This article relies largely or entirely upon a single source. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. Discussion about the problems with the sole source used may be found on the talk page. (March 2012)

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Nationality is membership of a nation or sovereign state, usually determined by their citizenship, but sometimes by ethnicity or place of residence, or based on their sense of national identity.^{[citation needed]}

Citizenship is determined by jus soli, jus sanguinis, or naturalization, which affords the state jurisdiction over the person and affords the person the protection of the state. The word citizenship is often used in a different sense from nationality. The most common distinguishing feature of citizenship is that citizens have the right to participate in the political life of the state, such as by voting or standing for election. The term national can include both citizens and non-citizens.

Nationality can refer to membership in a nation (collective of people sharing a national identity, usually based on ethnic and cultural ties and self-determination) even if that nation has no state, such as the Basques, Kurds, and Tamils. Individuals may also be considered nationals of groups with autonomous status which have ceded some power to a larger government, such as the federally recognized tribes of Native Americans in the United States. Spanish law recognises the autonomous communities of Andalusia, Aragon, Balearic Islands, Canary Islands, Catalonia, Valencia, Galicia and the Basque Country as "nationalities" (nacionalidades), while in Italy, the German speakers of South Tyrol are considered to be Austrian nationals.

Article 15 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that "Everyone has the right to a nationality," and "No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality." By custom, it is the right of each state to determine who its nationals are. Such determinations are part of nationality law. In some cases, determinations of nationality are also governed by public international law—for example, by treaties on statelessness and the European Convention on Nationality.

See also[link]

• Blood quantum laws
• Demonym
• Imagined communities
• Intersectionality
• jus soli
• jus sanguinis
• Meta-ethnicity
• Nationalism
• Second-class citizen
• List of nationalities

References[link]

• White, Philip L. (2006). "Globalization and the Mythology of the Nation State," In A.G.Hopkins, ed. Global History: Interactions Between the Universal and the Local Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 257-284.

External links[link]

• Grossman, Andrew. Gender and National Inclusion
• Trott, Philip D A. Dual Nationality
• White, Philip L. "Globalization and the Mythology of the Nation State," In A.G.Hopkins, ed. Global History: Interactions Between the Universal and the Local Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, pp. 257-284.[1]
• Lord Acton, Nationality (1862)

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2009)

John Henrik Clarke (January 1, 1915 — July 16, 1998), born John Henry Clark, was a Pan-Africanist American writer, historian, professor, and a pioneer in the creation of Africana studies and professional institutions in academia starting in the late 1960s.

He was Professor of African World History and in 1969 founding chairman of the Department of Black and Puerto Rican Studies at Hunter College of the City University of New York. He also was the Carter G. Woodson Distinguished Visiting Professor of African History at Cornell University’s Africana Studies and Research Center. In 1968 along with the Black Caucus of the African Studies Association, Clarke founded the African Heritage Studies Association.

Early life and education[link]

Born as the eldest child 1 January 1915 in Union Springs, Alabama to sharecroppers John (Doctor) and Willie Ella (Mays) Clark. He renamed himself John Henrik (after rebel playwright Henrik Ibsen) and adding an "e" to his surname Clarke, as a symbol. Counter to his father's wishes for him to be a farmer, Clarke left Alabama in 1933 by freight train and went to Harlem, New York, where he pursued scholarship and activism.

Career[link]

This section may contain wording that merely promotes the subject without imparting verifiable information. Please remove or replace such wording, unless you can cite independent sources that support the characterization. (January 2012)

In 1933 Harlem had drawn, through the Great Migration, a concentration of African Americans, many of whom figured in the Harlem Renaissance. Clarke developed as a writer and lecturer during the Great Depression years. He joined study circles like the Harlem History Club and the Harlem Writers' Workshop. He studied history and world literature at New York University, at Columbia University and at the League for Professional Writers.^[1] He was an autodidact whose mentors included the scholar Arturo Alfonso Schomburg.^[2] At the age of 78 Clarke obtained a doctorate from the then non-accredited Pacific Western University (now California Miramar University) in Los Angeles. The New York Times noted that Clarke's ascension to professor emeritus at Hunters College was "unusual...without benefit of a high school diploma." The Times also acknowledged that "nobody said Professor Clarke wasn't an academic original", but nonetheless referred to him using the honorific prefix "Mr." rather than "Dr.".^[3]

Prominent during the Black Power movement, Clarke advocated for studies on the African-American experience and the place of Africans in world history. He challenged academic historians and helped shift the way African history was studied and taught. Clarke was "a scholar devoted to redressing what he saw as a systematic and racist suppression and distortion of African history by traditional scholars." When some of the scholarship he championed was dismissed by many historians, Clarke imparted to them the biases of Eurocentric views.

He was memorialized for devoting "himself to placing people of African ancestry 'on the map of human geography'."^[4] Clarke said "History is not everything, but it is a starting point. History is a clock that people use to tell their political and cultural time of day. It is a compass they use to find themselves on the map of human geography. It tells them where they are, but more importantly, what they must be."^[5]

Besides teaching at Hunter College and Cornell University, Clarke was active in creating professional associations to support the study of black culture. He was a founder and first president of the African Heritage Studies Association, which supported scholars in areas of history, culture, literature and the arts. He was a founding member of other organizations to recognize and support work in black culture: the Black Academy of Arts and Letters and the African-American Scholars' Council.^[1]

His writing included six scholarly books and many scholarly articles. He edited anthologies of black writing, as well as his own short stories, and more general interest articles.^[3] He was co-founder of the Harlem Quarterly (1949–51), book review editor of the Negro History Bulletin (1948–52), associate editor of the magazine Freedomways, and a feature writer for the Pittsburgh Courier and the Ghana Evening News.^[1]

Marriage and family[link]

Clarke had three children with his first wife, Eugenia Evans Clarke. At his death he was survived by his second wife, Sybille Williams Clarke, and his two children Nzingha Marie and Sonni Kojo. A third child (Lillie) preceded him in death.

He is buried in Green Acres Cemetery, Columbus, Georgia.^[6]

Legacy and honors[link]

• 1985 – Faculty of the Africana Studies and Research Center at Cornell University named the John Henrik Clarke Library after him.^[7]
• 1995 – Carter G. Woodson Medallion, Association for the Study of Afro-American Life and History
• 2002 – Molefi Kete Asante listed Dr. John Henrik Clarke on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.^[8]
• 2011 – Immortal Technique includes a short speech by Dr. Clarke on his LP, The Martyr. It is Track 13, entitled "The Conquerors".

Published Books[link]

This section requires expansion.

• Malcolm X Man and His Times [Paperback]

Citations[link]

1. ^ ^{a b c} "John Henrik Clarke", Legacy Exhibit online, New York Public Library Schomburg Center for the Study of Black Culture, accessed 20 Jan 2009
2. ^ Jacob H. Carruthers, "John Henrik Clarke: the Harlem connection to the founding of Africana Studies", in Afro-Americans in New York Life and History, Afro-American Historical Association of the Niagara Frontier, Inc., 2006, accessed 25 May 2009
3. ^ ^{a b} Thomas, Jr., Robert McG. (July 20, 1998). "John Henrik Clarke, Black Studies Advocate, Dies at 83". New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A01E6DA1030F933A15754C0A96E958260. Retrieved January 21, 2009. 
4. ^ Robert L. Harris, Jr., "IN MEMORIAM DR. JOHN HENRIK CLARKE, 1915-1998"], The Journal of Negro History, September, 1998, accessed 25 May 2009
5. ^ Eric Kofi Acree, "John Henrik Clarke: Historian, Scholar, and Teacher", John Henrik Clarke Africana Library, Cornell University, accessed 25 May 2009
6. ^ The Scribner Encyclopedia of American Lives, p. 122, Simon and Schuster, 1998
7. ^ "History of the John Henrik Clarke Africana Library", reprinted from: Black Caucus of the ALA Newsletter, vol. XXIV, No. 5 (April, 1996), p. 11; Cornell University Library, accessed 20 Jan 2009
8. ^ Molefi Kete Asante (2002). 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amherst, New York. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-963-8.

External links[link]

• "The John Henrik Clarke Virtual Museum", National Black United Front Web Site
• "In Memory of John Henrik Clarke", Hunter College, City University of New York
• John Henrik Clarke bibliographies from Cornell University
• IMDB.com entry on the film John Henrik Clarke: A Great & Mighty Walk
• Photographs of John Henrik Clarke from the EBR African American Cultural Life digital collection, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville

Additional reading[link]

• "John Henrik Clarke: His People’s Historian", Black Collegian
• "From SBA to SIA: A Great And Mighty Walk", AfricaWithin.com

See also[link]

• Ivan van Sertima

v t e Pan-Africanism Proponents Politicians Nnamdi Azikiwe Amílcar Cabral Muammar Gaddafi Marcus Garvey David Comissiong Kenneth Kaunda Jomo Kenyatta Patrice Lumumba Thabo Mbeki Abdias do Nascimento Gamal Abdel Nasser Kwame Nkrumah Julius Nyerere John Nyathi Pokela Thomas Sankara Haile Selassie Robert Mangaliso Sobukwe Ahmed Sékou Touré I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson Others Marimba Ani Molefi Kete Asante Steve Biko Edward Wilmot Blyden John Henrik Clarke Cheikh Anta Diop W. E. B. Du Bois Frantz Fanon John G. Jackson Leonard Jeffries Yosef Ben-Jochannan Maulana Karenga Fela Kuti Bob Marley Malcolm X Zephania Mothopeng George Padmore Motsoko Pheko Runoko Rashidi Paul Robeson Walter Rodney Burning Spear Henry Sylvester-Williams Stokely Carmichael Omali Yeshitela Concepts United States of Africa Afrocentrism Kwanzaa Pan-African colours Pan-African flag Négritude African nationalism African socialism African Century Africanization Kawaida Ujamaa Harambee Ubuntu Zikism Black nationalism Organizations African Union Organization of African Unity Uhuru Movement UNIA-ACL African Unification Front International African Service Bureau

This article is a list of Famous Cape Verdean people:

Actors[link]

• Michael Beach
• Don Xavier

Artists[link]

• Djon Brito
• Manuel Figueira
• Tchalê Figueira
• Lindsay Grace
• Mariana Ramos
• Mayra Andrade
• Mito Elias https://www.facebook.com/pages/Mito-Elias/216308035071236
• Cesaria Evora
• Bana
• Ildo Lobo
• Paulino Vieira
• Bius
• Bulimundo
• Luis Morais
• Manuel de Novas
• Tubarões
• Dudu Araujo
• Cordas de Sol
• Luis Morais
• Gilyto Semedo http://www.gilyto.com
• Lura
• Princesito
• Ferro Gaita
• Simentera
• Soldado Di Liberdade http://www.sdlcv.webs.com
• Pantera
• Tito Paris
• Txeka
• Gil Semedo

Motivational Speaker[link]

• Don Xavier Canada, www.Donxavier.com

Beauty Pageant Winners[link]

• Wilza Fortes De Pina, Miss CEDEAO in 2002.
• Tania Neves, Miss CEDEAO in 2005

Poets[link]

• Aguinaldo Fonseca
• Sergio Frusoni, Italian Cape Verdean poet and promoter of the Cape Verdean Creole language.
• Gabriel Mariano, poet and an essayist
• Ovídio Martins, poet and journalist
• Arménio Vieira
• Dr. Azágua, poet, educator and Capeverdean Creole Advocate

Politicians[link]

• Amílcar Cabral, nationalist politician
• António Mascarenhas Monteiro, former President of Cape Verde
• José Maria Neves, Prime Minister of Cape Verde
• Aristides Pereira, former President of Cape Verde
• Pedro Pires, former Prime Minister of Cape Verde; former President of Cape Verde
• Carlos Veiga, former Prime Minister of Cape Verde
• Honório Barreto (1813–1859) was a governor of the Portuguese Guinea.
• Corsino Fortes, ambassador and writer
• Carlos Nunes Fernandes Reis, former Minister of Education, Diplomat

Producers[link]

• Mike Costa – Mike Costa is a writer/producer/director. He was a writer on the hit television series, Roseanne. He is currently producing a film titled: Proud to be Cape Verdean: A Look at Cape Verdeans in the Golden State.
• Claire Andrade-Watkins
• Jim Lopes – Jim Lopes is an entertainment attorney and writer/producer and former senior executive at MCA-Universal, CBS/Fox and Reader's Digest. He co-produced the award-winning documentary "Race to Execution" which was broadcast on PBS. He is currently producing a film about the Cape Verdean whaling families of New Bedford, Massachusetts.
• Tom Lopes, Producer/Director of the much acclaimed 1983 documentary film "Mystery Lady - the Return of the Schooner Ernestina". This saga tells the story of early Cape Verdeans who emigrated from Cape Verde on-board whaling and packet ships, sailing to America seeking a better way life. The film nicely tells the story of Cape Verdean people living on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean and provides to this date one of the best accounts of the history of the Cape Verdean-American. Continuously, for over 25 years, Tom Lopes has successfully produced and directed a number of local cable television programs, and in partnership with Google's YouTube and Amazon.com his motion picture company that goes by the name "Coollywood" (Cool Movies) has been credited with over 250 short movies and slide show presentations. Today, Tom Lopes is hard at work writing and producing full featured films for world-wide distribution. Coollywood movie channel link: www.Youtube.com/Coollywood
• Napoleon X – Napoleon X is producer/director of the documentary film "Black Men Can Fly", the story of George S. Lima (also Cape Verdean) who was a member of the American Army Air Corps' famed Tuskegee Airmen. He is currently producing a documentary entitled "Pioneiros de Cabo Verde". pioneirosdecaboverde.com

Models[link]

• Cassandra Miranda
• Alzerina Gomes (currently a jewelry designer based in New York City, www.alzerina.com)
• Amber Rose

Music – Singers, Musicians, & Composers[link]

• Rui Pina ('Rui'), Singer, songwriter, record producer, record executive, http://www.kolarecords.com
• Maria Alice
• Francelina Durão Amerida ('Fantcha')
• Leonel Almeida
• Rufino Almeida ('Bau'), singer
• Manuel Lopes Andrade ('Tcheka')
• Mayra Andrade
• Adriano Gonçalves ('Bana'), singer and original member of Voz de Cabo Verde
• Carlos Alberto Barbosa ('Kaká' Barbosa), composer
• Orlando Monteiro Barreto (Orlando 'Pantera')
• Maria de Barros, Senegalese-born singer
• Gardénia Benrós
• Gilyto Semedo Singer, Dancer & Producer http://www.gilyto.com
• Gabriela Mendes, Born in Mindelo on the Island of Sao Vicente
• Humberto Bettencourt ('Humbertona'), guitarist
• Biús ('Biús')
• José Carlos Brito ('Voginha')
• Amândio Cabral
• António Carvalho ('Antoni Denti D' Oro')
• José Casimiro
• Teofilo Chantre
• João Cirilo
• Malaquias Costa
• Francisco Xavier da Cruz ('B. Leza'), composer of classic morna
• Beto Dias, singer and songwriter
• Codé di dona, Funaná musician
• Abilio Duarte, pre-independence composer of protest coladeira
• Bela Duarte
• José Duarte ('Djosinha'), singer and original member of Voz de Cabo Verde
• Cesária Évora, Paris-based singer and global popularizer of morna and coladeira
• Epifânia Évora ('Tututa')
• Gracindo Évora ('Grace' Évora)
• Emanuel Fernandes ('Zeca di nha Reinalda'), singer and member of Bulimundo
• José Bernardo Fernandes ('Zézé di nha Reinalda'), singer and founder of Finaçon
• Ana Firmino
• Jacqueline Fortes
• Fortinho ('Fortinho')
• Francisco Vicente Gomes ('Frank Cavaquim'), composer
• Maria Inácia Gomes Correia ('Nácia Gomi')
• Arnaldo Gonçalves, pianist and founder of Centaurus
• Gregorio Gonçalves, composer
• Eddy Fortes ('Eddy Fort Moda Grog'), rapper
• Jorge Humberto, guitarist
• Emmanuel Lima ('Manu' Lima), singer and composer
• Euclides Lima ('Kiki' Lima)
• Ildo Lobo, singer with Os Tubarões
• Anselmo Lopes ('Séma Lopi')
• António Lopes ('Antoninho Travadinha'), violinist
• Lisa Nicole Lopes (Lisa 'Left Eye' Lopes), member of hip-hop group TLC
• Manuel de Jesus Lopes ('Manuel de Novas'), humorous composer and modernizer of coladeira
• Suzanna Lubrano, zouk singer
• Mário Lúcio, founder of Simentera
• Maria de Lurdes Lura ('Lura')
• Carlos Alberto Martins ('Katchàz', 'Katchás', 'Catchàz' or 'Catchass'), guitarist, founder of Bulimundo and revitalizer of the funaná of Santiagu
• Vasco Martins, composer
• Gerard Mendes ('Boy Gê' or 'Boy Gé' Mendes), Senegalese-born singer, guitarist and founder of Paris-based Mendes e Mendes and O'asah
• Frank Mimita
• Mobafuco, a Capeverdean singer who released Salve na Criolu
• Jorge Fernandes Monteiro ('Jotamont'), pre-independence composer of morna
• Luís Morais
• Eddy Moreno
• Jorge Neto
• Aristides Paris ('Tito Paris')
• Celina Pereira
• Fernando Quejas, singer and songwriter
• Danny Ramalho (Jokachild), hip-hop artist
• Daniel Rendall
• Albertina Rodrigues ('Titina'), singer
• Arlinda Santos
• Gil Semedo, singer
• Chico Serra ('Chico' Serra)
• Adalberto Silva ('Betú'), composer
• Daniel Silva ('Dany' Silva)
• Marinho Silva
• Onésimo Silva
• Horace Ward Martin Tavares Silva ('Horace Silver'), hard bop jazz pianist of Capeverdean extraction
• Armando Zeferino Soares, composer of the famous morna, Sodade
• Eugénio Tavares, greatest composer of morna
• Fulgêncio Tavares ('Ano Nobo'), composer
• Blick Tchutchi ('Blick Tchutchi')
• Armãndo Tito, guitarist
• Gregório Vaz ('Kodé di Dona' or 'Codé di Dona'), Santiagu-based accordionist, standard-bearer for traditional funaná, and composer of "Fomi 47" about famine
• Nancy Vieira, Guiné Bissau-born singer of morna and coladeira
• Paulino Vieira, guitarist and arranger of morna
• Sara Tavares, Portuguese-born singer of Capeverdian descent
• Marcelo Rosa, (Patalino) Guitarist,Singer,Composer,Producer,Songwriter,Arranger.

Sports[link]

louis nani, Portuguese national team and manchester united soccer player. parents from Cape Verde

Baseball[link]

• Wayne Gomes
• Davey Lopes

Basketball[link]

[edit] NBA

• Dana Barros, former NBA basketball player with the Boston Celtics
• Glen "Big Baby" Davis
• Ryan Gomes
• Dan "Jewy" Steinberg
• Carl "La Rosa Roja" Nemes

Europe[link]

• João Gomes
• Nelson Delgado, luxemburgish basketball national team players of cape verdean descent
• Jairo Delgado, luxemburgish basketball national team players of cape verdean descent

Football[link]

• Bijou Davidson
• Gerson
• Kadú
• Pedro Pelé
• Tunis
• Arlindo Gomes Semedo
• José Veiga
• Nélson Veiga
• Devlin Anes "The Beast"read article for more info
• Henrik Larsson, half Cape Verdean
• Jerry Adriano Pires
• Erikson Teixeira
• Patrick Vieira, from the Cape Verdean community in Dakar, Senegal
• Nani
• Joaquim M. Andrade, "Dr. Azágua", first FIFA Professional Soccer Coach, USSF-A, NSCAA-National.
• Manuel Fernandes, portuguese national player of cape verdean descent
• Gelson Fernandes, swiss national player of cape verdean descent
• Dady, cape verdean national team player

Martial Arts[link]

• Fredson Gomes, Tae Kwon Do Olympian
• Emanuel Bettencourt
• Joaquim M. Andrade Wah Lum Kung Fu, Master

Boxing[link]

• Robert Daluz, featherweight boxer
• Vinny "the Kid" Debarros, featherweight boxer
• Demetrius "The Best" Andrade
• "Sucra" Ray Oliveira

Fernando Fernandes, welterweight boxer

Bodyboarding[link]

• Jason Mascarenhas, bodyboarder
• Robin Cardoza,bodyboarder

Other Sports[link]

• Melissa Maria Andrade of Scituate, MA, USA-Champion Team Gymnastics, and two-time finalist at Disney, FL
• Cynthia Barboza
• Paul Wigertz - Poker player.

Writers[link]

• Amílcar Cabral (1921–1973)
• Baltasar Lopes da Silva (1907–1989)
• Corsino Fortes
• Don Xavier
• Eugénio Tavares (1867–1930)
• Germano Almeida (1945- )
• Henrique Teixeira de Sousa
• Ivone Ramos: (1926- )
• João Cleófas Martins (1901–1970)
• Jorge Barbosa
• Manuel Lopes (1907–2005)
• Manuel de Novas (1938- )
• Orlanda Amarilis (1924 – )
• PJ Coble (1960- )American of Cape Verdian descent
• Yolanda Morazzo (1928- )
• Sergio Frusoni (1901–1975)
• Viriato de Barros

See also[link]

Cape Verdean diaspora

v t e Cape Verde topics Politics and law Elections · Flag · Emblem · Foreign relations · Military · Law Enforcement · National Assembly · Political parties · President · Prime Minister · LGBT rights History African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde · Colonial heads Geography Administrative divisions · Cities · Climate · Extreme points · Islands (Barlavento · Sotavento) · Mountains · Ports · Streams · Villages and settlements · Volcanoes · Wildlife Economy and infrastructure Agriculture · Airports · Communications · Companies · Currency · Stock market · Tourism · Transport Culture and society Cape Verdean Creole · Cape Verdean Portuguese · Crime · Demographics · Education · Football · Health · Notable Cape Verdeans · Holidays · Media · Music · Religion · Women

Michelle Kwan
Michelle Kwan performs her signature spiral at a practice session at the 2002 U.S. Figure Skating Championships.
Personal information
Full name	Michelle Wingshan Kwan
Country represented	United States
Born	(1980-07-07) July 7, 1980 (age 31)
Residence	Torrance, California
Height	5 ft 2 in (1.57 m)
Former coach	Rafael Arutunian, Frank Carroll, Scott Williams
Former choreographer	Tatiana Tarasova, Lori Nichol, Nikolai Morozov, Sarah Kawahara, Peter Oppegard, Karen Kwan, Christopher Dean
Skating club	Los Angeles FSC
ISU personal best scores
Combined total	175.20 2005 Worlds
Short program	61.22 2005 Worlds
Free skate	113.98 2005 Worlds
Medal record Competitor for the  United States Ladies' Figure skating Olympic Games Silver 1998 Nagano Ladies' singles Bronze 2002 Salt Lake City Ladies' singles World Championships Gold 1996 Edmonton Ladies' singles Gold 1998 Minneapolis Ladies' singles Gold 2000 Nice Ladies' singles Gold 2001 Vancouver Ladies' singles Gold 2003 Washington, D.C. Ladies' singles Silver 1997 Lausanne Ladies' singles Silver 1999 Helsinki Ladies' singles Silver 2002 Nagano Ladies' singles Bronze 2004 Dortmund Ladies' singles Grand Prix Final Gold 1995–1996 Paris Ladies' singles Silver 1996–1997 Hamilton Ladies' singles Silver 1999–2000 Lyon Ladies' singles Silver 2000–2001 Tokyo Ladies' singles Silver 2001–2002 Kitchener Ladies' singles World Junior Championships Gold 1994 Colorado Springs Ladies' singles

Michelle Wingshan Kwan^[1] (born July 7, 1980) is an American figure skater. She is a two-time (1998 and 2002) Olympic medalist, a five-time (1996, 1998, 2000, 2001 and 2003) World champion (a record bettered only by Sonja Henie among ladies skaters) and a nine-time (1996, 1998–2005) U.S. champion (the all-time record, as tied with Maribel Vinson-Owen).

She competed at a high level for over a decade and is the most decorated figure skater in U.S. history.^[2] Known for her consistency and expressive artistry on ice, she is widely considered one of the greatest figure skaters of all time.^[3][4][5]

For well over a decade, Kwan maintained her status not only as America's most popular figure skater but as one of America's most popular female athletes, consistently making the top ten on many such polls and lists (often as the only figure skater) even years after she had stopped competing.^[6] During the decade of her reign Kwan enjoyed unprecedented popularity and amassed numerous multi-million dollar endorsement deals, starred in multiple TV specials and was the subject of extensive media coverage.^[7]

Personal life[link]

Born in Torrance, California, Kwan is the third child of Danny Kwan and Estella Kwan, Chinese immigrants from Hong Kong. As a child, Kwan grew up speaking a mixture of Cantonese and English at home. Kwan’s interest in figure skating began at the age of five when she followed her two older siblings (hockey player Ron and figure skater Karen) onto the ice. Karen and Michelle began serious training when Michelle was about eight years old. They practiced three to four hours a day, waking up at 3 am to skate before school and going back to the rink right after school to skate again. Paying for their increased skating-rink time led to financial hardship for Kwan’s working class family. When Kwan was ten years old, her family could no longer afford a coach, but they were offered financial assistance by a fellow member of the Los Angeles Figure Skating Club^[8][9] that allowed them to train at the Ice Castle International Training Center in Lake Arrowhead, California.

Kwan attended Soleado Elementary School in Palos Verdes, California, but left public school to be homeschooled in 1994, when she was in the 8th grade.^[10] After graduation from Rim of the World High School in 1998, she attended UCLA for one year. In the fall of 2006, she transferred to the University of Denver.^[11] In June 2009, she graduated with a bachelor's degree in international studies and a minor in political science.^[12] In 2009, she began graduate studies in international relations at the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University^[13] and graduated in 2011.^[14][15] On May 8, 2010, she was awarded an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters from Southern Vermont College.

Public life[link]

Ambassadorship endeavors[link]

On November 9, 2006, Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice named Michelle Kwan as a public diplomacy ambassador. In this non-salaried position, Kwan will represent American values especially to young people and sports enthusiasts and was expected to travel widely.^[16] Kwan made her first overseas trip in the capacity of public diplomacy ambassador with a visit to China from January 17–25, 2007.

Her diplomatic position as an envoy has continued in the Barack Obama administration where she has worked with Vice President Joe Biden^[17] and Secretary of State, Hillary Clinton.^[18]

Between 9–15 January 2011, she traveled to Singapore on behalf of the U.S. Department of State’s Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs.^[19][20]

On April 15, 2011, it was announced that Kwan would serve as an adviser to U.S.-China Women's Leadership Exchange and Dialogue (Women-LEAD).^[21]

Filmography[link]

Kwan has guest starred as herself in "Homer and Ned's Hail Mary Pass", an episode of The Simpsons, and in the Family Guy episode "A Hero Sits Next Door". She has also made guest star appearances in the children's cartoon television series Arthur the PBS Series, and has also appeared in Sabrina, the Teenage Witch. She provided the voice of a shopkeeper in Disney's direct-to-DVD sequel Mulan II, and she and fellow figure skater Brian Boitano appeared as announcers in the film Ice Princess. She has performed in numerous figure skating programs, and has cameo appearances in various other television series. In 1999, she appeared in the Michelle Kwan Figure Skating computer game.^[22]

Other activities[link]

Kwan wrote an inspirational book for children titled, The Winning Attitude: What it Takes to be a Champion. She also wrote an autobiography, Heart of a Champion, at 17.

In 2005, Michelle Kwan's family opened the EastWest Ice Palace in Artesia, California. The ice rink houses many of her skating medals and memorabilia.^[23]

Kwan has had numerous endorsement contracts and has appeared in television commercials for sponsors including Campbell's Soup, VISA, Coca-Cola, and Kraft.^[24] The Chevrolet/Michelle Kwan R.E.W.A.R.D.S. Scholarship program was established by the Chevrolet Motor Division of General Motors in cooperation with Kwan.^[25] In February 2006, Kwan was named a "celebrity representative" for The Walt Disney Company.^[26]

Competitive biography[link]

Summary[link]

Kwan has won five World Championships (1996, 1998, 2000, 2001, and 2003), the most by anyone in the ladies' division since Carol Heiss (1956–1960), with whom she is tied for the most wins by an American.^{[citation needed]} She has won nine United States Figure Skating Championships (1996, 1998–2005), tying the record for most set by Maribel Vinson-Owen (1928–1933, 1935–1937). Kwan's eight consecutive U.S. Championship titles (1998–2005) and 12 consecutive U.S. Championship medals (1994–2005) are both U.S. records. She is the only woman in figure skating history to reclaim the World title three times (1998, 2000, 2003).^[2] She also won a silver medal at the 1998 Nagano Olympics and a bronze medal in the 2002 Salt Lake City Olympics. Among her many accolades, Kwan is a recipient of the prestigious James E. Sullivan Award, which is given to America's best amateur athlete; she was the first figure skater to win the award since Dick Button won it in 1949. Kwan has received a combined total of 57 6.0s (perfect scores) from her National and World competitions throughout the years. At the U.S. Championships alone, she holds the record for most 6.0s. Because figure skating is no longer scored on a 6.0 scale, Kwan's records will stand indefinitely.^[27]

Early competition[link]

In 1991, Michelle and her sister Karen began training with Frank Carroll. After one year of coaching by Carroll, 11-year old Michelle placed 9th at the junior level at the United States Figure Skating Championships. At the age of 12 in 1992, Kwan passed the gold test to become a senior-level figure skater despite the disapproval of her coach. In 1993, Kwan finished sixth at her first senior U.S. championships. The next season, she won the 1994 World Junior Championships.

In 1994, Kwan finished second to Tonya Harding at the U.S. Championships, which ordinarily would have earned her a spot on the U.S. team to the 1994 Olympic Games in Lillehammer, Norway. That place was instead given to 1993 national champion Nancy Kerrigan, who had been sidelined by an assault and battery (eventually connected to Harding's ex-husband Jeff Gillooly) after a practice session at those championships. The 13-year-old Kwan went to Norway as an alternate but did not compete. Kerrigan and Harding both dropped out of eligible competition before the 1994 World Championships. Because of this (and teammate Nicole Bobek not making out of the qualifying round), Kwan had the sole responsibility to ensure two spots for the U.S. at the 1994 World Championships by placing in the top ten. Kwan had an unusual mistake in the short program and placed eleventh in that portion, but came back strong to finish eighth overall.

At the 1995 U.S. Championships, Nicole Bobek won the gold medal, while Kwan again placed second after struggling with her lutz jump in both the short program and free skate. At the 1995 World Championships, she placed fifth in the short program portion of the competition with a clean performance. She landed 7 triple jumps in her free skating performance and placed third in that portion of the competition. She finished fourth overall.

Artistic development and 1998 Olympics[link]

Following 1995, Kwan developed a more mature style. Her new, more artistically expressive programs were "Romanza" (short program) and "Salome" (free skate). She also improved her speed and her jump technique, and performed more difficult choreography. In 1996, Kwan won both the U.S. Championships and the World Championships. In the latter event, she edged out defending champion Chen Lu in a very close competition in which both competitors garnered two perfect 6.0s for Presentation in the free skate.

In the 1996–97 season, Kwan skated to "Dream of Desdemona" (short program) and "Taj Mahal" (free skate). It was during this year that Kwan debuted a change-of-edge spiral, which is still considered her signature move. However, in this season, Kwan struggled with her jumps because of a growth spurt and problems with new skating boots which she wore for an endorsement contract with the manufacturer.^[28] She fell twice and stumbled once in her free skate at 1997 U.S. Nationals, losing the title to Tara Lipinski. She lost the Champion Series Final to Lipinski a month later. At the World Championships, Kwan stepped out of her triple lutz combination and placed 4th in the Short Program portion of the competition behind Lipinski, France's Vanessa Gusmeroli, and Russia's Maria Butyrskaya. During the Free Skate, Kwan skated a six triple, mistake-free performance to win that part of the competition, but placed second to Lipinski overall.

Kwan started out the 1997–1998 Olympic season by winning Skate America (where she defeated Tara Lipinski) and then Skate Canada. However, she suffered a stress fracture on her foot and was forced to withdraw from her third Champions Series Final. Kwan regained her U.S. title from Lipinski at the 1998 National Championships, in spite of competing with a toe injury. Many people consider her performances of her Rachmaninoff short program and free skate set to William Alwyn's "Lyra Angelica" at the 1998 U.S. Championships to be the high point of her career from both a technical and artistic standpoint.^[29] The performance earned her eight perfect 6.0s and left one judge in tears.^[30]

Kwan and Lipinski were the co-favorites to win the 1998 Olympic Games in Nagano, Japan. Kwan placed first in the Short Program portion of the competition, winning eight first place votes out of nine judges. In the Free Skate, Kwan skated a 7-triple performance but placed behind Lipinski, who also did 7 triples including a triple loop/triple loop combination and a triple toe-loop/half-loop/Triple Salchow. Kwan ended up winning the silver medal, with the gold medal being won by Lipinski and the bronze medal by Chen Lu.^[31]

Lipinski and Chen both retired from competitive skating shortly after the Olympics, while Kwan went on to win the 1998 World Championships in Minneapolis.

From 1998 to 2002 Olympics[link]

Kwan competes her Scheherazade long program at the 2001-2002 Grand Prix Final.

Kwan continued to compete as an eligible skater in the 1998–99 season, although she bypassed the fall Grand Prix season and instead chose to skate in a series of made-for-television pro-am events. Her "regular" competitive programs that season were "Fate of Carmen" (short program) and "Lamento D'Ariane" (free skate). Kwan won her third national title at the 1999 U.S. Championships, competing against a weak field. At the 1999 World Championships, Kwan did not skate her best,^[32] and placed second behind Russian competitor Maria Butyrskaya.^[33]

Kwan's win at the 2000 U.S. Nationals was controversial to some.^[34] She was criticized for planning an easier jump in her short program than her competitors (a triple toe loop rather than a triple flip), and fell on this element in the competition. The judges nevertheless placed her third in that segment behind younger challengers Sasha Cohen and Sarah Hughes;^[35] however, the placement still kept her in contention for the title. Ultimately, she won the free skate with the best performance of the night, capturing 8 of the 9 first-place ordinals.^[36][37] At the 2000 World Championships, Kwan was again in third place after the short program, behind Maria Butyrskaya and Irina Slutskaya. In her free skate, Kwan landed seven triple jumps, including a triple toe loop/triple toe loop combination, and won that segment of the competition. Butyrskaya lost her commanding lead by finishing third behind Slutskaya in the free skate, allowing Kwan to win the overall title as well.^[38]

In 2001, Kwan again won the U.S. Championships, receiving first-place ordinals from all 9 judges in both the short program and free skate. At the 2001 World Championships, Kwan was second behind Slutskaya in the short program. Kwan won the title with her "Song of the Black Swan" free skate, executing 7 triples, including a triple toe loop/triple toe loop combination.^[39]

In the fall of 2001, Kwan and Carroll decided to end their coaching relationship. In interviews, Kwan said she needed to "take responsibility" for her skating.^[40] Coachless, Kwan arrived at the 2002 U.S. Championships in Los Angeles amid the media's scrutiny over her separation with Carroll and her season's inconsistencies. Kwan won the competition with a revived "Rachmaninoff" short program and a new "Scheherazade" program for her free skate, securing a place on the 2002 Olympic team. Joining her on the team were Sasha Cohen (second) and Sarah Hughes (third).^[41] The 21-year-old Kwan and Russia's Irina Slutskaya were favorites to win the gold. Kwan led after the short program, followed by Slutskaya, Cohen, and Hughes. In the free skate, Kwan two-footed her triple toe loop combination and put a hand down on her triple flip, while Sarah Hughes skated a clean program. Kwan won the bronze medal behind Hughes and Slutskaya.^[42] Kwan's final event of the season was the 2002 Worlds, where she won the silver medal behind Slutskaya.

2002–2006[link]

Michelle Kwan skating to Fallin' in the 2004 World Figure Skating Championships Exhibition in Dortmund, Germany

Following the 2002 season, Kwan continued to compete on the Olympic-eligible circuit, although in a more limited way. During the fall seasons of 2002 to 2004, Kwan competed in only one Grand Prix event, Skate America in the fall of 2002, which she entered as a last-minute replacement. She won the event and qualified for the Grand Prix Final but chose not to compete in it. Kwan chose to not compete in Grand Prix events in the 2003 and 2004 seasons where the new judging system was being used.

Coached by Scott Williams, Kwan won all phases of every competition she entered in the 2002–2003 competitive season with her programs: Peter Gabriel's "The Feeling Begins" from The Last Temptation of Christ (short program) and "Concierto de Aranjuez" (free skate). She won the U.S. Championships again and regained her World title.

In 2003, she hired noted technician Rafael Arutunian as her coach, with whom she attempted to increase the technical difficulty of her programs. In the 2003–2004 competitive season, she skated again to "The Feeling Begins" for her short program, and Puccini's "Tosca" for her long program.

Again, Kwan won the U.S. Championships (where the old 6.0 system was still being used), earning 7 more 6.0s for presentation in the Free Skate. At the 2004 World Championships, after a difficult qualifying round, Kwan was penalized in her short program for going two seconds over time which caused her to placed 4th going into the Long Program behind American Sasha Cohen, Japan's Shizuka Arakawa, and Miki Ando.^[43] As she was about to start her free skate, there was a disruption caused by a spectator entering the ice surface and being removed by security staff. In the end, Kwan skated an inspired, if conservative, 5 triple performance and received the last 6.0 marks given at the World Championships. She placed second in the Free Skating portion (she was one judge away from winning the long program) and placed third overall at the championships behind Arakawa (who performed 7 triples including two triple-triple combinations) and Cohen.