wn.com/Sichuan -
Somali people
Somalis (Somali: Soomaaliyeed, Arabic: الصوماليون) are an ethnic group located in the Horn of Africa, also known as the Somali Peninsula. The overwhelming majority of Somalis speak the Somali language, which is part of the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. Ethnic Somalis number around 15-17 million and are principally concentrated in Somalia (more than 10 million), Ethiopia (4.6 million), Yemen (a little under 1 million), Kenya (900,000), Djibouti (464,600), and an unknown but large number live in parts of the Middle East, North America and Europe.
Samaale, the oldest common ancestor of several Somali clans, is generally regarded as the source of the ethnonym Somali. The name "Somali" is, in turn, held to be derived from the words soo and maal, which together mean "go and milk" — a reference to the ubiquitous pastoralism of the Somali people. Another plausible etymology proposes that the term Somali is derived from the Arabic for "wealthy" (dhawamaal), again referring to Somali riches in livestock.
wn.com/Somali_people -
Sorghaghtani Beki
Sorghaghtani Beki or Bekhi (Bek(h)i is a title), also written Sorkaktani, Sorkhokhtani, Sorkhogtani, Siyurkuktiti; traditional Chinese: 唆魯禾帖尼; simplified Chinese: 唆鲁禾帖尼; pinyin: Suō lǔ hé tiě ní (Posthumous name: traditional Chinese: 顯懿庄聖皇后; simplified Chinese: 显懿庄圣皇后; pinyin: Xiǎn yì zhuāng shèng huáng hòu) (c. 1198 – 1252), a Kereyid princess of the Nestorian Christian faith and daughter-in-law of Temüjin (later known as Genghis Khan), was one of the most powerful and competent women in the Mongol Empire. Married to Tolui, Genghis' youngest son, she raised her sons to be leaders, and maneuvered the family politics so that all four of her sons, Mongke Khan, Hulagu Khan, Ariq Böke, and Kublai Khan, were to inherit the legacy of their grandfather. As a moving spirit behind the Mongol Empire, Sorghaghtani is responsible for much of the trade openings and intellectual exchange made possible by this, the largest contiguous empire in world history. As such, she may count among the most influential women in world history.
wn.com/Sorghaghtani_Beki -
Subutai
Subutai (Mongolian: Сүбээдэй, Sübeedei; Classic Mongolian: Sübügätäi or Sübü'ätäi; Tsubodai 1176–1248) was the primary military strategist and general of Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan. He directed more than twenty campaigns in which he conquered thirty-two nations and won sixty-five pitched battles, during which he conquered or overran more territory than any other commander in history. He gained victory by means of imaginative and sophisticated strategies and routinely coordinated movements of armies that were hundreds of kilometers away from each other. He is also remembered for devising the campaign that destroyed the armies of Hungary and Poland within two days of each other, by forces over five hundred kilometers apart.
Subutai is regarded in history as one of Genghis Khan's and the Mongol Empire's most prominent generals in terms of ability and tactics helping with the military campaigns in Asia and Eastern Europe. He commanded many successful attacks and invasions during his time and was rarely defeated.
wn.com/Subutai -
Takezaki Suenaga
Takezaki Suenaga (竹崎 季長?, 1246 – 1314) was a retainer of the Higo Province, Japan who fought in both the Battle of Bun'ei and the Battle of Kōan during the Mongol invasions of Japan. Suenaga commissioned the Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba, a pictorial scroll showing his own valor in war, composed in 1293. During the Mongol invasion of 1274, Suenaga fought at Hakata under Muto Kagesuke. Suenaga sold his horses and saddles in order to finance a trip to Kamakura in order to report his deeds in battle to the bakufu. In order to receive rewards for valorous deeds from the bakufu, it was necessary for the deeds to be witnessed by others and reported to the bakufu directly. By his own account in the scrolls, Suenaga says, “Other than advancing and having my deeds known, I have nothing else to live for,” showing that, first, he wanted to advance in terms of measurable money and rank, and that, just as importantly, he sought fame and recognition.
Suenaga goes to great lengths to achieve what he views as the honor of the warrior. Although he is under orders from Kagesuke, the commander, to pull back at the very beginning, Suenaga disobeys. Asserting his own identity, he says, “Waiting for the general will cause us to be late to battle. Of all the warriors of the clan, I, Suenaga will be the first to fight from Higo.” Rushing forward on his own, Suenaga encounters Kagesuke himself. Again Suenaga disobeys orders, this time from Kagesuke’s retainer. When he is ordered to dismount from his horse, he refuses, citing his desire to be the first into battle.
wn.com/Takezaki_Suenaga -
Temuge
Temüge (1168 – 1246) was the youngest full-brother of Genghis Khan. As the youngest sibling, Temüge and his mother, by Mongol traditions, were allotted the most land and people by Genghis Khan during his coronation. Although he seems to have been the least warlike of the brothers, and was criticized by Genghis himself for being lazy and shiftless, Temüge proved himself to be a skilled politician and capable ruler, who, alongside his mother Hoelun, ruled the Mongol heartland in his eldest brothers' absence. He appears to have had intellectual leanings, first coming under the influence of the conquered Xia and Jin cultures and then taking an active interest in the other cultures encompassed in the vast Mongol empire.
After the death of his nephew Ögedei Khan, Temüge attempted to seize the throne for himself in 1246, an act which resulted in his execution.
wn.com/Temuge -
Temur Khan
Temür Öljeytü Khan (Mongolian: Öljiyt Tömör, Өлзийт Төмөр, Öljeytü Temür), born Temür (traditional Chinese: 鐵穆耳; simplified Chinese: 铁穆耳; pinyin: Tiě mù ěr), or Emperor Chengzong of Yuan (Chinese: 元成宗; pinyin: Yuán Chéngzōng; Wade–Giles: Ch'eng-Tsung) (October 15, 1265 – February 10, 1307), also spelled Timur, was the second leader of the Yuan Dynasty between May 10, 1294 and February 10, 1307, and is considered as the sixth Great Khan of the Mongols in Mongolia. He, whose reign established the patterns of power for the next few decades, was an able ruler of the Yuan. His name means "blessed iron Khan" in the Mongolian language.
He was a son of the Crown Prince Zhenjin (真金) and the grandson of Kublai Khan. During his rule, the Tran, Pagan and Champa dynasties and western khanates of the Mongol Empire accepted his supremacy.
Temür was born the third son of Zhenjin of the Borjigin and Kökejin (Bairam-Egechi) of the Khunggirad on October 15, 1265. Because Kublai's first son Dorji died early, his second son and Temur's father, Zhenjin, became the crown prince. However, he died in 1286 when Temür was 21 years old. Kublai remained close to Zhenjin's widow Kökejin who was high in his favor. Like his grandfather Kublai he too was a follower of Buddhism.
wn.com/Temur_Khan -
Teotihuacan
Coordinates: 19°41′33″N 98°50′37.68″W / 19.6925°N 98.8438°W / 19.6925; -98.8438
Teotihuacan – also written Teotihuacán, with a Spanish orthographic accent on the last syllable – is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, just 30 miles (48 km) northeast of Mexico City, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas. Apart from the pyramidal structures, Teotihuacan is also known for its large residential complexes, the Avenue of the Dead, and numerous colorful, well-preserved murals. Additionally, Teotihuacan produced a thin orange pottery style that spread through Mesoamerica.
The city is thought to have been established around 100 BC and continued to be built until about 250 AD. The city may have lasted until sometime between the 7th and 8th centuries AD. At its zenith, perhaps in the first half of the 1st millennium AD, Teotihuacan was the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas, with a population of perhaps 125,000 or more, placing it among the largest cities of the world in this period. Teotihuacan began as a new religious center in the Mexican Highland around the first century AD. This city came to be the largest and most populated center in the New World. Teotihuacan was even home to multi-floor apartment compounds built to accommodate this large population. The civilization and cultural complex associated with the site is also referred to as Teotihuacan or Teotihuacano.
wn.com/Teotihuacan -
Timur
Timur (Turkish: Demir "iron", Persian: تمور Timūr, Chagatai: Temür "iron"; 8 April 1336 – 18 February 1405), historically known as Tamerlane (from Persian: تيمور لنگ, Timūr-i Lang, Aksak Timur "Timur the Lame" in Turkish), was a Turkic, who conquered West, South and Central Asia, and the founder of the Timurid dynasty. He was the grandfather of Ulugh Beg, who ruled Central Asia from 1411 to 1449, and the great-great-grandfather of Babur, founder of the Mughal Empire, which ruled South Asia for centuries.
Timur envisioned the restoration of the Mongol Empire of Genghis Khan. Unlike his predecessors Timur was also a devout Muslim and referred to himself as the Sword of Islam. His armies were inclusively multi-ethnic and multicultural. During his lifetime Timur would emerge as the most powerful ruler in the Muslim world after defeating the formidable Mamluks of Egypt and Syria, the emerging Ottoman Empire and the declining Sultanate of Delhi; Timur had also decisively defeated the Knights Hospitaler at Smyrna and since then referred to himself as a Ghazi. By the end of his reign Timur had also gained complete suzerainty over all the remnants of the Chagatai Khanate, Ilkhanate, Golden Horde and even the Yuan Khanate.
wn.com/Timur -
Togha Temür
Togha Temür (died late 1353), also known as Taghaytimur, was a claimant to the throne of the Ilkhanate in the mid-14th century. Of the many individuals who attempted to become Ilkhan after the death of Abu Sa'id, Togha Temür was the only one who hailed from eastern Iran, and was the last major candidate who was of the house of Genghis Khan. His base of power was Gurgan and western Khurasan. His name "Togoy Tomor" means "Bowl/Pot Iron" in the Mongolian language.
Togha Temür descended from Hasar, Chingghis Khan's brother. Eventually, his family became the rulers of a nomadic tribe, the Chete. His grandfather Baba Kawun had moved the Chete into the region between Astarabad (modern-day Gurgan) and Kalbush on the east Gurgan River. This region's principal cities were Astarabad and Jurjan. When Togha Temür became the leader of the Chete, they were still in this area.
A few months after the death of Ilkhan Abu Sa'id in 1335, Togha Temür became involved in the succession struggle. The governor of Khurasan, Shaikh 'Ali b. 'Ali Qushji, noting Togha Temür's relation to Chinngis Khan, proposed naming him Ilkhan, and most of the princes of eastern Iran were convinced to accept him as sovereign. After his name was added to the coinage and in the official prayers, an expedition into western Iran was planned. In that part of the country two Ilkhans, Arpa Ke'un and Musa Khan, had already been overthrown, and it was believed that the troops of Khurasan could overcome the instability there.
wn.com/Togha_Temür -
Toghan Temur
Toghun Temür (Mongolian Cyrillic: Тогоонтөмөр), also known as Ukhaantu Khan (Mongolian: Ухаант хаан, Uhaγantu haγan), or Emperor Huizong of Yuan (Chinese: 元惠宗, May 25, 1320 – May 23, 1370), was a son of Kuśala to rule as Emperor of the Yuan Dynasty, and he is considered as the last Khagan of the Mongol Empire. During the last years of his reign, the Mongols lost effective control over China to the Ming Dynasty. He was a Buddhist student of Karmapas and is considered as a previous incarnation of Tai Situpa. His name means "smart/bright Khan" in the Mongolian language.
Toghun Temür was born to Kuśala when he stayed Central Asia in evacuation. Toghun Temür's mother was Mailaiti, descendant of Arslan, the chief of the Qarluq tribe.
Following the civil war broke out after Yesün Temür Khan's death in 1328, he attended his father Kuśala and entered Shangdu via Mongolia. But after Kuśala died and Kuśala's younger brother Tugh Temür was restored to the throne, he was kept from the court and was banished to Goryeo and then to Guangxi. While he was in exile, his stepmother Babusha was executed.
wn.com/Toghan_Temur -
Tolui
Tolui, (Classic Mongolian: ᠲᠥᠯᠦᠢ Toluy, Tului, (Mongolian: Тулуй хаан), Tolui Khan (meaning the Khan Tolui)) (1192–1232) was the youngest son of Genghis Khan by his chief khatun Börte. His ulus, or territorial inheritance, at his father's death in 1227 was the homelands in Mongolia, and it was he who served as civil administrator in the time it took to confirm Ögedei as second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire (1206–1368). Before that he had served with distinction in the campaigns against the Jin Dynasty, the Xi Xia and the Khwarezmid Empire, where he was instrumental in the capture and massacre at Merv and Nishapur. He is a direct ancestor of most of the Emperors of Mongolia and the Ilkhanids.
Tolui never used the title of Khagan himself. Although, Genghis Khan and his immediate three successors never used any reigning titles unlike the neighboring Chinese dynasties in the south. Tolui was awarded the title of Khagan by his son Möngke and was given temple name (Chinese: 元睿宗; pinyin: Yuán Ruìzōng; Wade–Giles: Jui-Tsung) by his other son Kublai, when he established the Yuan Dynasty a few decades later.
wn.com/Tolui -
Toregene
Töregene Khatun (also Turakina) (1244–1246) was the Great Khatun and regent of the Mongol Empire from the death of her husband Ögedei Khan in 1241 until the election of her eldest son Güyük Khan in 1246.
Born in the Naiman tribe, Toregene was given as wife to Qudu, the noble of the Merkit clan at first. But Rashid-al-Din Hamadani named his first husband as Dair Usun of the Merkits. When Genghis conquered the Merkits in 1204, he gave Toregene to Ögedei as his second wife. While Ögedei's first wife had no sons, Toregene gave birth to five sons.
She eclipsed all of Ögedei's wives and gradually increased her influence among the court officials. But Toregene still resented Ögedei's officials and the policy of centralizing the administration and lowering tax burdens. Toregene sponsored the reprinting of the Taoist canon in North China. Through the influence of Toregene, Ögedei appointed Abd-ur-Rahman as tax farmer in China.
Soon after Ogodei died in 1241, at first power passed to the hands of Moqe, one of Genghis Khan's wives, who Ögedei inherited. With the support of Chagatai and her sons, Toregene assumed complete power as regent in spring 1242 as Great Khatun and dismissed her late husband's ministers and replaced them with her own, the most important of whom was another woman, Fatima, a Tajik or Persian captive from the Middle Eastern campaign. She was a Shiite Muslim who deported Shiite shrine of Meshed to Mongolia.
wn.com/Toregene -
Torghuds
The Torgut (also spelled Torghut, Torguud; Mongol: Торгууд, "the Silks") are one of the four major subgroups of the Four Oirats. The Torghut ruling dynasty traced its descent to the Kereit ruler Wang Khan's bodyguards.
They might be kheshigs of the Great khans before Kublai khan. The Torgud clan first appear as an Oirat tribe in the middle 16th century. After the collapse of the Four Oirat Alliance, A bulk of Torghuts under Kho Orluk separated from other Oirats and moved west to Volga in 1630, forming the core of the Kalmyks. A few Torghut nobles followed Toro Baikhu Guushi Khan into Koke Nuur, becoming part of the Upper Mongols. In 1698, 500 Torghuds went on pilgirimage to Tibet but were unable to return. Hence, they were resettled in Ejen by Kangxi Emperor of the Qing Dynasty. In 1699 15,000 Torghud households returned from Volga to Zungaria where they joined the Khoits. After the fall of the Zungars, one of their princes, Taiji Shyiren, fled to Volga region with 10,000 families in 1758. The name probably originates from the Mongolian language word "torog" meaning "silk."
wn.com/Torghuds -
Tugh Temur
Jayaatu Khan (Mongolian: Заяат хаан, Jayaγatu qaγan, 1304–1332), born Tugh Temür, also known as Emperor Wenzong of Yuan (Chinese: 元文宗, February 16, 1304 – September 2, 1332), was an Emperor of the Yuan Dynasty, and is regarded as the 12th Great Khan of the Mongols in Mongolia. He first ruled from October 16, 1328 to April 3, 1329,second ruled from September 8, 1329 to September 2, 1332. Thanks to his father's loyal partisans, Tugh Temur did restore the line of Khayishan to the throne; but persecuted his eldest brother Kusala's family, and later expressed remorse for what he had done to him. His name means "Blessed/lucky Khan" in the Mongolian language.
Tugh Temur sponsored many cultural activities, wrote poetry, painted, and read the classical texts. Examples of his quite competent poetry and calligraphy have survived. He mandated and closely monitored the compilation called "The Imperial Dynasty's grand institutions for managing the world"; through this textual production, he proclaimed his reign as new beginning, which took stock of the administrative practices and rules of the past and looked forward to a fresh chapter in Mongolian dynastic governance. But his reign was brief, and his administration was in the hands of powerful ministers, such as El Temür of the Qipchaq and Bayan of the Merkid who had helped him to win the succession struggle in 1328.
wn.com/Tugh_Temur -
Turkic peoples
The Turkic peoples are a collection of ethnic groups that live in northern, central and western Asia, northwestern China and parts of eastern Europe. They speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family. They share, to varying degrees, certain cultural traits and historical backgrounds. The term Turkic represents a broad ethno-linguistic group of people including existing societies such as the Turkish, Azerbaijani, Chuvashes, Kazakhs, Tatars, Kyrgyzs, Turkmens, Uyghurs, Uzbeks, Bashkirs, Qashqai, Gagauzs, Yakuts, Crimean Karaites, Krymchaks, Karakalpaks, Karachays, Nogais and as well as past civilizations such as the Göktürks, Kumans, Kipchaks, Avars, Bulgars, Turgeshes, Khazars, Seljuk Turks, Ottoman Turks, Mamluks, Timurids and possibly Huns and the Xiongnu.
The distribution of people of Turkic cultural background ranges from Siberia, across Central Asia, to Eastern Europe. As of 2011[update] the largest groups of Turkic people live throughout Central Asia—Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Azerbaijan, in addition to Turkey and Iran. Additionally, Turkic people are found within Crimea, East Turkistan region of western China, northern Iraq, Pakistan, Israel, Russia, Afghanistan, and the Balkans: Moldova, Bulgaria, Romania, and former Yugoslavia. A small number of Turkic people also live in Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania. Small numbers inhabit eastern Poland and the south-eastern part of Finland. There are also considerable populations of Turkic people (originating mostly from Turkey) in Germany, United States, and Australia, largely because of migrations during the 20th century.
wn.com/Turkic_peoples -
Töregene Khatun
Töregene Khatun (also Turakina) (1244–1246) was the Great Khatun and regent of the Mongol Empire from the death of her husband Ögedei Khan in 1241 until the election of her eldest son Güyük Khan in 1246.
Born in the Naiman tribe, Toregene was given as wife to Qudu, the noble of the Merkit clan at first. But Rashid-al-Din Hamadani named his first husband as Dair Usun of the Merkits. When Genghis conquered the Merkits in 1204, he gave Toregene to Ögedei as his second wife. While Ögedei's first wife had no sons, Toregene gave birth to five sons.
She eclipsed all of Ögedei's wives and gradually increased her influence among the court officials. But Toregene still resented Ögedei's officials and the policy of centralizing the administration and lowering tax burdens. Toregene sponsored the reprinting of the Taoist canon in North China. Through the influence of Toregene, Ögedei appointed Abd-ur-Rahman as tax farmer in China.
Soon after Ogodei died in 1241, at first power passed to the hands of Moqe, one of Genghis Khan's wives, who Ögedei inherited. With the support of Chagatai and her sons, Toregene assumed complete power as regent in spring 1242 as Great Khatun and dismissed her late husband's ministers and replaced them with her own, the most important of whom was another woman, Fatima, a Tajik or Persian captive from the Middle Eastern campaign. She was a Shiite Muslim who deported Shiite shrine of Meshed to Mongolia.
wn.com/Töregene_Khatun -
Uzbeg Khan
Sultan Mohammed Öz-Beg, better known as Uzbeg or Ozbeg (1282–1341, reign 1313–1341), was the longest-reigning khan of the Golden Horde, under whose rule the state reached its zenith. He was succeeded by his son Jani Beg.
He was the son of Toghrilcha and grandson of Mengu-Timur, who had been khan of the Golden Horde from 1267–1280.
Ozbeg's father Togrilcha was one of Genghisid princes that overthrew Tode-Mengu (r.1280–1287). Later, he was executed by Tokhta (1291–1312). Tokhta took Togrilcha's wife and sent his son Ozbeg to exile in a distant region of the Golden Horde: either Khorazm or the country of Circassians.
Converted to Islam by Ibn Abdul Hamid, a Sufi Bukharan sayyid and sheikh of the Yasavi order, Öz-Beg assumed the throne upon the death of his uncle Tokhta in January 1313 with the help of the former Khans' vizier Temur Qutlugh and of Bulaghan (or Bayalun) khatun. At first, many Mongol nobles were against him and organized a plot to kill the new Khan. Uzbeg discovered the plot and crushed the rebels. His adoption of Islam as a state religion led to a conspiracy of Shamanist and Buddhist princes, which he subdued severely. Ozbeg determinedly spread Islam amongst the Golden Horde and allowed missionary activities to expand in the surrounding regions. Ozbeg found out that his competitor was backed by the envoys of the Great Khan Ayurbarwada Buyantu and this fact helped deteriorate his relationship with the Yuan Dynasty. The last of his rebellious relatives was shamanist Khan Ilbasan of the White Horde, who was murdered in 1320. Uzbeg installed the Muslim Mubarak Khwaja as a replacement to the throne of the White Horde, but he discouraged their independence. In the long run, Islam enabled the Khan to eliminate interfactional struggles in the Horde and to stabilize state institutions. Russian scholar Lev Gumilev wrote that in this manner was Ozbeg able to turn the khanate into a sultanate.
wn.com/Uzbeg_Khan -
Vasily Vereshchagin
Vasily Vasilyevich Vereshchagin (Russian: Васи́лий Васи́льевич Вереща́гин, October 26, 1842 – April 13, 1904) was one of the most famous Russian battle painters and one of the first Russian artists to be widely recognized abroad. The graphic nature of his realist scenes led many of them to never be printed or exhibited.[citation needed]
Vereshchagin was born at Cherepovets, Novgorod Governorate, Russia in 1842 as the middle of three brothers. His father was a landowner of noble birth. When he was eight years old he was sent to Tsarskoe Selo to enter the Alexander Cadet Corps, and three years later he entered the Sea Cadet Corps at St Petersburg, making his first voyage in 1858. He served on the frigate Kamchatka, which sailed to Denmark, France and Egypt.
Vereshchagin graduated first in the list at the naval school, but left the service immediately to begin the study of drawing in earnest. He won a medal two years later, in 1863, from the St Petersburg Academy for his Ulysses Slaying the Suitors. In 1864 he proceeded to Paris, where he studied under Jean-Léon Gérôme, though he dissented widely from his master's methods.
wn.com/Vasily_Vereshchagin -
Volga Bulgaria
Volga Bulgaria, or Volga–Kama Bolghar, was a historic Islamic Bulgar state that existed between the seventh and thirteenth centuries around the confluence of the Volga and Kama rivers, in what is now European Russia. The population was mostly Bulgars, who had conquered Finno-Ugrics and Turkic speakers of the region. The population was pagan earlier, but Islam was adopted as the state religion in the early tenth century.
Information from first-hand sources on Volga Bulgaria is rather sparse. As no authentic Bulgar records have survived, most of our information comes from contemporary Arabic, Persian, Indian or Russian sources. Some information is provided by excavations.
It is thought that the territory of Volga Bulgaria was originally settled by Finno-Ugric peoples, including Mari people. The Bulgars moved from the Azov region in about AD 660, commanded by Kotrag, Kubrat's son. They reached Idel-Ural in the eighth century, where they became the dominant population at the end of the 9th century, uniting other tribes of different origin which lived in the area. Some Bulgar tribes, however, continued westward and eventually settled along the Danube River, in what is now known as Bulgaria proper, where they created a confederation with the Slavs, adopting a South Slavic language and the Eastern Orthodox faith.
wn.com/Volga_Bulgaria -
Wang Khan
Wang Khan, (Mongolian:Тоорил хан, Ван хан; Chinese: 王汗; pinyin: Wáng Hàn) also Ong Khan, was the title given to the Kerait ruler Toghrul by the Jurchen Jin Dynasty of China. Like the rest of their tribe he may have been Nestorian Christian. Wang Khan was the anda of Temüjin's (later Genghis Khan) father Yesükhei, and acted as a patron and early ally for Temüjin.
When Temüjin attacked Jamukha for the title of Khan, Toghrul, fearing Temüjin's growing power, plotted with Jamuqa to have Temüjin assassinated. Toghrul was killed in 1203 by Naiman soldiers who failed to recognize him as the former was fleeing from a defeat by Genghis Khan. Genghis married his son Tolui to one of Toghrul's nieces, the Nestorian Christian Sorghaghtani Bekhi. Tolui and Sorghaghtani Bekhi became the parents of Mongke Khan and Kublai Khan.
During the 13th century, Wang Khan was one of several Asian or African leaders who was identified with the legend of Prester John.
wn.com/Wang_Khan -
Water Tatars
Tungusic peoples are the peoples who speak Tungusic languages. The word originated in Tunguska, an ill-defined region of Siberia.
Tungusic peoples are:
The largest of the Tungusic peoples are the Manchu who number around 10,000,000. They are originally from Manchuria, which is now Northeast China but following their conquest of China in the 17th century, they have been almost totally assimilated into the main Han Chinese population of China. This process accelerated especially during the 20th century. The non-assimilated culture and language is still present in parts of northern China.
Evenks live in the Evenk Autonomous Okrug of Russia. Udege (Удэгейцы in Russian; ethnonym: удээ and удэхе, or udee and udehe correspondingly) are a people who live in the Primorsky Krai and Khabarovsk Krai regions, also in Russia.
2–3% of them are of Mitochondrial DNA haplogroup Y origin.
A Manchu guard
An Evenk home
Nani children dancing
Sibo military colonists
An Udege family
Tungus man in 1914 in Vorogovo, Siberia.
wn.com/Water_Tatars -
William of Rubruck
William of Rubruck (c. 1220 – c. 1293) was a Flemish Franciscan missionary and explorer. His account is one of the masterpieces of medieval geographical literature comparable to that of Marco Polo. Born in Rubrouck, Flanders, he is known also as William of Rubruk, Willem van Ruysbroeck, Guillaume de Rubrouck or Willielmus de Rubruquis.
William accompanied King Louis IX of France on the Seventh Crusade in 1248. On May 7, 1253, on Louis' orders, he set out from Constantinople on a missionary journey to convert the Tatars to Christianity. He actually followed the route of the first journey of the Hungarian Friar Julian. With William's party were Bartolomeo da Cremona, an attendant called Gosset, and an interpreter named in William's report Homo Dei, meaning "man of God", literally translating the Arabic Abdullah.
wn.com/William_of_Rubruck -
Ögedei Khan
Ögedei Khan, born Ögedei (also Ogodei, Mongolian: ᠦᠭᠦᠳᠡᠢ, c. 1186 – December 11, 1241) was the third son of Genghis Khan and second Great Khan (Khagan) of the Mongol Empire by succeeding his father. He continued the expansion of the empire that his father had begun, and was a world figure when the Mongol Empire reached its farthest extent west and south during the invasions of Europe and Asia. Like all of Genghis' primary sons, he participated extensively in conquests in China, Iran and Central Asia. He was given temple name (Chinese: 元太宗; pinyin: Yuán Tàizōng; Wade–Giles: T'ai-Tsung) later by Kublai Khan who founded the Yuan Dynasty.
Ögedei was the third son of Genghis Khan and Börte Ujin. He participated in the turbulent events of his father's rise. When he was 17 years old, Genghis Khan experienced the disastrous defeat of Khalakhaljid Sands against the army of Jamukha. Ögedei was heavily wounded and lost on the battlefield. His father's adopted brother and companion Borokhula rescued him. Although already married, in 1204 his father gave him Toregene, the wife of a defeated Merkit chief. The addition of such a wife was not uncommon in steppe culture.
wn.com/Ögedei_Khan -
Öljaitü
Öljeitü, Oljeitu, Olcayto or Uljeitu, Öljaitu, Ölziit (Mongolian: ᠦᠯᠵᠡᠢᠲᠦ ᠺᠬᠠᠨ, Өлзийт Хаан), also known as Muhammad Khodabandeh (Persian محمد خدابنده - اولجایتو, khodābandeh from Persian meaning the "man of God"; 1280 - December 16, 1316), was the eighth Ilkhanid dynasty ruler in Iran from 1304 to 1316. His name "Ölziit" means "blessed" in the Mongolian language.
He was the son of the Ilkhan ruler Arghun, brother and successor of Mahmud Ghazan, and great-grandson of the Ilkhanate founder Hulagu.
Oljeitu was the son of Arghun's third wife, the Christian Uruk Khatun. Oljeitu was baptised as a Christian and received the name Nicholas after Pope Nicholas IV. In his youth he at first converted to Buddhism but then to Sunni Islam together with his brother Ghazan. He later converted to Shi'a Islam after coming into contact with Shi'a scholars, although another source indicates he converted to Islam through the persuasions of his wife. He changed his first name to the Islamic name Muhammad. Some of his relatives and companions gave him a nickname of Khutabanda. Rashid al-Din wrote that he adopted the name Oljeitu following Yuan emperor Oljeitu Temur enthroned in Dadu. But some Muslim source mentions that it rained when he was born, and delighted Mongols called him Mongolian name Öljeitu (Өлзийт), meaning auspicious.
wn.com/Öljaitü
Send this Playlist by SMS
Email this Page
Genghis Khan - Mongol Empire 1of6
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:36
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
Combining live-action footage shot in Mongolia with CGI software used in Lord of the Rings, the recreation of battle scenes is taken to a new level in presenting the story of how Genghis conquered an empire greater than the Roman Empire at its peak.
http://wn.com/Genghis_Khan_Mongol_Empire_1of6
Combining live-action footage shot in Mongolia with CGI software used in Lord of the Rings, the recreation of battle scenes is taken to a new level in presenting the story of how Genghis conquered an empire greater than the Roman Empire at its peak.
History Channel Dynasties The Mongol Empire
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 47:35
- Updated: 23 Dec 2012
Documentary about the Mongol Empire
http://wn.com/History_Channel_Dynasties_The_Mongol_Empire
Dynasties: The Mongol Empire- Part 1/5
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:01
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
An older history channel video about Khubilai Khan and the mongols. I'm trying to find the newer barbarians version because it's a lot better. Anyway, I hope you enjoy.
http://wn.com/Dynasties_The_Mongol_Empire_Part_1_5
An older history channel video about Khubilai Khan and the mongols. I'm trying to find the newer barbarians version because it's a lot better. Anyway, I hope you enjoy.
- published: 25 May 2008
- views: 141195
- author: HistoryYou
Mongol Empire
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:27
- Updated: 09 Dec 2012
Mongol Empire - Another great video clip from the Drive Thru History series and my friends at www.ColdWaterMedia.com The Mongol Empire was founded by Genghis Khan, a Mongol political and military leader who sometimes brutally conquered and united the Mongol tribes. Between AD 1206, when Temujin received his title as Genghis Khan ("Ruler"), and AD 1370, when the last emperor in China's Yuan Dynasty died in exile, the Mongol "Khagan" ("Great Khans" or "Emperors") established the largest contiguous empire in world history. At its height, the Mongol Empire covered large parts of modern-day China, Mongolia, Russia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Iraq, Iran, Turkey, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Moldova, South Korea, North Korea, and Kuwait. After the death of Genghis Khan in 1227, the Mongol Empire grew even larger under his son, Tushi, and grandson, Kublai Khan, who established the Yuan Dynasty in China through at least 22 legitimate sons. This family legacy made the Khan's the most successful empire builders ever. Mongol Empire -- The Silk Road Once established, the Mongol Empire became a peaceful political environment that allowed increased communication and trade between the West, Middle East, and Asia. This openness meant that these previously separate worlds could begin to trade with each other. For more on the Mongol Empire and its ultimate importance in American History, please visit http
http://wn.com/Mongol_Empire
Mongol Empire - Another great video clip from the Drive Thru History series and my friends at www.ColdWaterMedia.com The Mongol Empire was founded by Genghis Khan, a Mongol political and military leader who sometimes brutally conquered and united the Mongol tribes. Between AD 1206, when Temujin received his title as Genghis Khan ("Ruler"), and AD 1370, when the last emperor in China's Yuan Dynasty died in exile, the Mongol "Khagan" ("Great Khans" or "Emperors") established the largest contiguous empire in world history. At its height, the Mongol Empire covered large parts of modern-day China, Mongolia, Russia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Iraq, Iran, Turkey, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Moldova, South Korea, North Korea, and Kuwait. After the death of Genghis Khan in 1227, the Mongol Empire grew even larger under his son, Tushi, and grandson, Kublai Khan, who established the Yuan Dynasty in China through at least 22 legitimate sons. This family legacy made the Khan's the most successful empire builders ever. Mongol Empire -- The Silk Road Once established, the Mongol Empire became a peaceful political environment that allowed increased communication and trade between the West, Middle East, and Asia. This openness meant that these previously separate worlds could begin to trade with each other. For more on the Mongol Empire and its ultimate importance in American History, please visit http
- published: 07 Jul 2010
- views: 20373
- author: reflect7
3000 years history of different empire(Strongest Mongol Empire)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:17
- Updated: 23 Dec 2012
http://wn.com/3000_years_history_of_different_empireStrongest_Mongol_Empire
Mongol Hordes: Birth Of An Empire
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 45:45
- Updated: 17 Dec 2012
Storm From The East 1. Birth Of An Empire 2. World Conquerors 3. Tartar Crusaders 4. Last Khan Of Khans This series covers the life and accomplishments of Genghis Khan and examines the art, culture, science, and technology of Mongol civilization. Genghis Khan left not only a highly trained army, but the beginning of an imperial administrative framework, a system of taxation, a communications network—all of which were built upon and expanded by his successors. The series was filmed on location in Mongolia and also features battle re-enactments shot at historical locations throughout Europe and Asia. 4-part series, 50 minutes each. In the Peoples Republic of Mongolia, the reputation of Genghis Khan has undergone a dramatic transformation—from despised enemy of the revolution to a virtual deity. This program examines how he emerged from obscurity, united the Mongol tribes under his banner, and transformed an obscure nomadic people into a most formidable fighting machine. It traces his spectacular campaigns through northern China, central Asia, Afghanistan, Georgia, and Russia, which set down the foundations of a powerful empire.
http://wn.com/Mongol_Hordes_Birth_Of_An_Empire
Storm From The East 1. Birth Of An Empire 2. World Conquerors 3. Tartar Crusaders 4. Last Khan Of Khans This series covers the life and accomplishments of Genghis Khan and examines the art, culture, science, and technology of Mongol civilization. Genghis Khan left not only a highly trained army, but the beginning of an imperial administrative framework, a system of taxation, a communications network—all of which were built upon and expanded by his successors. The series was filmed on location in Mongolia and also features battle re-enactments shot at historical locations throughout Europe and Asia. 4-part series, 50 minutes each. In the Peoples Republic of Mongolia, the reputation of Genghis Khan has undergone a dramatic transformation—from despised enemy of the revolution to a virtual deity. This program examines how he emerged from obscurity, united the Mongol tribes under his banner, and transformed an obscure nomadic people into a most formidable fighting machine. It traces his spectacular campaigns through northern China, central Asia, Afghanistan, Georgia, and Russia, which set down the foundations of a powerful empire.
- published: 14 Jun 2012
- views: 5164
- author: jabarbadi
Empire of Mongolia
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:18
- Updated: 18 Sep 2012
Mongolian warriors leader attack some video stuff i made it ...thank you Hope you like it! DOWNLOAD: www.mediafire.com Enjoy! Rate Comm....SUBSCRIBE ;) Thanks-Bayrlalaa
http://wn.com/Empire_of_Mongolia
Mongolian warriors leader attack some video stuff i made it ...thank you Hope you like it! DOWNLOAD: www.mediafire.com Enjoy! Rate Comm....SUBSCRIBE ;) Thanks-Bayrlalaa
- published: 05 Oct 2009
- views: 32025
- author: Bayrlalaa
Wait For It...The Mongols!: Crash Course World History #17
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:32
- Updated: 23 Dec 2012
Mongols T-Shirt: dftba.com In which John Green teaches you, at long last, about the most exceptional bunch of empire-building nomads in the history of the world, the Mongols! How did the Mongols go from being a relatively small band of herders who occasionally engaged in some light hunting-gathering to being one of the most formidable fighting forces in the world? It turns out Genghis Khan was a pretty big part of it, but you probably already knew that. The more interesting questions might be, what kind of rulers were they, and what effect did their empire have on the world we know today? Find out, as John FINALLY teaches you about the Mongols. Follow us! @thecrashcourse @realjohngreen @raoulmeyer @crashcoursestan @saysdanica @thoughtbubbler Like us! www.facebook.com Follow us again! thecrashcourse.tumblr.com
http://wn.com/Wait_For_ItThe_Mongols!_Crash_Course_World_History_17
Mongols T-Shirt: dftba.com In which John Green teaches you, at long last, about the most exceptional bunch of empire-building nomads in the history of the world, the Mongols! How did the Mongols go from being a relatively small band of herders who occasionally engaged in some light hunting-gathering to being one of the most formidable fighting forces in the world? It turns out Genghis Khan was a pretty big part of it, but you probably already knew that. The more interesting questions might be, what kind of rulers were they, and what effect did their empire have on the world we know today? Find out, as John FINALLY teaches you about the Mongols. Follow us! @thecrashcourse @realjohngreen @raoulmeyer @crashcoursestan @saysdanica @thoughtbubbler Like us! www.facebook.com Follow us again! thecrashcourse.tumblr.com
- published: 18 May 2012
- views: 371919
- author: crashcourse
History Of Empires - Hittite, Persian, Roman,Seljuk,Mongol,Ottoman Empire
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:55
- Updated: 18 Dec 2012
History Of Empires - Hittite, Persian, Roman,Seljuk,Mongol,Ottoman Empire
http://wn.com/History_Of_Empires_Hittite,_Persian,_Roman,Seljuk,Mongol,Ottoman_Empire
History Of Empires - Hittite, Persian, Roman,Seljuk,Mongol,Ottoman Empire
- published: 21 Aug 2010
- views: 7178
- author: TsMkNet
The Mongol Empire and Genghiz kahn - prt 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:11
- Updated: 20 Dec 2012
My homage to one of, if not THE greatest general and army walking this earth. Also saluting and paying my dearest respect to all my Altaic brothers and sisters, in Mongolia, Korea, Turkey, republic of Azerbaijan, Iranian Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan. I hope you enjoy watching these two clips as much as i enjoyed editing and putting them together. Be proud over what we have accomplished. What once was shall be again. Hail the Altay Nation.
http://wn.com/The_Mongol_Empire_and_Genghiz_kahn_prt_2
My homage to one of, if not THE greatest general and army walking this earth. Also saluting and paying my dearest respect to all my Altaic brothers and sisters, in Mongolia, Korea, Turkey, republic of Azerbaijan, Iranian Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan. I hope you enjoy watching these two clips as much as i enjoyed editing and putting them together. Be proud over what we have accomplished. What once was shall be again. Hail the Altay Nation.
- published: 11 Dec 2007
- views: 578947
- author: babaknikain
The History of The Mongol Empire
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:51
- Updated: 23 Dec 2012
Once Genghis Khan was made ruler of all Mongols in 1206, the Mongol empire quickly grew to be one of the largest ever. www.WatchMojo.com explores the rise and fall of this one-time world empire.
http://wn.com/The_History_of_The_Mongol_Empire
Once Genghis Khan was made ruler of all Mongols in 1206, the Mongol empire quickly grew to be one of the largest ever. www.WatchMojo.com explores the rise and fall of this one-time world empire.
- published: 30 May 2010
- views: 22083
- author: WatchMojo
RantNRavinFection The Mongolian Empire - The Largest Empire In History!!!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:50
- Updated: 02 Dec 2012
Rant Is Now Available On Blip TV! www.RantNRavinFection.blip.tv I've always been fascinated by Genghis Khan and the Mongolian Empire, so I finally made a video about the topic. However, this is NOT a depiction of current Mongolian culture as it is today. This focuses on the ruthless and powerful Mongolian dynasty that ruled over most of Asia during the 13th century.
http://wn.com/RantNRavinFection_The_Mongolian_Empire_The_Largest_Empire_In_History!!!
Rant Is Now Available On Blip TV! www.RantNRavinFection.blip.tv I've always been fascinated by Genghis Khan and the Mongolian Empire, so I finally made a video about the topic. However, this is NOT a depiction of current Mongolian culture as it is today. This focuses on the ruthless and powerful Mongolian dynasty that ruled over most of Asia during the 13th century.
- published: 16 Oct 2009
- views: 9270
- author: RantNRavinFection
Hun Turk Tatar Mongol Empires by Duru Creatives©
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:24
- Updated: 23 Dec 2012
www.duru-creatives.com Duru Creatives© presents from 600 BC till 1923 AD more than 16 Great Hunnic Turkic Mongol Empires. The Scythian, The Great Asia Huns, White Huns , Atilla the sword of God also called European Huns, Avar Kingdom also called Avar Huns, Khazaria the first Jewish great Empire build by turco-mongols tatars or Bulgar Turkic people.The first Gök Türk Empire, also called Gök or KÖK TÜRKÜT fight against the chinease.The Chinease Wall could´t stop the Conquerors. The UYgur Dynasty, The first Turkic Islamic Empire the Karachanids - The Ghaznavids - The Great Seljuk Dynasty - The Magnificent Ottomans - The Ulu Genghiz Khan .. Cengiz Han... Golden Hore, Yuan Dynasty, Ilkhanat , Chagatai Khanat. The Great Turco - Mongol Warlord Timur Lenk ( Timurids ) and the Magnificent Baburids, who build the unique Tadj Mahal.
http://wn.com/Hun_Turk_Tatar_Mongol_Empires_by_Duru_Creatives©
www.duru-creatives.com Duru Creatives© presents from 600 BC till 1923 AD more than 16 Great Hunnic Turkic Mongol Empires. The Scythian, The Great Asia Huns, White Huns , Atilla the sword of God also called European Huns, Avar Kingdom also called Avar Huns, Khazaria the first Jewish great Empire build by turco-mongols tatars or Bulgar Turkic people.The first Gök Türk Empire, also called Gök or KÖK TÜRKÜT fight against the chinease.The Chinease Wall could´t stop the Conquerors. The UYgur Dynasty, The first Turkic Islamic Empire the Karachanids - The Ghaznavids - The Great Seljuk Dynasty - The Magnificent Ottomans - The Ulu Genghiz Khan .. Cengiz Han... Golden Hore, Yuan Dynasty, Ilkhanat , Chagatai Khanat. The Great Turco - Mongol Warlord Timur Lenk ( Timurids ) and the Magnificent Baburids, who build the unique Tadj Mahal.
- published: 30 Aug 2007
- views: 84475
- author: Hakan Duru
Genghis Khan - Mongol Empire
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:13
- Updated: 23 Dec 2012
A decisive battle between Genghis Khan and Jamukha for unification of the Mongol tribes.
http://wn.com/Genghis_Khan_Mongol_Empire
A decisive battle between Genghis Khan and Jamukha for unification of the Mongol tribes.
- published: 13 Apr 2010
- views: 78008
- author: MongolPeace
The Ancient Mongol Empire
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:02
- Updated: 20 Dec 2012
6th Grade School Project, CAIMS: Class of '10
http://wn.com/The_Ancient_Mongol_Empire
6th Grade School Project, CAIMS: Class of '10
- published: 13 Apr 2008
- views: 43495
- author: Hassan Ahmad
Mongol Empire of Kublai Khan 1/6
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:01
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
Born in the vast grasslands of Mongolia, the Mongolian Empire was built by the almost mythical military might of the Mongol Horde. Modern day nations it controlled include Turkey, Russia, Iraq, Iran, and China to name a few. The only countries within reach of the Horde that they could not conquer was Vietnam and Japan. This documentary focuses on the peak of that empire, the reign of the Great Khan Kubilai. A map has surfaced in Japan, showing the enormous plot of Kubilai. He looked for a united world with no boundaries. This map also has the earliest recorded mapping of the entire continent of Africa. Also shows the great diversity that the Mongol Empire had, and the great tolerance for various religions and cultures. Islamic, Chinese, Turkish, African, and numerous others rose to the top of this huge empire and joined Khubilai's inner circle. This was before western culture became a force, and in this era the world's strongest nation was by far the Mongol Empire comprised of numerous ethnicities and nations. It is interesting to think what may have been if the empire continued.
http://wn.com/Mongol_Empire_of_Kublai_Khan_1_6
Born in the vast grasslands of Mongolia, the Mongolian Empire was built by the almost mythical military might of the Mongol Horde. Modern day nations it controlled include Turkey, Russia, Iraq, Iran, and China to name a few. The only countries within reach of the Horde that they could not conquer was Vietnam and Japan. This documentary focuses on the peak of that empire, the reign of the Great Khan Kubilai. A map has surfaced in Japan, showing the enormous plot of Kubilai. He looked for a united world with no boundaries. This map also has the earliest recorded mapping of the entire continent of Africa. Also shows the great diversity that the Mongol Empire had, and the great tolerance for various religions and cultures. Islamic, Chinese, Turkish, African, and numerous others rose to the top of this huge empire and joined Khubilai's inner circle. This was before western culture became a force, and in this era the world's strongest nation was by far the Mongol Empire comprised of numerous ethnicities and nations. It is interesting to think what may have been if the empire continued.
- published: 27 Oct 2010
- views: 24895
- author: jabarbadi
The Mongol Empire
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:36
- Updated: 17 Dec 2012
My third and final version of the video over one of the greatest empires in history.
http://wn.com/The_Mongol_Empire
My third and final version of the video over one of the greatest empires in history.
- published: 24 Jul 2012
- views: 914
- author: EmperorTigerstar
WMS Mongol Empire Slot Machine Bonus Win
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:56
- Updated: 23 Jul 2012
Good bonus round for a 40 cent bet. Lots of small line hits. Started recording it a little late sorry about that.
http://wn.com/WMS_Mongol_Empire_Slot_Machine_Bonus_Win
Good bonus round for a 40 cent bet. Lots of small line hits. Started recording it a little late sorry about that.
- published: 17 Jan 2012
- views: 2816
- author: Slotwild
The Mongol Empire and Genghiz kahn - prt1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:01
- Updated: 21 Sep 2012
My homage to one of, if not THE greatest general and army walking this earth. Also saluting and paying my dearest respect to all my Altaic brothers and sisters, in Mongolia, Korea, Turkey, republic of Azerbaijan, Iranian Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan. I hope you enjoy watching these two clips as much as i enjoyed editing and putting them together. Be proud over what we have accomplished. What once was shall be again. Hail the Altay Nation.
http://wn.com/The_Mongol_Empire_and_Genghiz_kahn_prt1
My homage to one of, if not THE greatest general and army walking this earth. Also saluting and paying my dearest respect to all my Altaic brothers and sisters, in Mongolia, Korea, Turkey, republic of Azerbaijan, Iranian Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan. I hope you enjoy watching these two clips as much as i enjoyed editing and putting them together. Be proud over what we have accomplished. What once was shall be again. Hail the Altay Nation.
- published: 11 Dec 2007
- views: 170450
- author: babaknikain
Mongol Empire of Kublai Khan 3/6
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:01
- Updated: 18 Aug 2012
Born in the vast grasslands of Mongolia, the Mongolian Empire was built by the almost mythical military might of the Mongol Horde. Modern day nations it controlled include Turkey, Russia, Iraq, Iran, and China to name a few. The only countries within reach of the Horde that they could not conquer was Vietnam and Japan. This documentary focuses on the peak of that empire, the reign of the Great Khan Kubilai. A map has surfaced in Japan, showing the enormous plot of Kubilai. He looked for a united world with no boundaries. This map also has the earliest recorded mapping of the entire continent of Africa. Also shows the great diversity that the Mongol Empire had, and the great tolerance for various religions and cultures. Islamic, Chinese, Turkish, African, and numerous others rose to the top of this huge empire and joined Khubilai's inner circle. This was before western culture became a force, and in this era the world's strongest nation was by far the Mongol Empire comprised of numerous ethnicities and nations. It is interesting to think what may have been if the empire continued.
http://wn.com/Mongol_Empire_of_Kublai_Khan_3_6
Born in the vast grasslands of Mongolia, the Mongolian Empire was built by the almost mythical military might of the Mongol Horde. Modern day nations it controlled include Turkey, Russia, Iraq, Iran, and China to name a few. The only countries within reach of the Horde that they could not conquer was Vietnam and Japan. This documentary focuses on the peak of that empire, the reign of the Great Khan Kubilai. A map has surfaced in Japan, showing the enormous plot of Kubilai. He looked for a united world with no boundaries. This map also has the earliest recorded mapping of the entire continent of Africa. Also shows the great diversity that the Mongol Empire had, and the great tolerance for various religions and cultures. Islamic, Chinese, Turkish, African, and numerous others rose to the top of this huge empire and joined Khubilai's inner circle. This was before western culture became a force, and in this era the world's strongest nation was by far the Mongol Empire comprised of numerous ethnicities and nations. It is interesting to think what may have been if the empire continued.
- published: 27 Oct 2010
- views: 6194
- author: jabarbadi
Dynasties: The Mongol Empire- Part 2/5
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 09 Dec 2012
An older history channel video about Khubilai Khan and the mongols. I'm trying to find the newer barbarians version because it's a lot better. Anyway, I hope you enjoy.
http://wn.com/Dynasties_The_Mongol_Empire_Part_2_5
An older history channel video about Khubilai Khan and the mongols. I'm trying to find the newer barbarians version because it's a lot better. Anyway, I hope you enjoy.
- published: 25 May 2008
- views: 72397
- author: HistoryYou
Genghis Khan - Mongol Empire 2of6
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:51
- Updated: 14 Dec 2012
Combining live-action footage shot in Mongolia with CGI software used in Lord of the Rings, the recreation of battle scenes is taken to a new level in presenting the story of how Genghis conquered an empire greater than the Roman Empire at its peak.
http://wn.com/Genghis_Khan_Mongol_Empire_2of6
Combining live-action footage shot in Mongolia with CGI software used in Lord of the Rings, the recreation of battle scenes is taken to a new level in presenting the story of how Genghis conquered an empire greater than the Roman Empire at its peak.
- published: 18 Sep 2009
- views: 35537
- author: AllHistories
Dynasties: The Mongol Empire- Part 3/5
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:01
- Updated: 17 Dec 2012
An older history channel video about Khubilai Khan and the mongols. I'm trying to find the newer barbarians version because it's a lot better. Anyway, I hope you enjoy.
http://wn.com/Dynasties_The_Mongol_Empire_Part_3_5
An older history channel video about Khubilai Khan and the mongols. I'm trying to find the newer barbarians version because it's a lot better. Anyway, I hope you enjoy.
- published: 25 May 2008
- views: 42149
- author: HistoryYou
photo: AP / Aijaz Rahi
22 Dec 2012
Tweet. 0 Email. Report. Photo 1 of 18. In 2009, ELLE Magazine named Mrs Assad the most stylish woman in world politics. She is an icon of fashion in her country. Credit. Aimee Kligman. In 2009, ELLE Magazine named Mrs Assad the most stylish woman in world politics. She is an icon of fashion in her country.In 2009, ELLE Magazine named Mrs Assad the most stylish woman in world politics ... Syrians detained by the Assad regime. 13 Photos ... 10 Photos ... ....(size: 6.3Kb)
photo: AP
23 Dec 2012
North Korea's launching of a rocket into space last week amounted to the test of a ballistic missile capable of carrying a half-ton payload over 10,000km, the South Korean defence ministry says ... The container was recovered from the rocket's first-stage splashdown site ... 415 Source.. Agencies. Share. Send Feedback ... Jaws ... Afghanistan ... Frost Over The World 101 East One on One Counting The Cost Talk to Al Jazeera Empire The Cafe Al Jazeera World....(size: 18.8Kb)
photo: AP / Eranga Jayawardena
22 Dec 2012
Salman Khan's Dabangg 2 has broken the record for the biggest non-holiday opener ... "Biggest opener [holiday] #EkThaTiger 32.92 cr ... Biggest opener [non-holiday] #RowdyRathore 15.1 cr ... ....(size: 0.9Kb)
photo: AP / Altaf Qadri
23 Dec 2012
A commission will be set up to probe the gang-rape and torture of a 23-year-old woman in Delhi and measures to ensure such crimes do not recur while laws will be amended to enhance punishment for rape, Home Minister Sushilkumar Shinde said . He also appealed the thousands of protesters on the capital’s streets, demanding justice for the victim, to withdraw ... “The government is serious on the issue. ... . . ....(size: 2.4Kb)
photo: AP / Virginie Nguyen Huang
23 Dec 2012
Tweet. Moscow, Dec 23 (IANS/RIA Novosti) Chemical weapons in Syria are under the control of the government, which has consolidated them in one or two locations, Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov said. "As of right now, the (Syrian) government is doing all it can to safeguard those weapons," he said. "We are following all leads concerning chemical weapons," Lavrov said ... "My answer is very simple. Why use us as a postman ... pm/ ... ) .. ). ... . ....(size: 3.2Kb)
Tampa Bay Online
23 Dec 2012
"Mankind. The Story of All of Us," by Pamela D. Toler (Running Press). Human history is the story of restless people always on the move. In "Mankind. The Story of All of Us," Pamela D. Toler introduces us to the connections, over time, that led to our domination of the planet ... Soon his realm — the Mongol Empire — includes every acre and person from China to the Mediterranean Sea. It is the largest empire ever conquered by a single man." ... ....(size: 3.0Kb)
The Examiner
20 Dec 2012
See the new exhibition showcasing one of the largest collections of 13th-century artifacts from the Mongol empire including jewelry, weaponry, a traditional nomad house (ger or yurt), and more ... For Families; Download a two page , or pick up a laminated copy to discover more about life in the Mongol Empire as you walk through the exhibition....(size: 2.1Kb)
Hong Kong Standard
17 Dec 2012
In this column, I would like to take us all back to the 1200s - when Genghis Khan, founder and great khan (emperor) of the Mongol Empire, defeated the Song dynasty emperors and established the Yuan dynasty ... In this column, I would like to take us all back to the 1200s - when Genghis Khan, founder and great khan (emperor) of the Mongol Empire, defeated the Song dynasty emperors and established the Yuan dynasty....(size: 2.8Kb)
Tampabay.com
17 Dec 2012
Susan ThurstonTampa Bay Times In Print. Monday, December 17, 2012. ADVERTISEMENT. ADVERTISEMENT. Story Tools Print this story Purchase reprints Contact the editor Email Newsletters ... One immediately stood out. Beef 'O' Brady's ... "They are meat-lovers ... Landlocked between Russia and China, Mongolia is probably most known for its founder Genghis Khan, the ruthless leader of the Mongol Empire who conquered much of Asia in the early 13th century....(size: 6.3Kb)
Jakarta Post
16 Dec 2012
International historian Odd Arne Westad from London School of Economics argues in his latest book, Restless Empire ... A less-aggressive approach to Russia and the West paralleled the empire’s caution when dealing with other nations that were virtually unknown to the empire. Unlike the Mongol empire, which expanded by force to as far west as Poland; the Qing were complacent, with their trade centered on Asia and Russia ... Restless Empire....(size: 7.0Kb)
Business Insider
05 Dec 2012
This morning I met one of the researchers involved in an effort to determine any connections between the rise of the Mongol empire – which at one time controlled more contiguous land than any other in history – and climate factors ... The way these conditions may have helped the Mongols are as follows, Hessl suggested. The Mongols were nomads, who relied heavily on livestock such as sheep or goats, and also on horses....(size: 5.0Kb)
The Wichita Eagle
05 Dec 2012
Human history is the story of restless people always on the move. In “Mankind. The Story of Us All,” Pamela D. Toler introduces us to the connections, over time, that led to our domination of the planet. It’s a vast task that she does well ... … Soon his realm — the Mongol Empire — includes every acre and person from China to the Mediterranean Sea. It is the largest empire ever conquered by a single man.” ... ....(size: 3.3Kb)
Kansas City Star
05 Dec 2012
Human history is the story of restless people always on the move. In “Mankind. The Story of Us All,” Pamela D. Toler introduces us to the connections, over time, that led to our domination of the planet. It’s a vast task that she does well ... … Soon his realm — the Mongol Empire — includes every acre and person from China to the Mediterranean Sea. It is the largest empire ever conquered by a single man.” ... ....(size: 3.3Kb)
Sacramento Bee
05 Dec 2012
Human history is the story of restless people always on the move. In “Mankind. The Story of Us All,” Pamela D. Toler introduces us to the connections, over time, that led to our domination of the planet. It’s a vast task that she does well ... … Soon his realm — the Mongol Empire — includes every acre and person from China to the Mediterranean Sea. It is the largest empire ever conquered by a single man.”....(size: 3.3Kb)
CNN
22 Nov 2012
November 22, 2012 -- Updated 0810 GMT (1610 HKT) ... Contrast this with China, where almost 80 people -- men and women -- have self-immolated since 2009 in protest against Beijing's poor treatment of Tibet, according to rights groups ... Yet the self-immolations continue. Read ... Read ... It says Tibet has been a part of China since the 13th century, when the Mongol empire, which conquered China and formed the Yuan dynasty, also conquered Tibet ... 0 ... ... ....(size: 11.5Kb)
Detroit Free Press
18 Nov 2012
They sailed to Acre (now part of Israel), then made their way to Hormuz (now part of Iran.) Then they set off to reach the Mongol Empire, arriving at the great palace in Xanadu (now Duolun, China), the summer home of Khubilai Khan, grandson of Ghengis Khan. From there, Polo traveled the empire....(size: 3.8Kb)
PR Newswire
15 Nov 2012
Google. , November 15, 2012 /PRNewswire/ --. . Known travel website TripAdvisor announced its Travelers' Choice 2012, naming Ukrainian Kyiv the top destination on the rise among the cities of The Old World. Ukrainian capital placed third in the world's top ten rating ... "Having survived the Mongol Empire, WWII, Chernobyl, and Soviet rule, is the proud capital of the ", TripAdvisor describes the city ... ....(size: 3.5Kb)
noodls
05 Nov 2012
... Third Conference on Legitimate and Illegitimate Violence in Classical Islamic Thought, held on September 3 and 4. His paper was titled, "The Mongols as the Scourge of God in the Islamic World." Later this month, May also will be speaking about the Mongol empire at Fernbank Natural History Museum for the new exhibit on Genghis Khan....(size: 5.7Kb)
| Mongol Empire Ikh Mongol Uls |
|||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||
|
|
|||||||||||||||||
 |
|||||||||||||||||
| Capital | Avarga Karakorum[note 1] Dadu[note 2] (modern Beijing) |
||||||||||||||||
| Religion | Tengrism (Shamanism), later Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, and others | ||||||||||||||||
| Government | Elective monarchy | ||||||||||||||||
| Great Khan | |||||||||||||||||
| - 1206–1227 | Genghis Khan | ||||||||||||||||
| - 1229–1241 | Ögedei Khan | ||||||||||||||||
| - 1246–1248 | Güyük Khan | ||||||||||||||||
| - 1251–1259 | Möngke Khan | ||||||||||||||||
| - 1260–1294 | Kublai Khan | ||||||||||||||||
| - 1333–1370 | Toghan Temur Khan | ||||||||||||||||
| Legislature | Kurultai | ||||||||||||||||
| History | |||||||||||||||||
| - Genghis Khan unified the tribes and proclaimed the Great Mongol State | 1206 | ||||||||||||||||
| - Death of Genghis Khan | 1227 | ||||||||||||||||
| - Pax Mongolica | 1210–1350 | ||||||||||||||||
| - Fragmentation of the empire | 1260–1264 | ||||||||||||||||
| - Fall of Yuan Dynasty, marking the empire's final dissolution | 1368 | ||||||||||||||||
| Currency | Coins (such as dirhams), Sukhe, paper money (paper currency backed by silk or silver ingots, and the Yuan's Chao) | ||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||
| Today part of | |||||||||||||||||
The Mongol Empire (Mongolian: listen (help·info) Mongol-yn Ezent Güren; Cyrillic: Монголын эзэнт гүрэн; Kazakh: Моңғол қағандығы) existed during the 13th and 14th centuries A.D., and was the largest contiguous land empire in human history.[1] Beginning in the Central Asian steppes, it eventually stretched from Eastern Europe to the Sea of Japan, covering large parts of Siberia in the north and extending southward into Southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and the Middle East. It is commonly referred to as the largest contiguous empire in the history of the world. At its greatest extent it spanned 9,700 km (6,000 mi), covered an area of 24,000,000 km2 (9,300,000 sq mi),[2][3][4][5] 16% of the Earth's total land area, and held sway over a population of 100 million.
The Mongol Empire emerged from the Mongol tribes of modern-day Mongolia under the leadership of Genghis Khan, and subsequently the mixture with other Turkic tribes in the region. Genghis Khan was proclaimed ruler of all Mongols in 1206. The empire grew rapidly under his rule and then under the rule of his descendants, who sent invasions in every direction.[6][7][8][9][10][11] The vast transcontinental empire which connected the east with the west with an enforced "Pax Mongolica" allowed trade, technologies, commodities and ideologies to be disseminated and exchanged across Eurasia.[12][13]
The empire began to split as a result of wars over succession, as the grandchildren of Genghis Khan disputed whether the royal line should follow from Genghis's son and initial heir Ögedei, or one of his other sons such as Tolui, Chagatai, or Jochi. The Toluids prevailed after a bloody purge of Ogedeid and Chagataid factions, but disputes continued even among the descendants of Tolui. When one Great Khan died, rival kurultai councils would simultaneously elect different successors, such as the brothers Ariq Boke and Kublai, they were both elected and then not only had to defy each other, but also deal with challenges from descendants of other of Genghis's sons.[14][15] Kublai successfully took power, but civil war ensued, as Kublai sought, unsuccessfully, to regain control of the Chagatayid and Ogedeid families.
By the time of Kublai's death in 1294, the Mongol Empire had fractured into four separate khanates or empires, each pursuing its own separate interests and objectives: the Golden Horde khanate in the northwest, the Chagatai Khanate in the west, the Ilkhanate in the southwest, and the Yuan Dynasty based in modern-day Beijing.[16] In 1304, the three western khanates briefly accepted the nominal suzerainty of the Yuan Dynasty,[17][18] but when it was overthrown by the Han Chinese Ming Dynasty in 1368, the Mongol Empire finally dissolved.
Contents |
Name[link]
What is referred to in English as the Mongol Empire was called the Ikh mongol uls (Great Mongolian Nation).[19] In the 1240s, Genghis's descendant Güyük Khan wrote a letter to Pope Innocent IV which used the preamble, "Dalai (great/oceanic) Khagan of the great Mongol state (ulus)".[20]
After the succession war between Kublai Khan and his brother Ariq Böke, Ariq limited Kublai's real power to the eastern part of the empire, Kublai officially issued an imperial edict on December 18, 1271 to name the country "Great Yuan" (Dai Yuan, or Dai On Ulus) to establish the Yuan Dynasty. Some sources state that the full Mongolian name was Dai Ön Yehe Monggul Ulus.[21]
History[link]
Pre-empire context[link]
Main article: Mongols before Genghis Khan
The area around Mongolia, Manchuria, and parts of North China had been controlled by the Liao Dynasty since the 10th century. In 1125, the Jin Dynasty founded by the Jurchens overthrew the Liao Dynasty, and attempted to gain control over former Liao territory in Mongolia. The Jin Dynasty rulers, known as the Golden Kings, successfully resisted in the 1130s the Khamag Mongol confederation, ruled at the time by Khabul Khan, great grandfather of Temujin (Genghis Khan). The Mongolian plateau was occupied mainly by five powerful tribal confederations (khanlig): Kereit, Khamag Mongol, Naiman, Mergid and Tatar. The Jin emperors, following a policy of divide and rule, encouraged disputes among the tribes, especially between the Tatars and Mongols, in order to keep the nomadic tribes distracted by their own battles, and thereby away from the themselves. Khabul's successor was Ambaghai Khan, who was betrayed by the Tatars, handed to the Jurchen and executed. The Mongols retaliated by raiding the frontier, resulting in a failed Jurchen counter-attack in 1143. In 1147, the Jin somewhat changed their policy, signing a peace treaty with the Mongols and withdrawing a score of forts. The Mongols then resumed attacks on the Tatars to avenge the death of their late khan, opening a long period of active hostilities. The Jin and Tatar armies defeated the Mongols in 1161. [22]
Genghis Khan[link]
Main articles: Khamag Mongol and Genghis Khan
Known during his childhood as Temujin, Genghis Khan was the son of a Mongol chieftain. He suffered a difficult childhood, and when his young wife Borte was kidnapped by a rival tribe, Temujin united the nomadic, previously ever-rivaling Mongol-Turkic tribes under his rule through political manipulation and military might. His most powerful allies were his father's friend, Kereyd chieftain Wang Khan Toghoril, and Temujin's childhood anda (blood brother) Jamukha of the Jadran clan. With their help, Temujin defeated the Merkit tribe, rescued his wife Borte, and then went on to defeat the Naimans and Tatars.[23]
Temujin forbade looting and raping of his enemies without permission, and implemented a policy of sharing spoils with the Mongol warriors and their families, instead of giving all to the aristocrats.[24] He thus held the Khan title. These policies brought him into conflict with his uncles, who were also legitimate heirs to the throne, they regarded Temujin not as leader but merely an insolent usurper. This controversy spread to his generals and other associates, and some Mongols who had previously been allies with him broke their allegiance. War ensued, but Temujin and the forces still loyal to him prevailed, and from 1203–1205 destroyed all the remaining rival tribes and brought them under his sway. In 1206, Temujin was crowned as the Khaghan of the Yekhe Mongol Ulus (Great Mongol Nation) at a Kurultai (general assembly/council). It was there that he assumed the title of "Genghis Khan" (universal leader) instead of one of the old tribal titles such as Gur Khan or Tayang Khan, and marked the start of the Mongol Empire.[23]
Early organization[link]
Genghis Khan innovated many ways of organizing his army, dividing it into decimal subsections of arbans (10 people), zuuns (100), myangans (1000) and tumens (10,000). The Kheshig or the Imperial Guard was founded and divided into day (khorchin, torghuds) and night guards (khevtuul).[25] He rewarded those who had been loyal to him and placed them in high positions, placing them as heads of army units and households, even though many of his allies had been from very low-rank clans. Compared to the units he gave to his loyal companions, those assigned to his own family members were quite few. He proclaimed a new law of the empire, Ikh Zasag or Yassa, and codified everything related to the everyday life and political affairs of the nomads at the time. He forbade the selling of women, theft of other's properties, fighting between the Mongols, and the hunting of animals during the breeding season.[26]
He appointed his adopted brother Shigi-Khuthugh supreme judge (jarughachi), ordering him to keep records of the empire. In addition to laws regarding family, food and army, Genghis also decreed religious freedom and supported domestic and international trade. He exempted the poor and the clergy from taxation.[27] Thus, Muslims, Buddhists and Christians from Manchuria, North China, India and Persia joined Genghis Khan long before his foreign conquests. He also encouraged literacy, adopting the Uyghur script which would form the Uyghur-Mongolian script of the empire, and he ordered the Uyghur Tatatunga, who had previously served the khan of Naimans, to instruct his sons.[28]
Genghis quickly came into conflict with the Jin Dynasty of the Jurchens and the Western Xia of the Tanguts in northern China. Towards the West, under the provocation of the Muslim Caliphate Khwarezmid Empire, he moved into Central Asia as well, devastating Transoxiana and the eastern Persia, then raiding into Kievan Rus' (a predecessor state of Russia, Belarus and Ukraine) and the Caucasus.[23]
Before his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons and immediate family, making the Mongol Empire the joint property of the entire imperial family who, along with the Mongol aristocracy, constituted the ruling class.[29]
Expansion under Ogedei[link]
Main article: Mongol conquests
As previously stated the Mongol Empire started in Central Asia, with the unification of Mongol and Turkic tribes. Under the leadership of Genghis Khan, the empire expanded westwards across Asia into the Middle East, Rus, and Europe; southward into India and China; and eastward as far as the Korean Peninsula, and into Southeast Asia.[23]
Genghis Khan died in 1227, by which point the Mongol Empire ruled from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea – an empire twice the size of the Roman Empire and Muslim Caliphate. Genghis had stated that his heir should be his third son, the charismatic Ogedei. The regency was originally held by Ogedei's younger brother Tolui, until Ogedei's formal election at the kurultai in 1229.[30]
Among his first actions, Ogedei sent troops to subjugate the Bashkirs, Bulgars, and other nations in the Kipchak-controlled steppes.[31] In the east, Ogedei's armies re-established Mongol authority in Manchuria, crushing the Eastern Xia regime and Water Tatars. In 1230, the Great Khan personally led his army in the campaign against the Jin Dynasty (China). Ogedei's general Subotai captured Emperor Wanyan Shouxu's capital, Kaifeng in 1232.[32] In 1234, three armies commanded by Ogedei's sons Kochu and Koten, as well as the Tangut general Chagan, invaded southern China. With the assistance of the Song Dynasty, the Mongols finished off the Jin in 1234.[33][34] In the West, Ogedei's general Chormaqan destroyed Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu, the last shah of the Khwarizmian Empire. The small kingdoms in Southern Persia voluntarily accepted Mongol supremacy.[35][36] In East Asia, there were a number of Mongolian campaigns into Goryeo Korea, but Ogedei's attempt to annex the Korean Peninsula met with little success. The king of Goryeo, Gojong, surrendered but revolted and massacred Mongol darugachis (overseers), and then moved his imperial court from Gaeseong to Ganghwa Island.[37]
As the empire grew, Ogedei established a Mongol capital at Karakorum in northwestern Mongolia.[38]
Meanwhile, in an offensive action against the Song Dynasty, Mongol armies captured Siyang-yang, the Yangtze and Sichuan, but did not secure their control over the conquered sites. The Song generals were able to recapture Siyang-yang from the Mongols in 1239. After the sudden death of Ogedei's son Kochu in Chinese territory, the Mongols withdrew from southern China, although Kochu's brother Prince Koten invaded Tibet right after their withdrawal.[23]
Another grandson of Genghis Khan Batu Khan, overran the countries of the Bulgars, the Alans, the Kypchaks, Bashkirs, Mordvins, Chuvash, and other nations of the southern Russian steppe. By 1237, the Mongols began encroaching upon their first Russian principality, Ryazan. After a 3 day-siege using heavy attacks, the Mongols captured the city and massacred its inhabitants, then proceeded to destroy the army of the Grand principality of Vladimir at the Sit River. The Mongols captured the Alania capital, Maghas, in 1238. By 1240, all Rus’ lands including Kiev had fallen to the Asian invaders except for a few northern cities. Mongol troops under Chormaqan in Persia connected his invasion of Transcaucasia with the invasion of Batu and Subotai, forced the Georgian and Armenian nobles to surrender as well.[39]
Despite the military successes, strife continued within the Mongol ranks. Batu's relations with Güyük, Ogedei's eldest son, and Büri, the beloved grandson of Chagatai Khan, remained tense, and worsened during Batu's victory banquet in southern Russia, nevertheless Guyuk and Buri couldn´t do anything to harm Batu's position as long as his uncle Ogedei was still alive. Meanwhile, Ogedei continued with Mongol invasions into the Indian subcontinent, temporarily investing Uchch, Lahore and Multan of the Delhi Sultanate and stationing a Mongol overseer in Kashmir,[40] though the invasions into India eventually failed and were forced to drive back. In northeastern Asia, Ogedei agreed to settle conflicts with Goryeo by making it a client state and sent Mongolian princesses to wed Goryeo princes. He then reinforced his keshig with the Koreans through both diplomacy and military force.[41][42][43]
The advance into Europe continued with Mongol invasions of Poland, Hungary and Transylvania. When the western flank of the Mongols plundered Polish cities, a European alliance between the Poles, the Moravians, the Christian military orders of the Hospitallers, Teutonic Knights and the Templars assembled sufficient forces to halt, although briefly the Mongol advance at Legnica. The Hungarian army, their Croatian allies and the Templar Knights were beaten by Mongols at the banks of Sajo River on April 11, 1241. After their victories over European Knights at Legnica and Muhi, Mongol armies quickly advanced across Bohemia, Serbia, Babenberg Austria and into the Holy Roman Empire,[44][45] but before Batu's forces could continue into Vienna and northern Albania, news of Ogedei's death in December 1241 brought a halt to the invasion.[46][47] As was customary in Mongol military tradition, all princes of Genghis's line had to attend the kurultai to elect a successor. Batu and his western Mongol army withdrew from Central Europe the next year.[48]
Post-Ogedei power struggles[link]
Following the Great Khan Ogedei's death in 1241, and before the next kurultai, Ogedei's widow Toregene took over the empire. She persecuted her husband's Khitan and Muslim officials, giving high positions to her own allies instead. She built palaces, cathedrals and social structures on an imperial scale, supporting religion and education. She was able to win over most Mongol aristocrats to support Ogedei's son Guyuk. But Batu, ruler of the Golden Horde, refused to come to the kurultai, claiming he was ill and the Mongolian climate was too harsh for him. The resulting stalemate lasted more than four years, and further destabilized the unity of the empire.[49]
When Genghis Khan's youngest brother Temuge threatened Toregene to seize the throne, Guyuk came to Karakorum to try and secure his position.[50] Batu eventually agreed to send his brothers and generals to the kurultai which Toregene convened in 1246. Guyuk by this time was ill and alcoholic, but his campaigns in Manchuria and Europe gave him the kind of stature necessary for a Great Khan. He was duly elected at a ceremony attended by Mongols and foreign dignitaries from both within and without the empire—leaders of vassal nations, and representatives from Rome and other entities, who came to the kurultai to show their respects and negotiate diplomacy.[51][52]
Guyuk took steps to reduce corruption, announcing that he would continue the policies of his father Ogedei, not Toregene. He punished Toregene's supporters, except governor Arghun the Elder. He also replaced young Khara Hulegu, the khan of the Chagatai Khanate, with his favorite cousin Yesü Möngke to assert his newly conferred powers. He restored his father's officials to their former positions and was surrounded by the Uyghur, Naiman and Central Asian officials, favoring Han Chinese commanders who helped his father's conquest of Northern China. He continued military operations in Korea, advanced into Song China in the south and Iraq in the west, and ordered an empire-wide census. Guyuk also divided the Sultanate of Rum between Izz-ad-Din Kaykawus and Rukn ad-Din Kilij Arslan, though Kaykawus disagreed with this decision.[53]
Not all parts of the empire respected Guyuk's election. The Hashshashins, former Mongol allies whose Grand Master Hasan Jalalud-Din had offered his submission to Genghis Khan in 1221, angered Guyuk by refusing to submit, instead murdering Mongol generals in Persia. Guyuk appointed his best friend's father Eljigidei as chief commander of the troops in Persia, and gave them the task of both reducing the strongholds of the Assassins a Muslim mouvement, and conquering the Abbasids in the center of the Islamic world, Iran and Iraq.[53][54][55]
In 1248, Guyuk raised more troops and suddenly marched westwards from the Mongol capital of Karakorum. The reasoning was unclear: some sources wrote that he sought to recuperate his personal property Emyl; others suggested that he might have been moving to join Eljigidei to conduct a full-scale conquest of the Middle East, or possibly to make a surprise attack on his rival cousin Batu Khan in Russia. Suspicious of Guyuk's motives, Sorghaghtani Beki, the widow of Genghis's son Tolui, secretly warned her nephew Batu of Guyuk's approach. Batu had himself been traveling eastwards at the time, possibly to pay homage, or perhaps with other plans in mind. Before the forces of Batu and Guyuk met though, Guyuk, sick and worn out by travel, died en route at Qum-Senggir in Eastern Turkestan, possibly a victim of poison.[56]
Guyuk's widow Oghul Ghaimish stepped forward to take control of the empire, but she lacked the skills of her mother-in-law Toregene, and her young sons Khoja and Naku and other princes challenged her authority. To decide on a new Great Khan, Batu called a kurultai on his own territory in 1250. As it was far from the Mongolian heartland, members of the Ogedeid and Chagataid families refused to attend. The kurultai offered the throne to Batu, but he rejected it, claiming he had no interest in the position. He instead nominated Mongke, a grandson of Genghis of his son Tolui lineage. Mongke was leading a Mongol army in Russia, Northern Caucasus and Hungary. The pro-Tolui faction rose up and supported Batu's choice, and Mongke was elected, though given the kurultai's limited attendance and location, it was of questionable validity. Batu sent Mongke under the protection of his brothers, Berke and Tukhtemur, and his son Sartaq to assemble a more formal kurultai at Kodoe Aral in the heartland. The supporters of Mongke invited Oghul Ghaimish and other main Ogedeid and Chagataid princes to attend the kurultai, but they refused each time. The Ogedeid and Chagataid princes refused to accept a descendant of Genghis's son Tolui as leader, demanding that only descendants of Genghis's son Ogedei could be Great Khan.[57]
Toluid reformation[link]
When Mongke's mother Sorghaghtani and their cousin Berke organized a second kurultai on July 1, 1251, the assembled throng proclaimed Mongke Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. This marked a major shift in the leadership of the empire, transferring power from the descendants of Genghis's son Ogedei to the descendants of Genghis's son Tolui. The decision was acknowledged by a few of the Ogedeid and Chagataid princes, such as Mongke's cousin Kadan and the deposed khan Khara Hulegu, but one of the other legitimate heirs, Ogedei's grandson Shiremun, sought to topple Mongke. Shiremun moved with his own forces towards the emperor's nomadic palace with a plan for an armed attack, but Mongke was alerted by his falconer of the plan. Mongke ordered an investigation of the plot, which led to a series of major trials all across the empire. Many members of the Mongol elite were found guilty and put to death, with estimates ranging from 77–300, though princes of Genghis's royal line were often exiled rather than executed. Mongke eliminated the Ogedeid and the Chagatai families' estates and shared the western part of the empire with his ally Batu Khan. After the bloody purge, Mongke ordered a general amnesty for prisoners and captives, but ever after, the power of the Great Khan's throne remained firmly with the descendants of Genghis's son Tolui.[58]
Mongke was a serious man who followed the laws of his ancestors and avoided alcoholism. He was tolerant of outside religions and artistic styles, which led to the building of foreign merchants' quarters, Buddhist monasteries, mosques, and Christian churches in the Mongol capital. As construction projects continued, Karakorum was adorned with Chinese, European and Persian architecture. One famous example was a large silver tree with cleverly designed pipes which dispensed various drinks. The tree, topped by a triumphant angel, was crafted by Guillaume Boucher, a Parisian goldsmith.[59]
Although he had a strong Chinese contingent, Mongke relied heavily on Muslim and Mongol administrators, and launched a series of economic reforms to make government expenses more predictable. His court limited government spending and prohibited nobles and troops from abusing civilians or issuing edicts without authorization. He commuted the contribution system into a fixed poll tax which was collected by imperial agents and forwarded to units in need. His court also tried to lighten the tax burden on commoners by reducing tax rates. Along with the reform of the tax system, he reinforced the guards at the postal relays and centralized control of monetary affairs. Mongke also ordered an empire-wide census in 1252 which took several years to complete, not being finished until Novgorod in the far northwest was counted in 1258.[60]
In another move to consolidate his power, Mongke assigned his brothers Hulagu and Kublai to rule Persia and Mongol-held China. In the southern part of the empire, he continued his predecessors' struggle against the Song Dynasty. In order to outflank the Song from three directions, Mongke dispatched Mongol armies under his brother Kublai to Yunnan, and under his uncle Iyeku to subdue Korea and pressure the Song from that direction as well. Kublai conquered the Dali Kingdom in 1253, and Mongke's general Qoridai stabilized his control over Tibet, inducing leading monasteries to submit to Mongol rule. Subotai's son, Uryankhadai, reduced neighboring peoples of Yunnan to submission and beat the Trần Dynasty in northern Vietnam into temporary submission in 1258.[53]
After stabilizing the empire's finances, Mongke once again sought to expand its borders. At kurultais in Karakorum in 1253 and 1258 he approved new invasions of the Middle East and south China. Mongke put Hulagu in overall charge of military and civil affairs in Persia, and appointed Chagataids and Jochids to join Hulagu's army. The Muslims from Qazvin denounced the menace of the Nizari Ismailis, a heretical sect of Shiites. The Mongol Naiman commander Kitbuqa began to assault several Ismaili fortresses in 1253, before Hulagu deliberately advanced in 1256. Ismaili Grand Master Rukn ud-Din surrendered in 1257 and was executed. All of the Ismaili strongholds in Persia were destroyed by Hulagu's army in 1257 though Girdukh held out until 1271.[61]
The center of the Islamic Empire at the time was Baghdad, which had held power for 500 years but was suffering internal divisions. When its caliph al-Mustasim refused to submit to the Mongols, Baghdad was besieged and captured by the Mongols in 1258, an event often considered as the single most catastrophic event in the history of Islam compared to the rupture of the Kaaba. With the destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate, Hulagu had an open route to Syria and moved against the other Muslim powers in the region. His army advanced towards Ayyubid-ruled Syria, capturing small local states en route. The sultan Al-Nasir Yusuf of the Ayyubids refused to show himself before Hulagu; however, he had accepted Mongol supremacy two decades earlier. When Hulagu headed further west, the Armenians from Cilicia, the Seljuks from Rum and the Christian realms of Antioch and Tripoli submitted to Mongol authority, joining the Mongols in their assault against the Muslims. While some cities surrendered without resisting, others such as Mayafarriqin fought back; their populations were massacred and the cities were sacked.[62]
Meanwhile, in the northwestern portion of the empire, Batu's successor and younger brother Berke sent punitive expeditions to Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania and Poland. Dissension began brewing between the northwestern and southwestern sections of the Mongol Empire, as Batu suspected that Hulagu's invasion of Western Asia would result in the elimination of Batu's own predominance there.[63]
Disintegration[link]
Dispute over succession[link]
In the southern part of the empire, Mongke Khan himself led his army to complete the conquest of China. Military operations were generally successful, but prolonged, so the forces did not withdraw to the north as was customary when the weather turned hot. Disease ravaged the Mongol forces with bloody epidemics, and Mongke died there on August 11, 1259. This event began a new chapter of history for the Mongols, as again a decision needed to be made on a new Great Khan. Mongol armies across the empire withdrew from their campaigns to once again convene for a new kurultai.[64]
Mongke's brother Hulagu broke off his successful military advance into Syria, withdrawing the bulk of his forces to Mughan and leaving only a small contingent under his general Kitbuqa. The opposing forces in the region, the Christian Crusaders and Muslim Mamluks, both recognizing that the Mongols were the greater threat, took advantage of the weakened state of the Mongol army and engaged in an unusual passive truce with each other. In 1260, the Mamluks advanced from Egypt, being allowed to camp and resupply near the Christian stronghold of Acre, and engaged Kitbuqa's forces just north of Galilee, at the Battle of Ain Jalut. The Mongols were defeated, and Kitbuqa executed. This pivotal battle marked the western limit for Mongol expansion, as the Mongols were never again able to make any serious military advances farther than Syria.[65]
In a separate part of the empire, another brother of Hulagu and Mongke, Kublai, heard of the Great Khan's death at the Huai in China. Rather than returning to the capital though, he continued his advance into the Wuchang area of China, near the Yangtze River. Their younger brother Ariqboke took advantage of the absence of Hulagu and Kublai, and used his position at the capital to win the title of Great Khan for himself, with representatives of all the family branches proclaimed him as the leader at the kurultai in Karakorum. When Kublai learned of this, he summoned his own kurultai at Kaiping, where virtually all the senior princes and great noyans resident in North China and Manchuria supported his own candidacy over that of Ariqboke.[48]
Civil war[link]
See also: Berke–Hulagu war
Battles ensued between the armies of Kublai and those of his brother Ariqboke, which included forces still loyal to Mongke's previous administration. Kublai's army easily eliminated Ariqboke's supporters, and seized control of the civil administration in southern Mongolia. Further challenges took place from their cousins, the Chagataids. Kublai sent Abishka, a Chagataid prince loyal to him, to take charge of Chagatai's realm. But Ariqboke captured and then executed Abishka, having his own man Alghu crowned there instead. Kublai's new administration blockaded Ariqboke in Mongolia to cut off food supplies, causing a famine. Karakorum fell quickly to Kublai, but Ariqboke rallied and re-took the capital in 1261.[66][67][68]
In the southwestern Ilkhanate, Hulagu was loyal to his brother Kublai, but clashes with their cousin Berke, the ruler of the Golden Horde in the northwestern part of the empire, began in 1262. The suspicious deaths of Jochid princes in Hulagu's service, unequal distribution of war booties and Hulagu's massacres of the Muslims increased the anger of Berke, who considered supporting a rebellion of the Georgian Kingdom against Hulagu's rule in 1259–1260.[69][Full citation needed] Berke also forged an alliance with the Egyptian Mamluks against Hulagu, and supported Kublai's rival claimant, Ariqboke.[70] Hulagu died on February 8, 1264. Berke sought to take advantage of this and invade Hulagu's realm, but died himself along the way, and a few months later, Alghu Khan of the Chagatai Khanate died as well. Kublai named Hulagu's son Abaqa as a new Ilkhan, and Abaqa sought foreign alliances, such as attempting to form a Franco-Mongol alliance with the Europeans against the Egyptian Mamluks. To lead the Golden Horde, Kublai nominated Batu's grandson Mongke Temur.[71] Ariqboqe surrendered to Kublai at Shangdu on August 21, 1264.[72]
In the south, after the fall of Xiangyang in 1273, the Mongols sought the final conquest of the Song Dynasty in South China. In 1271, Kublai renamed the new Mongol regime in China as the Yuan Dynasty, and sought to sinicize his image as Emperor of China in order to win the control of the millions of Chinese. Kublai moved his headquarters to Dadu, the genesis for what later became the modern city of Beijing, although his establishment of a capital there was a controversial move to many Mongols who accused him of being too closely tied to Chinese culture.[73][74] But the Mongols were eventually successful in their campaigns against China, and the Chinese Song imperial family surrendered to the Yuan in 1276, making the Mongols the first non-Chinese people to conquer all of China. Kublai used his base to build a powerful empire, creating an academy, offices, trade ports and canals, and sponsoring arts and science. Mongol records list 20,166 public schools created during his reign.[75]
Having achieved actual or nominal dominion over much of Eurasia, and having seen his successful conquest of China, Kublai was in a position to look beyond China. However, his costly invasions of Burma, Annam, Sakhalin and Champa secured only the vassal status of those countries. Mongol invasions of Japan (1274 and 1280) and Java (1293) failed.[75]
Nogai and Konchi, the khan of the White Horde, established friendly relations with the Yuan Dynasty and the Ilkhanate. Political disagreement between contending branches of the family over the office of Great Khan continued, but the economic and commercial success of the Mongol Empire continued despite the squabbling.[76][77][78]
Political struggles[link]
Major changes occurred in the Mongol Empire in the late 1200s. Kublai Khan, after having conquered all of China and established the Yuan Dynasty, died in 1294, and was succeeded by his grandson Temur Khan, who continued Kublai's policies. The Ilkhanate remained loyal to the Yuan court but endured its own power struggle, in part because of a dispute with the growing Islamic factions within the southwestern part of the empire. When Ghazan took the throne of the Ilkhanate in 1295, he formally accepted Islam as his own religion, marking a turning point in Mongol history after which Mongol Persia became more and more Islamic. Despite this though, Ghazan continued to strengthen ties with Temur Khan and the Yuan Dynasty in the east. It was politically useful to advertise the Great Khan's authority in the Ilkhanate, because the Golden Horde in Russia had long made claims on nearby Georgia.[79] Within four years, Ghazan began sending tributes to the Yuan court, appealed to other khans to accept Temur Khan as their overlord, and oversaw an extensive program of cultural and scientific interaction between the Ilkhanate and the Yuan Dynasty in the following decades.[80]
Ghazan's faith may have been Islamic, but he continued his ancestors’ war with the Egyptian Mamluks, and consulted with his old Mongolian advisers in his native tongue. He defeated the Mamluk army at the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar in 1299, but was only briefly able to occupy Syria, due to distracting raids from the Chagatai Khanate, under its de facto ruler Kaidu, who was at war with both the Ilkhans and the Yuan Dynasty.[citation needed] Struggling for influence within the Golden Horde, Kaidu sponsored his own candidate Kobeleg against Bayan (r. 1299–1304), the khan of the White Horde. Bayan, after receiving military support from the Mongols in Russia, requested assistance from both the Great Khan Temur and the Ilkhanate to organize a unified attack against Kaidu's forces. Temur was amenable, and enlarged counterattacks against Kaidu a year later. After a bloody battle with Temur's armies near Zawkhan River in 1301, the old valiant Kaidu died, and was succeeded by Duwa.[81][82]
In spite of his conflicts with Kaidu and Duwa, Yuan emperor Temur established a tributary relationship with the war-like Shan brothers after his series of military operations against Thailand from 1297 to 1303. This was to mark the end of the southern expansion of the Mongols. Some Mongols sought to decrease internal strife, and unify under Temur. Duwa initiated a peace proposal and persuaded the Ogedeids that "Let we Mongols stop shedding blood of each other. It is better to surrender to Khagan Temur".[84][85] In 1304, all khanates approved a peace treaty, and accepted Temur's supremacy.[86][87][88][89]
Duwa was challenged by Kaidu's son Chapar, but with the assistance of Temur, Duwa defeated the Ogedeids. Tokhta of the Golden Horde, also seeking a general peace, sent 20,000 men to buttress the Yuan frontier.[90] After Tokhta's death in 1312 though, he was succeeded by Ozbeg (r. 1313–41), who seized the throne of the Golden Horde and persecuted non-Muslim Mongols. The Yuan's influence on the Horde was largely reversed and border clashes between Mongol states resumed. Ayurbawda Khan's envoys backed Tokhta's son against Ozbeg.[citation needed]
In the Chagatai Khanate, Esen Buqa I (r. 1309-1318) was enthroned as khan after suppressing a sudden rebellion by Ogedei's descendants and driving Chapar into exile. The Yuan and Ilkhanid armies eventually attacked the Chagatai Khanate.
Realizing economic benefits and the Genghisid legacy, Ozbeg reopened friendly relations with the Yuan in 1326, and strengthened ties with the Muslim world as well, building mosques and other elaborate places such as baths.[citation needed]
By the second decade of the 14th century, Mongol invasions had further decreased. In 1323, Abu Said Khan (r. 1316-35) of the Ilkhanate signed a peace treaty with Egypt. At his request, the Yuan court awarded his custodian Chupan the title of commander-in-chief of all Mongol khanates. But Chupan's reputation could not save his life in 1327.[91] A new civil war erupted in the Yuan Dynasty in 1327-1328, with Chagatai khan Eljigidey (r. 1326–29) supporting Kusala, the Yuan Khagan Khayisan's son, as Great Khan. Kusala was elected on August 30, 1329. Fearing Chagataid influence on the Yuan, Tugh Temur's (1304–1332) Kypchak commander poisoned him, and took power for himself. In order to be accepted by other khanates as the sovereign of Mongol world, Tugh Temur, who had a good knowledge of Chinese language and history and was also a creditable poet, calligrapher, and painter, sent Genghisid princes and descendants of other notable Mongol generals to the Chagatai Khanate, Ilkhan Abu Said and Ozbeg. In response to the emissaries, they all agreed to send tribute each year.[92] Tugh Temur also gave lavish presents and an imperial seal to Eljigidey to mollify his anger. The Kypchak and the Alans became even more powerful at the court of the Yuan than had been seen since Temur's reign. Pope John XXII was presented a memorandum from the eastern church describing their Pax Mongolica: "...Khagan is one of the greatest monarchs and all lords of the state, e.g. the king of Almaligh (Chagatai Khanate), emperor Abu Said and Uzbek Khan, are his subjects, saluting his holiness to pay their respects. These 3 monarchs send their overlord leopards, camels, falcons as well as precious jewelries every year. ... They acknowledge him as their absolute supreme lord.".[93]
With the relative stability (Pax Mongolica) brought to the region by the Mongol conquests, international trade and cultural exchanges flourished between Asia and Europe. The communications between the Yuan Dynasty in China and Ilkhanate in Persia further encouraged the trade and commerce between the east and the west. Patterns of Yuan royal textiles could be found on the opposite side of the empire adorning Armenian decorations; trees and vegetables were transplanted across the empire; and technological innovations spread from Mongol dominions towards the West.[94][citation needed]
Fall[link]
With the death of Ilkhan Abu Said Bahatur in 1335, the Mongol rule in Persia fell into political anarchy. A year later his successor was killed by an Oirat governor and the Ilkhanate was divided between the Suldus, the Jalayir, Qasarid Togha Temür (d. 1353) and Persian warlords. Taking advantage of the chaos, the Georgians pushed the Mongols out of their own territory, and the Uyghur commander Eretna established an independent state (Ertenids) in Anatolia in 1336. Following the downfall of their Mongol masters, the all-time loyal vassal, the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, received escalating threats from the Mamluks, and were eventually overrun.[citation needed]
Along with the dissolution of the Mongol Ilkhanate in Persia, Mongol rulers in China and the Chagatai Khanate were also in turmoil. Plagues such as the Black Death, which certainly started in the Mongol dominions and then spread to Europe, added to the confusion. Disease devastated all the khanates, cutting off commercial ties and killing off millions.[95] By the end of the 14th century, it may have taken 70–100 million lives in Africa, Asia and Europe.[citation needed]
As the power of the Mongols declined, chaos erupted everywhere as non-Mongol leaders struggled for their own influence. The Golden Horde lost all of its western dominions (including modern Belarus and Ukraine) to Poland and Lithuania from 1342 to 1369. Muslim and non-Muslim princes in the Chagatai Khanate warred with each other from 1331–1343, and the Chagatai Khanate disintegrated when non-Genghisid warlords set up their own puppet khans in Transoxiana and Moghulistan. Janibeg Khan (r. 1342–1357) briefly reasserted Jochid dominance over the Chaghataids to restore their former glory. Demanding submission from an offshoot of the Ilkhanate in Azerbaijan, he boasted that "today three uluses are under my control". However, rival families of the Jochids began fighting for the throne of the Golden Horde after the assassination of his successor Berdibek Khan in 1359. The last Yuan ruler Toghan Temur (r. 1333–70) was powerless to regulate those troubles because the empire had nearly reached its end. His court's unbacked currency had entered a hyperinflationary spiral and the Han-Chinese people revolted due to the Yuan's harsh restrictions. In the 1350s King Gongmin of Goryeo successfully pushed Mongolian garrisons back and exterminated the family of Toghan Temur Khan's empress while Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen managed to eliminate the Mongol influence in Tibet.[96]
Increasingly isolated from their subjects, the Mongols quickly lost most of China to the rebellious Ming forces in 1368 and fled to their homeland Mongolia. After the overthrow of the Yuan Dynasty, the Golden Horde lost touch with Mongolia and China, while the two main parts of the Chagatai Khanate were defeated by Timur (Tamerlane) (1336–1405). The Golden Horde broke into smaller Turkic-hordes that declined steadily in power through four long centuries. Among them, the khanate's shadow Great Horde survived until 1502, when one of its successors, the Crimean Khanate, sacked Sarai. The Yuan remnants, known as Northern Yuan, continued to rule Mongolia until 1635 when the semi-nomadic Manchus from Manchuria defeated them. The Khalkha under the Genghisids and their former subjects, the Oirat Mongols, lost their independence to the Qing Dynasty in 1691 and 1755 respectively, and the remnants of the Crimean Khanate were annexed by the Russian Empire in 1783.[97]
Military setup[link]
Main article: Mongol military tactics and organization
|
|
|||||
The number of troops mustered by the Mongols is the subject of some scholarly debate,[98] but was at least 105,000 in 1206.[99] The Mongol military organization was simple but effective, based on the decimal system. The army was built up from squads of ten men each, called an arbat; ten arbats constituted a company of one hundred, called a zuut; ten zuuts made a regiment of one thousand called myanghan and ten myanghans would then constitute a division of ten thousand (tumen). The Mongols were most famous for their horse archers, but troops armed with lances were equally skilled, and the Mongols recruited other military talents from the cities they conquered. With experienced Chinese engineers and bombardier corps who were experts in building trebuchets, Xuanfeng catapults and other machines, the Mongols could lay siege to fortified positions, sometimes building machinery on the spot using available local resources.[100]
Forces under the command of the Mongol Empire were trained, organized, and equipped for mobility and speed. Mongol soldiers were more lightly armored than many of the armies they faced, but able to make up for it with maneuverability. Each Mongol warrior would usually travel with multiple horses, allowing him to quickly switch to a fresh mount as needed. In addition, soldiers of the Mongol army functioned independently of supply lines, considerably speeding up army movement. Skillful use of couriers enabled these armies to maintain contact with each other and their leadership. Discipline was inculcated during a nerge (traditional hunt), as reported by Juvayni. These hunts were distinctive from hunts in other cultures where they were the equivalent to small unit actions. Mongol forces would spread out in a line, surround an entire region, and then drive all of the game within that area together. The goal was to let none of the animals escape and slaughter them all.[101]
Another advantage of the Mongols was their ability to traverse large distances even in unusual cold winters; for instance, frozen rivers led them like highways to large urban centers on their banks. In addition to siege engineering, the Mongols were also adept at river-work, crossing the river Sajó in spring flood conditions with thirty thousand cavalry soldiers in a single night during the battle of Mohi (April, 1241) to defeat the Hungarian king Bela IV. Similarly, in the attack against the Muslim Khwarezmshah, a flotilla of barges was used to prevent escape on the river.[citation needed]
Traditionally known for their prowess with ground forces, the Mongols rarely used naval power, with a few exceptions. In the 1260s and 1270s they used seapower while conquering the Song Dynasty of China, though they were unable to mount successful seaborne campaigns against Japan. Around the Eastern Mediterranean, their campaigns were almost exclusively land-based, with the seas being controlled by the Crusader and Mamluk forces.[102]
All military campaigns were preceded by careful planning, reconnaissance and gathering of sensitive information relating to enemy territories and forces. The success, organization and mobility of the Mongol armies permitted them to fight on several fronts at once. All adult males up to the age of 60 were eligible for conscription into the army, a source of honor in their tribal warrior tradition.[103]
Society[link]
Main article: Society of the Mongol Empire
Law and governance[link]
The Mongol Empire was governed by a code of law devised by Genghis, called Yassa, meaning "order" or "decree". A particular canon of this code was that those of rank shared much of the same hardship as the common man. It also imposed severe penalties – e.g., the death penalty was decreed if one mounted soldier following another did not pick up something dropped from the mount in front. Penalties were also decreed for rape and to some extent for murder. On the whole, the tight discipline made the Mongol Empire extremely safe and well-run; European travelers were amazed by the organization and strict discipline of the people within the Mongol Empire.[citation needed]
Under Yassa, chiefs and generals were selected based on merit. Religious tolerance was guaranteed, and thievery and vandalizing of civilian property was strictly forbidden.[citation needed]
The empire was governed by a non-democratic parliamentary-style central assembly, called Kurultai, in which the Mongol chiefs met with the Great Khan to discuss domestic and foreign policies. Kurultais were also convened for the selection of each new Great Khan.[citation needed]
Genghis was very tolerant of other religions, and never persecuted people on religious grounds. This was associated with their culture and progressive thought (Roger Bacon). Some historian of the XXth century thought that it was a good military strategy, the occasion in which he was at war with Sultan Muhammad of Khwarezm, other Islamic leaders did not join the fight against Genghis — it was instead seen as a non-holy war between two individuals.[citation needed]
Throughout the empire, trade routes and an extensive postal system (yam) were created. Many merchants, messengers and travelers from China, the Middle East and Europe used the system. Genghis Khan also created a national seal, encouraged the use of a written alphabet in Mongolia, and exempted teachers, lawyers, and artists from taxes, although taxes were heavy on all other subjects of the empire.[citation needed]
At the same time, any resistance to Mongol rule was met with massive collective punishment. Cities were destroyed and their inhabitants slaughtered if they defied Mongol orders, yet in the case of the White Lotus uprising this did not occur, nor did the Righteous Harmony Fists provoke so much of such reactions.[citation needed]
Religions[link]
Main article: Religion in the Mongol Empire
Mongols were highly tolerant of most religions, to the extent of sponsoring several at the same time. At the time of Genghis Khan, virtually every religion had found converts, from Buddhism to Christianity and Manichaeism to Islam. To avoid strife, Genghis Khan set up an institution that ensured complete religious freedom, though he himself was a shamanist. Under his administration, all religious leaders were exempt from taxation, and from public service.[104]
Initially there were few formal places of worship, because of the nomadic lifestyle. However, under Ögedei (1186–1241), several building projects were undertaken in the Mongol capital of Karakorum. Along with palaces, Ogodei built houses of worship for the Buddhist, Muslim, Christian, and Taoist followers. The dominant religions at that time were Shamanism, Tengrism and Buddhism, although Ogodei's wife was a Nestorian Christian.[105] Eventually, three of the four principal khanates embraced Islam.[106][107]
Arts and literature[link]
The oldest surviving literary work in the Mongolian language is The Secret History of the Mongols, which was written for the royal family sometime after Genghis Khan's death in 1227. It is the most significant native account of Genghis's life and genealogy, covering his origins and childhood, through to the establishment of the Mongol Empire and the reign of his son, Ogedei. Another classic from the empire is the Jami' al-tawarikh, or "Universal History". It was commissioned in the early 14th century by the Ilkhan Abaqa Khan, as a way of documenting the entire world's history, to help establish the Mongols' own cultural legacy. With hundreds of illustrated pages, it was effectively one of the first written histories of the world.
The Mongols also appreciated the visual arts, though their taste in portraiture was strictly focused on portraits of their horses, rather than of people.
Mail system[link]
Main article: Ortoo
The Mongol Empire had an ingenious and efficient mail system for the time, often referred to by scholars as the Yam, which had lavishly furnished and well guarded relay posts known as örtöö setup all over the Mongol Empire. The yam system would be replicated later in the United States, in the form of the Pony Express.[108] A messenger would typically travel 25 miles (40 km) from one station to the next, either receiving a fresh, rested horse, or relaying the mail to the next rider to ensure the speediest possible delivery. The Mongol riders regularly covered 125 miles (200 km) per day, better than the fastest record set by the Pony Express some 600 years later.[citation needed]
Genghis and his successor Ogedei built a wide system of roadways, one of which carved the Altai Range. After his enthronement, Ogedei further organized the road system, ordering the Chagatai Khanate and Golden Horde to link up roads in western parts of the Mongol Empire.[109][citation needed] In order to reduce pressure on households, he set up relay stations with attached households every 25 miles (40 km). Anyone with paiza was allowed to stop there for re-mounts and specified rations, while those carrying military identities used the Yam even without a paiza. When the Great Khan died in Karakorum, news reached the Mongol forces under Batu Khan in Central Europe within 4–6 weeks thanks to the Yam.[46]
Kublai Khan, the founder of the Yuan Dynasty, built special relays for high officials, as well as ordinary relays which had hostels. During Kublai's reign, the Yuan communication system consisted of some 1,400 postal stations, which used 50,000 horses, 8,400 oxen, 6,700 mules, 4,000 carts, and 6,000 boats.[citation needed] In Manchuria and southern Siberia, the Mongols still used dogsled relays for the yam. In the Ilkhanate, Ghazan restored the declining relay system in the Middle East on a restricted scale. He constructed some hostels and decreed that only imperial envoys could receive a stipend. The Jochids of the Golden Horde financed their relay system by a special yam tax.[citation needed]
Silk Road[link]
Main article: Silk Road
See also: Pax Mongolica
The Mongols had a strong history of supporting merchants and trade. Genghis Khan had encouraged foreign merchants early in his career, even before uniting the Mongols. Merchants provided him with information about neighboring cultures, served as diplomats and official traders for the Mongols, and were essential for many needed goods, since the Mongols produced little of their own. Mongols sometimes provided capital for merchants and sent them far afield, in an ortoq (merchant partner) arrangement. As the empire grew, any merchants or ambassadors with proper documentation and authorization received protection and sanctuary as they traveled through Mongol realms. Well-traveled and relatively well-maintained roads linked lands from the Mediterranean basin to China, greatly increasing overland trade and resulting in some dramatic stories of those who travelled through what would come be known as the famed Silk Road. Marco Polo is a famous western explorer who traveled east along the Silk Road, and the Chinese Mongol monk Rabban Bar Sauma made a comparably epic journey along the Road who ventured from his home of Khanbaliq (Beijing) to as far as Europe. And European missionaries, like William of Rubruck, also traveled to the Mongol court to convert believers to their cause, or went as papal envoys (sent on behalf of the pope) to correspond with Mongol rulers in an attempt to secure a Franco-Mongol alliance. It was rare, however, for anyone to journey the full length of Silk Road. Instead, merchants moved products like a bucket brigade, goods being traded from one middleman to another, moving from China all the way to the West; the goods moved over such long distances reached extravagant prices.[citation needed]
After Genghis, the merchant partner business continued to flourish under his successors Ogedei and Guyuk. Merchants brought clothing, food, information, and other provisions to the imperial palaces, and in return the Great Khans gave the merchants tax exemptions, and allowed them to use the official relay stations of the Mongol Empire. Merchants also served as tax farmers in China, Russia and Iran. If the merchants were attacked by bandits, losses were made up from the imperial treasury.[citation needed]
Policies changed under the Great Khan Mongke. Because of money laundering and overtaxing, he attempted to limit abuses and sent imperial investigators to supervise the ortoq businesses. He decreed all merchants must pay commercial and property taxes, and he paid off all drafts drawn by high ranking Mongol elites from the merchants. This policy continued in the Yuan Dynasty.[citation needed]
The fall of the Mongol Empire in the 14th century led to the collapse of the political, cultural, and economic unity along the Silk Road. Turkic tribes seized the western end of the Silk Road trade routes from the decaying Byzantine Empire, and sowed the seeds of a Turkic culture that would later crystallize into the Ottoman Empire under the Sunni faith. In the East, the native Chinese overthrew the Yuan Dynasty in 1368, launching their own Ming Dynasty and pursuing a policy of economic isolationism.[110]
Legacy[link]
See also: History of Mongolia
The Mongol Empire had a lasting impact, unifying large regions, some of which (such as eastern and western Russia and the western parts of China) remain unified today, albeit under different rulership. The Mongols, except the main population, might have been assimilated into local populations after the fall of the empire, and some of these descendants adopted local religions — for example, the eastern khanates largely adopted Buddhism, and the western khanates adopted Islam, largely under Sufi influence.[111]
According to some[specify] interpretations, Genghis Khan's conquests caused wholesale destruction on an unprecedented scale in certain geographical regions, and therefore led to some changes in the demographics of Asia, such as the mass migration of the Iranian tribes of Central Asia into modern Iran. The Islamic world was also subject to massive changes as a result of Mongol invasions. The population of the Iranian plateau was severely attacked, resulting in the deaths of up to three-quarters of its population, possibly 10 to 15 million people. Historian Steven Ward estimates that Iran's population did not again reach its pre-Mongol levels until the mid-20th century.[112]
Non-military achievements of the Mongol Empire included the introduction of a writing system, a Mongol alphabet based on the Uighur characters, that is still used today in Inner Mongolia.[113]
Some of the other long-term consequences of the Mongol Empire include:
- Moscow rose to prominence during the Mongol-Tatar yoke, some time after Russian rulers were accorded the status of tax collectors for the Mongols. The fact that the Russians collected tribute and taxes for the Mongols meant that the Mongols themselves would rarely visit the lands that they owned. The Russians eventually gained military power, and their ruler Ivan III overthrew the Mongols completely to form the Russian Tsardom. After the Great stand on the Ugra river proved the Mongols vulnerable, this led to the independence of the Grand Duke of Moscow.[citation needed]
- Europe's knowledge of the known world was immensely expanded by the information brought back by ambassadors and merchants. When Columbus sailed in 1492, his missions were to reach Cathay, the land of the Grand Khan in China, and give him a letter from the monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile.[citation needed]
- Some research studies indicate that the Black Death which devastated Europe in the late 1340s may have traveled from China to Europe along the trade routes of the Mongol Empire. In 1347, the Genoese possessor of Caffa, a great trade emporium on the Crimean peninsula, came under siege by an army of Mongol warriors under the command of Janibeg. After a protracted siege during which the Mongol army was reportedly withering from the disease, they decided to use the infected corpses as a biological weapon. The corpses were catapulted over the city walls, infecting the inhabitants.[114] The Genoese traders fled, transferring the plague via their ships into the south of Europe, whence it rapidly spread. The total number of deaths worldwide from the pandemic is estimated at 75 million people, with an estimated 20 million deaths in Europe alone. There are claims of lesser casualties in the Mongol Empire due to superior hygiene and Oriental medicine.[citation needed]
Dominican martyrs killed by Mongols during the Mongol invasion of Poland in 1260.
- Western researcher R. J. Rummel estimated that 30 million people were killed under the rule of the Mongol Empire. The population of China fell by half in fifty years of Mongol rule. Before the Mongol invasion, the territories of the Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly 60 million people. While it is tempting to attribute this major decline solely to Mongol ferocity, scholars today have mixed opinions regarding this subject. Scholars such as Frederick W. Mote argue that the wide drop in numbers reflects an administrative failure to record rather than a de facto decrease, whilst others such as Timothy Brook argue that the Mongols reduced much of the south Chinese population, and very debatably of the Han Chinese population to an invisible status through cancellation of right to passports and denial of right to direct land ownership. This meant that the Chinese had to depend and be cared for chiefly by Mongols and Tartars, which also involved recruitment into the Mongol army. When possibly resisted by Muslim women in the aftermath of the Tangut princess episode, this is reported to have led to close to an infraction in the trafficking in women. Forbidden in the Jasa/Zasaq, women were distributed freely after what has been alleged in footnotes to Igor de Rachewitz edition of the Niuca Mongqol-un Tovcha´an to have been ordered tantamount sexual abuse, with two casualties alleged out of four thousand. Other historians such as William McNeill and David Morgan argue that the Bubonic Plague was the main factor behind the demographic decline during this period.[citation needed]
All conditions in the Mongol empire for women were mitigated by women´s right to divorce, and their discouragement of foot-binding, however Chinese Nationalist women continued to bind their feet. They had the right to divorce, discouraged by Confucianism, but encouraged by the Mongols as the Jasa specially ordained commerce to be for women. Women warriors existed such as Chatulun, and as were reported by an abbot, and women were sometimes in commanding roles as well during the mass executions following the end of pages.[citation needed]
- David Nicole states in The Mongol Warlords, "terror and mass extermination of anyone opposing them was a well tested Mongol tactic."[115] About half of the Russian population may have died during the invasion.[116] However, Colin McEvedy (Atlas of World Population History, 1978) estimates the population of Russia-in-Europe dropped from 7.5 million prior to the invasion to 7 million afterwards.[115] Historians estimate that up to half of Hungary's two million population at that time were victims of the Mongol invasion.[117] Rogerius, a monk who survived the Mongol invasion of Hungary, pointed out not only the genocidal element of the occupation, but also that the Mongols especially "found pleasure" in humiliating women. The fact is that the Mongols initially at least were not given to violent sexual abuse of women but liked to engage in such acts while physically clasping them in a kind of embrace.[118]
- One of the more successful tactics employed by the Mongols was to wipe out urban populations that refused to surrender. For example, after the conquest of Urgench, each Mongol warrior – in an army group that might have consisted of two tumens (units of 10,000) – was required to execute 24 people. In the Mongol invasion of Rus, almost all major cities were destroyed. If they chose to submit, the people were spared, war prisoners sometimes became part of the Mongol army to aid in future conquests.[119] In addition to intimidation tactics, the rapid expansion of the empire was facilitated by military hardiness (especially during bitterly cold winters), military skill, meritocracy, and discipline.
The influence of the Mongol Empire may prove to be even more direct — Zerjal et al. [2003][120] identify a Y-chromosomal lineage present in about 8% of the men in a large region of Asia (or about 0.5% of the men in the world). The paper suggests that the pattern of variation within the lineage is consistent with a hypothesis that it originated in Mongolia about 1,000 years ago. Such a spread would be too rapid to have occurred by diffusion, and must therefore be the result of selection. The authors propose that the lineage is carried by likely male line descendants of Genghis Khan, and that it has spread through social selection.[citation needed]
In addition to the khanates and other descendants, the Mughal royal family of South Asia are also descended from Genghis Khan: Babur's mother was a descendant — whereas his father was directly descended from Timur (Tamerlane). The word "Mughal"(مغول) is a Persian word for Mongol.[citation needed]
Notes[link]
- ^ The actual foundation of this city did not occur until 1220, and served as the capital of the Mongol Empire as least until 1259.
- ^ After the death of Möngke Khan in 1259, there was no single major city in the empire, with Dadu being the capital of the Yuan Dynasty from 1272 to 1368.
References[link]
- ^ Morgan. The Mongols. p. 5.
- ^ Finlay. Pilgrim Art. p.151.
- ^ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/102315/history-of-Central-Asia/73543/Creation-of-the-Mongol-empire
- ^ «Mongolia se encomienda a Gengis Jan» (en español). diario El País 18.08.2007 (2007). Consultado el 19/06/2008.
- ^ Peter Turchin, Thomas D. Hall and Jonathan M. Adams, "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of World-Systems Research Vol. 12 (no. 2). pp. 219-229 (2006).
- ^ Diamond. Guns, Germs, and Steel. p. 367.
- ^ The Mongols and Russia, by George Vernadsky
- ^ The Mongol World Empire, 1206-1370, by John Andrew Boyle
- ^ The History of China, by David Curtis Wright. p. 84.
- ^ The Early Civilization of China, by Yong Yap Cotterell, Arthur Cotterell. p. 223.
- ^ Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260-1281 by Reuven Amitai-Preiss
- ^ Gregory G.Guzman - Were the barbarians a negative or positive factor in ancient and medieval history?, The historian 50 (1988), 568-70.
- ^ Allsen. Culture and Conquest. p. 211.
- ^ "The Islamic World to 1600: The Golden Horde". University of Calgary. 1998. http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/goldenHorde.html. Retrieved December 3, 2010.
- ^ Michael Biran. Qaidu and the Rise of the Independent Mongol State in Central Asia. The Curzon Press, 1997, ISBN 0-7007-0631-3
- ^ The Cambridge History of China: Alien Regimes and Border States. p. 413.
- ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 127.
- ^ Allsen. Culture and Conquest'. pp. xiii, 235.
- ^ Sanders. p. 300.
- ^ Saunders. History of the Mongol conquests. p. 225.
- ^ Rybatzki. p. 116.
- ^ Barfield. p. 184.
- ^ a b c d e Morgan. The Mongols. pp. 49–73.
- ^ Riasanovsky. Fundamental Principles of Mongol law. p. 83.
- ^ Ratchnevsky. p. 191.
- ^ Secret history. p. 203.
- ^ Vladimortsov. p. 74.
- ^ Weatherford. p. 70.
- ^ Morgan. pp. 99–101.
- ^ Man. Genghis Khan. p. 288.
- ^ Saunders. p. 81.
- ^ Atwood. p. 277.
- ^ Rossabi. p. 221.
- ^ Atwood. p. 509.
- ^ May. Chormaqan. p. 29.
- ^ Amitai. The Mamluk-Ilkhanid war
- ^ Grousset. p. 259.
- ^ Burgan. p. 22.
- ^ Timothy May. Chormaqan. p. 32.
- ^ Jackson. Delhi Sultanate. p. 105.
- ^ Bor. p. 186.
- ^ Atwood. p. 297.
- ^ Henthorn. Korea, the Mongol invasions.
- ^ Weatherford. p. 157.
- ^ Howorth. pp. 55-62.
- ^ a b Weatherford. p. 158.
- ^ Matthew Paris. English history (trans. by J.A.Giles). p. 348.
- ^ a b Morgan. The Mongols. p. 104.
- ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 95.
- ^ The Academy of Russian science and the academy of Mongolian science-Tataro-Mongols in Europe and Asia. p. 89.
- ^ Weatherford. p. 163.
- ^ Man. Kublai Khan. p. 28.
- ^ a b c Atwood. p. 255.
- ^ D.Bayarsaikhan. Ezen khaaniig Ismailiinhan horooson uu (Did the Ismailis kill the Great Khan)[better source needed]
- ^ Weatherford. p. 179.
- ^ Atwood. p. 213.
- ^ Morgan. The Mongols. p. 159.
- ^ Morgan. The Mongols. pp. 103–104.
- ^ Guzman, Gregory G. (Spring 2010). "European captives and craftsmen among the Mongols, 1231-1255". The Historian 72 (1): 122–150. DOI:10.1111/j.1540-6563.2009.00259.x.
- ^ Allsen. Mongol Imperialism. p. 280.
- ^ Morgan. The Mongols. p. 129.
- ^ Morgan. The Mongols. pp. 132–135.
- ^ Morgan. The Mongols. pp. 127–128.
- ^ Lane. p. 9.
- ^ Morgan. The Mongols. p. 138.
- ^ Wassaf. p. 12.[Full citation needed]
- ^ Jackson. Mongols and the West. p. 109.
- ^ Barthold. Turkestan. p. 488.
- ^ L. N.Gumilev, A. Kruchki. Black legend
- ^ Barthold. Turkestan down to the Mongol invasion. p. 446.
- ^ Prawdin. Mongol Empire and its legacy. p. 302.
- ^ Weatherford. p. 120.
- ^ Man. Kublai Khan. p. 74.
- ^ Sh.Tseyen-Oidov – Ibid. p. 64.
- ^ a b Man. Kublai Khan. p. 207.
- ^ Weatherford. p. 195.
- ^ Vernadsky. The Mongols and Russia. pp. 344–366.[Full citation needed]
- ^ Henryk Samsonowicz, Maria Bogucka. A Republic of Nobles. p. 179.[Full citation needed]
- ^ Prawdin.[page needed]
- ^ Allsen. Culture and Conquest. pp. 32–35.
- ^ Rene Grousset. The Empire of the Steppes
- ^ Atwood. p. 445.
- ^ Bibliothèque nationale de France. Département des Manuscrits. Division occidentale. Nouvelle acquisition française 886, fol. 37v
- ^ d.Ohson. History of the Mongols. p.II. p. 355.[Full citation needed]
- ^ Sh.Tseyen-Oidov. Genghis bogdoos Ligden khutagt khurtel (khaad). p. 81.[Full citation needed]
- ^ Vernadsky – The Mongols and Russia. p. 74.
- ^ Oljeitu's letter to Philipp the Fair
- ^ J.J.Saunders – The History of the Mongol conquests
- ^ Howorth. p. 145.
- ^ Atwood. p. 106.
- ^ Allsen. Culture and Conquest. p. 39.
- ^ Franke. pp. 541-550.
- ^ Vernadsky. p. 93.
- ^ Weatherford. p. 236.
- ^ Morgan. The Mongols. pp. 117–118.
- ^ Prawdin. p. 379.
- ^ Halperin. p. 28.
- ^ Sverdrup. p. 109.
- ^ Sverdrup. p. 110.
- ^ Morgan. The Mongols. pp. 80–81.
- ^ Morgan. The Mongols. pp. 74–75
- ^ Morgan. "Mongols and the Eastern Mediterranean".
- ^ Morgan. The Mongols. p. 75
- ^ Weatherford. p. 69.
- ^ Weatherford. p. 135.
- ^ Ezzati. The spread of Islam: the contributing factors. p. 274.
- ^ Bukharaev. Islam in Russia: the four seasons. p. 145.
- ^ Chambers, James. The Devil's Horsemen Atheneum, 1979, ISBN 0-689-10942-3
- ^ Secret history of the Mongols
- ^ Guoli Liu-Chinese foreign policy in transition. p. 364.
- ^ Foltz. pp. 105–106.
- ^ R. Ward, Steven (2009). Immortal: a military history of Iran and its armed forces. Georgetown University Press. p. 39. ISBN 1-58901-258-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=8eUTLaaVOOQC&pg=PA39&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false.
- ^ Hahn, Reinhard F. (1991). Spoken Uyghur. London and Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-98651-7
- ^ Svat Soucek. A History of Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-521-65704-0. P. 116.
- ^ a b Mongol Conquests
- ^ History of Russia, Early Slavs history, Kievan Rus, Mongol invasion
- ^ The Mongol invasion: the last Arpad kings
- ^ "Life after death: approaches to a cultural and social history of Europe during the 1940s and 1950s". Richard Bessel, Dirk Schumann (2003). Cambridge University Press. p.143. ISBN 978-0-521-00922-5
- ^ The Story of the Mongols Whom We Call the Tartars= Historia Mongalorum Quo s Nos Tartaros Appellamus: Friar Giovanni Di Plano Carpini's Account of His Embassy to the Court of the Mongol Khan by Da Pian Del Carpine Giovanni and Erik Hildinger (Branden BooksApril 1996 ISBN 978-0-8283-2017-7)
- ^ Zerjal, Xue, Bertolle, Wells, Bao, Zhu, Qamar, Ayub, Mohyuddin, Fu, Li, Yuldasheva, Ruzibakiev, Xu, Shu, Du, Yang, Hurles, Robinson, Gerelsaikhan, Dashnyam, Mehdi, Tyler-Smith (2003). "The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols". American Journal of Human Genetics (72): 717–721.
Sources[link]
- Allsen, Thomas T. (1987). Mongol Imperialism: The Policies of the Grand Qan Möngke in China, Russia, and the Islamic Lands, 1251-1259. University of California Press. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/978-0-520-05527-6|978-0-520-05527-6]].
- Allsen, Thomas T. (2004). Culture and conquest in Mongol Eurasia. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-60270-9.
- Amitai-Preiss, Reuven (1995). Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War, 1260–1281. Cambridge, UK; New York, USA: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-46226-6.
- Atwood, Christopher P. (2004). Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York, USA: Facts on File, Inc.. ISBN 0-8160-4671-9.
- Barfield, Thomas Jefferson (1992). The perilous frontier: nomadic empires and China. Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-55786-324-9.
- Burgan, Michael (2005). Empire of the Mongols. New York, USA: Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-0318-1.
- Diamond, Jared (1997). Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York, USA: W.W. Norton & Co.. ISBN 0-393-06131-0.
- Finlay, Robert (2010). The Pilgrim Art: Cultures of Porcelain in World History. Berkeley, California, USA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24468-9.
- Foltz, Richard C. (1999). Religions of the Silk Road: Overland Trade and Cultural Exchange from Antiquity to the Fifteenth Century. New York, USA: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-23338-8.
- Franke, Herbert (1994). Twitchett, Denis; Fairbank, John King. ed. Alien Regimes and Border States, 907-1368. 6. Cambridge, UK; New York, USA: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24331-5.
- Grousset, Rene (1970). The Empire of the Steppes: a History of Central Asia (translated from French by Naomi Walford).. New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA: Rutgers University Press.
- Halperin, Charles J. (1985). Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History. Bloomington, Indiana, USA: Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-20445-3.
- Howorth, Henry H. (1965 (reprint of London edition, 1876)). History of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th Century: Part I: The Mongols Proper and the Kalmuks. New York, USA: Burt Frankin.
- Jackson, Peter (1978). "The dissolution of the Mongol Empire". Central Asiatic Journal XXXII: 208–351.
- Jackson, Peter (2003). The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge, UK; New York, USA: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54329-0.
- Jackson, Peter (2005). The Mongols and the West: 1221-1410. Harlow, UK; New York, USA: Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-36896-5.
- Lane, George (2006). Daily life in the Mongol empire. Westport, Connecticut, USA: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-33226-5.
- Man, John (2004). Genghis Khan: Life, death and resurrection. New York, USA: Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 978-0-312-36624-7.
- Man, John (2007). Kublai Khan: from Xanadu to superpower. Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-553-81718-8.
- Morgan, David (June 1989). Arbel, B.; et al.. ed. "The Mongols and the Eastern Mediterranean: Latins and Greeks in the Eastern Mediterranean after 1204". Mediterranean Historical Review (Tel Aviv, Illinois, USA: Routledge) 4 (1): 204. DOI:10.1080/09518968908569567. ISSN 0951-8967.
- Morgan, David (2007). The Mongols (2nd ed.). Malden, Massachusetts, USA; Oxford, UK; Carlton, Victoria, Australia: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-3539-9.
- Prawdin, Michael (pseudonym for Charol, Michael) (1940/1961). Mongol Empire. New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA: Collier-Macmillan Canada. ISBN 1-4128-0519-8.
- Ratchnevsky, Paul (1993). Haining, Thomas Nivison (translator). ed. Genghis Khan: his life and legacy. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/8780631189497|8780631189497]].
- Rossabi, Morris (1983). China among equals: the Middle Kingdom and its neighbors, 10th-14th centuries. Berkeley, California, USA: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-04383-9.
- Sanders, Alan J. K. (2010). Historical dictionary of Mongolia. Lanham, Maryland, USA: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6191-6.
- Saunders, John Joseph (2001). The history of the Mongol conquests. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1766-7.
- Rybatzki, Volker (2009). The early mongols: language, culture and history. Indiana University. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/97880933070578|97880933070578]].
- Sverdrup, Carl (November 2010). "Numbers in Mongol Warfare". In Rogers, Clifford J.; DeVries, Kelly; France, John. Journal of Medieval Military History. 8. Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK: Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 978-1-84383-596-7. http://books.google.com/?id=4jHEwSc2gEMC&pg=PA109&dq=devries+mongols#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- Vladimortsov, Boris (1969). The life of Chingis Khan. B. Blom.
- Weatherford, Jack (2004). Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. New York, USA: Three Rivers Press. ISBN 0-609-80964-4.
Further reading[link]
- Brent, Peter. The Mongol Empire: Genghis Khan: His Triumph and his Legacy. Book Club Associates, London. 1976.
- Buell, Paul D. (2003). Historical Dictionary of the Mongol World Empire. The Scarecrow Press, Inc.. ISBN 0-8108-4571-7
- Kradin, Nikolay, Tatiana Skrynnikova. "Genghis Khan Empire". Moscow: Vostochnaia literatura, 2006. 557 p. (ISBN 5-02-018521-3).
- Kradin, Nikolay, Tatiana Skrynnikova. "Why do we call Chinggis Khan's Polity 'an Empire' ". Ab Imperio, Vol. 7, No 1(2006): 89-118. (ISBN 5-89423-110-8)
- May, Timothy. "The Mongol Art of War." Westholme Publishing, Yardley. 2007. ISBN 978-1-59416-046-2 / ISBN 1-59416-046-5
- Woods, Shelton (2002). Vietnam: An Illustrated History. Hippocrene Books Inc. ISBN 0-7818-0910-X
- (French) Dominique Farale, De Gengis Khan à Qoubilaï Khan : la grande chevauchée mongole, Economica, 2003 (ISBN 2-7178-4537-2)
- (French) Dominique Farale, La Russie et les Turco-Mongols: 15 siècles de guerre, Economica, 2007. ISBN 978-2-7178-5429-9
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Mongol Empire |
External links[link]
- Genghis Khan and the Mongols
- The Mongol Empire
- Mongols
- Genghis Khan Biography
- The Mongols in World History
- The Mongol Empire for students
- Paradoxplace Insight Pages on the Mongol Emperors
- William of Rubruck's Account of the Mongols
- Mongol invasion of Rus (pictures)
- Worldwide Death Toll
- Mongol Empire Google Earth
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||
http://wn.com/Mongol_Empire
Related pages:
http://it.wn.com/Impero mongolo
http://cs.wn.com/Mongolská říše
http://id.wn.com/Kekaisaran Mongolia
http://es.wn.com/Imperio mongol
http://ru.wn.com/Монгольская империя
http://pl.wn.com/Imperium mongolskie
http://fr.wn.com/Empire mongol
http://de.wn.com/Mongolisches Reich
http://hi.wn.com/मंगोल साम्राज्य
http://pt.wn.com/Império Mongol
http://nl.wn.com/Mongoolse Rijk
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_Empire
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
For other uses, see Mongols (disambiguation).
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Total population | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ~10 million | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Regions with significant populations | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Religion | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
Predominantly Tibetan Buddhism, also Shamanism (formally Tengriism).[2][8] |
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Related ethnic groups | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
Daur, Monguor and Turco-Mongol peoples |
Mongols (Mongolian: Монголчууд (help·info)), Mongolchuud) are a Central-East Asian ethnic group that lives mainly in the countries of Mongolia, China, and Russia. Owing to wars and migrations, Mongols are also found in some Central Asian states such as Kazakhstan. In China, ethnic Mongols can be found mainly in the central north region of China such as Inner Mongolia (a smaller number of Mongols can also be found in Xinjiang in northwest China). The Buryat branch of the Mongol ethnic group can be found in the autonomous republic of Buryatia, Russia. Ethnic Mongols are bound together by a common language and culture. They speak languages belonging to the Mongolic languages. The contiguous territories inhabited by ethnic Mongols is also known as Greater Mongolia[disambiguation needed ]. There are approximately 10 million ethnic Mongols in total.
Contents |
Definition[link]
A definition includes the Mongols proper, who can be approximately divided into the eastern Mongols (the Khalkha Mongols, the Inner Mongolians, the Buryats), and the Oirats. In a wider sense, the Mongol people includes all people who speak a Mongolic language, such as the Kalmyks of eastern Europe.
The designation "Mongol" briefly appeared in 8th century records of the Chinese Tang dynasty, describing a tribe of Shiwei, and resurfaced again in the late 11th century during the rule of Khitan. After the fall of Liao Dynasty in 1125, the Mongols became a leading tribe on the steppe and also had power in Northern China. However, their wars with the Jin Dynasty and Tatars had weakened them. In the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into an umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic and Turkic tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan.[9]
History[link]
Main articles: History of Mongolia and Mongols before Genghis Khan
In various times Mongols have been equated with the Scythians, the Magog and the Turkic peoples. Based on Chinese historical texts the ancestry of the Mongol peoples can be traced back to the Donghu, a nomadic confederation occupying eastern Mongolia and Manchuria. The identity of the Xiongnu is still debated today. Although some scholars maintain that they were proto-Mongols, the fact that Chinese histories trace certain Turkic tribes from the Xiongnu complicates the issue.[10] The Donghu, however, can be much more easily labeled proto-Mongol since the Chinese histories trace all the subsequent Mongolic tribes and kingdoms (Xianbei and Wuhuan peoples) from them, although some historical texts claim a mixed Xiongnu-Donghu ancestry for some tribes (e.g. the Khitan).[11]
The Donghu are mentioned by Sima Qian as already existing in Inner Mongolia north of the state of Yan in 699-632 BC. Mentions in the Lost Book of Zhou (Yizhoushu) and the Shanhaijing indicate the Donghu were also active during the Shang dynasty (1600-1046 BC). The Mongolic-speaking Xianbei originally formed a part of the Donghu confederation, but existed even before that time, as evidenced by a mention in the Guoyu ("晉語八" section) which states that during the reign of King Cheng of Zhou (reigned 1042-1021 BC) the Xianbei came to participate at a meeting of Zhou subject-lords at Qiyang (岐阳) (now Qishan County) but were only allowed to perform the fire ceremony under the supervision of Chu (楚), since they were not vassals by covenant (诸侯). After the Donghu were defeated by Modu Chanyu the Xianbei and Wuhuan survived as the main remnants of the confederation. Tadun Khan of the Wuhuan (died 207 AD) was the ancestor of the proto-Mongolic Kumo Xi.[12] In 49 AD the Mongolic Xianbei ruler Bianhe (Bayan Khan?) raided and defeated the Xiongnu, killing 2000, after having received generous gifts from Emperor Guangwu of Han. The Xianbei reached their peak under Tanshihuai Khan (reigned 156-181) who expanded the vast, but short lived, Xianbei state.
Three prominent proto-Mongol groups split from the Xianbei, as recorded by the Chinese histories: the Nirun (claimed by some to be the Avars), the Khitan and the Shiwei (a sub-tribe called the "Shiwei Menggu" is held to be the origin of the Genghisid Mongols).[13] Besides these three Xianbei groups, there were other Xianbei groups with Mongolic affiliation such as the Murong, Duan and Tuoba. Their culture was nomadic, their religion Shamanism or Buddhism and their military strength formidable. There is still no direct evidence that the Nirun spoke a Mongolic language, although most scholars agree that they were proto-Mongolic.[14] The Khitan, however, had two scripts of their own and many Mongolic words are found in their half-deciphered writings that are usually found with a parallel Chinese text (for example, nair=sun, sair=moon, tau=five, jau=hundred, m.r=horse, im.a=goat, n.q=dog, m.ng=silver, ju.un=summer, n.am.ur=autumn, u.ul=winter, heu.ur=spring, tau.l.a=rabbit, t.q.a=hen and m.g.o=snake).[15] There is no doubt regarding the Khitan being proto-Mongol.[16]
Geographically the Tuoba Xianbei ruled Inner Mongolia and northern China, the Nirun (Yujiulu Shelun was the first to use the title Khagan in 402) ruled Outer Mongolia, the Khitan were concentrated in Southern Manchuria north of Korea and the Shiwei were located to the north of the Khitan. These tribes and kingdoms were soon overshadowed by the rise of the Gok-Turks in 555, the Uyghurs in 745 and the Yenisei Kirghizs in 840. The Tuoba were eventually absorbed into China. The Rouran fled west from the Gok-Turks and either disappeared into obscurity or, as some say, invaded Europe as the Avars under their Khan Bayan I. Some Rouran under Tatar Khan migrated east founding the Tatar tribes, who became part of the Shiwei. The Khitan, who were independent after their separation from the proto-Mongol Kumo Xi (of Wuhuan origin) in 388 AD, continued as a minor power in Manchuria until one of them, Abaoji (872-926), established the Khitan Liao Dynasty (907-1125). The Khitan fled west after their defeat by the Tungusic Jurchens (later known as Manchus) and founded the Kara-Khitan or Western Liao dynasty (1125–1218) in eastern Kazakhstan. In 1218 Genghis Khan destroyed the Kara-Khitan Kingdom after which the Khitan passed into obscurity. The modern-day minority of Mongolic-speaking Daurs in China are their direct descendants based on DNA evidence.[17][18]
The Shiwei included a tribe called the Shiwei Menggu.[19] Bodonchir Munkhag (Chagatai tradition dates 'Buzanjar Munqaq' to the rebellion of Abu Muslim or 747 AD.[20]) the founder of the House of Borjigin and the ancestor of Genghis Khan is held to be descended from the Shiwei Menggu. The early Shiwei paid tribute to the Tuoba Wei (386-534) and submitted to the Khitans. After the Khitans left Mongolia the Shiwei Mongols rose to prominence, when from the 1130s there were reciprocally hostile relations between the successive khans of the Khamag Mongol confederation (Khaidu, Khabul Khan and Ambaghai Khan) and the emperors of the Jin dynasty.
With the expansion of the Mongol Empire, the Mongols settled over almost all Eurasia and carried on military campaigns from the Adriatic Sea to Java and from Japan to Palestine. Mongols simultaneously became Padishahs of Persia, Emperors of China, Great Khans of Mongolia and one Mongol even became Sultan of Egypt (Al-Adil Kitbugha). The Mongols of the Golden Horde established themselves to govern Russia by 1240.[21] By 1279, the Mongols conquered the Song Dynasty and brought all of China under control of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty.[21] With the breakup of the Empire, the dispersed Mongols quickly adopted the mostly Turkic cultures surrounding them and were assimilated, forming parts of Tatars (not confused with a tribe in ancient Mongolia), Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Yugurs and Moghuls; linguistic and cultural Persianization also began to be prominent in these territories. However, most of the Mongols returned to Mongolia, retaining their language and culture. After the fall of the Yuan Dynasty in 1368 the Mongols established their independent regime as Northern Yuan. However, the Oirads or Western Mongols began to challenge the Eastern Mongols under the Borjigin monarchs in the late 14th century.
Present-day Khalkha Mongols and Inner Mongolians are the most prominent of the remaining Eastern Mongols while the Kalmyks (formerly Oirats) in Europe are the main descendants of the Western Mongols. The Khalkha emerged during the reign of Dayan Khan (1464–1543) as one of the six tumens of the Eastern Mongols. They quickly became the dominant Mongol clan in Outer Mongolia.[22][23]
Language[link]
Main articles: Mongolic language and Mongolian language
The specific origin of the Mongolic languages and associated tribes is unclear. Some researchers have proposed a link to languages like Tungusic and Turkic, which are often included alongside Mongolic in a group called Altaic languages, though this is controversial.
Religion[link]
The original religion of the Mongols from the time of the Donghu was Tengriism. The Xianbei came in contact with Confucianism and Daoism but eventually adopted Buddhism. In the 5th century the Buddhist monk Dharmapriya was proclaimed State Teacher of the Rouran Khaganate and given 3000 families. In 511 the Rouran Douluofubadoufa Khan sent Hong Xuan to the Tuoba court with a pearl-encrusted statue of the Buddha as a gift. The Tuoba Xianbei and Khitans were mostly Buddhists, although they still retained their original Tengriism. The Tuoba had a "sacrificial castle" to the west of their capital where ceremonies to Tengri and other spirits took place. Wooden statues of the spirits were erected on top of this sacrificial castle. One ritual involved seven princes with milk offerings who ascended the stairs with 20 female shamans and offered prayers, sprinkling the statues with the sacred milk. The Khitan had their holiest Tengriist shrine on Mount Muye where portraits of their earliest ancestor Qishou Khagan, his wife Kedun and eight sons were kept in two temples. Mongols were also exposed to Zoroastrianism (Qormusta Tengri is still worshipped), Manicheism, Nestorianism, Islam and Catholicism from the west. The Mongols, in particular the Borjigin, had their holiest Tengriist shrine on Mount Burkhan Khaldun where their ancestor Borte Chinua (Blue Wolf) and Goo Maral (Beautiful Doe) had given birth to them. Genghis Khan usually fasted, prayed and meditated on this mountain before his campaigns. As a young man he had thanked the mountain for saving his life and prayed at the foot of the mountain sprinkling offerings and bowing nine times to the east with his belt around his neck and his hat held at his chest. Genghis Khan kept a close watch on the Mongol supreme shaman Kokochu Teb Tengri who sometimes conflicted with his authority. Later the imperial cult of Genghis Khan (centered on the eight white gers and nine white banners in Ordos) grew into a highly organized indigenous religion with Tengriist scriptures in the Mongolian script. Indigenous moral precepts of the Mongols were enshrined in oral wisdom sayings (now collected in several volumes), the anda (blood-brother) system and ancient texts such as the Chinggis-un Bilig (Wisdom of Genghis) and Oyun Tulkhuur (Key of Intelligence). These moral precepts were expressed in poetic form and mainly involved truthfulness, fidelity, help in hardship, unity, self-control, fortitude, veneration of nature, veneration of the state and veneration of parents.
In 1254 Mongke Khan organized a formal religious debate (in which William of Rubruck took part) between Christians, Muslims and Buddhists in Karakorum, a cosmopolitan city of many religions. The Mongol Empire was known for its religious tolerance, but had a special leaning towards Buddhism and was sympathetic towards Christianity. The Mongol leader Abaqa Khan sent a delegation of 13-16 Mongols to the Second Council of Lyon (1274), which created a great stir, particularly when their leader 'Zaganus' underwent a public baptism. Yahballaha III (1245–1317) and Rabban Bar Sauma (c. 1220-1294) were famous Mongol (part-Turkic) Nestorian Christians. The western Khanates, however, eventually adopted Islam (under Berke and Ghazan) and the Turkic languages (because of its commercial importance), although allegiance to the Great Khan and limited use of the Mongolian language can be seen even in 1330's. The Mongol nobility during the Yuan dynasty studied Confucianism but mainly followed the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism. The general populace still practised Tengriism. Dongxiang and Bonan Mongols adopted Islam, as did Mongol-speaking peoples in Afghanistan. In the 16th century the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism became the state religion of the Mongols. The Red Hat sect of Tibetan Buddhism coexisted with the Gelug Yellow Hat sect. Tengriism was absorbed into the newly formed state religion while being marginalized in its purer forms, later only surviving in far northern Mongolia. Monks were some of the leading intellectuals in Mongolia, responsible for much of the literature and art of the pre-modern period. Zanabazar (1635–1723), Zaya Pandita (1599–1662) and Danzanravjaa (1803–1856) are among the most famous Mongolian holy men. The 4th Dalai Lama Yonten Gyatso (1589–1617), a Mongolian, was the only non-Tibetan Dalai Lama. Many Buryat Mongols also became Christians due to the Russian expansion. During the socialist period religion was officially banned, although it was practiced in clandestine circles. Today, a sizable proportion of Mongols are atheist or agnostic. In the most recent census in Mongolia, almost forty percent of the population reported as being atheist, while the majority religion was Buddhism, with 53%.[24]
Physical characteristics[link]
 |
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2010) |
In terms of physical characteristics, Mongols exhibit a variety of features, with typical Mongoloid features being most noticeable. "Mongoloid" was first used in 1868 as a racial designation to distinguish Asians. People with Down's Syndrome were first called "Mongolian" in 1866. The World Health Organization (WHO) officially dropped references to "Mongolism" in 1965 after a request by the Mongolian delegate. Mongols are predominantly Tungid with Nordsinid and Turanid features observable occasionally. Mongolian folds of the eyelids exist on almost all Mongols along with relatively high and pronounced cheekbones. The Mongolian spot which is common among Mongols, is looked upon proudly as a distinguishing feature of the ethnic group. The vast majority of Mongols have black hair and brown eyes, although a certain number of Mongols, particularly the Oirat tribe in western Mongolia tend to exhibit lighter features such as fair skin, blue or green eyes, varying shades of brown hair, and sometimes even red or blonde hair.[25] Some of the Mongols today who exhibit some slight Caucasoid features most likely stem from historical intermixing with ancient Central Asian and Siberian Europoids, as opposed to recent intermixing with Slavics and other Europeans.[26]
Geographic distribution[link]
Today, people of Mongol origin live in modern state of Mongolia, China (mainly Inner Mongolia), Russia, and a few other Central Asian countries.
The differentiation between tribes and peoples (nationalities) is handled differently depending on the country. The Tumed, Chahar, Ordos, Bargut (or Barga), Altai Uriankhai, Buryats, Dörböd (Dörvöd, Dörbed), Torguud, Dariganga, Üzemchin (or Üzümchin), Bayid, Khoton, Myangad (Mingad), Zakhchin (Zakchin), Darkhad, and Oirats (or Öölds or Ölöts) are all counted as tribes of the Mongols.
Mongolia[link]
See also: Demographics of Mongolia
The population of modern Mongolia consists of 94.9% Mongols, numbering approximately 2.8 million. From the middle ages to early modern period the Khalkha, Uriankhai and Buryats were counted as eastern Mongols while the Oirats, living mainly in the Altay region, belonged to the western Mongols.
China[link]
Main article: Ethnic Mongols in China
The 2000 census of People's Republic of China counted 5.8 million Mongols, according to the narrow definition above. It should be noted that 1992 census of China counted only 3.6 million Mongols.[citation needed] Most of them live in the Inner Mongolia autonomous region, followed by Liaoning province. Small numbers can also be found in provinces near those two.
Other peoples speaking Mongolic languages are the Daur, Monguor, Dongxiang, Bonan, and parts of the Yugur. Those do not officially count as part of the Mongol nationality, but are recognized as nationalities of their own.
Russia[link]
In Russia, the Buryats belong to the eastern Mongols. The western Mongols include the Oirats in the Russian Altay and the Kalmyks at the northern side of the Caspian Sea, where they make up 53.3% of the population of Russia's autonomous Republic of Kalmykia.[27] The Tuva and the Altay people are culturally close to Mongols, but speak Turkic languages. Together they amount to approximately a million people.
Elsewhere[link]
Smaller numbers of Mongols exist in Western Europe and North America. Some of the more notable communities exist in the South Korea, the United States, the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom.
Gallery[link]
-
Arate (Commoner) wearing a fur cloak and a fur cap.
-
Arate wearing a summer-smock-flock and cap
-
Married woman in ancient national dress.
-
Girl of the Arates with sheepskin fur cloak
-
A Mongolian musician
-
A Mongol Wrangler
-
Mongolian girl performing Bayad dance
-
Mongol soldiers by Rashid al-Din in 1305
-
Mongolic Xianbei archer
-
Khitan horseman
-
A 20th century Mongol Khan, Navaanneren
-
The 4th Dalai Lama Yonten Gyatso
See also[link]
References[link]
 |
This article uses bare URLs for citations. Please consider adding full citations so that the article remains verifiable. Several templates and the Reflinks tool are available to assist in formatting. (Reflinks documentation) (December 2011) |
- ^ "CIA - The World Factbook". Cia.gov. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mg.html. Retrieved 2012-02-22.
- ^ a b The Mongolian Ethnic Group (China.org.cn June 21, 2005)
- ^ 2,656 Mongols proper, 445,175 Buryats, 173,996 Kalmyks (Russian Census (2002))
- ^ "'Korean Dream' fills Korean classrooms in Mongolia", The Chosun Ilbo, 2008-04-24, http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200804/200804240009.html, retrieved 2009-02-06 [dead link]
- ^ Bahrampour, Tara (2006-07-03). "Mongolians Meld Old, New In Making Arlington Home". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/02/AR2006070200875.html. Retrieved 2007-09-05.
- ^ "Latest numbers show 7,500 Mongolians working in Czech Republic", Mongolia Web, 2008-02-19, http://www.mongolia-web.com/content/view/1630/2/, retrieved 2008-10-04
- ^ a b c d e f g Mongolia National Census 2010 Provision Results. National Statistical Office of Mongolia (in Mongolian.)
- ^ China Mongolian, Mongol Ethnic Minority, Mongols History, Food
- ^ "Mongolia: Ethnography of Mongolia". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-27420/Mongolia#394579.hook. Retrieved 2007-07-22..
- ^ John Man-Attila: the barbarian king who challenged Rome, p.38
- ^ Frances Wood, The Silk Road: two thousand years in the heart of Asia, p.48
- ^ Xin Tangshu 219. 6173.
- ^ University of California, Berkeley. Project on Linguistic Analysis-Journal of Chinese linguistics, p.154
- ^ Thomas Hoppe-Die ethnischen Gruppen Xinjiangs: Kulturunterschiede und interethnische, p.66
- ^ Frederick W. Mote-Imperial China 900–1800, p.405
- ^ Herbert Franke, John King FairbankProxy-Connection: keep-alive Cache-Control: max-age=0 Denis Crispin Twitchett, Roderick MacFarquhar, Denis Twitchett, Albert Feuerwerker. vol.3-The Cambridge History of China, p.364
- ^ Uradyn Erden Bulag-The Mongols at China's edge: history and the politics of national unity, p.167
- ^ Ruofu Du, Vincent F. Yip-Ethnic groups in China, p.27
- ^ Paul Ratchnevsky, Thomas Nivison Haining-Genghis Khan: his life and legacy, p.7
- ^ Munis, M.R.M.Agahi, Firdaws al-iqbal, p.15
- ^ a b Jerry Bentley, "Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchange in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 136.
- ^ Juha Janhunen-The Mongolic languages, p.177
- ^ Elizabeth E. Bacon-Obok: A Study of Social Structure in Eurasia, p.82
- ^ National Census 2010 Preliminary results (in Mongolian)]
- ^ "Eurasian Women Warriors and Priestesses". Csen.org. http://www.csen.org/aciaa_article/Eurasian%20Women%20Warriors3.htm. Retrieved 2012-02-22.
- ^ http://news.discovery.com/history/mongolian-tomb-western-skeleton.html
- ^ "Kalmyks". World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. 2005. http://www.minorityrights.org/?lid=2497. Retrieved 2008-05-18.
External links[link]
- Downloadable article: "Evidence that a West-East admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early Bronze Age" Li et al. BMC Biology 2010, 8:15. [1]
- Ethnic map of Mongolia
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||
http://wn.com/Mongols
Related pages:
http://it.wn.com/Mongoli
http://cs.wn.com/Mongolové
http://id.wn.com/Suku Mongol
http://es.wn.com/Mongol (etnia)
http://ru.wn.com/Монголы
http://nl.wn.com/Mongolen
http://pl.wn.com/Mongołowie
http://fr.wn.com/Mongols
http://de.wn.com/Mongolen
http://hi.wn.com/मंगोल
http://pt.wn.com/Mongóis
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongols
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is about the person. For other uses, see Genghis Khan (disambiguation).
"Temujin" redirects here. For the video game, see Temujin (video game).
| Genghis Khan | |
|---|---|
| Dalai Khagan of the Great Mongol State (Supreme Khan of the Mongols) King of Kings Khagan of Khamag Mongol Lord of the Four Colors and Five Tongues Son of Khan Tengri Emperor of All Men |
|
|
|
| Reign | Spring 1206 – August 25, 1227 (more than 21 years) |
| Coronation | Spring 1206 in khurultai at the Onon River, Mongolia |
| Full name |
 Mongol: Чингис Хаан Chingis Khaan Mongol script (right): Chinggis Khagan[note 1] |
| Titles | Khan, Khagan Temple name: Chinese: 元太祖; pinyin: Yuán Tàizǔ Posthumous name: Emperor Fatian Qiyun Shengwu (法天啟運聖武皇帝) |
| Born | probably 1162[2] |
| Birthplace | Khentii Mountains, Mongolia |
| Died | August 1227[3] (Aged 65) |
| Successor | Ögedei Khan |
| Consort | Borte Ujin Khulan Yesugen Yesui others |
| Offspring | Jochi Chagatai Ögedei Tolui Others |
| Royal House | Borjigin |
| Father | Yesügei |
| Mother | Oulen |
Genghis Khan (/ˈɡɛŋɡɪs ˈkɑːn/ or /ˈdʒɛŋɡɪs ˈkɑːn/,[4][5] Mongol: [tʃiŋɡɪs xaːŋ] ( listen); 1162? – August 1227), born Temujin, was the founder and Great Khan (emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death.
He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia. After founding the Mongol Empire and being proclaimed "Genghis Khan", he started the Mongol invasions that resulted in the conquest of most of Eurasia. These included raids or invasions of the Kara-Khitan Khanate, Caucasus, Khwarezmid Empire, Western Xia and Jin dynasties. These campaigns were often accompanied by wholesale massacres of the civilian populations – especially in Khwarezmia. By the end of his life, the Mongol Empire occupied a substantial portion of Central Asia and China.
Before Genghis Khan died, he assigned Ögedei Khan as his successor and split his empire into khanates among his sons and grandsons.[6] He died in 1227 after defeating the Western Xia. He was buried in an unmarked grave somewhere in Mongolia at an unknown location. His descendants went on to stretch the Mongol Empire across most of Eurasia by conquering or creating vassal states out of all of modern-day China, Korea, the Caucasus, Central Asian countries, and substantial portions of modern Eastern Europe, Russia and the Middle East. Many of these invasions resulted in the large-scale slaughter of local populations, which have given Genghis Khan and his empire a fearsome reputation in local histories.[7]
Beyond his military accomplishments, Genghis Khan also advanced the Mongol Empire in other ways. He decreed the adoption of the Uyghur script as the Mongol Empire's writing system. He also promoted religious tolerance in the Mongol Empire, and created a unified empire from the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia. Present-day Mongolians regard him as the founding father of Mongolia.[8]
Contents |
Early life[link]
Lineage[link]
Main article: Family tree of Genghis Khan
Temujin was related on his father's side to Khabul Khan, Ambaghai and Hotula Khan who had headed the Khamag Mongol confederation. When the Chinese Jin Dynasty switched support from the Mongols to the Tatars in 1161, they destroyed Khabul Khan.[9] Temujin's father, Yesügei (leader of the Borjigin clan and nephew to Ambaghai and Hotula Khan), emerged as the head of the ruling clan of the Mongols, but this position was contested by the rival Tayichi’ud clan, who descended directly from Ambaghai. When the Tatars grew too powerful after 1161, the Jin switched their support from the Tatars to the Keraits.
Birth[link]
Because of the lack of contemporary written records, there is very little factual information about the early life of Temujin. The few sources that provide insight into this period often conflict.
Temujin was born in 1162 or 1155[2] in Delüün Boldog near Burkhan Khaldun mountain and the Onon and Kherlen Rivers in modern-day Mongolia, not far from the current capital, Ulaanbaatar. The Secret History of the Mongols reports that Temüjin was born with a blood clot grasped in his fist, a traditional sign that he was destined to become a great leader. He was the third-oldest son of his father Yesügei, a Khamag Mongol's major chief of the Kiyad and an ally of Toghrul Khan of the Kerait tribe,[10] and the oldest son of his mother Hoelun. According to the Secret History, Temujin was named after a Tatar chieftain, Temujin-üge, whom his father had just captured. The name also suggests that they may have been descended from a family of blacksmiths (see section Name and title below).
Yesukhei's clan was called Borjigin (Боржигин), and Hoelun was from the Olkhunut, the sub-lineage of the Onggirat tribe.[11][12] Like other tribes, they were nomads. Because his father was a chieftain, as were his predecessors, Temüjin was of a noble background. This higher social standing made it easier to solicit help from and eventually consolidate the other Mongol tribes.[citation needed]
No accurate portraits of Genghis Khan exist today, and any surviving depictions are considered to be artistic interpretations. Persian historian Rashid-al-Din recorded in his "Chronicles" that the legendary "glittering" ancestor of Genghis Khan was tall, long-bearded, red-haired, and green-eyed. Rashid al-Din also described the first meeting of Genghis and Kublai Khan, when Genghis Khan was surprised to find that Kublai had not inherited his red hair.[13] Also according to al-Din Genghis' Borjigid clan, had a legend involving their origins: it began as the result of an affair between Alan-ko and a stranger to her land, a glittering man who happened to have red hair and bluish-green eyes. Modern historian Paul Ratchnevsky has suggested in his Genghis biography that the "glittering man" may have been from the Kyrgyz people, who historically displayed these same characteristics. These traits can still be found among modern Mongolians where they have a predominate Mongoloid appearance and with frequent occurrence of blue eyes, green eyes and red hair.[14] A certain number of Mongols, particularly the Oirat tribe in western Mongolia tend to exhibit lighter features such as fair skin, blue or green eyes, varying shades of brown hair, and sometimes even red or blonde hair.[15] Some of the Mongols today who exhibit some slight Caucasoid features most likely stem from historical intermixing with ancient Central Asian and Siberian Europoids, as opposed to recent intermixing with Slavics and other Europeans.[16]
Early life and family[link]
Temujin had three brothers named Hasar, Hachiun, and Temüge, and one sister named Temülen, as well as two half-brothers named Behter and Belgutei. Like many of the nomads of Mongolia, Temujin's early life was difficult. His father arranged a marriage for him, and at nine years of age, he was delivered by his father to the family of his future wife Börte, who was a member of the tribe Onggirat. Temujin was to live there in service to Dei Sechen, the head of the new household, until he reached the marriageable age of 12. While heading home, his father ran into the neighboring Tatars, who had long been enemies of the Mongols, and he was subsequently poisoned by the food they offered. Upon learning this, Temujin returned home to claim his father's position as chieftain of the tribe; however, his father's tribe refused to be led by a boy so young. They abandoned Hoelun and her children, leaving them without protection.
For the next several years, Hoelun and her children lived in poverty, surviving primarily on wild fruits and ox carcasses, marmots, and other small game hunted by Temujin and his brothers. It was during one hunting excursion that 10-year-old Temujin killed his half-brother, Behter, during a fight which resulted from a dispute over hunting spoils.[17] This incident cemented his position. In another incident in 1182 he was captured in a raid and held prisoner by his father's former allies, the Tayichi'ud. The Tayichi'ud enslaved Temujin (reportedly with a cangue), but with the help of a sympathetic guard, the father of Chilaun (who later became a general of Genghis Khan), he was able to escape from the ger in the middle of the night by hiding in a river crevice.[citation needed] It was around this time that Jelme and Bo'orchu, two of Genghis Khan's future generals, joined forces with him. Temüjin's reputation also became widespread after his escape from the Tayichi'ud.
At this time, none of the tribal confederations of Mongolia were united politically, and arranged marriages were often used to solidify temporary alliances. Temujin grew up observing the tough political climate of Mongolia, which included tribal warfare, thievery, raids, corruption and continuing acts of revenge carried out between the various confederations, all compounded by interference from foreign forces such as the Chinese dynasties to the south. Temujin's mother Olen taught him many lessons about the unstable political climate of Mongolia, especially the need for alliances.
As previously arranged by his father, Temujin married Börte of the Onggirat tribe when he was around 16 in order to cement alliances between their respective tribes. Börte had four sons, Jochi (1185–1226), Chagatai (1187—1241), Ögedei (1189—1241), and Tolui (1190–1232). Soon after Börte's marriage to Temujin, she was kidnapped by the Merkits, and reportedly given away as a wife. Temüjin rescued her with the help of his friend and future rival, Jamukha, and his protector, Toghrul Khan of the Kerait tribe. She gave birth to a son, Jochi, nine months later, clouding the issue of his parentage. Despite speculation over Jochi, Börte would be his only empress, though Temujin did follow tradition by taking several morganatic wives.[18] Genghis Khan also had many other children with his other wives, but they were excluded from the succession. While the names of sons were documented, daughters were not. The names of at least six daughters are known, and while they played significant roles behind the scenes during his lifetime, no documents have survived that definitively provide the number or names of daughters born to the consorts of Genghis Khan.[19]
Temujin valued loyalty above all else and also valued brotherhood.[20] Jamukha was one of Temujin's best friends growing up. But their friendship was tested later in life, when Temujin was fighting to become a khan. Jamukha said this to Temujin before he was killed, "What use is there in my becoming a companion to you? On the contrary, sworn brother, in the black night I would haunt your dreams, in the bright day I would trouble your heart. I would be the louse in your collar, I would become the splinter in your door-panel...as there was room for only one sun in the sky, there was room only for one Mongol lord."[20]
Religion[link]
Genghis Khan's religion is widely speculated to have been Shamanism or Tengriism, which was very likely among nomadic Mongol-Turkic tribes of Central Asia. The Secret History of Mongols chronicles that Genghis prayed to the Burhan Haldun mountain.
But he was very tolerant religiously, and interested in learning philosophical and moral lessons from other religions. To do so, he consulted Buddhist monks, Muslims, Christian missionaries, and the Taoist monk Qiu Chuji.[21]
Uniting the confederations[link]
The Central Asian plateau (north of China) around the time of Temüjin (the early 13th century) was divided into several tribes or confederations, among them Naimans, Merkits, Tatars, Khamag Mongols, and Keraits, that were all prominent in their own right and often unfriendly toward each other as evidenced by random raids, revenge attacks, and plundering.
Temujin began his slow ascent to power by offering himself as an ally (or, according to others sources, a vassal) to his father's anda (sworn brother or blood brother) Toghrul, who was Khan of the Kerait, and is better known by the Chinese title "Wang Khan", which the Jin Empire granted him in 1197. This relationship was first reinforced when Börte was captured by the Merkits; it was Toghrul to whom Temujin turned for support. In response, Toghrul offered his vassal 200,000 of his Kerait warriors and suggested that he also involve his childhood friend Jamukha, who had himself become Khan (ruler) of his own tribe, the Jadaran.[22] Although the campaign was successful and led to the recapture of Börte and utter defeat of the Merkits, it also paved the way for the split between the childhood friends, Temujin and Jamukha. Temujin had become blood brother (anda) with Jamukha earlier, and they had vowed to remain eternally faithful.
The main opponents of the Mongol confederation (traditionally the "Mongols") around 1200 were the Naimans to the west, the Merkits to the north, Tanguts to the south, and the Jin and Tatars to the east. By 1190, Temujin, his followers, and their advisors, had united the smaller Mongol confederation only. In his rule and his conquest of rival tribes, Temujin broke with Mongol tradition in a few crucial ways. He delegated authority based on merit and loyalty, rather than family ties. As an incentive for absolute obedience and following his rule of law, the Yassa code, Temujin promised civilians and soldiers wealth from future possible war spoils. As he defeated rival tribes, he did not drive away enemy soldiers and abandon the rest. Instead, he took the conquered tribe under his protection and integrated its members into his own tribe. He would even have his mother adopt orphans from the conquered tribe, bringing them into his family. These political innovations inspired great loyalty among the conquered people, making Temujin stronger with each victory.[23]
File:Genghis Khan's enthronement in 1206.jpg
Genghis Khan proclaimed Khagan of all Mongols. Illustration from a 15th century Jami' al-tawarikh manuscript
Toghrul's (Wang Khan) son Senggum was jealous of Temüjin's growing power, and his affinity with his father. He allegedly planned to assassinate Temujin. Toghrul, though allegedly saved on multiple occasions by Temujin, gave in to his son[24] and became uncooperative with Temüjin. Temüjin learned of Senggum's intentions and eventually defeated him and his loyalists. One of the later ruptures between Toghrul and Temüjin was Toghrul's refusal to give his daughter in marriage to Jochi, the eldest son of Temüjin, a sign of disrespect in the Mongolian culture. This act led to the split between both factions, and was a prelude to war. Toghrul allied himself with Jamukha, who already opposed Temujin's forces; however, the internal dispute between Toghrul and Jamukha, plus the desertion of a number of their allies to Temujin, led to Toghrul's defeat. Jamukha escaped during the conflict. This defeat was a catalyst for the fall and eventual dissolution of the Kerait tribe.
The next direct threat to Temüjin was the Naimans (Naiman Mongols), with whom Jamukha and his followers took refuge. The Naimans did not surrender, although enough sectors again voluntarily sided with Temujin. In 1201, a khuruldai elected Jamukha as Gür Khan, "universal ruler", a title used by the rulers of the Kara-Khitan Khanate. Jamukha's assumption of this title was the final breach with Temüjin, and Jamukha formed a coalition of tribes to oppose him. Before the conflict, however, several generals abandoned Jamukha, including Subutai, Jelme's well-known younger brother. After several battles, Jamukha was finally turned over to Temujin by his own men in 1206.
According to the Secret History, Temujin again offered his friendship to Jamukha, asking him to return to his side. Temujin had killed the men who betrayed Jamukha, stating that he did not want disloyal men in his army. Jamukha refused the offer of friendship and reunion, saying that there can only be one Sun in the sky, and he asked for a noble death. The custom is to die without spilling blood, which is granted by breaking the back. Jamukha requested this form of death, despite the fact that in the past Jamukha had been known to have boiled his opponent's generals alive. The rest of the Merkit clan that sided with the Naimans were defeated by Subutai, who was by then a member of Temujin's personal guard and later became one of the most successful commanders of Genghis Khan. The Naimans' defeat left Genghis Khan as the sole ruler of the Mongol plains – all the prominent confederations fell or united under Temüjin's Mongol confederation.
Accounts of Genghis Khan's life are marked by claims of a series of betrayals and conspiracies. These include rifts with his early allies such as Jamuhha (who also wanted to be a ruler of Mongol tribes) and Wang Khan (his and his father's ally), his son Jochi, and problems with the most important shaman, who was allegedly trying to drive a wedge between him and his loyal brother Khasar. His military strategies showed a deep interest in gathering good intelligence and understanding the motivations of his rivals as exemplified by his extensive spy network and Yam route systems. He seemed to be a quick student, adopting new technologies and ideas that he encountered, such as siege warfare from the Chinese. He was also ruthless, as demonstrated by his measuring against the linchpin tactic used against the tribes led by Jamukha.
As a result by 1206 Temüjin had managed to unite or subdue the Merkits, Naimans, Mongols, Keraits, Tatars, Uyghurs and other disparate smaller tribes under his rule. It was a monumental feat for the "Mongols" (as they became known collectively). At a Khuruldai, a council of Mongol chiefs, he was acknowledged as "Khan" of the consolidated tribes and took the new title "Genghis Khan". The title Khagan was not conferred on Genghis until after his death, when his son and successor, Ögedei, took the title for himself and extended it posthumously to his father (as he was also to be posthumously declared the founder of the Yuan Dynasty). This unification of all confederations by Genghis Khan established peace between previously warring tribes and a single political and military force under Genghis Khan.
See also: Mongols before Genghis Khan and Mongols
Military campaigns[link]
See also: Mongol invasions
Western Xia Dynasty[link]
During the 1206 political rise of Genghis Khan, the Mongol Empire created by Genghis Khan and his allies shared its western borders with the Tanguts' Western Xia Dynasty. To its east and south was the Jin Dynasty, founded by the Manchurian Jurchens, who ruled northern China as well as being the traditional overlords of the Mongolian tribes for centuries.
Genghis Khan organized his people, army, and his state to first prepare for war with Western Xia, or Xi Xia, which was closer to the Mongolian lands. He correctly believed that the more powerful Jin Dynasty's young ruler would not come to the aid of Xi Xia. When the Tanguts requested help from the Jin Dynasty, they were refused.[24] Despite initial difficulties in capturing its well-defended cities, Genghis Khan forced the surrender of Western Xia by 1209.
Jin Dynasty[link]
Main article: Mongol-Jin War
In 1211, after the conquest of Western Xia, Genghis Khan planned again to conquer the Jin Dynasty. The commander of the Jin Dynasty army made a tactical mistake in not attacking the Mongols at the first opportunity. Instead, the Jin commander sent a messenger, Ming-Tan, to the Mongol side, who defected and told the Mongols that the Jin army was waiting on the other side of the pass. At this engagement fought at Badger Pass the Mongols massacred thousands of Jin troops. In 1215 Genghis besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing (later known as Beijing). This forced the Emperor Xuanzong to move his capital south to Kaifeng, abandoning the northern half of his kingdom to the Mongols.
Kara-Khitan Khanate[link]
Main article: Kara-Khitan Khanate
Kuchlug, the deposed Khan of the Naiman confederation that Temüjin defeated and folded into his Mongol Empire, fled west and usurped the khanate of Kara-Khitan (also known as the Western Liao, as it was originally established as remnants of the Liao Dynasty). Genghis Khan decided to conquer the Kara-Khitan khanate and defeat Kuchlug, possibly to take him out of power. By this time the Mongol army was exhausted from ten years of continuous campaigning in China against the Western Xia and Jin Dynasty. Therefore Genghis sent only two tumen (20,000 soldiers) against Kuchlug, under his younger general, Jebe, known as "The Arrow".
With such a small force, the invading Mongols were forced to change strategies and resort to inciting internal revolt among Kuchlug's supporters, leaving the Khara-Khitan khanate more vulnerable to Mongol conquest. As a result, Kuchlug's army was defeated west of Kashgar. Kuchlug fled again, but was soon hunted down by Jebe's army and executed. By 1218, as a result of defeat of Kara-Khitan khanate, the Mongol Empire and its control extended as far west as Lake Balkhash, which bordered the Khwarezmia (Khwarezmid Empire), a Muslim state that reached the Caspian Sea to the west and Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea to the south.
Khwarezmian Empire[link]
Main article: Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia
In the early 13th century, the Khwarezmian Dynasty was governed by Shah Ala ad-Din Muhammad. Genghis Khan saw the potential advantage in Khwarezmia as a commercial trading partner using the Silk Road, and he initially sent a 500-man caravan to establish official trade ties with the empire. However, Inalchuq, the governor of the Khwarezmian city of Otrar, attacked the caravan that came from Mongolia, claiming that the caravan contained spies and therefore was a conspiracy against Khwarezmia. The situation became further complicated because the governor later refused to make repayments for the looting of the caravans and handing over the perpetrators. Genghis Khan then sent again a second group of three ambassadors (two Mongols and a Muslim) to meet the Shah himself instead of the governor Inalchuq. The Shah had all the men shaved and the Muslim beheaded and sent his head back with the two remaining ambassadors. This was seen as an affront and insult to Genghis Khan. Outraged Genghis Khan planned one of his largest invasion campaigns by organizing together around 200,000 soldiers (20 tumens), his most capable generals and some of his sons. He left a commander and number of troops in China, designated his successors to be his family members and likely appointed Ogedei to be his immediate successor and then went out to Khwarezmia.
The Mongol army under Genghis Khan, generals and his sons crossed the Tien Shan mountains by entering the area controlled by the Khwarezmian Empire. After compiling intelligence from many sources Genghis Khan carefully prepared his army, which was divided into three groups. His son Jochi led the first division into the northeast of Khwarezmia. The second division under Jebe marched secretly to the southeast part of Khwarzemia to form, with the first division, a pincer attack on Samarkand. The third division under Genghis Khan and Tolui marched to the northwest and attacked Khwarzemia from that direction.
The Shah's army was split by diverse internal disquisitions and by the Shah's decision to divide his army into small groups concentrated in various cities. This fragmentation was decisive in Khwarezmia's defeats, as it allowed the Mongols, although exhausted from the long journey, to immediately set about defeating small fractions of the Khwarzemi forces instead of facing a unified defense. The Mongol army quickly seized the town of Otrar, relying on superior strategy and tactics. Genghis Khan ordered the wholesale massacre of many of the civilians, enslaved the rest of the population and executed Inalchuq by pouring molten silver into his ears and eyes, as retribution for his actions. Near the end of the battle the Shah fled rather than surrender. Genghis Khan charged Subutai and Jebe with hunting him down, giving them two years and 20,000 men. The Shah died under mysterious circumstances on a small island within his empire.
The Mongols' conquest, even by their own standards, was brutal. After the capital Samarkand fell, the capital was moved to Bukhara by the remaining men, and Genghis Khan dedicated two of his generals and their forces to completely destroying the remnants of the Khwarezmid Empire, including not only royal buildings, but entire towns, populations and even vast swaths of farmland. According to stories, Genghis Khan even went so far as to divert a river through the Khwarezmid emperor's birthplace, erasing it from the map.
The Mongols attacked Samarkand using prisoners as body shields. After several days only a few remaining soldiers, die-hard supporters of the Shah, held out in the citadel. After the fortress fell, Genghis supposedly reneged on his surrender terms and executed every soldier that had taken arms against him at Samarkand. The people of Samarkand were ordered to evacuate and assemble in a plain outside the city, where they were killed and pyramids of severed heads raised as a symbol of victory.[25] Ata-Malik Juvayni, a high official in the service of the Mongol empire, wrote that in Termez, on the Oxus, "all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain".[25]
The city of Bukhara was not heavily fortified, with a moat and a single wall, and the citadel typical of Khwarezmi cities. The city leaders opened the gates to the Mongols, though a unit of Turkish defenders held the city's citadel for another twelve days. Survivors from the citadel were executed, artisans and craftsmen were sent back to Mongolia, young men who had not fought were drafted into the Mongolian army and the rest of the population was sent into slavery. As the Mongol soldiers looted the city, a fire broke out, razing most of the city to the ground.[26] Genghis Khan had the city's surviving population assemble in the main mosque of the town, where he declared that he was the flail of God, sent to punish them for their sins.
Meanwhile, the wealthy trading city of Urgench was still in the hands of Khwarezmian forces. The assault on Urgench proved to be the most difficult battle of the Mongol invasion and the city fell only after the defenders put up a stout defense, fighting block for block. Mongolian casualties were higher than normal, due to the unaccustomed difficulty of adapting Mongolian tactics to city fighting.
As usual, the artisans were sent back to Mongolia, young women and children were given to the Mongol soldiers as slaves, and the rest of the population was massacred. The Persian scholar Juvayni states that 50,000 Mongol soldiers were given the task of executing twenty-four Urgench citizens each, which would mean that 1.2 million people were killed. While this is an exaggeration, the sacking of Urgench is considered one of the bloodiest massacres in human history.
In the meantime, Genghis Khan selected his third son Ögedei as his successor before his army set out, and specified that subsequent Khans should be his direct descendants. Genghis Khan also left Muqali, one of his most trusted generals, as the supreme commander of all Mongol forces in Jin China while he was out battling the Khwarezmid Empire to the west.
Georgia and Volga Bulgaria[link]
Main articles: Mongol invasions of Georgia and Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria
After the defeat of the Khwarezmian Empire in 1220, Genghis Khan gathered his forces in Persia and Armenia to return to the Mongolian steppes. Under the suggestion of Subutai, the Mongol army was split into two forces. Genghis Khan led the main army on a raid through Afghanistan and northern India towards Mongolia, while another 20,000 (two tumen) contingent marched through the Caucasus and into Russia under generals Jebe and Subutai. They pushed deep into Armenia and Azerbaijan. The Mongols destroyed the kingdom of Georgia, sacked the Genoese trade-fortress of Caffa in Crimea and overwintered near the Black Sea. Heading home, Subutai's forces attacked the allied forces of the Cuman-Kipchaks and the poorly coordinated 80,000 Kievan Rus' troops led by Mstislav the Bold of Halych and Mstislav III of Kiev who went out to stop the Mongols' actions in the area. Subutai sent emissaries to the Slavic princes calling for a separate peace, but the emissaries were executed. At the Battle of Kalka River in 1223, Subutai's forces defeated the larger Kievan force, while losing the battle of Samara Bend against the neighboring Volga Bulgars - one of the Mongol's few, if not only, utter defeat; the Khwarizmi historian al-Nasawi says only 4,000 survived.[27] The Russian princes then sued for peace. Subutai agreed but was in no mood to pardon the princes. As was customary in Mongol society for nobility, the Russian princes were given a bloodless death. Subutai had a large wooden platform constructed on which he ate his meals along with his other generals. Six Russian princes, including Mstislav III of Kiev, were put under this platform and crushed to death.
The Mongols learned from captives of the abundant green pastures beyond the Bulgar territory, allowing for the planning for conquest of Hungary and Europe. Genghis Khan recalled Subutai back to Mongolia soon afterwards, and Jebe died on the road back to Samarkand. Subutai and Jebe's famous cavalry expedition, in which they encircled the entire Caspian Sea defeating all armies in their path, except for that of the Volga Bulgars - who were said to be one of the few, if not the only people to ever defeat Genghis Khan, remains unparalleled to this day, and word of the Mongol triumphs began to trickle to other nations, particularly Europe. These two campaigns are generally regarded as reconnaissance campaigns that tried to get the feel of the political and cultural elements of the regions. In 1225 both divisions returned to Mongolia. These invasions added Transoxiana and Persia to an already formidable empire while destroying any resistance along the way. Later under Genghis Khan's grandson Batu and the Golden Horde, the Mongols returned to conquer Volga Bulgaria and the Kievan Rus in 1237, concluding the campaign in 1240.
Western Xia and Jin Dynasty[link]
Main article: Mongol invasion of China
The vassal emperor of the Tanguts (Western Xia) had earlier refused to take part in the war against the Khwarezmid Empire after Genghis Khan and the main army marched towards Kharezmian Empire. Plus Western Xia and the defeated Jin Dynasty formed a coalition to resist the Mongols, counting on the campaign against the Khwarezmians to drain the Mongols' ability to respond effectively.
In 1226, immediately after returning from the west, Genghis Khan began a retaliatory attack on the Tanguts. His armies quickly took Heisui, Ganzhou and Suzhou (not the Suzhou in Jiangsu province), and in the autumn he took Xiliang-fu. One of the Tangut generals challenged the Mongols to a battle near Helanshan, but was defeated. In November, Genghis laid siege to the Tangut city Lingzhou, and crossed the Yellow River, defeating the Tangut relief army. According to legend, it was here that Genghis Khan reportedly saw a line of five stars arranged in the sky, and interpreted it as an omen of his victory.
In 1227, Genghis Khan's army attacked and destroyed the Tangut capital of Ning Hia, and continued to advance, seizing Lintiao-fu, Xining province, Xindu[disambiguation needed ]-fu, and Deshun province in quick succession in the Spring. At Deshun, the Tangut general Ma Jianlong put up a fierce resistance for several days and personally led charges against the invaders outside the city gate. Ma Jianlong later died from wounds received from arrows in battle. Genghis Khan, after conquering Deshun, went to Liupanshan (Qingshui County, Gansu Province) to escape the severe summer. The new Tangut emperor quickly surrendered to the Mongols, and the rest of the Tanguts officially surrendered soon after. Not happy with their betrayal and resistance, Genghis Khan ordered the entire imperial family to be executed, effectively ending the Tangut lineage.
Some accounts say that Genghis Khan was castrated by a Tangut princess using a hidden knife, who wanted revenge against his treatment of the Tanguts and stop him from raping her.[28][29][30] After his castration, Genghis Khan died, and the Tangut princess committed suicide by drowning in the Yellow River according to the legend.[31][32] In some mythical legends, it is claimed that Genghis fell into a trance after being castrated and is waiting to be sent back to the Mongol people.[33][34]
Succession[link]
File:Genghis Khan and three of his four sons.jpg
Genghis Khan and three of his four sons[citation needed]. Illustration from a 15th century Jami' al-tawarikh manuscript
The succession topic of Genghis Khan was already significant during the later years of Genghis Khan's reign since he was already reaching his older years. Also the long running paternity discussion about Genghis' oldest son Jochi was already a relatively hot topic behind the scenes, which was particularly contentious because of the seniority of Jochi among the brothers. According to traditional historical accounts, the issue over Jochi's paternity was voiced most strongly by Chagatai. In The Secret History of the Mongols, just before the invasion of the Khwarezmid Empire by Genghis Khan, Chagatai declares before his father and brothers that he would never accept Jochi as Genghis Khan's successor. In response to this tension[35] and possibly for other reasons, it was Ögedei who was appointed as successor.
Jochi[link]
Jochi died in 1226, during his father's lifetime. Some scholars, notably Ratchnevsky, have commented on the possibility that Jochi was secretly poisoned by an order from Genghis Khan. Rashid al-Din reports that the great Khan sent for his sons in the spring of 1223, and while his brothers heeded the order, Jochi remained in Khorasan. Juzjani suggests that the disagreement arose from a quarrel between Jochi and his brothers in the siege of Urgench. Jochi had attempted to protect Urgench from destruction, as it belonged to territory allocated to him as a fief. He concludes his story with the clearly apocryphal statement by Jochi: "Genghis Khan is mad to have massacred so many people and laid waste so many lands. I would be doing a service if I killed my father when he is hunting, made an alliance with Sultan Muhammad, brought this land to life and gave assistance and support to the Muslims." Juzjani claims that it was in response to hearing of these plans that Genghis Khan ordered his son secretly poisoned; however, as Sultan Muhammad was already dead in 1223, the accuracy of this story is questionable.[36]
Genghis Khan was aware of this friction between his sons (particularly between Chagatai and Jochi) and worried of possible conflict between them if he died and therefore he decided to divide his empire among his sons and make all of them Khan in their own right and by appointing one of his sons as his successor. Chagatai was considered unstable due to his temper and rash behavior because of his statements he made that he would not follow Jochi if he were to become his father's successor. Tolui, Genghis Khan's youngest son was not to be his successor because he was the youngest and in the Mongol culture, youngest sons were not given a huge responsibility due to their age. If Jochi was to become successor, it was likely that Chagatai would engage in warfare with him and collapse the empire. Therefore Genghis Khan decided to give the throne to Ogedei. Ogedei was seen by Genghis Khan as dependable in character and relatively stable and down to earth and would be a neutral candidate and might defuse the situation between his brothers.
Death and burial[link]
Main article: Tomb of Genghis Khan
In late August 1227, after defeating the Tangut people, Genghis Khan died (according to The Secret History of the Mongols). The reason for his death is uncertain and speculations abound. Some historians maintain that he fell off his horse during a horseback pursuit from the land of present day Egypt due to battle wounds and physical fatigue, dying of his injuries.[37] Others contend that he was felled by a protracted illness such as pneumonia. The Galician-Volhynian Chronicle alleges he was killed by the Tanguts in battle. Later Mongol chronicles connect Genghis' death with a Tangut princess taken as war booty. One chronicle from the early 17th century even relates that the princess hid a small dagger and stabbed him.. Some Mongol authors have doubted this version and suspected it to be an invention by the rival Oirads.[38]
Years before his death, Genghis Khan asked to be buried without markings, according to the customs of his tribe. After he died, his body was returned to Mongolia and presumably to his birthplace in Khentii Aimag, where many assume he is buried somewhere close to the Onon River and the Burkhan Khaldun mountain (part of the Kentii mountain range). According to legend, the funeral escort killed anyone and anything across their path to conceal where he was finally buried. The Genghis Khan Mausoleum, constructed many years after his death, is his memorial, but not his burial site.
In 1939 Guomindang Chinese Nationalist soldiers took the mausoleum from its position at the 'Lord's Enclosure' (Mongolian: Edsen Khoroo) in Mongolia to protect it from Japanese troops. It was taken through Communist-held territory in Yan'an some 900 km on carts to safety at a Buddhist monastery, the Dongshan Dafo Dian, where it remained for ten years. In 1949, as Communist troops advanced, the Nationalist soldiers moved it another 200 km farther west to the famous Tibetan monastery of Kumbum Monastery or Ta'er Shi near Xining, which soon fell under Communist control. In early 1954, Genghis Khan's bier and relics were returned to the Lord's Enclosure in Mongolia. By 1956 a new temple was erected there to house them.[39] In 1968 during the Cultural Revolution, Red Guards destroyed almost everything of value. The "relics" were remade in the 1970s and a great marble statue of Genghis was completed in 1989.[40]
On October 6, 2004, a joint Japanese-Mongolian archaeological dig uncovered what is believed to be Genghis Khan's palace in rural Mongolia, which raises the possibility of actually locating the ruler's long-lost burial site.[41] Folklore says that a river was diverted over his grave to make it impossible to find (the same manner of burial as the Sumerian King Gilgamesh of Uruk and Atilla the Hun). Other tales state that his grave was stampeded over by many horses, and that trees were then planted over the site, and the permafrost also did its part in hiding the burial site.
Genghis Khan left behind an army of more than 129,000 men; 28,000 were given to his various brothers and his sons. Tolui, his youngest son, inherited more than 100,000 men. This force contained the bulk of the elite Mongolian cavalry. By tradition, the youngest son inherits his father's property. Jochi, Chagatai, Ögedei Khan, and Kulan's son Gelejian received armies of 4,000 men each. His mother and the descendants of his three brothers received 3,000 men each.
Mongol Empire[link]
Main article: Mongol Empire
Politics and economics[link]
Main article: Organization of the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan
The Mongol Empire was governed by a civilian and military code, called the Yassa, created by Genghis Khan. The Mongol Empire did not emphasize the importance of ethnicity and race in the administrative realm, instead adopting an approach grounded in meritocracy. The exception was the role of Genghis Khan and his family. The Mongol Empire was one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse empires in history, as befitted its size. Many of the empire's nomadic inhabitants considered themselves Mongols in military and civilian life, including Turks, Mongols, and others and included many diverse Khans of various ethnicities as part of the Mongol Empire such as Muhammad Khan.
There were tax exemptions for religious figures and, to some extent, teachers and doctors. The Mongol Empire practiced religious tolerance to a large degree because Mongol tradition had long held that religion was a very personal concept, and not subject to law or interference.[citation needed] Sometime before the rise of Genghis Khan, Ong Khan, his mentor and eventual rival, had converted to Nestorian Christianity. Various Mongol tribes were Buddhist, Muslim, shamanist or Christian. Religious tolerance was thus a well established concept on the Asian steppe.
Modern Mongolian historians say that towards the end of his life, Genghis Khan attempted to create a civil state under the Great Yassa that would have established the legal equality of all individuals, including women.[42] However, there is no contemporary evidence of this, or of the lifting of discriminatory policies towards sedentary peoples such as the Chinese. Women played a relatively important role in Mongol Empire and in family, for example Töregene Khatun was briefly in charge of the Mongol Empire when next male Khagan was being chosen. Modern scholars refer to the alleged policy of encouraging trade and communication as the Pax Mongolica (Mongol Peace).
Genghis Khan realised that he needed people who could govern cities and states conquered by him. He also realised that such administrators could not be found among his Mongol people because they were nomads and thus had no experience governing cities. For this purpose Genghis Khan invited a Khitan prince, Chu'Tsai, who worked for the Jin and had been captured by the Mongol army after the Jin Dynasty were defeated. Jin had captured power by displacing Khitan. Genghis told Chu'Tsai, who was a lineal descendant of Khitan rulers, that he had avenged Chu'Tsai's forefathers. Chu'Tsai responded that his father served the Jin Dynasty honestly and so did he; he did not consider his own father his enemy, so the question of revenge did not apply. Genghis Khan was very impressed by this reply. Chu'Tsai administered parts of the Mongol Empire and became a confidant of the successive Mongol Khans.
Military[link]
Main article: Mongol military tactics and organization
Genghis Khan put absolute trust in his generals, such as Muqali, Jebe and Subutai, and regarded them as close advisors, often extending them the same privileges and trust normally reserved for close family members. He allowed them to make decisions on their own when they embarked on campaigns far from the Mongol Empire capital Karakorum. Genghis Khan expected unwavering loyalty from his generals, and granted them a great deal of autonomy in making command decisions. Muqali, a trusted general, was given command of the Mongol forces against the Jin Dynasty while Genghis Khan was fighting in Central Asia, and Subutai and Jebe were allowed to pursue the Great Raid into the Caucausus and Kievan Rus, an idea they had presented to the Khagan on their own initiative. The Mongol military was also successful in siege warfare, cutting off resources for cities and towns by diverting certain rivers, taking enemy prisoners and driving them in front of the army, and adopting new ideas, techniques and tools from the people they conquered, particularly in employing Muslim and Chinese siege engines and engineers to aid the Mongol cavalry in capturing cities. Another standard tactic of the Mongol military was the commonly practiced feigned retreat to break enemy formations and to lure small enemy groups away from the larger group and defended position for ambush and counterattack.
Another important aspect of the military organization of Genghis Khan was the communications and supply route or Yam, adapted from previous Chinese models. Genghis Khan dedicated special attention to this in order to speed up the gathering of military intelligence and official communications. To this end, Yam waystations were established all over the empire.[43] The followers of Temujin consisted of several Christians, three Muslims, and several Buddhists. They were united only in their devotion to Temujin and their oath to him and each other. The oaths sworn at Baljuna created a type of brotherhood, and in transcending kinship, ethnicity, and religion, it came close to being a type of modern civic citizenship based upon personal choice and commitment. This connection became a metaphor for the new type of community among Temujin's followers that eventually dominated as the basis of unity within the Mongol Empire.
Khanates[link]
Several years before his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons Ögedei, Chagatai, Tolui, and Jochi (Jochi's death several months before Genghis Khan meant that his lands were instead split between his sons, Batu and Orda) into several Khanates designed as sub-territories: their Khans were expected to follow the Great Khan, who was, initially, Ögedei.
Following are the Khanates the way Genghis Khan assigned them:
- Empire of the Great Khan: Ögedei Khan, as Great Khan, took most of Eastern Asia, including China; this territory later to comprise the Yuan Dynasty under Kubilai Khan.
- Mongol homeland (present day Mongolia, including Karakorum): Tolui Khan, being the youngest son, received a small territory near the Mongol homeland, following Mongol custom.
- Chagatai Khanate: Chagatai Khan, Genghis Khan's second son, was given Central Asia and northern Iran.
- Blue Horde to Batu Khan, and White Horde to Orda Khan, both were later combined into the Kipchak Khanate, or Khanate of the Golden Horde, under Toqtamysh. Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, had received most of the distant Russia and Ruthenia. Because Jochi died before Genghis Khan, his territory was further split up between his sons. Batu Khan launched an invasion of Russia, and later Hungary and Poland, and crushed several armies before being summoned back by the news of Ögedei's death.
See also: List of Mongol Khans
After Genghis Khan[link]
Contrary to popular belief, Genghis Khan did not conquer all of the areas of the Mongol Empire. At the time of his death, the Mongol Empire stretched from the Caspian Sea to the Sea of Japan. The empire's expansion continued for a generation or more after Genghis's death in 1227. Under Genghis's successor Ögedei Khan the speed of expansion reached its peak. Mongol armies pushed into Persia, finished off the Xi Xia and the remnants of the Khwarezmids, and came into conflict with the imperial Song Dynasty of China, starting a war that lasted until 1279 and that concluded with the Mongols gaining control of all of China. They also pushed further into Russia and eastern Europe.
Perceptions[link]
Like other notable conquerors, Genghis Khan is portrayed differently by those he conquered and those who conquered with him. Negative views of Genghis Khan are very persistent within histories written by many different cultures, from a number of different geographical regions. They often cite the cruelties and destruction brought upon by Mongol armies, not to mention the systematic slaughter of civilians in the conquered regions; other authors cite positive aspects of Genghis Khan's conquests as well.
Positive[link]
Genghis Khan is credited with bringing the Silk Road under one cohesive political environment. This allowed increased communication and trade between the West, Middle East and Asia, thus expanding the horizons of all three cultural areas. Some historians have noted that Genghis Khan instituted certain levels of meritocracy in his rule, was tolerant of different religions and explained his policies clearly to all his soldiers.[44] In Turkey, Genghis Khan is looked on as a great military leader, and it is popular for male children to carry his title as name.[45]
In Mongolia[link]
Traditionally Genghis Khan had been revered for centuries among the Mongols, and also among certain other ethnic groups such as the Turks, largely because of his association with Mongol statehood, political and military organization, and his historic victories in war. He eventually evolved into a larger-than-life figure chiefly among the Mongols and is still considered the symbol of Mongolian culture.
During the communist period, Genghis Khan was often described as a reactionary, and positive statements about him were generally avoided.[46] In 1962, the erection of a monument at his birthplace and a conference held in commemoration of his 800th birthday led to criticism from the Soviet Union, and resulted in the dismissal of Tömör-Ochir, a secretary of the ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party Central Committee.
In the early 1990s, when democracy was established in Mongolia, the memory of Genghis Khan with the Mongolian national identity has had a powerful revival partly because of his perception during the Mongolian People's Republic period. Genghis Khan became one of the central figures of the national identity. He is looked upon positively by Mongolians for his role in uniting various warring tribes. For example, it is not uncommon for Mongolians to refer to Mongolia as "Genghis Khan's Mongolia", to themselves as "Genghis Khan's children", and to Genghis Khan as the "father of the Mongols" especially among the younger generation. However, there is a chasm in the perception of his brutality, Mongolians maintain that the historical records written by non-Mongolians are unfairly biased against Genghis Khan, and that his butchery is exaggerated, while his positive role is underrated.[47]
In Mongolia today, Genghis Khan's name and likeness are endorsed on products, streets, buildings, and other places. His face can be found on everyday commodities, from liquor bottles to candy products, and on the largest denominations of 500, 1,000, 5,000, 10,000, and 20,000 Mongolian tögrög (₮). Mongolia's main international airport in Ulaanbaatar has been renamed Chinggis Khaan International Airport, and major Genghis Khan statues have been erected before the parliament[48] and near Ulaanbaatar. There have been repeated discussions about regulating the use of his name and image to avoid trivialization.[49]
Genghis Khan is regarded as one of the prominent leaders in Mongolia's history.[50] He is responsible for the emergence of the Mongols as a political and ethnic identity because there was no unified identity between the various tribes that had cultural similarity. He reinforced many Mongol traditions and provided stability and unity during a time of almost endemic warfare between various tribes. He is also given credit for the introduction of the traditional Mongolian script and the creation of the Ikh Zasag, the first written Mongolian law.[51] In summary, Mongolians see him as the fundamental figure in the founding of the Mongol Empire, and therefore the basis for Mongolia as a country.
Mixed[link]
In China[link]
There are conflicting views of Genghis Khan in the People's Republic of China with some viewing him positively in the Inner Mongolia region where there is a monument and buildings about him and where there are considerable Mongols in the area with a population of around 5 million, almost twice the population of Mongolia. While Genghis Khan never conquered all of China, his grandson Kublai Khan completed that conquest,[52] and established the Yuan Dynasty that is often credited with re-uniting China. There has also been much artwork and literature praising Genghis as a great military leader and political genius. The years of the Mongol-established Yuan Dynasty left an indelible imprint on Chinese political and social structures for subsequent generations with literature during the Jin Dynasty relatively fewer. In general the legacy of Genghis Khan and his successors, who completed the conquest of China after 65 years of struggle, remains a mixed topic, even to this day.
China suffered a drastic decline in population.[53] North China (then the most populous part) is thought to have lost about three- quarters of its population. The census of 1195 showed a population of 50 million people in north China [whereas] the first Mongol census of 1235–36 counted only 8.5 million. Admittedly, some of the population decline in Northern China must also be attributed to the large migration to Southern China, but exact figures are hard to find.[54] Within China many people still retain the more traditional view that Genghis Khan was a barbarian invader.
Negative[link]
Main article: Destruction under the Mongol Empire
In the Middle East and Iran, he is almost universally looked on as a destructive and genocidal warlord who caused enormous damage and destruction to the population of these areas.[55] Steven R. Ward wrote that "Overall, the Mongol violence and depredations killed up to three-fourths of the population of the Iranian Plateau, possibly 10 to 15 million people. Some historians have estimated that Iran's population did not again reach its pre-Mongol levels until the mid-20th century."[56] Similarly, in Afghanistan (along with other non-Turkic Muslim countries) he is generally viewed unfavorably though some groups display ambivalence as it is believed that the Hazara of Afghanistan are descendants of a large Mongol garrison stationed therein.[57][58]
The invasions of Baghdad, Samarkand, Urgench, Kiev, Vladimir among others caused mass murders, such as when portions of southern Khuzestan were completely destroyed. His descendant, Hulagu Khan destroyed much of Iran's northern part and sacked Baghdad although his forces were halted by the Mamluks of Egypt. According to the works of the Persian historian Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, the Mongols killed more than 70 thousand people in Merv and more than 190 thousand in Nishapur. In 1237 Batu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan, launched an invasion into Kievan Rus'. Over the course of three years, the Mongols destroyed and annihilated all of the major cities of Eastern Europe with the exceptions of Novgorod and Pskov.
Giovanni de Plano Carpini, the Pope's envoy to the Mongol Great Khan, traveled through Kiev in February 1246 and wrote:
"They [the Mongols] attacked Rus, where they made great havoc, destroying cities and fortresses and slaughtering men; and they laid siege to Kiev, the capital of Rus; after they had besieged the city for a long time, they took it and put the inhabitants to death. When we were journeying through that land we came across countless skulls and bones of dead men lying about on the ground. Kiev had been a very large and heavily populated town, but now it has been reduced almost to nothing, for there are at the present time scarce two hundred houses there and the inhabitants are kept in complete slavery."[59]
Among the Iranian peoples, Genghis Khan is regarded along with Hulegu and Timur as one of the most despised conquerors in the region.[60][61]
Although the famous Mughal Emperors were proud descendants of Genghis Khan and particularly Timur, they clearly distanced themselves from the Mongol atrocities committed against the Khwarizim Shahs, Turks, Persians, the citizens of Baghdad and Damascus, Nishapur, Bukhara and historical figures such as Attar of Nishapur and many other notable Muslims. However, Mughal Emperors directly patronized the legacies of Genghis Khan and Timur, together their names were synonymous with the names of other distinguished personalities particularly among the Muslim populations of South Asia.
In much of Russia, Middle East, Korea, China, Ukraine, Poland and Hungary, Genghis Khan and his regime are credited with considerable damage, destruction and loss of population.
Descent[link]
|
|
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2011) |
Main article: Descent from Genghis Khan
Zerjal et al. [2003][57] identified a Y-chromosomal lineage present in about 8% of the men in a large region of Asia (about 0.5% of the world total). The paper suggests that the pattern of variation within the lineage is consistent with a hypothesis that it originated in Mongolia about 1,000 years ago. Because the rate of such a spread would be too rapid to have occurred by genetic drift, the authors propose that the lineage is carried by likely male-line descendants of Genghis Khan, and that it has spread through social selection. In Mongolia alone as many as 200,000 of the country's 2 million people could be Khan descendants.[7] In addition to most of the Mongol nobility up to the 20th century, the Mughal emperor Babur's mother was a descendant. Timur (also known as Tamerlane), the 14th century military leader, claimed descent from Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan was one of the most powerful warlords during his reign, as a result the harem that he kept was of enormous size. It is said that his harem reached anywhere from 2,000–3,000 women.[who?] There are so many descendants of Genghis Khan not only because of the size of his harem, but also because of the size of his sons' harems and that they ruled their own separate kingdoms.
Physical appearance[link]
There are some debate as to whether Genghis Khan was fully Mongoloid or mixed Mongoloid/Caucasoid as there is no historical portrait of Genghis Khan. The only piece of evidence attributed to his Caucasoidness was the description from Rashid al-Din that recorded him being a red haired with green eyes, however these traits evidently still exists in some modern Mongols who are predominately Mongoloid in appearance and inherit all light hair and light eyes traits such as blue or green eyes and blonde or red hair. A certain number of Mongols, particularly the Oirat tribe in western Mongolia tend to exhibit lighter features such as fair skin, blue or green eyes, varying shades of brown hair, and sometimes even red or blonde hair.[15] Adding to the fact that Zerjal et al. identified Genghis Khan paternal DNA Y-chromosomal lineage to be Haplogroup C3 which is a common mongoloid marker among Tungustic people, this would make Genghis Khan more likely to be either predominately Mongoloid or at least a Euro-Mongoloid hybrid. Genetic testing of ethnic Mongolians mtDNA in Xinjiang China were found to have 14.3% west Eurasian mtDNA.[62] Which shows significant number of Europoid maternal contribution into the Mongolian mtDNA gene pool.
Depictions in modern culture[link]
There have been several films, novels and other adaptation works on the Mongolian ruler.
Films[link]
- Genghis Khan, a 1950 Philippine film directed by Manuel Conde.
- Changez Khan, a 1957 Indian film directed by Kedar Kapoor.
- Changez Khan, a 1958 Pakistani film.
- The Conqueror, released in 1956 and starring John Wayne as Temüjin and Susan Hayward as Börte.
- Genghis Khan (1965 film) starring Omar Sharif.
- Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure 1989 film starring Keanu Reeves, Alex Winter with Al Leong as Genghis Khan.
- Under The Eternal Blue Sky a Mongolian film directed by Nyamgavaa released in 1990.
- Genghis Khan (1992 film) starring Richard Tyson, Charlton Heston and Pat Morita.
- Genghis Khan - A Proud Son Of Heaven (1998 film), made in Mongolian, with English subtitles.
- Genghis Khan: To the Ends of the Earth and Sea, also known as The Descendant of Gray Wolf, a Japanese-Mongolian film released in 2007.
- Mongol, a film by Sergei Bodrov released in 2007. (Academy Award nominee for Best Foreign Language Film).
- No Right to Die - Chinggis Khaan, a Mongolian film released in 2008.
- By the Will of Genghis Khan, a Russian film released in 2009.
TV series[link]
| Year | Production | Lead actor | Additional information |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1987 | TVB (Hong Kong) | Alex Man | see Genghis Khan (TVB) |
| 1987 | ATV (Hong Kong) | Tony Liu | 20 episodes |
| 2004 | China | Ba Sen | see Genghis Khan (2004 TV series) |
Genghis Khan was discussed in a third season episode of Deadliest Warrior, first aired on May 26, 2011. The show, which is produced by the American cable channel Spike, pits various figures from history against each other in computer analyzed hypothetical battle scenarios to determine the outcome in a hypothetical confrontation. The show's panel determined that in a hypothetical battle with Hannibal, the Mongol steel armor would be a deciding factor and so Genghis Khan would be the victor.
Genghis Khan makes a brief appearance in the Season Four episode of The Simpsons, Marge vs. the Monorail, during an imaginary vision by Lisa Simpson where the Springfield Elementary School uses some of a $3 million fine paid by C. Montgomery Burns to install a virtual reality education system.
Novels[link]
• 1 Jenghiz Khan, by Vasili Yan, trans. L. E. Britton, publisher. Hutchinson • 2 Batu Khan. by Vasili Yan, trans. L. E. Britton, publisher. Hutchinson
- The Conqueror series of novels by Conn Iggulden
- "You Can't, But Genghis Khan" from the Time Warp Trio book series
Short stories[link]
- The Private Life of Genghis Khan by Douglas Adams and Graham Chapman
Music[link]
- West German pop band Dschinghis Khan took its name from Genghis Khan. They participated in the Eurovision contest of 1979 with a song of the same name.
- English Heavy Metal band Iron Maiden titled an instrumental track Genghis Khan on their 1981 album Killers.
- The band Protest The Hero's song bloodmeat references Genghis Khan and the Khanate, and re-tells the tale of a small un-militiarised, and unequiped town fighting off a large, elite enemy, which may also be a reference to Genghis Khan.
- Ace Frehley composed and recorded a song named after Genghis Khan in his 2009 album Anomaly.
- Belgian neo-classical/power metal band Iron Mask titled track "Genghis Khan" on their 2011 album Black as Death
Video games[link]
- Age of Empires II: The Age of Kings
- Aoki Ookami to Shiroki Mejika IV: Genghis Khan
- Sid Meier's Civilization Series
- Genghis Khan (video game)
- Genghis Khan II: Clan of the Gray Wolf
- Cengiz Han II: Demir Yumruk (Turkish MMORPG)[63]
Name and title[link]
There are many theories about the origins of Temüjin's title. Since people of the Mongol nation later associated the name with ching (Mongolian for strength), such confusion is obvious, though it does not follow etymology.
One theory suggests the name stems from a palatalised version of the Mongolian and Turkic word tenggis, meaning "ocean", "oceanic" or "wide-spreading". (Lake Baikal and ocean were called tenggis by the Mongols. However, it seems that if they had meant to call Genghis tenggis they could have said, and written, "Tenggis Khan", which they did not.) Zhèng (Chinese: 正) meaning "right", "just", or "true", would have received the Mongolian adjectival modifier -s, creating "Jenggis", which in medieval romanization would be written "Genghis". It is likely that the 13th century Mongolian pronunciation would have closely matched "Chinggis".[64]
The English spelling "Genghis" is of unclear origin. Weatherford claims it derives from a spelling used in original Persian reports. Even at this time some Iranians pronounce his name as "Ghengiss". However, review of historical Persian sources does not confirm this.[65]
According to the Secret History of the Mongols, Temüjin was named after a powerful warrior of the Tatar tribe that his father Yesügei had taken prisoner. The name "Temüjin" is believed to derive from the word temür, meaning iron (modern Mongolian: төмөр, tömör). The name would imply skill as a blacksmith.
More likely, as no evidence has survived to indicate that Genghis Khan had any exceptional training or reputation as a blacksmith, the name indicated an implied lineage in a family once known as blacksmiths. The latter interpretation is supported by the names of Genghis Khan's siblings, Temülin and Temüge, which are derived from the same root word.
Name and spelling variations[link]
Genghis Khan's name is spelled in variety of ways in different languages such as Chinese: 成吉思汗; pinyin: Chéngjísī Hán, Turkic: Cengiz Han, Çingiz Xan, Çingiz Han, Chingizxon, Çıñğız Xan, Chengez Khan, Chinggis Khan, Chinggis Xaan, Chingis Khan, Jenghis Khan, Chinggis Qan, Djingis Kahn, Russian: Чингисхан (Čingiskhan) or Чингиз-хан (Čingiz-khan), etc. Temüjin is written in Chinese as simplified Chinese: 铁木真; traditional Chinese: 鐵木眞; pinyin: Tiěmùzhēn.
When Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty in 1271, he had his grandfather Genghis Khan placed on the official record as the founder of the dynasty or Taizu (Chinese: 太祖). Thus, Genghis Khan is also referred to as Yuan Taizu (Chinese: 元太祖) in Chinese historiography.
Timeline[link]
- Probably 1155, 1162, or 1167: Temüjin was born in the Khentii mountains.
- At the age of nine, Temüjin's father Yesükhei was poisoned by Tatars, leaving him and his family destitute.
- c. 1184: Temüjin's wife Börte was kidnapped by Merkits; he called on blood brother Jamukha and Wang Khan for aid, and they rescued her.
- c. 1185: First son Jochi was born; leading to doubt about his paternity later among Genghis' children, because he was born shortly after Börte's rescue from the Merkits.
- 1190: Temüjin united the Mongol tribes, became leader, and devised code of law Yassa.
- 1201: Victory over Jamukha's Jadarans.
- 1202: Adopted as Wang Khan's heir after successful campaigns against Tatars.
- 1203: Victory over Wang Khan's Keraits. Wang Khan himself is killed by accident by allied Naimans.
- 1204: Victory over Naimans (all these confederations are united and become the Mongols).
- 1206: Jamukha was killed. Temüjin was given the title Genghis Khan by his followers in a Kurultai (around 40 years of age).
- 1207–1210: Genghis led operations against the Western Xia, which comprises much of northwestern China and parts of Tibet. Western Xia ruler submitted to Genghis Khan. During this period, the Uyghurs also submitted peacefully to the Mongols and became valued administrators throughout the empire.
- 1211: After the kurultai, Genghis led his armies against the Jin Dynasty ruling northern China.
- 1215: Beijing fell; Genghis Khan turned to west and the Khara-Kitan Khanate.
- 1219–1222: Conquered Khwarezmid Empire.
- 1226: Started the campaign against the Western Xia for forming coalition against the Mongols, the second battle with the Western Xia.
- 1227: Genghis Khan died after conquering the Tangut people. Cause of death is uncertain, although legend states that he was thrown off his horse in the battle and contracted a deadly fever soon after.
Notes[link]
- ^ Chinese: 成吉思汗; pinyin: Chéng Jí Sī Hán
Birth name:
Temujin /təˈmuːdʒɪn/;
Mongolian: Тэмүжин Temujin [tʰemutʃiŋ] ( listen);
Middle Mongolian: Temujin;[1]
traditional Chinese: 鐵木真; simplified Chinese: 铁木真; pinyin: Tiě mù zhēn
Footnotes[link]
- ^ Central Asiatic Journal (O. Harrassowitz) 5: 239. 1959. http://books.google.com/books?id=PjjjAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved July 29, 2011.
- ^ a b Rashid al-Din asserts that Genghis Khan lived to the age of 72, placing his year of birth at 1155. The Yuanshi (元史, History of the Yuan dynasty records his year of birth as 1162. According to Ratchnevsky, accepting a birth in 1155 would render Genghis Khan a father at the age of 30 and would imply that he personally commanded the expedition against the Tanguts at the age of 72. Also, according to the Altan Tobci, Genghis Khan's sister, Temülin, was nine years younger than he; but the Secret History relates that Temülin was an infant during the attack by the Merkits, during which Genghis Khan would have been 18, had he been born in 1155. Zhao Hong reports in his travelogue that the Mongols he questioned did not know and had never known their ages.
- ^ Ratchnevsky, Paul (1991). Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy. Blackwell Publishing. p. 142. ISBN 0-631-16785-4. "It is possible, however, to say with certainty that Genghis Khan died in August 1227; only in specifying the actual day of his death do our sources disagree."
- ^ "Genghis Khan". Webster's New World College Dictionary. Wiley Publishing. 2004. http://www.yourdictionary.com/genghis-khan. Retrieved July 29, 2011.
- ^ "Genghis Khan". Oxford Dictionaries Online. Oxford University Press. 2011. http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/Genghis+Khan?region=uk. Retrieved July 29, 2011.
- ^ John Joseph Saunders-The History of the Mongol Conquests
- ^ a b Ian Jeffries (2007). "Mongolia: a guide to economic and political developments". Taylor & Francis. pp. 5–7. ISBN 0-415-42545-X
- ^ "Genghis Khan". North Georgia College and State University. http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/mongols/empsub1.html. Retrieved January 26, 2010.
- ^ Ratchnevsky, Paul (1991). Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 9–10. ISBN 0-631-16785-4.
- ^ Morgan, David (1990). The Mongols (Peoples of Europe). p. 58.
- ^ Guida Myrl Jackson-Laufer, Guida M. Jackson-Encyclopedia of traditional epics,p. 527
- ^ Paul Kahn, Francis Woodman Cleaves-The secret history of the Mongols, p.192
- ^ "THE MONGOLS — PART I". Republican China. http://www.republicanchina.org/Mongols.html. Retrieved May 20, 2008.
- ^ Iconographic encyclopaedia of science, literature, and art, Volume 2
- ^ a b "Eurasian Women Warriors and Priestesses". Csen.org. http://www.csen.org/aciaa_article/Eurasian%20Women%20Warriors3.htm. Retrieved 2012-02-22.
- ^ [1][dead link]
- ^ "The Emperors of Emperors". California State University. http://www.csuchico.edu/~cheinz/syllabi/fall99/kong/Index1.htm. Retrieved May 20, 2008.
- ^ "Genghis Khan Biography (1162/7)". The Biography Channel. http://www.biography.com/search/article.do?id=9308634. Retrieved May 20, 2008.
- ^ Weatherford, Jack (2010). The Secret History of the Mongol Queens: How the Daughters of Genghis Khan Rescued His Empire. New York: Crown Publishing Group. pp. xiii, 2.
- ^ a b Weatherford, Jack (2004). Genghis Khan: War of the Khans. New York: Random House, Inc. p. 63.
- ^ Eskildsen, Stephen (2004). The Teachings and Practices of the Early Quanzhen Taoist Masters. SUNY Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-7914-6045-0.
- ^ Grousset, Rene (1944). Conqueror of the World: The Life of Chingis-khagan. New York: Viking Press.
- ^ Weatherford, Jack (2004). "2: Tale of Three Rivers". Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. Three Rivers Press. p. 44. ISBN 0-609-80964-4.
- ^ a b Man, John (2004). Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection. London; New York: Bantam Press. ISBN 0-593-05044-4.
- ^ a b "Central Asian world cities", University of Washington.
- ^ Morgan, David (1986). The Mongols. The Peoples of Europe. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-17563-6.
- ^ De Hartog, Leo (1988). Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World. London, UK: I.B. Tauris. pp. 122–123.
- ^ CHRISTOPHER HUDSON (May 22, 2007). "Genghis Khan: The daddy of all lovers". Daily Mail. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-456789/Genghis-Khan-The-daddy-lovers.html. Retrieved December 12, 2010.
- ^ Rolf Potts (Tuesday, Nov 9, 1999). "Horse races, open spaces and the fate of Genghis Khan's balls". Salon.com. http://www.salon.com/travel/diary/pott/1999/11/09/siberia1/index.html. Retrieved January 12, 2011.
- ^ Lynn Pan (1985). Into China's heart: an emigré's journey along the Yellow River (illustrated ed.). Weatherhill. p. 111. ISBN 0-8348-0205-8. http://books.google.com/?id=gx1xAAAAMAAJ&q=lady+to+Genghis%3B+but+when+he+came+to+claim+her,+she+brought+out+a+knife+she+had+hidden+in+her+clothes+and+castrated+him&dq=lady+to+Genghis%3B+but+when+he+came+to+claim+her,+she+brought+out+a+knife+she+had+hidden+in+her+clothes+and+castrated+him. Retrieved January 9, 2011. (Original from the University of Michigan)
- ^ Allan D. Cooper (2009). The geography of genocide. University Press of America. p. 187. ISBN 0-7618-4097-4. http://books.google.com/?id=Uyh8kdcuA1kC&pg=PA187&dq=tangut+castrate+genghis#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved January 9, 2011.
- ^ Československá spolećnost orientalistická (1960). New Orient, Volumes 1–3. Czechoslovak Society for Eastern Studies. p. iv. http://books.google.com/?id=7XDpAAAAMAAJ&dq=But+most+versions+tell+how+the+queen+wounded+Genghis+in+the+night%2C+some+saying+that+she+castrated+him+while+others+do+not+specify+the&q=But+most+versions+tell+how+the+queen+wounded+Genghis+in+the+night%2C+some+saying+that+she+castrated+him+while+others+do+not+specify+the+injury.+Then+she+fled+away+and+jumped+into+the+Yellow+River+and+drowned+herself%2C+and+the+Yellow+River+. Retrieved January 9, 2011. (Original from the University of Michigan)
- ^ John Man (2007). Genghis Khan: Life, Death, and Resurrection (reprint, illustrated ed.). Macmillan. p. 247. ISBN 0-312-36624-8. http://books.google.com/?id=OXTv9a0HZakC&pg=PA247&lpg=PA247&dq=tangut+castrate+genghis#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved January 9, 2011.
- ^ John DeFrancis (1993). In the footsteps of Genghis Khan (illustrated ed.). University of Hawaii Press. p. 193. ISBN 0-8248-1493-2. http://books.google.com/?id=mwDJ-3XPNooC&pg=PA193&dq=tangut+castrate+genghis#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved January 11, 2011.
- ^ Ratchnevsky 1991, p. 126
- ^ Ratchnevsky 1991, pp. 136–7
- ^ Haenisch, Erich (1948). Die Geheime Geschichte der Mongolen. Leipzig. pp. 133, 136.
- ^ Heissig, Walther (1964). Die Mongolen. Ein Volk sucht seine Geschichte. Düsseldorf. p. 124.
- ^ Man (2004), pp. 329–333.
- ^ Man (2004), p. 338.
- ^ "Palace of Genghis Khan unearthed". BBC. October 7, 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/3723218.stm. Retrieved May 20, 2008.
- ^ Pocha, Jehangir S. (May 10, 2005). "Mongolia sees Genghis Khan's good side". International Herald Tribune. http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/05/09/news/mongol.php. Retrieved May 20, 2008.
- ^ Jack Weatherford, Genghis Khan: War of the Khans (New York: Random House, Inc., 2004), 58
- ^ Clive Foss, The Tyrants, page 57, Quercus, London, 2007.
- ^ "Ismi Didikle" (in Turkish). Ismi Didikle. http://www.ismididikle.com/isim_533_cengiz.htm. Retrieved May 5, 2008.
- ^ Christopher Kaplonski: The case of the disappearing Chinggis Khaan.
- ^ Griffiths, Daniel (January 11, 2007). "Asia-Pacific | Post-communist Mongolia's struggle.". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6252741.stm?lsf. Retrieved August 3, 2009.
- ^ Once Shunned, Genghis Khan Conquers Mongolia Again.
- ^ "Business | Genghis Khan may get protection.". BBC News. October 6, 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/5412410.stm. Retrieved August 3, 2009.
- ^ "ASIA-PACIFIC | Mongolia glorifies Genghis Khan.". BBC News. May 3, 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1967201.stm. Retrieved August 3, 2009.
- ^ "The Yasa of Chingis Khan". http://www.coldsiberia.org/webdoc9.htm. Retrieved February 16, 2010.
- ^ Inner Mongolia Travel Guide.
- ^ William Bonner, Addison Wiggin (2006). "Empire of debt: the rise of an epic financial crisis". John Wiley and Sons. pp.43–44. ISBN 0-471-73902-2
- ^ Graziella Caselli, Gillaume Wunsch, Jacques Vallin (2005). "Demography: Analysis and Synthesis, Four Volume Set: A Treatise in Population". Academic Press. p.34. ISBN 0-12-765660-X
- ^ "The Legacy of Genghis Khan" at Los Angeles County Museum of Art—again.
- ^ R. Ward, Steven (2009). Immortal: a military history of Iran and its armed forces. Georgetown University Press. p. 39. ISBN 1-58901-258-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=8eUTLaaVOOQC&pg=PA39&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false.
- ^ a b Zerjal, et el.; Xue, Y; Bertorelle, G; Wells, RS; Bao, W; Zhu, S; Qamar, R; Ayub, Q et al. (2003). "The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols". The American Journal of Human Genetics 72 (3): 717–721. DOI:10.1086/367774. PMC 1180246. PMID 12592608. Archived from the original on September 29, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070929123340/http%3A//www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi%3Ftool%3Dpmcentrez%26rendertype%3Dabstract%26artid%3D1180246. Retrieved December 28, 2007.
- ^ Genetics: Analysis Of Genes And Genomes By Daniel L. Hartl, Elizabeth W. Jones, p. 309.
- ^ The Destruction of Kiev
- ^ Phoenix From the Ashes: A Tale of the Book in Iran.
- ^ Civilizations: How we see others, how others see us.
- ^ http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/21/12/2265.full
- ^ "Joy Game / Cengiz Han 2 MMORPG Game.
- ^ Lister, R. P. (2000 [c1969]). Genghis Khan. Lanham, Maryland: Cooper Square Press. ISBN 0-8154-1052-2.
- ^ Timothy May. "Book Review". North Georgia College and State University. http://worldhistoryconnected.press.uiuc.edu/2.2/br_may.html. Retrieved February 20, 2008.
References[link]
- Ratchnevsky, Paul (1992, c1991). Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy [Čingis-Khan: sein Leben und Wirken]. tr. & ed. Thomas Nivison Haining. Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Mass., US: B. Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-16785-4.
- Man, John (2004). Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection. Bantam Press, London. ISBN 978-0-553-81498-9.
Further reading[link]
- Brent, Peter (1976). The Mongol Empire: Genghis Khan: His Triumph and His Legacy. London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson. ISBN 0-297-77137-X.
- Bretschneider, Emilii (1888, repr. 2001). Mediæval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources; Fragments Towards the Knowledge of the Geography & History of Central & Western Asia. Trübner's Oriental Series. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co (repr. Munshirm Manoharlal Pub Pvt Ltd). ISBN 81-215-1003-1.
- Cable, Mildred; Francesca French (1943). The Gobi Desert. London: Landsborough Publications.
- Charney, Israel W. (ed.) (1994). Genocide: A Critical Bibliographic Review. New York: Facts on File Publications.
- De Hartog, Leo (1988). Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World. London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd..
- (French) Farale, Dominique (2002). De Gengis Khan à Qoubilaï Khan : la grande chevauchée mongole. Campagnes & stratégies. Paris: Economica. ISBN 2-7178-4537-2.
- (French) Farale, Dominique (2007). La Russie et les Turco-Mongols : 15 siècles de guerre. Paris: Economica. ISBN 978-2-7178-5429-9.
- "Genghis Khan". Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia. World Almanac Education Group. 2005. Archived from the original on January 13, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060113174030/http://www.historychannel.com/thcsearch/thc_resourcedetail.do?encyc_id=210250. Retrieved May 22, 2008. Via the Internet Archive's copy of the History Channel Web site.
- Smitha, Frank E. "Genghis Khan and the Mongols". Macrohistory and World Report. http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h11mon.htm. Retrieved June 30, 2005.
- Kahn, Paul (adaptor) (1998). Secret History of the Mongols: The Origin of Chingis Khan (expanded edition): An Adaptation of the Yüan chʾao pi shih, Based Primarily on the English Translation by Francis Woodman Cleaves. Asian Culture Series. Boston: Cheng & Tsui Co.. ISBN 0-88727-299-1.
- Kennedy, Hugh (2002). Mongols, Huns & Vikings. London: Cassell. ISBN 0-304-35292-6.
- Kradin, Nikolay; Tatiana Skrynnikova (2006). Imperiia Chingis-khana (Chinggis Khan Empire). Moscow: Vostochnaia literatura. ISBN 5-02-018521-3. (Russian) (summary in English)
- Kradin, Nikolay; Tatiana Skrynnikova (2006). "Why do we call Chinggis Khan's Polity 'an Empire'". Ab Imperio 7 (1): 89–118. 5-89423-110-8.
- Lamb, Harold (1927). Genghis Khan: The Emperor of All Men. New York: R. M. McBride & company.
- Lister, R. P. (2000 [c1969]). Genghis Khan. Lanham, Maryland: Cooper Square Press. ISBN 0-8154-1052-2.
- Man, John (2004). Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection. London; New York: Bantam Press. ISBN 0-593-05044-4.
- Man, John (1997, 1998, 1999). Gobi: Tracking the Desert. London; New Haven, Conn: Weidenfeld & Nicolson; Yale University Press. ISBN 0-7538-0161-2.
- Martin, Henry Desmond (1950). The Rise of Chingis Khan and his Conquest of North China. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press.
- May, Timothy (2001). "Mongol Arms". Explorations in Empire: Pre-Modern Imperialism Tutorial: The Mongols. San Antonio College History Department. http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/Mongols/empsub2.html. Retrieved May 22, 2008.
- Morgan, David (1986). The Mongols. The Peoples of Europe. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-17563-6.
- Saunders, J.J. (1972, repr. 2001). History of the Mongol Conquests. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1766-7.
- Stevens, Keith. "Heirs to Discord: The Supratribal Aspirations of Jamukha, Toghrul, and Temüjin"PDF (72.1 KB) Retrieved May 22, 2008.
- Stewart, Stanley (2001). In the Empire of Genghis Khan: A Journey among Nomads. London: Harper Collins. ISBN 0-00-653027-3.
- Turnbull, Stephen (2003). Genghis Khan & the Mongol Conquests 1190–1400. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84176-523-6.
- Valentino, Benjamin A. (2004). Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3965-5.
- Weatherford, Jack (2004). Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World (review). New York: Crown. ISBN 0-609-61062-7.
- Zerjal, Xue, Bertorelle, Wells, Bao, Zhu, Qamar, Ayub, Mohyuddin, Fu, Li, Yuldasheva, Ruzibakiev, Xu, Shu, Du, Yang, Hurles, Robinson, Gerelsaikhan, Dashnyam, Mehdi, Tyler-Smith (2003). "The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols" ( – Scholar search). The American Journal of Human Genetics 72 (3): 717–721;. DOI:10.1086/367774. PMC 1180246. PMID 12592608. http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v72n3/024530/024530.web.pdf. [dead link]
Primary sources[link]
- Juvaynī, Alā al-Dīn Atā Malik, 1226–1283 (1997). Genghis Khan: The History of the World-Conqueror [Tarīkh-i jahāngushā]. tr. John Andrew Boyle. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-97654-3.
- Juvaini, 'ala-ad-Din 'Ata-Malik (1958). History of the World-Conqueror. tr. John Andrew Boyle. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 361. http://archive.org/details/historyoftheworl011691mbp. Retrieved 2012-04-16.
- Rashid al-Din Tabib (1995). A Compendium of Chronicles: Rashid al-Din's Illustrated History of the World Jami' al-Tawarikh. The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, Vol. XXVII. Sheila S. Blair (ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-727627-X.
- Rashid al-Din Tabib (1971). The Successors of Genghis Khan (extracts from Jami’ Al-Tawarikh). UNESCO Collection of Representative Works: Persian heritage series. tr. from the Persian by John Andrew Boyle. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-03351-6. http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109217551.
- The Secret History of the Mongols: A Mongolian Epic Chronicle of the Thirteenth Century [Yuan chao bi shi]. Brill's Inner Asian Library vol. 7. tr. Igor de Rachewiltz. Leiden; Boston: Brill. 2004. ISBN 90-04-13159-0.
External links[link]
| Find more about Genghis Khan on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
 |
Definitions and translations from Wiktionary |
 |
Images and media from Commons |
 |
Learning resources from Wikiversity |
 |
News stories from Wikinews |
 |
Quotations from Wikiquote |
 |
Source texts from Wikisource |
 |
Textbooks from Wikibooks |
- Genghis Khan on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)
- Book Review of Genghis Khan by Leo De Hartog
- Genghis Khan and the Mongols
- Welcome to The Realm of the Mongols
- Parts of this biography were taken from the Area Handbook series at the Library of Congress
- Estimates of Mongol warfare casualties
- Genghis Khan on the Web (directory of some 250 resources)
- Mongol Arms
- Genghis Khan's leadership approach – LeaderValues
- ‘Ala’ al-Din ‘Ata Malik Juvayni A History of the World-Conqueror Ghengis Genghis Khan, Ata al-Mulk Juvayni and Rashid-al-Din Hamadani
|
Genghis Khan
House of Borjigin (1206–1635)
Born: c. 1162 Died: 1227 |
||
| Regnal titles | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Hotula Khan |
Khagan of Khamag Mongol 1189–1206 |
Khamag Mongol ended succeeded by Mongol Empire |
| New title Mongol Empire established
|
Khagan of the Mongol Empire 1206–1227 |
Succeeded by Tolui As regent |
| Khagans of the Mongol Empire (1206–1370) |
|---|
 |
| The Kublaid Great Khans |
| Temür Khan (1294–1307) • Külüg Khan (1307–1311) • Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan (1311–1320) • Gegeen Khan(1320–1323) • Yesün Temür Khan (1323–1328) • Ragibagh Khan (1328) • Jayaatu Khan (1328–1329) • Khutughtu Khan (1329) • Jayaatu Khan(1329–1332) • Rinchinbal Khan (1332) • Ukhaantu Khan (1333–1370) |
| <timeline>
ImageSize = width:550 height:100 PlotArea = width:530 height:40 left:10 bottom:30 DateFormat = yyyy Period = from:1200 till:1300 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:1200
Define $dy = 15 Define $dys = 26 PlotData= bar:Leaders width:20 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S color:green from:1206 till:1227 shift:(-20,$dy) text:Genghis color:blue from:1227 till:1229 shift:(-15,$dy) text:Tolui color:green from:1229 till:1241 shift:(-22,$dy) text:Ögedei color:blue from:1241 till:1246 shift:(-30,$dy) text:Töregene color:green from:1246 till:1248 shift:(-15,$dys) text:Güyük color:blue from:1248 till:1251 shift:(-10,$dy) text:Oghul color:green from:1251 till:1259 shift:(-5,$dy) text:Möngke color:blue from:1260 till:1294 shift:(-20,$dy) text:Kublai Khan </timeline> |
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Genghis Khan |
| Alternative names | Temüjin |
| Short description | Founder of the Mongol Empire |
| Date of birth | c. 1162 |
| Place of birth | in Khentii Province in Mongolia |
| Date of death | August 1227 |
| Place of death | Western Xia |
http://wn.com/Genghis_Khan
Related pages:
http://de.wn.com/Dschingis Khan
http://es.wn.com/Gengis Kan
http://ru.wn.com/Чингисхан
http://cs.wn.com/Čingischán
http://pt.wn.com/Gengis Khan
http://pl.wn.com/Czyngis-chan
http://hi.wn.com/चंगेज़ ख़ान
http://it.wn.com/Gengis Khan
http://id.wn.com/Jenghis Khan
http://nl.wn.com/Dzjengis Khan
http://fr.wn.com/Gengis Khan
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
The Ottoman Empire[dn 3] or Turkish Empire or Sublime Ottoman State or sometimes also referred to as Turkey [7] (Ottoman Turkish: دَوْلَتِ عَلِيّهٔ عُثمَانِیّه Devlet-i ʿAliyye-yi ʿOsmâniyye[8] (also عثمانلى دولتى Osmanlı Devleti),[dn 4] Modern Turkish: Osmanlı Devleti or Osmanlı İmparatorluğu) was a Turkish empire which lasted from 27 July 1299[9] to 1 November 1922, when the Sultanate was abolished.[10]
The Ottoman Empire was one of the largest and longest lasting empires in history; such that the Ottoman State, its politics, conflicts, and cultural heritage in a vast geography provide one of the longest continuous narratives. During the 16th and 17th centuries, in particular at the height of its power under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the empire was one of the most powerful states in the world – a multinational, multilingual empire that stretched from the southern borders of the Holy Roman Empire to the outskirts of Vienna, Royal Hungary (modern Slovakia) and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the north to Yemen and Eritrea in the south; from Algeria in the west to Azerbaijan in the east;[11] controlling much of southeast Europe, Western Asia and North Africa.[12] At the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states, some of which were later absorbed into the empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries.[dn 5]
With Constantinople as its capital and vast control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, the empire was at the center of interactions between the Eastern and Western worlds for over six centuries.
After the international recognition of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey (GNAT) headquartered in Ankara, by means of the Treaty of Lausanne signed on 24 July 1923, the GNAT proclaimed on 29 October 1923 the establishment of the Republic of Turkey as the new Turkish State that succeeded and formally ended the defunct Ottoman Empire, in line with the treaty.[13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20] The Ottoman Caliphate was abolished on 3 March 1924 (de jure, the Caliphate's powers and properties were transferred to the GNAT.)
Contents
|
Rise of the Ottoman Empire (1299–1453)[link]
Main article: Rise of the Ottoman Empire
Further information: Ottoman Dynasty and Kayı tribe
With the demise of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum (c. 1300), Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent states, the so-called Ghazi emirates. By 1300, a weakened Byzantine Empire had lost most of its Anatolian provinces to ten Ghazi principalities. One of the Ghazi emirates was led by Osman I (from which the name Ottoman is derived), son of Ertuğrul, around Eskişehir in western Anatolia. In the foundation myth expressed in the medieval Turkish story known as "Osman's Dream", the young Osman was inspired to conquest by a prescient vision of empire (according to his dream, the empire is a big tree whose roots spread through three continents and whose branches cover the sky).[21] According to his dream the tree, which was Osman's Empire, issued four rivers from its roots, the Tigris, the Euphrates, the Nile and the Danube.[21] Additionally, the tree shaded four mountain ranges, the Caucasus, the Taurus, the Atlas and the Balkan ranges.[21] During his reign as Sultan, Osman I extended the frontiers of Turkish settlement toward the edge of the Byzantine Empire.
In this period, a formal Ottoman government was created whose institutions would change drastically over the life of the empire. The government used the legal entity known as the millet system, under which religious and ethnic minorities were allowed to manage their own affairs with substantial independence from central control.
In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. Osman's son, Orhan, captured the city of Bursa in 1324 and made it the new capital of the Ottoman state. The fall of Bursa meant the loss of Byzantine control over Northwestern Anatolia. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387. The Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe. The Battle of Nicopolis in 1396, widely regarded as the last large-scale crusade of the Middle Ages, failed to stop the advance of the victorious Ottoman Turks. With the extension of Turkish dominion into the Balkans, the strategic conquest of Constantinople became a crucial objective. The Empire controlled nearly all former Byzantine lands surrounding the city, but the Byzantines were temporarily relieved when Timur invaded Anatolia in the Battle of Ankara in 1402. He took Sultan Bayezid I as a prisoner. The capture of Bayezid I threw the Turks into disorder. The state fell into a civil war that lasted from 1402 to 1413, as Bayezid's sons fought over succession. It ended when Mehmed I emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power, bringing an end to the Interregnum.
Part of the Ottoman territories in the Balkans (such as Thessaloniki, Macedonia and Kosovo) were temporarily lost after 1402, but were later recovered by Murad II between the 1430s and 1450s. On 10 November 1444, Murad II defeated the Hungarian and Polish armies under Władysław III of Poland (also King of Hungary) and János Hunyadi at the Battle of Varna, which was the final battle of the Crusade of Varna.[22][23] Four years later, János Hunyadi prepared another army (of Hungarian and Wallachian forces) to attack the Turks, but was again defeated by Murad II at the Second Battle of Kosovo in 1448.
The son of Murad II, Mehmed the Conqueror, reorganized the state and the military, and demonstrated his martial prowess by capturing Constantinople on 29 May 1453, at the age of 21.
Growth (1453–1683)[link]
Main article: Growth of the Ottoman Empire
This period in Ottoman history can roughly be divided into two distinct eras: an era of territorial, economic, and cultural growth before 1566, followed by an era of relative military and political stagnation.
Expansion and apogee (1453–1566)[link]
The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II cemented the status of the Empire as the preeminent power in southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. After taking Constantinople, Mehmed met with the Orthodox patriarch, Gennadios and worked out an arrangement in which the Orthodox Church, in exchange for being able to maintain its autonomy and land, accepted Ottoman authority.[24] Because of bad relations between the latter Byzantine Empire and the states of western Europe as epitomized by Loukas Notaras's famous remark "Better the Sultan's turban than the Cardinal's Hat", the majority of the Orthodox population accepted Ottoman rule as preferable to Venetian rule.[24]
Upon making Constantinople (present-day Istanbul) the new capital of the Ottoman Empire, Mehmed II assumed the title of Kayser-i Rûm (literally Caesar Romanus, i.e. Roman Emperor.) In order to consolidate this claim, he launched a campaign to conquer also Rome, the western capital of the former Roman Empire, starting with the Ottoman invasion of Otranto and Apulia on 28 July 1480. The Turks stayed in Otranto and its surrounding areas for nearly a year, but after Mehmed II's death on 3 May 1481, plans for penetrating deeper into the Italian peninsula with fresh new reinforcements were cancelled and the remaining Ottoman troops sailed back to the east of the Adriatic Sea.
File:TheTurkishEmperorSuleiman.jpg
Suleiman the Magnificent became a prominent monarch of 16th century Europe, presiding over the apex of the Ottoman Empire's military, political and economic power. Suleiman personally led Ottoman armies to conquer the Christian strongholds of Belgrade, Rhodes, and most of Hungary before his conquests were checked at the Siege of Vienna in 1529. He annexed most of the Middle East in his conflict with the Safavids and large swathes of North Africa as far west as Algeria. Under his rule, the Ottoman fleet dominated the seas from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf.
During this period in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a long period of conquest and expansion, extending its borders deep into Europe and North Africa. Conquests on land were driven by the discipline and innovation of the Ottoman military; and on the sea, the Ottoman Navy aided this expansion significantly. The navy also contested and protected key seagoing trade routes, in competition with the Italian city states in the Black Sea, Aegean and Mediterranean seas and the Portuguese in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean.
The state also flourished economically due to its control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia.[25]
The Empire prospered under the rule of a line of committed and effective Sultans. Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the Empire's eastern and southern frontiers by defeating Shah Ismail of Safavid Persia, in the Battle of Chaldiran.[26] Selim I established Ottoman rule in Egypt, and created a naval presence on the Red Sea. After this Ottoman expansion, a competition started between the Portuguese Empire and the Ottoman Empire to become the dominant power in the region.[27]
Selim's successor, Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566), further expanded upon Selim's conquests. After capturing Belgrade in 1521, Suleiman conquered the southern and central parts of the Kingdom of Hungary. (The western, northern and northeastern parts remained independent.)[28][29]
After his victory in the Battle of Mohács in 1526, he established Turkish rule in the territory of present-day Hungary (except the western part) and other Central European territories, (See also: Ottoman–Hungarian Wars). He then laid siege to Vienna in 1529, but failed to take the city after the onset of winter forced his retreat.[30]
In 1532, he made another attack on Vienna, but was repulsed in the Siege of Güns, 97 kilometres (60 mi) south of the city at the fortress of Güns.[31][32][33] In the other version of the story, the city's commander, Nikola Jurišić, was offered terms for a nominal surender.[34] However, Suleiman withdrew at the arrival of the August rains and did not continue towards Vienna as previously planned, but turned homeward instead.[34][35]
After further advances by the Turks in 1543, the Habsburg ruler Ferdinand officially recognized Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in 1547. During the reign of Suleiman, Transylvania, Wallachia and, intermittently, Moldavia, became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. In the east, the Ottoman Turks took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535, gaining control of Mesopotamia and naval access to the Persian Gulf. By the end of Suleiman's reign, the Empire's population totaled about 15,000,000 people.[36]
Under Selim and Suleiman, the Empire became a dominant naval force, controlling much of the Mediterranean Sea.[37] The exploits of the Ottoman admiral Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, who commanded the Ottoman Navy during Suleiman's reign, led to a number of military victories over Christian navies. Important naval victories of the Ottoman Empire in this period include the Battle of Preveza (1538); Battle of Ponza (1552); Battle of Djerba (1560); conquest of Algiers (in 1516 and 1529) and Tunis (in 1534 and 1574) from Spain; conquest of Rhodes (1522) and Tripoli (1551) from the Knights of St. John; capture of Nice (1543) from the Holy Roman Empire; capture of Corsica (1553) from the Republic of Genoa; capture of the Balearic Islands (1558) from Spain; capture of Aden (1548), Muscat (1552) and Aceh (1565–67) from Portugal during the Indian Ocean expeditions; among others.
Suleiman's policy of expansion throughout the Mediterranean basin was however halted in Malta in 1565. During a summer-long siege which was later to be known as the Siege of Malta, the Ottoman forces which numbered around 50,000 fought the Knights of St.John and the Maltese garrison which in total numbered around 6,000. Stubborn resistance by the Knights and the Maltese populace, as well as infighting between the Turkish leaders, led to the lifting of the siege in September. The unsuccessful siege (the Turks managed to capture the Isle of Gozo together with Fort Saint Elmo on the main island of Malta, but failed elsewhere and retreated) was the second and last defeat experienced by Suleiman the Magnificent (who died a year later, in 1566) after the likewise inconclusive first Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1529. The Battle of Lepanto in 1571 (which was triggered by the Ottoman capture of Venetian-controlled Cyprus in 1570) was another major setback for Ottoman naval supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea, despite the fact that an equally large Ottoman fleet was built in a short time and Tunisia was recovered from Spain in 1574.
The conquests of Nice (1543) and Corsica (1553) occurred on behalf of France as a joint venture between the forces of the French king Francis I and the Ottoman sultan Suleiman I, and were commanded by the Ottoman admirals Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha and Turgut Reis.[38] A month prior to the siege of Nice, France supported the Ottomans with an artillery unit during the Ottoman conquest of Esztergom in 1543. France and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to Habsburg rule in both Southern and Central Europe, became strong allies during this period. The alliance was economic and military, as the sultans granted France the right of trade within the Empire without levy of taxation. By this time, the Ottoman Empire was a significant and accepted part of the European political sphere. It made a military alliance with France, the Kingdom of England and the Dutch Republic against Habsburg Spain, Italy and Habsburg Austria.
As the 16th century progressed, Ottoman naval superiority was challenged by the growing sea powers of western Europe, particularly Portugal, in the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean and the Spice Islands. With the Ottoman Turks blockading sea-lanes to the East and South, the European powers were driven to find another way to the ancient silk and spice routes, now under Ottoman control. On land, the Empire was preoccupied by military campaigns in Austria and Persia, two widely separated theatres of war. The strain of these conflicts on the Empire's resources, and the logistics of maintaining lines of supply and communication across such vast distances, ultimately rendered its sea efforts unsustainable and unsuccessful. The overriding military need for defence on the western and eastern frontiers of the Empire eventually made effective long-term engagement on a global scale impossible.[citation needed]
Revolts and revival (1566–1683)[link]
The effective military and bureaucratic structures of the previous century also came under strain during a protracted period of misrule by weak Sultans. But in spite of these difficulties, the Empire remained a major expansionist power until the Battle of Vienna in 1683, which marked the end of Ottoman expansion into Europe.
European states initiated efforts at this time to curb Ottoman control of the traditional overland trade routes between East Asia and Western Europe, which started with the Silk Road. Western European states began to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly by establishing their own maritime routes to Asia through new discoveries at sea. The Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 initiated a series of Ottoman-Portuguese naval wars in the Indian Ocean throughout the 16th century. Economically, the huge influx of Spanish silver from the New World caused a sharp devaluation of the Ottoman currency and rampant inflation. This had serious negative consequences at all levels of Ottoman society.
The expansion of Muscovite Russia under Ivan IV (1533–1584) into the Volga and Caspian region at the expense of the Tatar khanates disrupted the northern pilgrimage and trade routes. A highly ambitious plan to counter this conceived by Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, Grand Vizier under Selim II, in the shape of a Don-Volga canal (begun June 1569), combined with an attack on Astrakhan, failed, the canal being abandoned with the onset of winter. Henceforth the Empire returned to its existing strategy of utilizing the Crimean Khanate as its bulwark against Russia.[39] In 1571, the Crimean khan Devlet I Giray, supported by the Ottomans, burned Moscow.[40] The next year, the invasion was repeated but repelled at the Battle of Molodi. The Crimean Khanate continued to invade Eastern Europe in a series of slave raids,[41] and remained a significant power in Eastern Europe and a threat to Muscovite Russia in particular until the end of the 17th century.[42]
In southern Europe, a coalition of Catholic powers, led by Philip II of Spain, formed an alliance to challenge Ottoman naval strength in the Mediterranean Sea. Their victory over the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto (1571) was a startling blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility. However, historians today stress the symbolic and not the strictly military significance of the battle, for within six months of the defeat a new Ottoman fleet of some 250 sail including eight modern galleasses[43] had been built, with the harbours of Constantinople turning out a new ship every day at the height of the construction. In discussions with a Venetian minister, the Ottoman Grand Vizier commented: "In capturing Cyprus from you, we have cut off one of your arms; in defeating our fleet you have merely shaved off our beard".[43] The Ottoman naval recovery persuaded Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, and the Ottomans were able to expand and consolidate their position in North Africa.[44] However, what could not be replaced were the experienced naval officers and sailors. The Battle of Lepanto was far more damaging to the Ottoman navy in sapping experienced manpower than the loss of ships, which were rapidly replaced.[45]
By contrast, the Habsburg frontier had settled into a reasonably permanent border, marked only by relatively minor battles concentrating on the possession of individual fortresses. The stalemate was caused by a stiffening of the Habsburg defences[46] and reflected simple geographical limits: in the pre-mechanized age, Vienna marked the furthest point that an Ottoman army could march from Constantinople during the early spring to late autumn campaigning season. It also reflected the difficulties imposed on the Empire by the need to support two separate fronts: one against the Austrians (see: Ottoman wars in Europe), and the other against a rival Islamic state, the Safavids of Persia (see: Ottoman wars in Near East).
On the battlefield, the Ottomans gradually fell behind the Europeans in military technology as the innovation that fed the Empire's forceful expansion became stifled by growing religious and intellectual conservatism.[47] Changes in European military tactics and weaponry in the military revolution caused the once-feared Sipahi cavalry to lose military relevance. The Long War against Habsburg Austria (1593–1606) created the need for greater numbers of infantry equipped with firearms. This resulted in a relaxation of recruitment policy and a significant growth in Janissary corps numbers. This contributed to problems of indiscipline, lack of effectiveness, and outright rebelliousness within the corps, which the government wrestled with but never fully solved during (and beyond) this whole period.[48] The development of pike and shot and later linear tactics with increased use of firearms by Europeans proved deadly against the massed infantry in close formation used by the Ottoman Turks. Irregular sharpshooters (Sekban) were also recruited for the same reasons and on demobilization turned to brigandage in the Jelali revolts (1595–1610), which engendered widespread anarchy in Anatolia in the late 16th and early 17th centuries.[49] With the Empire's population reaching 30,000,000 people by 1600, shortage of land placed further pressure on the government.[50]
However, the 17th century was not simply an era of stagnation and decline, but also a key period in which the Ottoman state and its structures began to adapt to new pressures and new realities, internal and external. The Sultanate of women (1648–1656) was a period in which the political influence of the Imperial Harem was dominant, as the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. This was not wholly unprecedented; Hürrem Sultan, who established herself in the early 1530s as the successor of Nurbanu, the first Valide Sultan, was described by the Venetian Baylo Andrea Giritti as "a woman of the utmost goodness, courage and wisdom" even though she "thwarted some while rewarding others".[51] But the inadequacy of Ibrahim I (1640–1648) and the minority accession of Mehmed IV in 1646 created a significant crisis of rule, which the dominant women of the Imperial Harem filled. The most prominent women of this period were Kösem Sultan and her daughter-in-law Turhan Hatice, whose political rivalry culminated in Kösem's murder in 1651.[52]
This period gave way to the highly significant Köprülü Era (1656–1703), during which effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of Grand Viziers from the Köprülü family. On 15 September 1656 the octogenarian Köprülü Mehmed Pasha accepted the seals of office having received guarantees from the Valide Turhan Hatice of unprecedented authority and freedom from interference. A fierce conservative disciplinarian, he successfully reasserted the central authority and the empire's military impetus. This continued under his son and successor Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed (Grand Vizier 1661–1676).[53] The Köprülü Vizierate saw renewed military success with authority restored in Transylvania, the conquest of Crete completed in 1669 and expansion into Polish southern Ukraine, with the strongholds of Khotyn and Kamianets-Podilskyi and the territory of Podolia ceding to Ottoman control in 1676.[54]
This period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end when Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha in May 1683 led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of Vienna in the Great Turkish War of 1683–1687. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king Jan[55] at the Battle of Vienna.
The alliance of the Holy League pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna and, thus, fifteen (15) years of see-sawing warfare, culminated in the epochal Treaty of Karlowitz (26 January 1699), which ended the Great Turkish War.[56] For the first time, the Ottoman Empire surrender control of significant European territories (many permanently), including Ottoman Hungary.[57] The Empire had reached the end of its ability to effectively conduct an assertive, expansionist policy against its European rivals and it was to be forced from this point to adopt an essentially defensive strategy within this theatre.
Only two Sultans in this period personally exercised strong political and military control of the Empire: the vigorous Murad IV (1612–1640) recaptured Yerevan (1635) and Baghdad (1639) from the Safavids and reasserted central authority, albeit during a brief majority reign.[58] Mustafa II (1695–1703) led the Ottoman counter attack of 1695–6 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at Zenta (11 September 1697).[59]
Stagnation and reform (1683–1827)[link]
During this period threats to the Ottoman Empire were presented by the traditional foe—the Austrian Empire—as well as by a new foe—the rising Russian Empire. The Ottoman Turks ceded much territory in the Balkans to Austria. Certain areas of the Empire, such as Egypt and Algeria, became independent in all but name, and later came under the influence of Britain and France. Later, in the 18th century, centralized authority within the Ottoman Empire gave way to varying degrees of provincial autonomy enjoyed by local governors and leaders.
However, Russian expansion presented a large and growing threat.[60] Accordingly, King Charles XII of Sweden was welcomed as an ally in the Ottoman Empire following his defeat by the Russians at the Battle of Poltava in 1709 (part of the Great Northern War of 1700–1721.)[60] Charles XII persuaded the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed III to declare war on Russia, which resulted in the Ottoman victory at the Pruth River Campaign of 1710–1711.[61] The subsequent Treaty of Passarowitz signed on 21 July 1718, brought a period of peace between wars. However, the Treaty also revealed that the Ottoman Empire was on the defensive and unlikely to present any further aggression in Europe.[62]
During the Tulip Era (1718–1730), named for Sultan Ahmed III's love of the tulip flower and its use to symbolize his peaceful reign, the Empire's policy towards Europe underwent a shift. The Empire began to improve the fortifications of its cities in the Balkan peninsula to act as a defence against European expansionism. Cultural works, fine arts and architecture flourished, with more elaborate styles that were influenced by the Baroque and Rococo movements in Europe. A classic example is the Fountain of Ahmed III in front of the Topkapı Palace. The famous Flemish-French painter Jean-Baptiste van Mour visited the Ottoman Empire during the Tulip Era and crafted some of the most renowned works of art depicting scenes from daily life in the Ottoman society and the imperial court.[63]
Upon the death of Peter the Great in 1725, Catherine, Peter's wife succeeded to the throne of the Russian Empire as Czarina Catherine I. Together with Austria, Russia, under Catherine I, engaged in a war against the Ottoman Empire from 1735 until 1739. The Treaty of Belgrade signed on 18 September 1739, ended this war and resulted in the loss of Serbia and "Little Walachia" to Austria and the port of Azov to the Russians. However following the Treaty of Belgrade, the Ottoman Empire was able to enjoy a generation of peace as Austria and Russia were forced to deal with the rise of the Prussians under King Frederick the Great.[64] This long period of Ottoman peace and, indeed, stagnation is typically characterized by historians as an era of failed reforms. In the latter part of this period there were educational and technological reforms, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as the Istanbul Technical University.[65] Ottoman science and technology had been highly regarded in medieval times, as a result of Ottoman scholars' synthesis of classical learning with Islamic philosophy and mathematics, and knowledge of such Chinese advances in technology as gunpowder and the magnetic compass. By this period, though, the influences had become regressive and conservative. In 1734, when an artillery school was established with French teachers in order to impart Western-style artillery methods, the Islamic clergy successfully objected under the grounds of theodicy.[66] Not until 1754 was the artillery school re-opened on a semi-secret basis.[66] Earlier, the guilds of writers had denounced the printing press as "the Devil's Invention", and were responsible for a 53-year lag between its invention by Johannes Gutenberg in Europe in c. 1440 and its introduction to the Ottoman society with the first Gutenberg press in Constantinople that was established by the Sephardic Jews of Spain in 1493 (who had migrated to the Ottoman Empire a year earlier, escaping from the Spanish Inquisition of 1492.) However, the printing press was used only by the non-Muslims in the Ottoman Empire until the 18th century. In 1726, Ibrahim Muteferrika convinced the Grand Vizier Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha, the Grand Mufti, and the clergy on the efficiency of the printing press, and later submitted a request to Sultan Ahmed III, who granted Muteferrika the permission to publish non-religious books (despite opposition from some calligraphers and religious leaders.)[67] Muteferrika's press published its first book in 1729, and, by 1743, issued 17 works in 23 volumes (each having between 500 and 1,000 copies.)[67][68]
Other tentative reforms were also enacted: taxes were lowered, there were attempts to improve the image of the Ottoman state, and the first instances of private investment and entrepreneurship occurred.
Following the period of peace, which had lasted since 1739, Russia began to assert its expansionistic desires again in 1768. Under the pretext of pursuing fugitive Polish revolutionaries, Russian troops entered Balta an Ottoman-controlled city on the border of Bessarabia and massacred its citizens and burned the town to the ground.[69] This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the First Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca of 1774 ended the First Russo-Turkish War and allowed that the Christian citizens of the Ottoman-controlled Rumanian provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia would be allowed freedom to worship.[70] Russia was made the guarantor of their right to Christian worship.
A series of wars were fought between the Russian and Ottoman empires from the 18th to the 19th century. By the late 18th century, a number of defeats in several wars with Russia led some people in the Ottoman Empire to conclude that the reforms of "Deli Petro" (Peter the Mad, as Peter the Great was known in Turkey) had given the Russians an edge, and the Ottomans would have to keep up with Western technology in order to avoid further defeats.[66]
Ottoman military reform efforts begin with Selim III (1789–1807) who made the first major attempts to modernize the army along European lines. These efforts, however, were hampered by reactionary movements, partly from the religious leadership, but primarily from the Janissary corps, who had become anarchic and ineffectual. Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, they created a Janissary revolt. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic Mahmud II, who massacred the Janissary corps in 1826.
The Serbian revolution (1804–1815) marked the beginning of an era of national awakening in the Balkans during the Eastern Question. Suzerainty of Serbia as a hereditary monarchy under its own dynasty was acknowledged de jure in 1830.[71][72] In 1821, the Greeks declared war on the Sultan. A rebellion that originated in Moldavia as a diversion was followed by the main revolution in the Peloponnese, which, along with the northern part of the Gulf of Corinth, became the first parts of the Ottoman empire to achieve independence (in 1829). By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the "sick man" by Europeans. The suzerain states – the Principality of Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia and Montenegro – moved towards de jure independence during the 1860s and 1870s.
Decline and modernization (1828–1908)[link]
Main article: Decline of the Ottoman Empire
During this period, the Empire faced challenges in defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation. The Empire ceased to enter conflicts on its own and began to forge alliances with European countries such as France, the Netherlands, Britain, and Russia. As an example, in the 1853 Crimean War, the Ottomans united with Britain, France, and the Kingdom of Sardinia against Russia.
Modernization[link]
During the Tanzimat period (from Arabic تنظيم tanẓīm, meaning "organization") (1839–1876), the government's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, the decriminalisation of homosexuality, the replacement of religious law with secular law[73] and guilds with modern factories. In 1856, the Hatt-ı Hümayun promised equality for all Ottoman citizens regardless of their ethnicity and religious confession; which thus widened the scope of the 1839 Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane.
Overall, the Tanzimat reforms had far-reaching effects. Those educated in the schools established during the Tanzimat period included Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and other progressive leaders and thinkers of the Republic of Turkey and of many other former Ottoman states in the Balkans, the Middle East and North Africa. These reforms included[74] guarantees to ensure the Ottoman subjects perfect security for their lives, honour, and property; the introduction of the first Ottoman paper banknotes (1840) and opening of the first post offices (1840); the reorganization of the finance system according to the French model (1840); the reorganization of the Civil and Criminal Code according to the French model (1840); the establishment of the Meclis-i Maarif-i Umumiye (1841) which was the prototype of the First Ottoman Parliament (1876); the reorganization of the army and a regular method of recruiting, levying the army, and fixing the duration of military service (1843–44); the adoption of an Ottoman national anthem and Ottoman national flag (1844); the first nationwide Ottoman census in 1844 (only male citizens were counted); the first national identity cards (officially named the Mecidiye identity papers, or informally kafa kağıdı (head paper) documents, 1844); the institution of a Council of Public Instruction (1845) and the Ministry of Education (Mekatib-i Umumiye Nezareti, 1847, which later became the Maarif Nezareti, 1857); the abolition of slavery and slave trade (1847); the establishment of the first modern universities (darülfünun, 1848), academies (1848) and teacher schools (darülmuallimin, 1848); establishment of the Ministry of Healthcare (Tıbbiye Nezareti, 1850); the Commerce and Trade Code (1850); establishment of the Academy of Sciences (Encümen-i Daniş, 1851); establishment of the Şirket-i Hayriye which operated the first steam-powered commuter ferries (1851); the first European style courts (Meclis-i Ahkam-ı Adliye, 1853) and supreme judiciary council (Meclis-i Ali-yi Tanzimat, 1853); establishment of the modern Municipality of Istanbul (Şehremaneti, 1854) and the City Planning Council (İntizam-ı Şehir Komisyonu, 1855); the abolition of the capitation (Jizya) tax on non-Muslims, with a regular method of establishing and collecting taxes (1856); non-Muslims were allowed to become soldiers (1856); various provisions for the better administration of the public service and advancement of commerce; the establishment of the first telegraph networks (1847–1855) and railroads (1856); the replacement of guilds with factories; the establishment of the Ottoman Central Bank (originally established as the Bank-ı Osmanî in 1856, and later reorganized as the Bank-ı Osmanî-i Şahane in 1863)[75] and the Ottoman Stock Exchange (Dersaadet Tahvilat Borsası, established in 1866);[76] the Land Code (Arazi Kanunnamesi, 1857); permission for private sector publishers and printing firms with the Serbesti-i Kürşad Nizamnamesi (1857); establishment of the School of Economical and Political Sciences (Mekteb-i Mülkiye, 1859); the Press and Journalism Regulation Code (Matbuat Nizamnamesi, 1864); among others.[74]
The Ottoman Ministry of Post was established in Istanbul on 23 October 1840.[78][79] The first post office was the Postahane-i Amire near the courtyard of the Yeni Mosque.[78] In 1876 the first international mailing network between Istanbul and the lands beyond the vast Ottoman Empire was established.[78] In 1901 the first money transfers were made through the post offices and the first cargo services became operational.[78]
Samuel Morse received his first ever patent for the telegraph in 1847, at the old Beylerbeyi Palace (the present Beylerbeyi Palace was built in 1861–1865 on the same location) in Constantinople, which was issued by Sultan Abdülmecid who personally tested the new invention.[80] Following this successful test, installation works of the first telegraph line (Istanbul-Edirne-Şumnu)[81] began on 9 August 1847.[82] In 1855 the Ottoman telegraph network became operational and the Telegraph Administration was established.[78][79][81] In 1871 the Ministry of Post and the Telegraph Administration were merged, becoming the Ministry of Post and Telegraph.[79] In July 1881 the first telephone circuit in Istanbul was established between the Ministry of Post and Telegraph in the Soğukçeşme quarter and the Postahane-i Amire in the Yenicami quarter.[82] On 23 May 1909, the first manual telephone exchange with a 50 line capacity entered service in the Büyük Postane (Grand Post Office) of Sirkeci.[82]
The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the Kanûn-ı Esâsî (meaning "Basic Law" in Ottoman Turkish), written by members of the Young Ottomans, which was promulgated on 23 November 1876. It established the freedom of belief and equality of all citizens before the law. The Empire's First Constitutional era, was short-lived. But the idea of Ottomanism proved influential. A group of reformers known as the Young Ottomans, primarily educated in western universities, believed that a constitutional monarchy would give an answer to the Empire's growing social unrest. Through a military coup in 1876, they forced Sultan Abdülaziz (1861–1876) to abdicate in favour of Murad V. However, Murad V was mentally ill and was deposed within a few months. His heir-apparent, Abdülhamid II (1876–1909), was invited to assume power on the condition that he would declare a constitutional monarchy, which he did on 23 November 1876. The parliament survived for only two years before the sultan suspended it. When forced to reconvene it, he abolished the representative body instead. This ended the effectiveness of the Kanûn-ı Esâsî.
The Christian millets gained privileges, such as in the Armenian National Constitution of 1863. This Divan-approved form of the Code of Regulations consisted of 150 articles drafted by the Armenian intelligentsia. Another institution was the newly formed Armenian National Assembly.[83] The Christian population of the empire, owing to their higher educational levels, started to pull ahead of the Muslim majority, leading to much resentment on the part of the latter.[84] In 1861, there were 571 primary and 94 secondary schools for Ottoman Christians with 140,000 students in total, a figure that vastly exceeded the number of Muslim children in school at the same time, who were further hindered by the amount of time spent learning Arabic and Islamic theology.[84] In turn, the higher educational levels of the Christians allowed them to play a large role in the economy.[84] In 1911, of the 654 wholesale companies in Constantinople, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks.[84]
Railways[link]
New railways were built during this period, including the first in the Ottoman Empire.
| Railway | Year Established | Cities Serviced |
|---|---|---|
| Cairo-Alexandria line | 1856 | Cairo-Alexandria |
| İzmir-Selçuk-Aydın line | 1856 | İzmir-Selçuk-Aydın |
| Köstence-Boğazköy railway line | 1860 | Köstence-Boğazköy |
| Smyrne Cassaba & Prolongements | 1863 | İzmir, Afyon, Bandırma |
| Rusçuk–Varna railway line | 1866 | Rusçuk, Varna |
| Bükreş-Yergöğü railway line | 1869 | Bükreş, Yergöğü |
| Chemins de fer Orientaux | 1869 | Vienna, Banja Luka, Saraybosna, Niš, Sofia, Filibe, Edirne and Istanbul (starting from 1889 between Paris and Istanbul as the Orient Express) |
| Chemin de Fer Moudania Brousse | 1871 | Mudanya, Bursa |
| Istanbul-Belovo railway line | 1873 | Istanbul, Belovo |
| Üsküp-Selânik railway line | 1873 | Üsküp, Selânik |
| Mersin-Tarsus-Adana Railway | 1882 | Mersin, Tarsus, Adana |
| Chemins de Fer Ottomans d'Anatolie | 1888 | Istanbul, Izmit, Adapazarı, Bilecik, Eskişehir, Ankara, Kütahya, Konya |
| Jaffa–Jerusalem railway | 1892 | Jaffa, Jerusalem |
| Beirut-Damascus railway | 1895 | Beirut, Damascus |
| Baghdad Railway | 1904 | Istanbul, Konya, Adana, Aleppo, Baghdad |
| Jezreel Valley railway | 1905 | Acre, Haifa, Bosra, Hauran, Yagur, Daraa, Samakh, Beit She'an, Silat ad-Dhahr |
| Hejaz Railway | 1908 | Istanbul, Konya, Adana, Aleppo, Damascus, Amman, Tabuk and Medina |
| Eastern Railway | 1915 | Tulkarm, Lod |
| Beersheba Railway | 1915 | Nahal Sorek, Beit Hanoun, Beersheba. |
Crimean War[link]
Main article: Crimean War
The Crimean War (1853–1856) was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. Most of the conflict took place on the Crimean Peninsula, but there were smaller campaigns in western Anatolia, the Caucasus, the Baltic Sea, the Pacific Ocean and the White Sea. It is often considered to be one of the first "modern" wars, as it introduced new technologies to warfare, including the first tactical use of railways and the telegraph.[85] It is also famous for the work of Florence Nightingale and Mary Seacole, who pioneered modern nursing practices while caring for wounded British soldiers.[86] The Crimean War was one of the first wars to be documented extensively in written reports and photographs: notably by William Russell (for The Times newspaper) and Roger Fenton, respectively. News correspondence reaching Britain from the Crimea was the first time the public were kept informed of the day-to-day realities of war.
The Ottoman Empire took its first foreign loans on 4 August 1854,[77] shortly after the beginning of the Crimean War.[87]
The war caused an exodus of the Crimean Tatars. From the total Tatar population of 300,000 in the Tauride Province, about 200,000 Crimean Tatars moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration.[88] Toward the end of the Caucasian Wars, many Circassians fled their homelands in the Caucasus and settled in the Ottoman Empire. Since the 19th century, the exodus to present-day Turkey by the large portion of Muslim peoples from the Balkans, Caucasus, Crimea and Crete,[89] had great influence in molding the country's fundamental features. These people were called Muhacir under a general definition.[90] By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia.[84] Crimean Tatar refugees in the late 19th century played an especially notable role in seeking to modernize Turkish education.[84]
The subsequent Treaty of Paris (1856) secured Ottoman control over the Balkan peninsula and the Black Sea basin until defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878.
Ethnic nationalism[link]
Main article: Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire
The rise of nationalism swept through many countries during the 19th century, and it affected territories within the Ottoman Empire. A burgeoning national consciousness, together with a growing sense of ethnic nationalism, made nationalistic thought one of the most significant Western ideas imported to the Ottoman empire. It was forced to deal with nationalism both within and beyond its borders. The number of revolutionary political parties rose dramatically. Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many far-reaching consequences during the 19th century and determined much of Ottoman policy during the early 20th century. Many Ottoman Turks questioned whether the policies of the state were to blame: some felt that the sources of ethnic conflict were external, and unrelated to issues of governance. While this era was not without some successes, the ability of the Ottoman state to have any effect on ethnic uprisings was seriously called into question.
In 1804 the Serbian revolution against Ottoman rule erupted in the Balkans, running in parallel with the Napoleonic invasion. By 1817, when the revolution ended, Serbia was raised to the status of self-governing monarchy under nominal Ottoman suzerainty.[91][92] In 1821 the First Hellenic Republic became the first Balkan country to achieve its independence from the Ottoman Empire. It was officially recognized by the Porte in 1829, after the end of the Greek War of Independence.
Balkans[link]
Main article: History of the Balkans
The Tanzimat reforms did not halt the rise of nationalism in the Danubian Principalities and the Principality of Serbia, which had been semi-independent for almost six decades. In 1875 the tributary principalities of Serbia and Montenegro, and the United Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, unilaterally declared their independence from the Empire. Following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, the empire granted independence to all three belligerent nations. Bulgaria also achieved virtual independence[citation needed] (as the Principality of Bulgaria); its volunteers had participated in the Russo-Turkish war on the side of the rebelling nations.
Congress of Berlin[link]
The Congress of Berlin (13 June – 13 July 1878) was a meeting of the leading statesmen of Europe's Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire. In the wake of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) that ended with a decisive victory for Russia and her Orthodox Christian allies (subjects of the Ottoman Empire before the war) in the Balkan peninsula, the urgent need was to stabilize and reorganize the Balkans, and set up new nations. German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, who led the Congress, undertook to adjust boundaries to minimize the risks of major war, while recognizing the reduced power of the Ottomans, and balance the distinct interests of the great powers.
As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply; Bulgaria was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire, but was not allowed to keep all its previous territory. Bulgaria lost Eastern Rumelia, which was restored to the Turks under a special administration; and Macedonia, which was returned outright to the Turks, who promised reform. Romania achieved full independence, but had to turn over part of Bessarabia to Russia. Serbia and Montenegro finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories.
In 1878, Austria-Hungary unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Novi Pazar, but the Ottoman government contested this move and maintained its troops in both provinces. The stalemate lasted for 30 years (Austrian and Ottoman forces coexisted in Bosnia and Novi Pazar for three decades) until 1908, when the Austrians took advantage of the political turmoil in the Ottoman Empire that stemmed from the Young Turk Revolution and annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, but pulled their troops out of Novi Pazar in order to reach a compromise and avoid a war with the Turks. The Ottoman Empire lost Novi Pazar with the First Balkan War in 1912.
In return for British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli's advocacy for restoring the Ottoman territories on the Balkan peninsula during the Congress of Berlin, Britain assumed the administration of Cyprus in 1878[94] and later sent troops to Egypt in 1882 with the pretext of helping the Ottoman government to put down the Urabi Revolt; effectively gaining control in both territories (Britain formally annexed the still nominally Ottoman territories of Cyprus and Egypt on 5 November 1914, in response to the Ottoman Empire's decision to enter World War I on the side of the Central Powers.) France, on its part, occupied Tunisia in 1881.
The results were first hailed as a great achievement in peacemaking and stabilization. However, most of the participants were not fully satisfied, and grievances regarding the results festered until they exploded in world war in 1914. Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece made gains, but far less than they thought they deserved. The Ottoman Empire, called at the time the "sick man of Europe," was humiliated and significantly weakened, rendering it more liable to domestic unrest and more vulnerable to attack. Although Russia had been victorious in the war that occasioned the conference, it was humiliated at Berlin, and resented its treatment. Austria gained a great deal of territory, which angered the South Slavs, and led to decades of tensions in Bosnia and Herzogovina. Bismarck became the target of hatred of Russian nationalists and Pan-Slavists, and found that he had tied Germany too closely to Austria in the Balkans.[95]
In the long-run, tensions between Russia and Austria-Hungary intensified, as did the nationality question in the Balkans. The Congress succeeded in keeping Constantinople in Ottoman hands. It effectively disavowed Russia's victory. The Congress of Berlin returned to the Ottoman Empire territories that the previous treaty had given to the Principality of Bulgaria, most notably Macedonia, thus setting up a strong revanchist demand in Bulgaria that in 1912 led to the First Balkan War in which the Turks were defeated and lost nearly all of Europe.
Egypt[link]
Main article: Ottoman Egypt
After gaining some amount of autonomy during the early 1800s, Egypt had entered into a period of political turmoil by the 1880s. In April of 1882, British and French warships appeared in Alexandria to support the khedive and prevent the country from falling into the hands of anti-European nationals. In August of 1882 British forces invaded and occupied Egypt on the pretext of bringing order. The British supported Khedive Tewfiq and restored stability with was especially beneficial to British and French financial interests. Egypt and Sudan remained as Ottoman provinces de jure until 1914, when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers of World War I. Great Britain officially annexed these two provinces and Cyprus in response. Other Ottoman provinces in North Africa were lost between 1830 and 1912, starting with Algeria (occupied by France in 1830), Tunisia (occupied by France in 1881) and Libya (occupied by Italy in 1912).
Armenia[link]
Main article: Armenians in the Ottoman Empire
Although granted their own constitution and national assembly with the Tanzimat reforms, the Armenians attempted to demand implementation of Article 61 from the Ottoman government as agreed upon at the Congress of Berlin in 1878.[96] Following pressure from the European powers and Armenians, Sultan Abdul Hamid II, in response, assigned the Hamidiye regiments to eastern Anatolia (Ottoman Armenia).[97] These were formed mostly of irregular cavalry units of recruited Kurds.[98] From 1894–96, between 100,000 to 300,000 Armenians living throughout the empire were killed in what became known as the Hamidian massacres.[99] Armenian militants seized the Ottoman Bank headquarters in Constantinople in 1896 to bring European attention to the massacres, but they failed to gain any help.
Economy[link]
Economically, the Empire had difficulty in repaying the Ottoman public debt to European banks, which caused the establishment of the Council of Administration of the Ottoman Public Debt. By the end of the 19th century, the main reason the Empire was not overrun by Western powers was their attempt to maintain a balance of power in the area. Both Austria and Russia wanted to increase their spheres of influence and territory at the expense of the Ottoman Empire, but were kept in check mostly by Britain, which feared Russian dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean.
Dissolution (1908–1922)[link]
Main article: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire had long been the "sick man of Europe" and after a series of Balkan wars by 1914 had been driven out of nearly all of Europe, and North Africa. It still controlled 23 million people, of whom 17 million were in modern-day Turkey, 3 million in Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, and 2.5 million in Iraq. Another 5.5 million people were under nominal Ottoman rule in the Arabian peninsula.[100]
The Second Constitutional Era began after the Young Turk Revolution (3 July 1908) with the sultan's announcement of the restoration of the 1876 constitution and the reconvening of the Ottoman Parliament. It marks the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. This era is dominated by the politics of the Committee of Union and Progress, and the movement that would become known as the Young Turks.
Profiting from the civil strife, Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, but pulled its troops out of the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, another contested region between the Austrians and Ottomans, to avoid a war. During the Italo-Turkish War (1911–12) in which the Ottoman Empire lost Libya, the Balkan League declared war against the Ottoman Empire. The Empire lost the Balkan Wars (1912–13). It lost its Balkan territories except East Thrace and the historic Ottoman capital city of Edirne (Adrianople) during theSome 400,000 Muslims, out of fear of Greek, Serbian or Bulgarian atrocities, left with the retreating Ottoman army.[101] The Baghdad Railway under German control was a proposal to build rail lines into Iraq. The railway was not actually built at this time but its prospect worried the British until that issue was resolved in 1914. The railway did not play a role in the origins of World War I.
World War I (1914–1918)[link]
Main article: Middle Eastern theatre of World War I
The Young Turk government had signed a secret treaty with Germany and established the Ottoman-German Alliance in August 1914, aimed against the common Russian enemy but aligning the Empire with the German side. The Ottoman Empire entered World War I after the Goeben and Breslau incident, in which it gave safe harbour to two German ships that were fleeing British ships. These ships then—after having officially been transferred to the Ottoman Navy, but effectively still under German control—attacked the Russian port of Sevastopol, thus dragging the Empire into the war on the side of the Central Powers, in which it took part in the Middle Eastern theatre. There were several important Ottoman victories in the early years of the war, such as the Battle of Gallipoli and the Siege of Kut, but there were setbacks as well, such as the disastrous Caucasus Campaign against the Russians. The United States never declared war against the Ottoman Empire.[102]
In 1915, as the Russian Caucasus Army continued to advance in eastern Anatolia with the help of Armenian volunteer units from the Caucasus region of the Russian Empire,[103] and aided by some Ottoman Armenians, the Ottoman government decided to issue the Tehcir Law, which started the deportation of the ethnic Armenians, particularly from the provinces close to the Ottoman-Russian front, resulting in what became known as the Armenian Genocide.[104][105][106] Through forced marches and massacres, the Armenians living in eastern Anatolia were uprooted from their ancestral homelands and sent southwards to the Ottoman provinces in Syria and Mesopotamia. Estimates vary on how many Armenians perished during the Armenian Genocide but scholars give figures ranging from 300,000 (per the modern Turkish state), 600,000 (per early estimates by Western researchers)[107] to up to 1.5 million (per modern Western and Armenian scholars).[108][109][110][111][112][113]
The Arab Revolt which began in 1916 turned the tide against the Ottomans at the Middle Eastern front, where they initially seemed to have the upper hand during the first two years of the war. When the Armistice of Mudros was signed on 30 October 1918, the only parts of the Arabian peninsula that were still under Ottoman control were Yemen, Asir, the city of Medina, portions of northern Syria and portions of northern Iraq. These territories were handed over to the British forces on 23 January 1919. The Ottomans were also ordered to evacuate the parts of the former Russian Empire in the Caucasus (in present-day Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan), which they had gained towards the end of World War I, following Russia's retreat from the war with the Russian Revolution in 1917.
Under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres, the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire was solidified. The new countries created from the former territories of the Ottoman Empire currently number 39.
Turkish War of Independence (1919–1922)[link]
Main article: Turkish War of Independence
The occupation of Constantinople along with the occupation of İzmir mobilized the establishment of the Turkish national movement, which won the Turkish War of Independence (1919–22) under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha.[114] The Sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922, and the last sultan, Mehmed VI Vahdettin (reigned 1918–22), left the country on 17 November 1922. The new independent Grand National Assembly of Turkey (GNA) was internationally recognized with the Treaty of Lausanne on 24 July 1923. The GNA officially declared the Republic of Turkey on 29 October 1923. The Caliphate was constitutionally abolished several months later, on 3 March 1924. The Sultan and his family were declared personae non gratae of Turkey and exiled.
Ottoman descendants during and after the exile[link]
Main article: Line of succession to the Ottoman throne
In 1974, descendants of the dynasty were granted the right to acquire Turkish citizenship by the Grand National Assembly, and were notified that they could apply. Mehmed Orhan, son of Prince Mehmed Abdul Kadir of the Ottoman Empire, died in 1994, leaving the grandson of Ottoman Sultan Abdülhamid II, Ertuğrul Osman, as the eldest surviving member of the deposed dynasty. Osman for many years refused to carry a Turkish passport, calling himself a citizen of the Ottoman Empire. Despite this attitude, he put the matter of an Ottoman restoration to rest when he told an interviewer "no" to the question of whether he wished the Ottoman Empire to be restored. He was quoted as saying that "democracy works well in Turkey."[115] He returned to Turkey in 1992 for the first time since the exile, and became a Turkish citizen with a Turkish passport in 2002.[116]
On 23 September 2009, Osman died at the age of 97 in Istanbul, and with his death the last of the line born under the Ottoman Empire was extinguished. In Turkey, Osman was known as "the last Ottoman".[117]
Bayezid Osman, the second son of Sultan Abdülmecid I's younger grandson, Yavuz Ozgur, is now the current eldest surviving member of the former ruling dynasty.
Fall of the Empire[link]
Main article: Fall of the Ottoman Empire
In many ways, the circumstances surrounding the Ottoman Empire's fall closely paralleled those surrounding the decline of the Roman Empire, particularly in the ongoing tensions between the Empire's different ethnic groups, and the various governments' inability to deal with these tensions. In the case of the Ottomans, the introduction of increased cultural rights, civil liberties and a parliamentary system during the Tanzimat proved too late to reverse the nationalistic and secessionist trends that had already been set in motion since the early 19th century.[citation needed]
Administrative divisions[link]
Main article: Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire
The Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire were administrative divisions of the state organisation of the Ottoman Empire. Outside this system were various types of vassal and tributary states.
Economy[link]
Main article: Economic history of the Ottoman Empire
|
|||||||
|
Ottoman government deliberately pursued a policy for the development of Bursa, Edirne (Adrianople) and Constantinople, successive Ottoman capitals, into major commercial and industrial centres, considering that merchants and artisans were indispensable in creating a new metropolis.[118] To this end, Mehmed and his successor Bayezid, also encouraged and welcomed migration of the Jews from different parts of Europe, who were settled in Constantinople and other port cities like Salonica. In many places in Europe, Jews were suffering persecution at the hands of their Christian counterparts. The tolerance displayed by the Turks was welcomed by the immigrants. The Ottoman economic mind was closely related to the basic concepts of state and society in the Middle East in which the ultimate goal of a state was consolidation and extension of the ruler's power, and the way to reach it was to get rich resources of revenues by making the productive classes prosperous.[119] The ultimate aim was to increase the state revenues without damaging the prosperity of subjects to prevent the emergence of social disorder and to keep the traditional organization of the society intact.
The organization of the treasury and chancery were developed under the Ottoman Empire more than any other Islamic government and, until the 17th century, they were the leading organization among all their contemporaries.[120] This organization developed a scribal bureaucracy (known as "men of the pen") as a distinct group, partly highly trained ulama, which developed into a professional body.[120] The effectiveness of this professional financial body stands behind the success of many great Ottoman statesmen.[121] The economic structure of the Empire was defined by its geopolitical structure. The Ottoman Empire stood between the West and the East, thus blocking the land route eastward and forcing Spanish and Portuguese navigators to set sail in search of a new route to the Orient. The Empire controlled the spice route that Marco Polo once used. When Vasco da Gama bypassed Ottoman controlled routes and established direct trade links with India in 1498, and Christopher Columbus first journeyed to the Bahamas in 1492, the Ottoman Empire was at its zenith, an economic power that extended over three continents. Modern Ottoman studies think that the change in relations between the Ottoman Turks and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in the significance of the land routes to the East as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and Mediterranean as parallel to the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself. The Anglo-Ottoman Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Balta Liman that opened the Ottoman markets directly to English and French competitors, would be seen as one of the staging posts along this development.
By developing commercial centres and routes, encouraging people to extend the area of cultivated land in the country and international trade through its dominions, the state performed basic economic functions in the Empire. But in all this the financial and political interests of the state were dominant. Within the social and political system they were living in Ottoman administrators could not have comprehended or seen the desirability of the dynamics and principles of the capitalist and mercantile economies developing in Western Europe.[122]
State[link]
Main article: State organisation of the Ottoman Empire
| State organisation of the Ottoman Empire |
|---|
 |
|
The state organisation of the Ottoman Empire was a very simple system that had two main dimensions: the military administration and the civil administration. The Sultan was the highest position in the system. The civil system was based on local administrative units based on the region's characteristics. The Ottomans practiced a system in which the state (as in the Byzantine Empire) had control over the clergy. Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic Iran remained important in Ottoman administrative circles.[123] According to Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims and to ensure security and harmony within its borders within the overarching context of orthodox Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty.[124]
The "Ottoman dynasty" or, as an institution, "House of Osman" was unprecedented and unequaled in the Islamic world for its size and duration.[125] The Ottoman dynasty was ethnically Turkish in its origins, as were some of its supporters and subjects, however the dynasty immediately lost this "Turkic" identification through intermarriage with different ethnicities.[126] On eleven occasions, the sultan was deposed because he was perceived by his enemies as a threat to the state. There were only two attempts in Ottoman history to unseat the ruling Osmanlı dynasty, both failures, which suggests a political system that for an extended period was able to manage its revolutions without unnecessary instability.[124]
The highest position in Islam, caliphate, was claimed by the sultan, which was established as Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman sultan, pâdişâh or "lord of kings", served as the Empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control. The Imperial Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. It was ruled by the Valide Sultan. On occasion, the Valide Sultan would become involved in state politics. For a time, the women of the Harem effectively controlled the state in what was termed the "Sultanate of Women". New sultans were always chosen from the sons of the previous sultan. The strong educational system of the palace school was geared towards eliminating the unfit potential heirs, and establishing support among the ruling elite for a successor. The palace schools, which would also educate the future administrators of the state, were not a single track. First, the Madrasa (Ottoman Turkish: Medrese) was designated for the Muslims, and educated scholars and state officials according to Islamic tradition. The financial burden of the Medrese was supported by vakifs, allowing children of poor families to move to higher social levels and income.[127] The second track was a free boarding school for the Christians, the Enderûn,[128] which recruited 3,000 students annually from Christian boys between eight and twenty years old from one in forty families among the communities settled in Rumelia and/or the Balkans, a process known as Devshirme (Devşirme).[129]
Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, the sultan's political and executive authority was delegated. The politics of the state had a number of advisors and ministers gathered around a council known as Divan (after the 17th century it was renamed the "Porte"). The Divan, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a Beylik, was composed of the elders of the tribe. Its composition was later modified to include military officers and local elites (such as religious and political advisors). Later still, beginning in 1320, a Grand Vizier was appointed to assume certain of the sultan's responsibilities. The Grand Vizier had considerable independence from the sultan with almost unlimited powers of appointment, dismissal and supervision. Beginning with the late 16th century, sultans withdrew from politics and the Grand Vizier became the de facto head of state.[120]
Throughout Ottoman history, there were many instances in which local governors acted independently, and even in opposition to the ruler. After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy. The sultan no longer had executive powers. A parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces. The representatives formed the Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire.
The rapidly expanding empire used loyal, skilled subjects to manage the Empire, whether Albanians, Phanariot Greeks, Armenians, Serbs, Hungarians or others. The incorporation of Greeks (and other Christians), Muslims, and Jews revolutionized its administrative system.[130]
This eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the Empire, which was initially undertaken in the Greek language to the west.[126]
The Tughra were calligraphic monograms, or signatures, of the Ottoman Sultans, of which there were 35. Carved on the Sultan's seal, they bore the names of the Sultan and his father. The statement and prayer, “ever victorious,” was also present in most. The earliest belonged to Orhan Gazi. The ornately stylized Tughra spawned a branch of Ottoman-Turkish calligraphy.
Society[link]
See also: Devshirmeh
| Social structure of the Ottoman Empire |
|---|
|
One of the successes of the social structure of the Ottoman Empire was the unity that it caused among its highly varied populations through an organization called millets. The millets were the major religious groups that were allowed to establish their own communities under Ottoman rule. The Millets were established by retaining their own religious laws, traditions, and language under the general protection of the sultan. Plurality was the key to the longevity of the Empire. As early as the reign of Mehmed II, extensive rights were granted to Phanariot Greeks, and Jews were invited to settle in Ottoman territory. Ultimately, the Ottoman Empire's relatively high degree of tolerance for ethnic differences was one of its greatest strengths in integrating the new regions but this non-assimilative policy became a weakness after the rise of nationalism. The dissolution of the Empire based on ethnic differentiation (balkanization) brought the end, which the failed Ottomanism among the citizens and participatory politics of the first or the constitutional Era had successfully addressed.
The lifestyle of the Ottoman Empire was a mixture of western and eastern life. One unique characteristic of Ottoman life style was it was very fragmented. The millet concept generated this fragmentation and enabled many to coexist in a mosaic of cultures. The capital of the Ottoman Empire, Constantinople also had a unique culture, mainly because before Ottoman rule it had been the seat of both the Roman and Byzantine Empires. The lifestyle in the Ottoman court in many aspects assembled ancient traditions of the Persian Shahs, but had many Greek and European influences. The culture that evolved around the Ottoman court was known as the Ottoman Way, which was epitomized with the Topkapı Palace. There were also large metropolitan centers where the Ottoman influence expressed itself with a diversity similar to metropolises of today: Sarajevo, Skopje, Thessaloniki, Dimashq, Baghdad, Beirut, Jerusalem, Makkah and Algiers with their own small versions of Ottoman Provincial Administration replicating the culture of the Ottoman court locally. The seraglio, which were the non-imperial places, in the context of the Turkish fashion, became the subject of works of art, where non-imperial prince or referring to other grand houses built around courtyards.
Slavery in the Ottoman Empire was a part of Ottoman society.[131] As late as 1908 women slaves were still sold in the Empire.[132] During the 19th century the Empire came under pressure from Western European countries to outlaw the practice. Policies developed by various Sultans throughout the 19th century attempted to curtail the slave trade but, since slavery did have centuries of religious backing and sanction, they could never directly abolish the institution outright—as had gradually happened in Western Europe and the Americas.
Plague remained a major event in Ottoman society until the second quarter of the 19th century. Between 1701 and 1750, 37 larger and smaller plague epidemics were recorded in Constantinople, and 31 between 1751 and 1800.[133]
Culture[link]
| Culture of the Ottoman Empire |
|---|
|
| Visual Arts |
| Performing Arts |
| Languages and literature |
| Sports |
| Other |
The Ottoman Empire had filled roughly the territories around the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea while adopting the traditions, art and institutions of cultures in these regions and adding new dimensions to them. Many different cultures lived under the umbrella of the Ottoman Empire, and as a result, a specifically "Ottoman" culture can be difficult to define, except for those of the regional centers and capital. However, there was also a specific melding of cultures that can be said to have reached its highest levels among the Ottoman elite, who were composed of myriad ethnic and religious groups. This multicultural perspective of "millets" was reflected in the Ottoman State's multi-cultural and multi-religious policies. As the Ottomans moved further west, the Ottoman leaders absorbed some of the culture of the conquered regions. Intercultural marriages also played their part in creating the characteristic Ottoman elite culture. When compared to the Turkish folk culture, the influence of these new cultures in creating the culture of the Ottoman elite was clear.
"Ottoman architecture" was influenced by Persian, Byzantine Greek and Islamic architectures. The Ottoman architecture are a continuation of the pre-Islamic Sassanid architecture. For instance, the dome covered square, which had been a dominant form in Sassanid became the nucleus of all Ottoman architecture.[134][135] During the Rise period the early or first Ottoman architecture period, Ottoman art was in search of new ideas. The growth period of the Empire become the classical period of architecture, when Ottoman art was at its most confident. During the years of the Stagnation period, Ottoman architecture moved away from this style, however.
During the Tulip Era, it was under the influence of the highly ornamented styles of Western Europe; Baroque, Rococo, Empire and other styles intermingled. Concepts of Ottoman architecture mainly circle the mosque. The mosque was integral to society, city planning and communal life. Besides the mosque, it is also possible to find good examples of Ottoman architecture in soup kitchens, theological schools, hospitals, Turkish baths and tombs. Examples of Ottoman architecture of the classical period, besides Istanbul and Edirne, can also be seen in Egypt, Eritrea, Tunisia, Algiers, the Balkans and Romania, where mosques, bridges, fountains and schools were built. The art of Ottoman decoration developed with a multitude of influences due to the wide ethnic range of the Ottoman Empire. The greatest of the court artists enriched the Ottoman Empire with many pluralistic artistic influences: such as mixing traditional Byzantine art with elements of Chinese art.[136]
"Ottoman classical music" was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite, a number of the Ottoman sultans were accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as Selim III, whose compositions are often still performed today. Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of Byzantine music, Arabic music, and Persian music. Compositionally, it is organised around rhythmic units called usul, which are somewhat similar to meter in Western music, and melodic units called makam, which bear some resemblance to Western musical modes.
The instruments used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the saz, the bağlama, the kemence), other Middle Eastern instruments (the ud, the tanbur, the kanun, the ney), and—later in the tradition—Western instruments (the violin and the piano). Because of a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music, and folk music. In the provinces, several different kinds of folk music were created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are: Balkan-Thracian Türküs, North-Eastern (Laz) Türküs, Aegean Türküs, Central Anatolian Türküs, Eastern Anatolian Türküs, and Caucasian Türküs. Some of the distinctive styles were: Janissary Music, Roma music, Belly dance, Turkish folk music.
"Ottoman cuisine" refers to the cuisine of the capital—Constantinople, and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that all the populations enjoyed. This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the Empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. The creations of the Ottoman Palace's kitchens filtered to the population, for instance through Ramadan events, and through the cooking at the Yalıs of the Pashas, and from there on spread to the rest of the population. Today, Ottoman cuisine lives in the Balkans, Anatolia and the Middle East, "common heirs to what was once the Ottoman life-style, and their cuisines offer treacherous circumstantial evidence of this fact".[137] It is typical of any great cuisine in the world to be based on local varieties and on mutual exchange and enrichment among them, but at the same time to be homogenized and harmonized by a metropolitan tradition of refined taste.[137]
Numerous traditions and cultural traits of this previous empire (in fields such as architecture, cuisine, music, leisure and government) were adopted by the Ottoman Turks, who elaborated them into new forms and blended them with the characteristics of the ethnic and religious groups living within the Ottoman territories, which resulted in a new and distinctively Ottoman cultural identity.
Demographics[link]
Main article: Demographics of the Ottoman Empire
The exact population of the Ottoman Empire is a matter of much debate, due to the scantness and ambiguous nature of the primary sources. Figures from 1831 onwards are available as official census results, but the censuses did not cover the whole population. For example, the 1831 census only counted men and did not cover the whole empire.[50][138]
Language[link]
See also: Ottoman Turkish language
Ottoman Turkish was a Turkic language highly influenced by Persian and Arabic. The Ottomans had three influential languages: Turkish, spoken by the majority of the people in Anatolia and by the majority of Muslims of the Balkans except in Albania and Bosnia; Persian, only spoken by the educated;[139] and Arabic, spoken mainly in Arabia, North Africa, Iraq, Kuwait and the Levant. Throughout the vast Ottoman bureaucracy Ottoman Turkish language was the official language, a version of Turkish, albeit with a vast mixture of both Arabic and Persian grammar and vocabulary. If the basic grammar was still largely Turkish, the inclusion of almost any word in Arabic or Persian in Ottoman made it a language that was essentially incomprehensible to any ethnic Turkish Ottoman subject who had not mastered Arabic, Persian or both.
Because of a low literacy rate among the public (about 2–3% until the early 19th century and just about 15% at the end of 19th century), ordinary people had to hire special "request-writers" (arzuhâlcis) to be able to communicate with the government.[140] The ethnic groups continued to speak within their families and neighborhoods (mahalles) with their own languages (e.g., Jews, Greeks, Armenians, etc.) In villages where two or more populations lived together, the inhabitants would often speak each other's language. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages, many non ethnic Turks spoke Turkish as a second language. Educated Ottoman Turks spoke Arabic and Persian. In the last two centuries, French and English emerged as popular languages, especially among the Christian Levantine communities. The elite learned French at school, and used European products as a fashion statement. The use of Turkish grew steadily under the Ottomans, but, since they were still interested in their two other official[citation needed] languages, they kept these in use as well. Usage of these became limited, though, and specific: Persian served mainly as a literary language for the educated,[139] while Arabic was used for religious rites.
Religion[link]
 |
This section's representation of one or more viewpoints about a controversial issue may be unbalanced or inaccurate. Please improve the article or discuss the issue on the talk page.(November 2010) |
Further information: Christianity and Judaism in the Ottoman Empire
Before adopting Islam—a process that was greatly facilitated by the Abbasid victory at the 751 Battle of Talas, which ensured Abbasid influence in Central Asia—the Turkic peoples practiced a variety of shamanism. After this battle, many of the various Turkic tribes—including the Oghuz Turks, who were the ancestors of both the Seljuks and the Ottomans—gradually converted to Islam, and brought the religion with them to Anatolia beginning in the 11th century.
In the Ottoman Empire, in accordance with the Muslim dhimmi system, Christians were guaranteed limited freedoms (such as the right to worship), but were treated as second-class citizens. Christians and Jews were not considered equals to Muslims: testimony against Muslims by Christians and Jews was inadmissible in courts of law. They were forbidden to carry weapons or ride atop horses, their houses could not overlook those of Muslims, and their religious practices would have to defer to those of Muslims, in addition to various other legal limitations.[142] The system commonly known as devşirme ("blood tax") was effectively used in the Ottoman Empire for centuries: in this system a certain number Christian boys, mainly from the Balkans and Anatolia, were periodically conscripted before they reached adolescence and were brought up as Muslims.[143] These selected boys were trained either in the arts of statecraft or in the military to form the ruling class and the elite fighting force, Janissaries, of the empire.
The Ottoman Empire was, in principle, tolerant towards Christians and Jews (the "Ahl Al-Kitab", or "People of the Book", according to the Qur'an) but not towards the polytheists, according to the Sharia law. Such tolerance was subject to a non-Muslim tax, the Jizya.
Under the millet system, non-Muslim people were considered subjects of the Empire, but were not subject to the Muslim faith or Muslim law. The Orthodox millet, for instance, was still officially legally subject to Justinian's Code, which had been in effect in the Byzantine Empire for 900 years. Also, as the largest group of non-Muslim subjects (or zimmi) of the Islamic Ottoman state, the Orthodox millet was granted a number of special privileges in the fields of politics and commerce, and had to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects.[144],[145]
The Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II allowed the local Christians to stay in Constantinople after conquering the city in 1453, and to retain their institutions such as the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate.
In 1461 Sultan Mehmed II established the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople. Previously, the Byzantines considered the Armenian Church as heretical and thus did not allow them to build churches inside the walls of Constantinople. In 1492, when the Muslims and Sephardic Jews were expelled from Spain during the Spanish Inquisition, the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II sent his fleet under Kemal Reis to save them and granted the refugees the right to settle in the Ottoman Empire.
The state's relationship with the Greek Orthodox Church was largely peaceful, and recurrent oppressive measures taken against the Greek church were a deviation from generally established practice. The church's structure was kept intact and largely left alone but under close control and scrutiny until the Greek War of Independence of 1821–1829 and, later in the 19th century, the rise of the Ottoman constitutional monarchy, which was driven to some extent by nationalistic currents, tried to be balanced with Ottomanism. Other Orthodox churches, like the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, were dissolved and placed under the jurisdiction of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate, until Sultan Abdülaziz established the Bulgarian Exarchate in 1870 and reinstated the autonomy of the Bulgarian Church.
Similar millets were established for the Ottoman Jewish community, who were under the authority of the Haham Başı or Ottoman Chief Rabbi; the Armenian Orthodox community, who were under the authority of a head bishop; and a number of other religious communities as well.
In 1514, Sultan Selim I, nicknamed “the Grim” because of his cruelty, ordered the massacre of 40,000 Anatolian Shi'ites, whom he considered heretics,[146] reportedly proclaiming that "the killing of one Shiite had as much otherworldly reward as killing 70 Christians."[147]
Law[link]
Further information: Mecelle
The Ottoman legal system accepted the religious law over its subjects. The Ottoman Empire was always organized around a system of local jurisprudence. Legal administration in the Ottoman Empire was part of a larger scheme of balancing central and local authority.[148] Ottoman power revolved crucially around the administration of the rights to land, which gave a space for the local authority develop the needs of the local millet.[148] The jurisdictional complexity of the Ottoman Empire was aimed to permit the integration of culturally and religiously different groups.[148] The Ottoman system had three court systems: one for Muslims, one for non-Muslims, involving appointed Jews and Christians ruling over their respective religious communities, and the "trade court". The entire system was regulated from above by means of the administrative Kanun, i.e. laws, a system based upon the Turkic Yasa and Töre, which were developed in the pre-Islamic era. The kanun law system, on the other hand, was the secular law of the sultan, and dealt with issues not clearly addressed by the sharia system.
These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive: for instance, the Islamic courts—which were the Empire's primary courts—could also be used to settle a trade conflict or disputes between litigants of differing religions, and Jews and Christians often went to them to obtain a more forceful ruling on an issue. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors. The Islamic Sharia law system had been developed from a combination of the Qur'an; the Hadīth, or words of the prophet Muhammad; ijmā', or consensus of the members of the Muslim community; qiyas, a system of analogical reasoning from earlier precedents; and local customs. Both systems were taught at the Empire's law schools, which were in Constantinople and Bursa.
Tanzimat reforms drastically affected the law system. In 1877, the civil law (except family law) was codified in the Mecelle code. Later codifications covered commercial law, penal law and civil procedure.
Military[link]
| Military of the Ottoman Empire |
|---|
|
| Army |
| Conflicts |
| See also |
Main article: Military of the Ottoman Empire
The first military unit of the Ottoman State was an army that was organized by Osman I from the tribesmen inhabiting the hills of western Anatolia in the late 13th century. The military system became an intricate organization with the advance of the Empire. The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. The main corps of the Ottoman Army included Janissary, Sipahi, Akıncı and Mehterân. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to use muskets and cannons. The Ottoman Turks began using falconets, which were short but wide cannons, during the Siege of Constantinople (1422). The Ottoman cavalry depended on high speed and mobility rather than heavy armour, using bows and short swords on fast Turkoman and Arabian horses (progenitors of the Thoroughbred racing horse),[149][150] and often applied tactics similar to those of the Mongol Empire, such as pretending to retreat while surrounding the enemy forces inside a crescent-shaped formation and then making the real attack. The decline in the army's performance became clear from the mid-17th century and after the Great Turkish War. The 18th century saw some limited success against Venice, but in the north the European-style Russian armies forced the Ottomans to concede land.
The modernization of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century started with the military. In 1826 Sultan Mahmud II abolished the Janissary corps and established the modern Ottoman army. He named them as the Nizam-ı Cedid (New Order). The Ottoman army was also the first institution to hire foreign experts and send its officers for training in western European countries. Consequently, the Young Turks movement began when these relatively young and newly trained men returned with their education.
The Ottoman Navy vastly contributed to the expansion of the Empire's territories on the European continent. It initiated the conquest of North Africa, with the addition of Algeria and Egypt to the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Starting with the loss of Algeria (1830) and Greece (1821), Ottoman naval power and control over the Empire's distant overseas territories began to decline. Sultan Abdülaziz (reigned 1861–1876) attempted to reestablish a strong Ottoman navy, building the largest fleet after those of Britain and France. The shipyard at Barrow, England, built its first submarine in 1886 for the Ottoman Empire.[151]
However, the collapsing Ottoman economy could not sustain the fleet's strength for too long. Sultan Abdülhamid II distrusted the admirals who sided with the reformist Midhat Pasha, and claimed that the large and expensive fleet was of no use against the Russians during the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878). He locked most of the fleet inside the Golden Horn, where the ships decayed for the next 30 years. Following the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress sought to develop a strong Ottoman naval force. The Ottoman Navy Foundation was established in 1910 to buy new ships through public donations.
The history of Ottoman military aviation dates back to 1909 between June 1909 and July 1911.[152][153] The Ottoman Empire started preparing its first pilots and planes, and with the founding of the Aviation School (Tayyare Mektebi) in Yeşilköy on 3 July 1912, the Empire began to tutor its own flight officers. The founding of the Aviation School quickened advancement in the military aviation program, increased the number of enlisted persons within it, and gave the new pilots an active role in the Ottoman Army and Navy. In May 1913 the world's first specialized Reconnaissance Training Program was started by the Aviation School and the first separate reconnaissance division was established[citation needed]. In June 1914 a new military academy, the Naval Aviation School (Bahriye Tayyare Mektebi) was founded. With the outbreak of World War I, the modernization process stopped abruptly. The Ottoman aviation squadrons fought on many fronts during World War I, from Galicia in the west to the Caucasus in the east and Yemen in the south.
See also[link]
- The Akçe (Ottoman Turkish: آقچه) derived from Asper, a silver coin, was the chief monetary unit of the Ottoman Empire
- Index of Ottoman Empire-related articles
- Outline of the Ottoman Empire
Footnotes[link]
- ^ In Republic of Ragusa which was under Ottoman protection.
- ^ The Treaty of Sèvres (10 August 1920) afforded a small existence to the Ottoman Empire. The Great National Assembly declared that the Ottoman sultanate abolished from 16 March 1920 (military occupation of Constantinople) on 1 November 1922. The international recognition of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey was announced through the Treaty of Lausanne (24 July 1923). Then, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey declared the successor state to be the modern-day "Republic of Turkey" (29 October 1923), which was the end of the Ottoman Empire in history.
- ^ It was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries (since 1923, the name "Ottoman Empire" is preferred to avoid confusion with the Republic of Turkey, see Names of the Ottoman Empire).
- ^ Starting from the 19th century, the name Osmanlı Devleti (Ottoman State) became popular among the Ottoman citizens and officials. Before the 1800s, the name Osmanlı Devleti wasn't officially used, but there are records showing that this name was used informally by Ottoman citizens.
- ^ The empire also temporarily gained authority over distant overseas lands through declarations of allegiance to the Ottoman Sultan and Caliph, such as the declaration by the Sultan of Aceh in 1565, or through temporary acquisitions of islands such as Lanzarote in the Atlantic Ocean in 1585, Turkish Navy Official Website: "Atlantik'te Türk Denizciliği"
References[link]
- ^ The Encyclopædia Britannica, Vol.7, Edited by Hugh Chisholm, (1911), 3; Constantinople, the capital of the Turkish Empire...
- ^ Britannica, Istanbul:When the Republic of Turkey was founded in 1923, the capital was moved to Ankara, and Constantinople was officially renamed Istanbul in 1930.
- ^ Yücel Karadaş, Ziya Gökalp'te Şarkiyatçılık: Doğu'nun batıcı üretimi, Anahtar Kitaplar, 2008, p. 133. (Turkish), Osmanlı devrinde resmi dil olarak kullanılan Osmanlıca ile halk arasında konuşulan Türkçe, söz konusu dönemde kullanılan dillerdir.
- ^ Şerafettin Turan, Türk Kültür Tarihi: Türk Kültüründen Türkiye Kültürüne ve Evrenselliğe, Bilgi Yayınevi, 1990, p. 59.(Turkish), ...devlet kuruluşlarında kullanılan Arapça – Farsça – Türkçe karışımı Osmanlıca ile halkın konuştuğu Türkçe arasındaki uçurum giderek artarken, ...
- ^ Peter Turchin, Thomas D. Hall and Jonathan M. Adams, "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires", Journal of World-Systems Research Vol. 12 (no. 2), pp. 219–229 (2006).
- ^ Dündar, Orhan; Dündar, Erhan, 1.Dünya Savaşı, Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Yayınları, 1999, ISBN 975-11-1643-0
- ^ http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_London_Gazzette_(Thursday,_9_January_1672).jpg
- ^ "Ottoman banknote with Arabic script". http://www.twareekh.com/images/upload/aboutus/ottmani10liras1334F-.jpg. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
- ^ "A grammar of the Turkish language". Archive.org. http://www.archive.org/stream/grammarofturkish00davirich#page/xxvi/mode/2up. Retrieved 6 November 2011.
- ^ Temel Britannica, Ana Yayıncılık-Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1992, Cilt 18, Sh. 41–96; Türkiye. ISBN 975-7760-02-1
- ^ Stephen Turnbull, The Ottoman Empire 1326–1699, Essential histories, vol. 62, Essential histories, 2003. [from article of the back cover]
- ^ "From the article on the Ottoman Empire in Oxford Islamic Studies Online". Oxfordislamicstudies.com. 6 May 2008. http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41&_pos=3. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
- ^ The Sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922. Mehmed VI, the last Ottoman Sultan, departed from Istanbul on 17 November 1922, which does not mean that the Ottoman Empire ended completely and stopped all its functions.
- ^ "Full text of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923)". Wwi.lib.byu.edu. http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Treaty_of_Lausanne. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
- ^ Böyle olunca, Türkiye, bu Devletin mirasçısı değildir; ona ardıl olan Devletlerden biridir., Seha Meray, Lozan Barış Konferansı, Tutanaklar-Belgeler (The Lausanne Peace Conference, Minutes-Documents), Cilt 1, Kitap 3, Ankara Üniversitesi, Siysal Bilgiler Fakültesi, 1973, p. 181. (Turkish)
- ^ Douglas Arthur Howard, The history of Turkey, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001, ISBN 978-0-313-30708-9, p. 1
- ^ Ahmad Razavi, Continental shelf delimination and related maritime issues in the Persian Gulf, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1997, ISBN 978-90-411-0333-8, p. 149.
- ^ Alan Rush, Al-Sabah: History & Genealogy of Kuwait's Ruling Family, 1752–1987, Ithaca Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-86372-081-9, p. 44.
- ^ Elie Kedourie, Nationalism in Asia and Africa, Routledge, 1974, ISBN 978-0-7146-3046-5, p. 49.
- ^ Michael Berenbaum, Abraham J. Peck, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, The Holocaust and History: The Known, The Unknown, The Disputed, and The Reexamined, Indiana University Press, 1998, ISBN 978-0-253-33374-2, p. 537.
- ^ a b c Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries (Morrow Quill Publishers: New York, 1977) p. 24.
- ^ Bodnar, Edward W. Ciriaco d'Ancona e la crociata di Varna, nuove prospettive. Il Veltro 27, nos. 1–2 (1983): 235–51
- ^ Halecki, Oscar, The Crusade of Varna. New York, 1943
- ^ a b Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pages 86–100 from Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 page 94
- ^ Karpat, Kemal H. (1974). The Ottoman state and its place in world history. Leiden: Brill. p. 111. ISBN 90-04-03945-7. . A lock-hold on trade between western Europe and Asia is often cited as a primary motivation for Isabella I of Castile to fund Christopher Columbus's westward journey to find a sailing route to Asia and, more generally, for European seafaring nations to explore alternative trade routes (e.g. K. D. Madan, Life and travels of Vasco Da Gama (1998), 9; I. Stavans, Imagining Columbus: the literary voyage (2001), 5; W.B. Wheeler and S. Becker, Discovering the American Past. A Look at the Evidence: to 1877 (2006), 105). This traditional viewpoint has been attacked as unfounded in an influential article by A.H. Lybyer ("The Ottoman Turks and the Routes of Oriental Trade”, English Historical Review, 120 (1915), 577–588), who sees the rise of Ottoman power and the beginnings of Portuguese and Spanish explorations as unrelated events. His view has not been universally accepted (cf. K.M. Setton, The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Vol. 2: The Fifteenth Century (Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 127) (1978), 335).
- ^ Savory, R. M. (1960). "The Principal Offices of the Ṣafawid State during the Reign of Ismā'īl I (907-30/1501-24)". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 23 (1): 91–105. DOI:10.1017/S0041977X00149006. JSTOR 609888.
- ^ Hess, Andrew C. (January 1973). "The Ottoman Conquest of Egypt (1517) and the Beginning of the Sixteenth-Century World War". International Journal of Middle East Studies 4 (1): 55–76. JSTOR 162225.
- ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica". Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/276730/Hungary/214181/History#ref=ref411152. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
- ^ "Encyclopaedia Britannica". http://cache-media.britannica.com/eb-media/47/20547-004-D655EA04.gif. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
- ^ Imber, 50.
- ^ Wheatcroft (2009), p. 59.
- ^ Thompson (1996), p. 442
- ^ Ágoston and Alan Masters (2009), p. 583
- ^ a b Turnbull (2003), p. 51.
- ^ Vambery, p. 298
- ^ L. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire, p.206
- ^ Mansel, 61
- ^ Imber, 53.
- ^ Itzkowitz, Norman. Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-38806-9, pp. 64–65.
- ^ Davies (2007). Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe,1500–1700.. p.16.
- ^ Subtelny, Orest (1988). "Ukraine: a history.". p 106
- ^ "The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves" (PDF). Eizo Matsuki, Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University.
- ^ a b Kinross, 272.
- ^ Itzkowitz, Norman. Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-38806-9, p. 67.
- ^ Kunt & Woodhead (Ed.) "Suleyman The Magnificent and his Age, The Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern World", Longman 1995, ISBD 0-582-03827-8, p. 53
- ^ Itzkowitz, Norman. Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition. University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-38806-9 p. 71
- ^ Itzkowitz, Norman.Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition. University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-38806-9, p.96.
- ^ Itzkowitz, Norman. Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition. University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-38806-9, pp. 90–92
- ^ Inalcik, Halil. An Economic And Social History Of The Ottoman Empire, Vol 1 1300–1600. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-57455-2, p. 24.
- ^ a b L. Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, p.281
- ^ Leslie P. Peirce, The imperial harem: women and sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire and Morality tales: law and gender in the Ottoman court of Aintab.
- ^ Itzkowitz, Norman. Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition. University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-38806-9, pp. 74–75.
- ^ Itzkowitz, Norman. Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition. University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-38806-9, pp. 77–81.
- ^ Itzkowitz, Norman. Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition. University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-38806-9, pp. 80–81.
- ^ Itzkowitz, Norman. Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition. University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-38806-9, pp. 81–82.
- ^ Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, p. 357.
- ^ Itzkowitz, Norman. Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition. University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-38806-9, p. 84.
- ^ Itzkowitz, Norman. Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition. University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-38806-9, p. 73.
- ^ Itzkowitz, Norman. Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition. University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-38806-9, pp. 83–84.
- ^ a b Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, p. 371.
- ^ Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, p. 372.
- ^ Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, p. 376.
- ^ The Cambridge History of Turkey: The later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839, Ed. Suraiya Faroqhi, (Cambridge University Press, 2006), 443.
- ^ Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, p. 393.
- ^ "History of the Istanbul Technical University". Itu.edu.tr. http://www.itu.edu.tr/en/?about/history. Retrieved 6 November 2011.
- ^ a b c Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pages 86–100 from Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 page 97
- ^ a b Presentation of Katip Çelebi, Kitâb-i Cihân-nümâ li-Kâtib Çelebi[dead link], at the Utrecht University Library
- ^ William J. Watson, "Ibrahim Muteferrika and Turkish Incunabula", in Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 88, No. 3 (1968), p. 435.
- ^ Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, p. 396.
- ^ Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, p. 405.
- ^ "Liberation, Independence and Union". Njegos.org. http://www.njegos.org/past/liunion.htm. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
- ^ Berend, Tibor Iván, History derailed: Central and Eastern Europe in the long nineteenth century, (University of California Press Ltd, 2003), 127.
- ^ http://faith-matters.org/images/stories/fm-publications/the-tanzimat-final-web.pdf
- ^ a b NTV Tarih history magazine, issue of July 2011. "Sultan Abdülmecid: İlklerin Padişahı", pages 46–50. (Turkish)
- ^ "Ottoman Bank Museum: History of the Ottoman Bank". Obarsiv.com. http://www.obarsiv.com/ob-tarih.html. Retrieved 6 November 2011.
- ^ "Istanbul Stock Exchange: History of the Istanbul Stock Exchange". Imkb.gov.tr. http://www.imkb.gov.tr/genel/tarih.htm. Retrieved 6 November 2011.
- ^ a b "History of the Ottoman public debt". Gberis.e-monsite.com. http://gberis.e-monsite.com/categorie,osmanli-borclanma-tarihi-ottoman-debt-history,3219214.html. Retrieved 6 November 2011.
- ^ a b c d e PTT Chronology[dead link]
- ^ a b c "History of the Turkish Postal Service". Ptt.gov.tr. http://www.ptt.gov.tr/index.snet?wapp=histor_en&open=1. Retrieved 6 November 2011.
- ^ Istanbul City Guide: Beylerbeyi Palace[dead link]
- ^ a b NTV Tarih history magazine, issue of July 2011. "Sultan Abdülmecid: İlklerin Padişahı", page 49. (Turkish)
- ^ a b c Türk Telekom: History
- ^ Barsoumian, Hagop. "The Eastern Question and the Tanzimat Era", in The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times, Volume II: Foreign Dominion to Statehood: The Fifteenth Century to the Twentieth Century. Richard G. Hovannisian (ed.) New York: St. Martin's Press, p. 198. ISBN 0-312-10168-6.
- ^ a b c d e f Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pages 86–100 from Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 page 95.
- ^ Royle. Preface.
- ^ Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
- ^ Douglas Arthur Howard: "The History of Turkey", page 71.
- ^ "Hijra and Forced Migration from Nineteenth-Century Russia to the Ottoman Empire"[dead link], by Bryan Glynn Williams, Cahiers du Monde russe, 41/1, 2000, pp. 79–108.
- ^ By the early 19th century, as many as 45% of the islanders may have been Muslim.
- ^ Justin McCarthy, Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–2000, Princeton, N.J: Darwin Press, c1995
- ^ English translation: Leopold Ranke, A History of Serbia and the Serbian Revolution. Translated from the German by Mrs Alexander Kerr (London: John Murray, 1847)
- ^ L. S. Stavrianos, The Balkans since 1453 (London: Hurst and Co., 2000), pp. 248–250.
- ^ "Map of Europe and the Ottoman Empire in the year 1900". http://mapsof.net/uploads/static-maps/europe_map_1900.jpg. Retrieved 6 November 2011.
- ^ A. J. P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: 1848–1918 (1954) pp 228–54
- ^ Jerome L. Blum, et al. The European World: A History (1970) p 841
- ^ Hovannisian, Richard G.. "The Armenian Question in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1914". The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times II: 218.
- ^ Hovannisian, 217,222.
- ^ Hovannisian. "The Armenian Question", p. 217.
- ^ Akcam, Taner. A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006, p. 42. ISBN 0-8050-7932-7.
- ^ Şevket Pamuk, "The Ottoman Economy in World War I" in Stephen Broadberry and Mark Harrison, eds. The Economics of World War I (2005) pp 112–36, esp. p 112
- ^ (PDF) Greek and Turkish refugees and deportees 1912–1924. NL: Universiteit Leiden. http://tulp.leidenuniv.nl/content_docs/wap/ejz18.pdf.
- ^ Spencer Tucker, ed. Encyclopedia of World War I (2005) p 1080
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. "Encyclopædia Britannica: Armenian massacres (Turkish-Armenian history)". Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/35323/Armenian-massacres. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
- ^ Balakian, Peter. The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response. New York: Perennial, 2003. ISBN 0-06-019840-0
- ^ Walker, Christopher J. "World War I and the Armenian Genocide". The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times II: 239–273.
- ^ Akcam. A Shameful Act, pp. 109–204.
- ^ Toynbee, Arnold J., The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire 1915–16: Documents presented to Viscount Grey of Fallodon, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs By Viscount Bryce. New York and London: G. P. Putnam's Sons, for His Majesty's Stationary Office, London, 1916, p. 650.
- ^ Charny, Israel et al. A Letter from The International Association of Genocide Scholars. International Association of Genocide Scholars. 13 June 2005. Retrieved 12 September 2009.
- ^ See Marashlian, Levon. Politics and Demography: Armenians, Turks, and Kurds in the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge, Mass.: Zoryan Institute, 1991.
- ^ Totten, Samuel, Paul Robert Bartrop, Steven L. Jacobs (eds.) Dictionary of Genocide. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, p. 19. ISBN 0-313-34642-9.
- ^ Noël, Lise. Intolerance: A General Survey. Arnold Bennett, 1994, ISBN 0-7735-1187-3, p. 101.
- ^ Schaefer, T (ed.). Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications, 2008, p. 90.
- ^ The criminal law of genocide: international, comparative and contextual aspects, by Ralph J. Henham, Paul Behrens, 2007, p. 17
- ^ Mustafa Kemal Pasha's speech on his arrival in Ankara in November 1919.
- ^ Bilefsky, Dan. "Weary of Modern Fictions, Turks Glory in Splendor of Ottoman Past," New York Times. 5 December 2009.
- ^ "Political Obituaries: Ertugrul Osman". The Daily Telegraph. 27 September 2009. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/politics-obituaries/6237121/Ertugrul-Osman.html. Retrieved 26 October 2009.
- ^ "'Last Ottoman' dies in Istanbul". BBC. 24 September 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8273396.stm. Retrieved 24 September 2009.
- ^ Halil İnalcık, Studies in the economic history of the Middle East : from the rise of Islam to the present day / edited by M. A. Cook. London University Press, Oxford U. P. 1970, p. 209 ISBN 0-19-713561-7
- ^ Halil İnalcık, Studies in the economic history of the Middle East : from the rise of Islam to the present day / edited by M. A. Cook. London University Press, Oxford U. P. 1970, p. 217 ISBN 0-19-713561-7
- ^ a b c Antony Black (2001), "The state of the House of Osman (devlet-ı al-ı Osman)" in The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present, p. 199
- ^ Halil İnalcık, Donald Quataert (1971), An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914, p. 120
- ^ Halil inalcik, Studies in the economic history of the Middle East : from the rise of Islam to the present day / edited by M. A. Cook. London University Press, Oxford U. P. 1970, p. 218 ISBN 0-19-713561-7
- ^ Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition p. 38.
- ^ a b Naim Kapucu,Hamit Palabıyık Turkish public administration: from tradition to the modern age", p 77
- ^ Antony Black, ibid, page 197
- ^ a b Donald Quataert, 2
- ^ Bernard Lewis, Istanbul and the civilization of the Ottoman Empire, p151
- ^ "Enderun and Matraki". http://tamu.academia.edu/SencerCorlu/Papers/471488/The_Ottoman_Palace_School_Enderun_and_the_Man_with_Multiple_Talents_Matrakci_Nasuh.
- ^ Kemal H Karpat, Social Change and Politics in Turkey: A Structural-Historical Analysis, p204
- ^ The History of Turkish-Jewish Relations
- ^ "Supply of Slaves". Coursesa.matrix.msu.edu. http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
- ^ "Islam and slavery: Sexual slavery". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_7.shtml. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
- ^ Université de Strasbourg. Institut de turcologie, Université de Strasbourg. Institut d'études turques, Association pour le développement des études turques. (1998). Turcica. Éditions Klincksieck. p. 198.
- ^ Von Gabriel Piterberg, An Ottoman Tragedy: History and Historiography at Play, pp. 98–103, Books.Google.de
- ^ Von Helen Gardner, Horst De la Croix, Richard G. Tansey, Gardner's Art Through the Ages, p. 263, ISBN 0-15-503758-7,Books.google.de
- ^ "Eli Shah. The Ottoman Artistic Legacy". Mfa.gov.il. http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/1990_1999/1999/2/The%20Ottoman%20Artistic%20Legacy. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
- ^ a b Bert Fragner, "From the Caucasus to the Roof of the World: a culinary adventure", in Sami Zubaida and Richard Tapper, A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East, London and New York, p. 52
- ^ M. Kabadayı, Inventory for the Ottoman Empire / Turkish Republic 1500–2000
- ^ a b Persian historiography and geography, Bertold Spuler,M. Ismail Marcinkowski, page 69, 2003
- ^ Kemal H. Karpat (2002). Studies on Ottoman social and political history: selected articles and essays. Brill. p. 266. ISBN 90-04-12101-3. http://books.google.com/?id=082osLxyBDgC&pg=PA266&dq=arzuhalci#v=onepage&q=arzuhalci&f=false.
- ^ "Tile – Victoria & Albert Museum – Search the Collections". Collections.vam.ac.uk. 25 August 2009. http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O106609/tile/. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
- ^ Akcam, Taner. A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006 p. 24 ISBN 0-8050-7932-7
- ^ Shaw and Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire, pp. 112–129.
- ^ "The Divinely-Protected, Well-Flourishing Domain: The Establishment of the Ottoman System in the Balkan Peninsula[dead link]", Sean Krummerich, Loyola University New Orleans, The Student Historical Journal, volume 30 (1998–99)
- ^ Turkish Toleration, The American Forum for Global Education
- ^ George C. Kohn (2007.) Dictionary of Wars. Infobase Publishing. p. 385. ISBN 0-8160-6577-2
- ^ Jalāl Āl Aḥmad, Plagued by the West (Gharbzadegi), translated by Paul Sprachman. Delmor, NY: Center for Iranian Studies, Columbia University, 1982.
- ^ a b c Lauren A. Benton, Law and Colonial Cultures: Legal Regimes in World History, 1400–1900", pp 109–110
- ^ Milner The Godolphin Arabian pp. 3–6
- ^ Wall Famous Running Horses p. 8
- ^ Ellesmerereportstandard.co.uk[dead link], The standard – Petition created for submarine name
- ^ "Story of Turkish Aviation in 'Turkey in the First World War' website". Turkeyswar.com. http://www.turkeyswar.com/aviation/aviation.htm. Retrieved 6 November 2011.
- ^ Hv. K. K. Mebs. ""Founding" in Turkish Air Force official website". Hvkk.tsk.tr. http://www.hvkk.tsk.tr/EN/IcerikDetay.aspx?ID=19. Retrieved 6 November 2011.
Further reading[link]
General surveys[link]
- Barkey, Karen. Empire of Difference: The Ottomans in Comparative Perspective. (2008) 357pp Amazon.com, excerpt and text search
- Creasy, Sir Edward Shepherd. History of the Ottoman Turks: From the beginning of their empire to the present time. R. Bentley and Son, 1877.
- Finkel, Caroline. Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923. John Murray, 2005. ISBN 0-7195-5513-2. Amazon.com, excerpt and text search
- Goodwin, Jason. Lords of the Horizons: A History of the Ottoman Empire (2003) Amazon.com, excerpt and text search
- Imber, Colin. The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. ISBN 0-333-61386-4.
- Inalcik, Halil and Quataert, Donald, ed. An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914. 1995. 1026 pp.
- Dimitri Kitsikis, L'Empire ottoman, Presses Universitaires de France, 3rd ed.,1994. ISBN 2-13-043459-2
- McCarthy, Justin. The Ottoman Turks: An Introductory History to 1923 1997 Questian.com, online edition
- Pamuk, Sevket. A Monetary History of the Ottoman Empire. 1999. 276 pp.
- Quataert, Donald. The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922 (2005), standard scholarly survey Amazon.com, excerpt and text search ISBN 0-521-54782-2.
- Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezel Kural Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol. 1, 1977.
- Somel, Selcuk Aksin. Historical Dictionary of the Ottoman Empire. (2003). 399 pp.
- Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pages 86–100 from Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 ISBN 0-297-84913-1.
- Uyar, Mesut; Erickson, Edward (2009). A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk. ISBN 978-0-275-98876-0.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
to 1830[link]
- Braude, Benjamin, and Bernard Lewis, eds. Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire: The Functioning of a Plural Society (1982) Questia.com, online edition
- Clot, André. Suleiman the Magnificent. 1993. 399 pp
- Goffman, Daniel. The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe (2002) Questia.com, online edition
- Guilmartin, John F., Jr. "Ideology and Conflict: The Wars of the Ottoman Empire, 1453–1606", Journal of Interdisciplinary History, (Spring 1988) 18:4., pp721–747.
- Koller, Markus: Ottoman History of South-East Europe, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2012, retrieved: 11 January 2011.
- Kunt, Metin and Woodhead, Christine, ed. Süleyman the Magnificent and His Age: The Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern World. 1995. 218 pp.
- Lybyer, Albert Howe. The Government of the Ottoman Empire in the Time of Suleiman the Magnificent. AMS Press, 1978. ISBN 0-404-14681-3.
- Murphy, Rhoads Ottoman Warfare 1500–1700 (1999) 278 pp.
- Parry, V.J. A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730 (1976)
- Pierce, Leslie P. The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire. 1993. 374 pp.
- Shaw, Stanford J. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Vol I; Empire of Gazis: The Rise and Decline of the Ottoman Empire 1290–1808. Cambridge University Press, 1976. ISBN 978-0-521-21280-9.
- Turnbull, Stephen. The Ottoman Empire 1326–1699 (2003) 95 pp Questia.com, online edition
Post 1830[link]
- Overy, Richard. The Times Complete History of the World, HarperCollins Publishers pp. 252, 253 ISBN 978-0-00-731569-7 (2010) 432 pages.
- Ahmad, Feroz. The Young Turks: The Committee of Union and Progress in Turkish Politics, 1908–1914, (1969).
- Bein, Amit. Ottoman Ulema, Turkish Republic: Agents of Change and Guardians of Tradition (2011) Amazon.com
- Black, Cyril E., and L. Carl Brown. Modernization in the Middle East: The Ottoman Empire and Its Afro-Asian Successors. 1992.
- Erickson, Edward J. Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War (2000) Amazon.com, excerpt and text search
- Gürkan, Emrah Safa: Christian Allies of the Ottoman Empire, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: 2 November 2011.
- Faroqhi, Suraiya. Subjects of the Sultan: Culture and Daily Life in the Ottoman Empire. (2000) 358 pp.
- Findley, Carter. Bureaucratic Reform in the Ottoman Empire. 1980.
- Fortna, Benjamin C. Imperial Classroom: Islam, the State, and Education in the Late Ottoman Empire. (2002) 280 pp.
- Fromkin, David. A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East (2001) Amazon.com, excerpt and text search
- Göçek, Fatma Müge. Rise of the Bourgeoisie, Demise of Empire: Ottoman Westernization and Social Change. (1996). 220 pp.
- Hanioglu, M. Sukru. A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire (2008) Amazon.com, excerpt and text search
- Inalcik, Halil and Quataert, Donald, ed. An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914. 1995. 1026 pp.
- Karpat, Kemal H. The Politicization of Islam: Reconstructing Identity, State, Faith, and Community in the Late Ottoman State. (2001). 533 pp.
- Kayali, Hasan. Arabs and Young Turks: Ottomanism, Arabism, and Islamism in the Ottoman Empire, 1908–1918 (1997); CDlib.org, complete text online
- Kushner, David. The Rise of Turkish Nationalism, 1876–1908. 1977.
- McCarthy, Justin. The Ottoman Peoples and the End of Empire. Hodder Arnold, 2001. ISBN 0-340-70657-0.
- Miller, William. The Ottoman Empire, 1801–1913. (1913), Books.Google.com full text online
- Quataert, Donald. Social Disintegration and Popular Resistance in the Ottoman Empire, 1881–1908. 1983.
- Rodogno, Davide. Against Massacre: Humanitarian Interventions in the Ottoman Empire, 1815–1914 (2011)
- Shaw, Stanford J., and Ezel Kural Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol. 2, Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey, 1808–1975. (1977). Amazon.com, excerpt and text search
- Toledano, Ehud R. The Ottoman Slave Trade and Its Suppression, 1840–1890. (1982)
- Hussain, Ishtiaq. "The Tanzimat: Secular Reforms in the Ottoman Empire", Faith Matters 2011
Ottoman Law[link]
External links[link]
| Find more about Ottoman Empire on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
|
Definitions and translations from Wiktionary |
|
Images and media from Commons |
|
Learning resources from Wikiversity |
|
News stories from Wikinews |
|
Quotations from Wikiquote |
|
Source texts from Wikisource |
|
Textbooks from Wikibooks |
Listen to this article (2 parts) · (info)
This audio file was created from a revision of the "Ottoman Empire" article dated 2008-03-29, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help)
- Ottoman Text Archive Project – University of Washington
- Ottoman Empire in The Oxford Dictionary of Islam
- The Ottoman Empire: Resources – University of Michigan
- The Ottoman Empire: A Chronological Outline
- Turkish Oral Narrative
- Information about Ottomans
- Ottomans History Blog
- Turkey in the First World War
- Ottoman Navy and Navigation
- The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe
- Engravings of Ottoman Empire – HQ image gallery
- Ottoman Studies Resources in Internet
- Ottoman History Podcast An internet radio broadcast dedicated to the history, culture and society of the Ottoman Empire and Middle East
- Osmanlı Edebiyatı Çalışmaları Bibliyografyası Veritabanı Turkish version of The Online Bibliography of Ottoman-Turkish Literature
- Forced population transfers in early Ottoman imperial policyPDF (566 KB) – covers 1300–1600
- The Online Bibliography of Ottoman-Turkish Literature A bi-lingual site (English version) presenting a user-submissable database of references to theses, books, articles, papers and research-projects
|
||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||
|
|||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||
|
|||||
|
|||||||||||||||||
|
|||||
http://wn.com/Ottoman_Empire
Related pages:
http://de.wn.com/Osmanisches Reich
http://es.wn.com/Imperio otomano
http://ru.wn.com/Османская империя
http://cs.wn.com/Osmanská říše
http://pt.wn.com/Império Otomano
http://pl.wn.com/Imperium osmańskie
http://hi.wn.com/उस्मानी साम्राज्य
http://it.wn.com/Impero ottomano
http://id.wn.com/Kesultanan Utsmaniyah
http://nl.wn.com/Ottomaanse Rijk
http://fr.wn.com/Empire ottoman
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
|
|
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2006) |
Mongolian People's Republic Бүгд Найрамдах Монгол Ард Улс Bügd Nairamdakh Mongol Ard Uls |
|||||
|
|||||
|
|||||
.svg) |
|||||
| Capital | Ulan Bator | ||||
| Language(s) | Mongolian | ||||
| Religion | Buddhism, Atheism, Shamanism | ||||
| Government | Marxist–Leninist single-party state | ||||
| President | |||||
| - 1924 (first) | Navaandorjiin Jadambaa | ||||
| - 1990–1992 (last) | Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat | ||||
| Prime Minister | |||||
| - 1923–1924 (first) | Balingiin Tserendorj | ||||
| - 1990-1992 (last) | Dashiin Byambasüren | ||||
| Historical era | Interwar period, WWII, Cold War | ||||
| - Established | November 26, 1924 | ||||
| - Disestablished | February 13, 1992 | ||||
| Area | |||||
| - 1992 | 1,564,116 km2 (603,909 sq mi) | ||||
| Population | |||||
| - 1992 est. | 2,318,000 | ||||
| Density | 1.5 /km2 (3.8 /sq mi) | ||||
| Currency | Mongolian tögrög | ||||
.svg)
.png)
.svg){kind=link}
.svg){kind=link}
.jpg){kind=link}
The Mongolian People's Republic (Mongolian: Бүгд Найрамдах Монгол Ард Улс (БНМАУ), , Bügd Nairamdakh Mongol Ard Uls (BNMAU)) was a communist state in East Asia which existed between 1924 and 1992. It was ruled by the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party and maintained close links with the Soviet Union throughout its history.[1]
Contents |
Formation[link]
Main article: History of Mongolia
From 1691 to 1911, Outer Mongolia was ruled by the Manchu-Qing Dynasty. In the first decade of the 20th century, the Qing government began implementing the so-called New Policies, aimed at a further integration of Outer Mongolia. Upset by the prospect of the colonization akin to the developments in Inner Mongolia during the 19th century, the Mongolian nobility turned to the Russian Empire for support. In August 1911, a Mongol delegation went to Saint Petersburg and obtained a pledge of limited support. When they returned, the Xinhai Revolution that eventually led to the collapse of the Qing Dynasty had began, and in December 1911 the Mongols deposed the Qing amban in Ikh Khuree and declared their independence under the leadership of the 8th Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, who was appointed Bogd Khan of Mongolia, breaking away from the Qing Dynasty. Attempts to include Inner Mongolia into the new state failed for various reasons, including the military weakness of the Inner Mongols to achieve their independence, the lack of Russian assistance to them (Russia was bound in Inner Mongolian affairs by secret treaties with Japan), and the lack of support from a part Inner Mongolian nobles and the higher clergy. In the Khiagt agreement of 1915, China, Russia and Mongolia agreed on Mongolia's status as autonomy under Chinese suzerainty.[2]
| History of Mongolia | |
|---|---|
 This article is part of a series |
|
| Pre-Mongol periods | |
| Xiongnu 209 BC–155 | |
| Xianbei 93–234 | |
| Rouran 330–555 | |
| Göktürk 552–744 | |
| Uyghur 742–848 | |
| Kirghiz 539–1219 | |
| Khitan 916–1125 | |
| Medieval period | |
| Khamag Mongol 1120–1206 | |
| Mongol Empire 1206–1271 | |
| Yuan Dynasty 1271–1368 | |
| Northern Yuan Dynasty 1368–1636 | |
| Qing rule 1636/1691–1911 | |
| Modern period | |
| Independence Revolution 1911 | |
| Outer Mongolia (1911–1919) 1911–1919 | |
| Occupation of Mongolia 1919–1921 | |
| People's Revolution 1921 | |
| Mongolian People's Republic 1924–1992 | |
| Democratic Revolution 1990 | |
| Modern Mongolia 1990–present | |
| See also | |
| Timeline of Mongolian history | |
| Culture of Mongolia | |
| Geography of Mongolia | |
| Pan-Mongolism | |
|
Mongolia Portal |
However, the Republic of China was able to use the Russian Revolution and the ensuing civil war as a pretext to deploy troops in Outer Mongolia, and in 1919 the Mongolian government was forced to sign a treaty that abolished Mongolia's autonomy. It was under Chinese occupation that the Mongolian People's Party was founded and once again looked to the north, this time to Soviet Russia, for help. In the mean time, White Russian troops led by Roman Ungern von Sternberg had occupied Khuree in early March 1921, and a new theocratic government declared independence from China on March 13. But the Outer Mongolian Revolution of 1921 broke out and Ungern and the remaining Chinese troops were driven out in the following months, and on July 6, 1921, the Mongolian People's Party and Soviet troops took Niislel Khuree. The People's Party founded a new government, but kept the Bogd Khaan as nominal head of state. In the following years though some violent power struggles, Soviet influence got ever stronger, and after the Bogd Khaan's death, the Mongolian People's Republic was proclaimed on November 26, 1924.
Consolidation of power (1925 - 1938)[link]
Between 1925 and 1928, the new regime became established. At the time, Mongolia was the most backwards place in Asia, more than 200 years behind the rest of the world. Industry was nonexistent and all wealth was controlled by the nobility and religious establishments. The population numbered less than a million people in and was shrinking due to nearly half of all Mongolian males living in monasteries. In 1928, Stalin ordered the collectivization of Mongolian agriculture. These politics led to a breakdown in economy and transportation, and more importantly to uprisings in the west and south that could only be suppressed with the help of the Soviet Red Army.[citation needed] In 1934, Pejidiin Genden visited Moscow and angrily accused Stalin of "red imperialism". He subsequently died in the Great Purge after being tricked into taking holiday on the Black Sea. After 1932, the implementation of a command economy was scaled back. In 1936, Stalin then ordered the liquidation of the country's Buddhist institutions. Meanwhile, Japanese incursions in Manchuria were a casus belli for Moscow to station troops in Mongolia. At the same time, the Great Purge spilled into Mongolia. Among those killed were such prominent figures as Peljidiin Genden, Anandyn Amar, Demid, and Losol. After the removal of Genden from power, Khorloogiin Choibalsan, a follower of Joseph Stalin, took over. The purges led to the almost complete eradication of Tibetan Buddhism in the country, and cost an estimated 30,000-35,000 lives,[3] equivalent to about five percent of Mongolia's population.
The explicit limitations on freedom in the constitution of the People's Republic later drew the attention of foreigners such as Dwight Macdonald.[4]
World War II (1939-1945)[link]
During World War II, because of a growing Japanese threat over the Mongolian-Manchurian border, the Soviet Union reversed the course of Mongolian socialism in favor of a new policy of economic gradualism and build-up of the national defence. The Soviet and Mongolian armies defeated Japanese forces that had invaded eastern Mongolia in the summer of 1939 at the Battle of Khalkhin Gol, and a truce was signed setting up a commission to define the Mongolian-Manchurian border in the autumn of that year.
After 1941, Mongolia's economy was readjusted to support the Soviet Union in every way possible, including providing funding for several Soviet military units. In the summer of 1945, the Soviet Union used Mongolia as one base for launching the Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation, a successful attack against the Japanese. The preceding build-up brought 650,000 Soviet soldiers to Mongolia, along with massive amounts of equipment. The Mongolian People's Army played a limited support role in the conflict, but its involvement gave Stalin the means to force the Chinese side finally to accept Mongolia's independence.
The 1945 Sino-Soviet Treaty and Mongolia's Independence[link]
The February 1945 Yalta Conference provided for the Soviet Union's participation in the Pacific War. One of the Soviet conditions for its participation, put forward at Yalta, was that after the war Outer Mongolia would retain its "status-quo." The precise meaning of this "status-quo" became a bone of contention at Sino-Soviet talks in Moscow in the summer of 1945 between Stalin and Chiang Kai-shek's envoy T.V. Soong.
Stalin insisted on Republic of China's recognition of Outer Mongolia's independence - something that it already enjoyed de facto even as it remained a part of China de jure. Chiang Kai-shek resisted the idea but eventually gave in. However, Chiang extracted from Stalin a promise to refrain from supporting the Chinese Communist Party, partly as a quid pro quo for giving up Outer Mongolia.
Thus, the Sino-Soviet Treaty guaranteed Outer Mongolia's independence. But it also ended Khorloogiin Choibalsan's hopes for uniting Outer Mongolia with Inner Mongolia, which remained in China's hands. Choibalsan initially hoped that Stalin would support his vision of Great Mongolia but the Soviet leader easily sacrificed Choibalsan's vision for Soviet gains, guaranteed by the Sino-Soviet Treaty and legitimized by the Yalta agreements. In this sense, the Sino-Soviet Treaty marked Mongolia's permanent division into an independent Mongolian People's Republic and a neighboring Inner Mongolia.[5]
Cold War politics (1945 - 1985)[link]
Secure in its relations with Moscow, the Mongolian government shifted to postwar development, focusing on civilian enterprise. Mongolia was at this time one of the world's most isolated countries, having almost no contact with any nation outside of the Soviet Union. After the war, international ties were expanded and Mongolia established relations with North Korea and the new Communist states in Eastern Europe. Mongolia and the People's Republic of China (PRC) recognized each other in 1949, and the PRC relinquished all claims to Outer Mongolia. However, Mao Zedong privately hoped for Mongolia's reintegration with China. He raised this question before the Soviet leadership as early as 1949 (in meeting with Anastas Mikoyan at Xibaipo), and then, having been firmly rebuffed by Stalin, in 1954, after Stalin's death. In 1956, following Nikita Khrushchev's denunciation of Stalin, the Chinese leaders attempted to present Mongolia's independence as one of Stalin's mistakes in meetings with Mikoyan. The Soviet response was that the Mongols were free to decide their own fate.[6]
In 1952, Choibalsan died in Moscow where he had been undergoing treatment for cancer. He was succeeded as General Secretary of the MPRP by Yumjaagin Tsedenbal. Unlike his predecessor, Tsedenbal was enthusiastic about incorporating Mongolia as a constituent republic of the Soviet Union. The idea met with strenuous opposition from other MPRP members and was abandoned.
In the 1950s relations between the MPR and the PRC improved considerably. China provided much needed economic aid, building up entire industries in Ulaanbaatar, as well as apartment blocks (for example, the so called "120 myangat district"). Thousands of Chinese laborers were involved in these projects until China withdrew them after 1962 in a bid to pressure Mongolia to break with Moscow at the time of worsening Sino-Soviet relations.
After the beginning of the Sino-Soviet dispute, Mongolia briefly vacillated, but soon took a sharply pro-Soviet stand, being one of the first socialist countries to endorse the Soviet position in the quarrel with China. Military build-up on the Sino-Mongolian border began as early as 1963; in December 1965 the Mongolian Politburo requested the Soviet Union to station its military forces in Mongolia. In January 1966, with Leonid Brezhnev's visit to Mongolia, the two countries signed a mutual assistance treaty, paving way to Soviet military presence in the MPR. In February 1967, following weeks of worsening Sino-Soviet tensions, Moscow officially approved the stationing of what became the 39th Soviet army in Mongolia.
With Soviet encouragement, Mongolia increased its participation in communist-sponsored conferences and international organizations. This was not done without some difficulty as Mongolia was widely seen in the international community as a Soviet appendage rather than an independent country. In 1955, Mongolia attempted to join the United Nations, but the request was vetoed by the Republic of China (ROC), which maintained their (renewed) claim over Mongolia. Mongolia became a member of the UN in 1961 after the Soviet Union threatened to veto the admission of all of the newly decolonized states of Africa if the ROC again used its veto. Diplomatic relations with the United States were not established until the end of the Cold War. Mongolia became a bone of contention between the Soviet Union and China during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s because of the presence of Soviet nuclear arms.
By the start of the 1980s, Tsedenbal became increasingly authoritarian and erratic. Following a series of party purges, he was expelled from office in August 1984 on the pretext of "old age and mental incapacity". The removal of Tsedenbal had full Soviet backing, and he retired to Moscow where he lived until his death from cancer in 1991. Jambyn Batmönkh took over as General Secretary and enthusiastically plunged into the reforms implemented in the Soviet Union by Gorbachev.
Collapse (1985 - 1996)[link]
After Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in the Soviet Union, he implemented the policies of perestroika and glasnost. The atmosphere of reform in the Soviet Union prompted similar reforms in Mongolia. Following mass demonstrations in the winter of 1990, the MPRP began to loosen its controls of the political system. The Politburo of the MPRP resigned in March, and in May the constitution was amended, deleting reference to the MPRP's role as the guiding force in the country, legalizing opposition parties, creating a standing legislative body, and establishing the office of president. On July 29, 1990, the first free, multiparty elections in Mongolia were held. The election results returned a majority for the MPRP, which won with 85% of the vote. It was not until 1996 that the reformed MPRP was voted out of office.
The USSR withdrew its troops stationed in Mongolia, and its technical and financial assistance, between 1987 and 1992.[7] Subsequently, the foreign and defense policy of Mongolia profoundly changed: “Maintaining friendly relations with the Russian Federation and the People’s Republic of China shall be a priority of Mongolia’s foreign policy activity. It shall not adopt the line of either country but shall maintain in principle a balanced relationship with both of them and shall promote all-round good neighborly co-operation."[8]
See also[link]
- Economy of the Mongolian People's Republic
- History of modern Mongolia
- Military of Mongolian People's Republic
- Mengjiang
- Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet
- Tuvan People's Republic
References[link]
- ^ Cotton, James (1989). D. K. Adams. ed. Asian Frontier Nationalism: Owen Lattimore and the American Policy Debates. Manchester University Press. pp. 130. ISBN 978-0-7190-2585-3.
- ^ C.R. Bawden, The modern history of Mongolia, London 1968, p. 191-201
- ^ Christopher Kaplonski: "Thirty thousand bullets: remembering political repression in Mongolia", in Kenneth Christie and Robert Cribb, eds., Historical Injustice and Democratic Transition in Eastern Asia and Northern Europe: Ghosts at the Table of Democracy, London 2002, p. 156, 167n2
- ^ Dwight Macdonald (1957) "The Comrades: Remarks on the Constitution of the Mongol People's Republic", in Memoirs of a Revolutionist: Essays in Political Criticism, New York, Farrar, Straus and Cudahy [book later republished as Politics Past].
- ^ Liu Xiaoyuan, Reins of Liberation: An Entangled History of Mongolian Independence, Chinese Territoriality, and Great Power Hegemony, 1911-1950 (Washington D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Press, 2006)
- ^ Sergey Radchenko, "New Documents on Mongolia and the Cold War," Cold War International History Project Bulletin no. 16 (2008)
- ^ Mongolia, Landmine Monitor Report 2000
- ^ Permanent Mission of Mongolia to the United Nations, Concept of Mongolia’s Foreign Policy, 1994
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
http://wn.com/Mongolian_People's_Republic
Related pages:
http://it.wn.com/Repubblica Popolare Mongola
http://id.wn.com/Republik Rakyat Mongolia
http://es.wn.com/República Popular de Mongolia
http://ru.wn.com/Монгольская Народная Республика
http://nl.wn.com/Volksrepubliek Mongolië
http://pt.wn.com/República Popular da Mongólia
http://pl.wn.com/Mongolska Republika Ludowa
http://fr.wn.com/République populaire mongole
http://de.wn.com/Mongolische Volksrepublik
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolian_People's_Republic
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
More Videos
Wiki Summary
The Mongol Empire (Mongolian: listen (help·info) Mongol-yn Ezent Güren; Cyrillic: Монголын эзэнт гүрэн; Kazakh: Моңғол қағандығы) existed during the 13th and 14th centuries A.D., and was the largest contiguous land empire in human history. Beginning in the Central Asian steppes, it eventually stretched from Eastern Europe to the Sea of Japan, covering large parts of Siberia in the north and extending southward into Southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and the Middle East. It is commonly referred to as the largest contiguous empire in the history of the world. At its greatest extent it spanned 9,700 km (6,000 mi), covered an area of 24,000,000 km2 (9,300,000 sq mi), 16% of the Earth's total land area, and held sway over a population of 100 million.
The Mongol Empire emerged from the Mongol tribes of modern-day Mongolia under the leadership of Genghis Khan, and subsequently the mixture with other Turkic tribes in the region. Genghis Khan was proclaimed ruler of all Mongols in 1206. The empire grew rapidly under his rule and then under the rule of his descendants, who sent invasions in every direction. The vast transcontinental empire which connected the east with the west with an enforced "Pax Mongolica" allowed trade, technologies, commodities and ideologies to be disseminated and exchanged across Eurasia.
