Oaxaca is the name of both a state in Mexico and that state's capital city. This article is about the city/municipality. For the state, see Oaxaca.

Oaxaca
—  City & Municipality  —
Oaxaca de Juárez
Seal
Oaxaca Location in Mexico
Coordinates: 17°04′04″N 96°43′12″W / 17.06778°N 96.72°W / 17.06778; -96.72
Country	Mexico
State	Oaxaca
Founded	1532
Municipal Status	1879
Government
• Municipal President	Luis Julián Ugartechea Begué (PAN) (2011-)
Area
• City	85.48 km2 (33.00 sq mi)
Elevationof seat	1,555 m (5,102 ft)
Population (2005)Municipality
• City	265,006
• Seat	258,008
Time zone	CST (UTC−6)
• Summer (DST)	CDT (UTC−5)
Postal code (of seat)	68000
Area code(s)	951
Demonym
Website	(Spanish) /Official site

Historic Centre of Oaxaca and Archaeological Site of Monte Albán *
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Oaxaca, Oaxaca
Country	Mexico
Type	Cultural
Criteria	i, ii, iii, iv
Reference	415
Region **	Latin America and the Caribbean
Inscription history
Inscription	1987 (11th Session)
* Name as inscribed on World Heritage List ** Region as classified by UNESCO

The city and municipality of Oaxaca de Juárez, or simply Oaxaca, is the capital and largest city of the Mexican state of the same name (Oaxaca). It is located in the Centro District in the Central Valleys region of the state, in the foothills of the Sierra Madre at the base of the Cerro del Fortín extending to the banks of the Atoyac River.^[1] This city relies heavily on tourism, which is based on its large number of colonial-era structures as well as the native Zapotec and Mixtec cultures and archeological sites.^[1] It, along with the archeological site of Monte Alban, were named a World Heritage Site in 1987.^[2] It is also the home of the month-long cultural festival called the “Guelaguetza,” which features Oaxacan dance, music and a beauty pageant for indigenous women.^[3]

It is nicknamed "la Verde Antequera" (the green Antequera) due to its prior name (Nueva Antequera) and the variety of structures built from a native green stone.^[4] The name Oaxaca is derived from the Nahuatl name for the place, Huaxyacac, which was Hispanicized to Guajaca, later spelled Oaxaca. “de Juárez” was added in honor of Benito Juárez, who was a native of this state. The coat of arms for the municipality bears the image of the decapitated Donaji, who was an indigenous princess in the years immediately after the Conquest.^[1]

History[link]

Monte Albán is regarded as the historical antecedent of the modern city of Oaxaca.

There had been Zapotec and Mixtec settlements in valley of Oaxaca for thousands of years, especially in connection with the important ancient centers of Monte Albán and Mitla, which are close to modern Oaxaca city.^[4] The Aztecs entered the valley in 1440 and named it “Huaxyacac,” a Nahuatl phrase meaning "among the huaje" (Leucaena leucocephala) trees. A strategic military position was created here, at what is now called the Cerro (large hill) del Fortín to keep an eye on the Zapotec capital of Zaachila and secure the trade route between the Valley of Mexico, Tehuantepec and what is now Central America.^[5] When the Spanish arrived in 1521, the Zapotecs and the Mixtecs were involved in one of their many wars. Spanish conquest would end this fighting.^[6]

The first Spanish expedition here arrived late in 1521, headed by Captain Francisco de Orozco, and accompanied by 400 Aztecs.^[5] Hernán Cortés sent Francisco de Orozco to Oaxaca because Moctezuma II said that the Aztec’s gold came from there.^[6] The Spanish expedition under Orozco set about building a Spanish city where the Aztec military post was at the base of the Cerro de Fortín. The first mass was said here by Chaplain Juan Diaz on the bank of the Atoyac River under a large huaje tree, where the Church of San Juan de Dios would be constructed later. This same chaplain added saints’ names to the surrounding villages in addition to keeping their Nahuatl names: Santa María Oaxaca, San Martín Mexicapan, San Juan Chapultepec, Santo Tomas Xochimilco, San Matías Jalatlaco, Santiago Tepeaca, etc. This group of Spaniards chose their first mayor, Gutierres de Badajoc, their first town council and began construction of the cathedral of Oaxaca in 1522. Their name for the settlement was Guajaca, a Hispanization of the Nahuatl name (which would later be respelled as Oaxaca).^[5]

The establishment of the relatively-independent village did not suit Hernán Cortes, who wanted power over the entire region for himself. Cortés sent Pedro de Alvarado, who proceeded to drive out most of the village’s population. The original Spanish settlers appealed to the Spanish crown to recognize the village they founded, which it did in 1526, with land divided among the Spaniards of Orozco’s expedition. However, this did not stop Cortés from driving out the population of the village once again and replacing the town council only three months after royal recognition. Once again, the original founders appealed to Spanish royal authority, this time to the viceroy in Mexico City, Nuño de Guzmán. This viceroy also sided with the original founders, and the town was refounded in 1529 as Antequera, in honor of Nuño de Guzmán’s hometown. Francisco de Herrera convened the new, Crown-approved town council,^[5] and the first layout of the settlement was mapped out by Juan Peláez de Berrio.^[1]

In the meantime, Cortés was able to obtain from the crown the title of the Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca, which contains the disputed village. This permitted him to tax the area heavily, and to have control of the territory that surrounded the village. The village was then in a position of having to survive surrounded by villages which answered to Cortés. These villages not only did not take orders from Antequera, they were hostile to it, mostly likely encouraged by Cortés.^[5]

To counter this, the village petitioned the Crown to be elevated to the status of a city, which would give it certain rights, privileges and exceptions. It would also ensure that the settlement would remain under the direct control of the king, rather than of Cortés. This petition was granted in 1532 by Charles V of Spain.^[1][5]

After the Independence of Mexico in 1821, the city became the seat of a municipality, and both the name of the city and the municipality became Oaxaca, changed from Antequera. In 1872, “de Juárez” as added to the city and municipality names to honor Benito Juárez, who began his legal and political career here.^[1]

The 2006 Oaxaca protests began as a teachers’ protest, occupying the main square, or Zocalo, of Oaxaca city in May 2006. Increases in wages and employment benefits were announced a short time later, but an internal conflict in the local teachers’ union led to accusations that the bargaining had not really been in the teachers’ best interest. Work stoppage and occupation of the square continued from May 22 to June 1. At this point, radical groups joined in with the protest and the disorder grew, closing banks, access roads, the airport, access to stores and harassing the governor of the state in public appearances. Many of these groups merged with the teachers’ union to form the Popular Assembly of the People of Oaxaca (APPO). The disruption turned into a siege that lasted five months.^[2] Violence included the deaths of a number of people including Indymedia journalist Bradley Roland Will on October 27, 2006^[7] and Roberto López Hernández and Jorge Alberto Beltrán on October 29, 2006 when over 10,000 federal police and army intervened.^[8][9] The situation calmed in the second week of November when the Federal Preventative Police took over the city and disbanded the protests.^[2]

Economy and tourism[link]

The events of 2006 had a severe impact on the city’s main generator of revenue: tourism.^[2] The city is the primary attraction of the state, which also relies economically on tourism. Over the last 25 years, tourism grew to become be dominant factor of Oaxaca’s economy.^[10] 77% of the municipality of Oaxaca has employment related in some way to tourism. The attractions are the verdant landscapes of the Oaxaca Valley, and the architectural and cultural charms of the city itself.^[10] The next largest economic sectors are mining and manufacturing, which employ 20% of the work force.^[1]

The city centre was included in a World Heritage Site designated by UNESCO, in recognition of its treasure of historic buildings and monuments.^[11] Tourist activity peaks in three seasons: Holy Week, summer (especially during Guelaguetza) and New Year. Many of the tourists who come during Holy Week and for New Year come from other parts of Mexico and include native Oaxacans returning to visit from their places of work. Most international visitors come in the summer.^[2]

Notable sites[link]

Plaza de la Constitución or Zocalo[link]

Kiosk and gardens located in the Zócalo.

The Plaza de la Constitución, or Zócalo, was planned out in 1529 by Juan Peláez de Berrio. During the entire colonial period this plaza was never paved, nor had sidewalks, only a marble fountain that was placed here in 1739. This was removed in 1857 to put in the kiosk and trees were planted. In 1881, the vegetation here was rearranged and in 1885, a statue of Benito Juárez was added. It was remodeled again in 1901 and a new Art Noveau kiosk installed. Fountains of green stone with capricious figures were installed in 1967.^[1] The kiosk in the center hosts the State Musical Band, La Marimba and other groups.^[12]

The plaza is surrounded by various portals. On the south side of the plaza are the Portales de Ex-Palacio de Gobierno, which was vacated by the government in 2005 and then reopened as a museum called "Museo del Palacio 'Espacio de Diversidad'" Other portals include the "Portal de Mercadores" on the eastern side, "Portal de Claverias" on the north side and the "Portal del Señor" on the west side.^[4]

The State Government Palace is located on the main square of Oaxaca City. This site used to be the Portal de la Alhóndiga (warehouse) and in front of the palace is the Benito Juarez Market. The original palace was inaugurated in 1728, on the wedding day of the prince and princess of Spain and Portugal. The architectural style was Gothic. The building currently on this site was begun in 1832, inaugurated in 1870 but was not completed until 1887. The inside contains murals reflecting Oaxaca’s history from the pre-Hispanic era, the colonial era and post-Independence. Most of these were painted by Arturo Garcia Bustos in the 1980s.^[1]

The Federal Palace is located across from the Cathedral and used to be the site of the old Archbishiop’s Palace until 1902. Its architecture is “neo-Mixtec” reflecting the nationalism of the early 20th century and the reverence in which the Mixtec-Zapotec culture has been held in more recent times. The architectural elements copy a number of those from Mitla and Monte Alban.^[1]

Northwest of the Zócalo is the Alameda de León, a garden area ^[4] that is essentially an annex of the main square. In 1576, viceroy Martín Enréquez de Almanza set aside two city blocks on which to build the city government offices, but they were never built here. One of the blocks was sold and the other became a market. Antonio de León, governor of the state of Oaxaca, lived in front of this market and decided to turn it into a park in the 1840s, making it a small replica of the Alameda Central in Mexico City. In 1885, a statue of León was added.^[1]

Alameda de León plaza.

Andador Macedonio Alcalá[link]

The Macedonio Alcalá Tourist Corridor is a street paved with green cantera that was closed to traffic in 1985^[12] and is now only open to pedestrian traffic. Along the street are notable places such as the original building to house the Universidad Autónoma Benito Juárez. The Museo de Arte Contemporáneo (Museum of Contemporary Art) or MACO is located here as is the Plazuela (small plaza) Labastida and the Parroquia de la Preciosa Sangre de Cristo (Parish of the Precious Blood of Christ).^[4]

Churches and religious buildings[link]

Cathedral of Our Lady of the Assumption

The Catedral de Oaxaca, also referred to as Cathedral of Our Lady of the Assumption, is the third to be built as the first two were destroyed by large earthquakes in the 16th and 18th centuries.^[4] Construction of this third church began in 1702 and it was consecrated in 1733. Its facade is made of the green cantera stone commonly found in Oaxaca's buildings, and the interior is in Neoclassical style. The altar features a statue of Our Lady of the Assumption (Nuestra Señora de al Asunción) which was made in Italy during the Porfirio era,^[4] who is represented by a bronze sculpture brought from Europe and made by Tadoini.^[13]

Santo Domingo de Guzmán Church.

The church and former monastery of Santo Domingo de Guzmán is located 4 blocks north of the Cathedral of Oaxaca. It was constructed between 1555 and 1666. It divides into two parts: the church and the former living/working areas of the monks. The front of the church is Renaissance-style, in the central relief, Saint Dominic and Hippolytus of Rome are holding up the church. After La Reforma around 1860, the church was converted into a stable, which caused serious deterioration of the building. It was returned to devotional use at the end of the 19th century. The living and working areas were converted into barracks and officers´ quarters. In 1994, work began to convert this area as the Centro Cultural Santo Domingo.^[4]

Basilica de Nuestra Señora de la Soledad

The Basílica de Nuestra Señora de la Soledad is located four blocks west of the Cathedral on Avenida Independencia. It is built between 1682 and 1697 by Father Fernando Méndez^[13] on a site where supposedly an image of the Virgin Mary appeared inside a box. It is of Baroque style finished in 1690. Its front is made of a reddish stone sculpted to look like a folding screen. In the back of the church is the Museo de la Basilica de Nuestra Señora de La Soledad that exhibits the Virgin's dresses, offering and small painting done in her honor.^[4] The statue of the Virgin of Solitude, crowned with a 2 kg solid gold crown studded with diamonds – was the subject of a theft recently. Many years later, the cloister was converted into a correctional facility, a teacher’s college and district attorney’s office. Now it serves as the Municipal Palace. The building conserves a number of valuable items such as paintings, sculptures and religious vestments^[13] and a pipe organ dated 1686.^[14]

The Church and ex-monastery of Del Carmen Alto belonged to the Carmelites who established themselves here in 1696. The complex began as a hermitage built over the teocalli of Huaxyacac, although in the late 17th century, much of this space was occupied by a jail and barracks. The project was financed by Manuel Fernandez Fiallo.^[13]

Church and former monastery of St John of God (Templo y Exconvento de San Juan de Dios), Oaxaca's oldest church still standing, completed in 1703. This is where the first mass in Oaxaca was held in 1521.^[1]

Calle Tinoco y Palacios, with the church of San Felipe Neri

Church of San Felipe Neri The Church of San Felipe Neri is considered a classic example of Baroque with estipite (inverted truncated pyramid) columns from the end of the 18th century, and has a large gilded main altarpiece. While the church overall is Baroque, the portal contains other decorative elements as well. Benito Juárez married Margarita Maza here in 1841.^[13]

Ex monastery of San Catalina was built in the second half of the 16th century by Dominican monk Hernando de Carvarcos, who also was responsible for the Santo Domingo de Guzmán monastery. In 1862, the monastery became a jail and at the end of the 19th century, the southern part became the Municipal Palace. Since 1976, it has been a hotel, called Hotel Camino Real.^[12]

Church of the Company of Jesus (Iglesia de la Compañia de Jesús), located to the southwest of the Zócalo, was built by the Jesuits in 1579 and consecrated to Francis Xavier and the Immaculate Conception.^[13] The towers were destroyed by a series of earthquakes and never rebuilt. Inside the chapel is a statue of the Virgin of Guadalupe with a prayer written in Spanish, English, Náhuatl as well as 12 other languages native to the state of Oaxaca, including 4 dialects of Zapotec.^[4]

Museums and the arts[link]

Church of the Company of Jesus

The Centro Cultural de Santo Domingo occupies the former monastery buildings attached to Santo Domingo church, and were restored in 1996 and considered to be one of the best restoration works in Latin America.^[15] Some important artifacts from Monte Alban are displayed here. In the center of the Centro Cultural, there is a courtyard with a fountain and a very large staircase. The passages along the courtyard have vaulted ceilings, cupolas and intricate corridors. Much of the Centro Cultural is occupied by the Museo de las Culturas de Oaxaca (Museum of Oaxacan Cultures), whose entrance is the one pilgrims used to use to enter the church area of the complex.^[4] This museum was placed in the Centro Cultural in 1964, after originally being in the Instituto de Ciencias y Artes, among other places. The museum specializes in Zapotec and Mixtec cultures, covering ten halls and one auditorium.^[1] In Sala III is displayed the "Tesoro Mixteco"(Mixtec Treasure) which is a collection of offerings that were discovered by archeologist Alfonso Caso in Tomb 7 of Monte Álban. These offerings include hundreds of pieces of jewelry made of gold and silver. They make up the richest collection of gold and silver smithing of ancient Mexico.^[4] Another important exhibit is the objects from Tomb 5 of Lambitieco, which dates back to 700 C. E and from Monte Alban. The museum has rooms dedicated to everyday items from the colonial period as well.^[1] The center also contains the Biblioteca Fray Francisco de Burgoa (Fray Francisco de Burgoa Library) which holds over 25,000 degrees that were conferred from the 15th to the 20th century from the Universidad Autónoma Benito Juárez in Oaxaca.^[4]

The Museum of Contemporary Art (Museo de Arte Contemporaneo de Oaxaca, MACO) is housed in the so-called Casa de Cortés. It is one of the oldest buildings in the city and one of the most representative of non-religious buildings.^[1] However, since it dates from after the death of Hernán Cortés, it could never actually have served as his house.^[4] Although it has been modified somewhat over the years, it still conserves its basic layout with rooms surrounding three courtyards. The architectural style is basically Andalucian modified by Oaxaca traditions. The facade has two levels, and the doors and windows have lintels, and are protected by wrought iron railings. To the far left of the facade, there are two arched entrances that permitted entrance of carriages to the third courtyard. The main portal is Spanish Baroque and has three levels. In the first, there are two “tritóstila” columns that support the balcony which has wrought iron railings. On the second level two Solomonic columns flanking a window. The jambs of the window are decorated with circles and the lintel with inverted curves. At the top of the window is seal of the Jesuits. The third level contains a central niche with a sculpture of an archangel as well as the coats of arms of the Laso de la Vega and the Pinelo families. This group is flanked by Solomonic columns. The house was acquired by the state of Oaxaca and initially housed the Museo Historico Urbano de Oaxaca in 1986.^[1] The museum was created with help from the state government, the José F. Gómez Foundation, painter Francisco Toledo and the Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes. It permanent collection contains works by Rufino Tamayo, Toledo, Nieto, Aquinos and others.^[15]

The Museo de los Pintores Oaxaqueños(Museum of Oaxacan Painters) is located north of the Alameda de León on Avenida Independencia in a former 18th century mansion. It is dedicated to local artists such as Rodolfo Morales whose work is on permanent display. The museum has also featured exhibitions by Felipe Morales, Rodolfo Nieto, Alejandro Santiago and Francisco Toledo.^[4]

The Casa de Culturas Oaxaqueñas used to the Church and ex monastery Los Siete Príncipes dating from the 18th century. The only part still used for religious purposes is the small chapel. The complex was restored in the 1960s and in 1970, the Casa opened.^[13] It houses the Instituto Oaxaqueño de la Culturas, which is a state government entity to promote culture and the arts.^[12]

The Rufino Tamayo Museum (Museo Arte Prehispánico de Rufino Tamayo) or Museo Rufino Tamayo, has an important collection of pre-Hispanic art that the painter himself collected. He donated the collection, as well as the house that is now the museum to his home state (Oaxaca) in 1974.^[4] This house, which was known as the Casa de Villanaza, was built in 18th century. It first housed the State Museum Archives, before becoming what it is today.^[15] The museum exhibits over 1150 pieces from different Mesoamerican periods, including Mayan steles, ceramic dogs from Colima and stone faces from the Gulf of Mexico coast. The purpose of the museum is to show the aesthetic as well as the cultural value of these works.^[4]

The Religious Museum of the Ex monastery of La Soledad is located next to the Basilica of la Soledad. It contains objects such as paintings, sculptures and vestments. It is located in the southwest portion of the old monastery.^[12]

The Instituto de Artes Gráficos de Oaxaca (Graphic Arts Institute of Oaxaca) contains a large collection of graphic designs both present and past.^[15]

The Casa de Juárez, is a museum devoted to the life of Benito Juárez.^[1] It belonged to someone named Antonio Salanueva,^[15] but Juárez lived here from 1818 to 1828 after arriving to Oaxaca city from his hometown of Guelatao.^[1] It contains documents related to his presidency as well as furnishings designed to recreate the environment of that period. Its architecture is typical of homes built in this city in the 18th century and located on Garcia Vigil 609.^[4] It also contains ordinary artifacts from that time period, some of which belonged to Juárez.^[15]

Hemeroteca Publica de Oaxaca "Nestor Sánchez" (Nestor Sanchez Public Newspaper Library of Oaxaca) is located behind the ex-convent of Santo Domingo along with the Jardin Ethobotánico (Ethnobotanic Gardin) at the corner of Reforma and Constitución. These two occupy more than 2 hectares which used to be the gardens of the convent of Santa Domingo.^[4]

El Teatro Macedonio Alcalá

Teatro Macedonio Alcalá, which as well as being a working theatre houses a collection of romantic art. .^[4] The Macedonio Alcalá Theater is a work typical for Porfirio Díaz period at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th. It was first named the Luis Mier y Terán Theater, then Jesús Carranza. The current name dates back to 1932 to honor the composer of the state anthem “Dios Nunca Muere” (God Never Dies).^[12] The Macedonio Acalá Theatre is named after the author of the state anthem and was built between 1903 and 1909. The theatre has three parts, the vestibule, the main hall and the stage. The main entrance is on the corner. On the Armenta and Lopez Street sides, the lower level is occupied by shops, as well as the Miguel Cabrera Salon, which hosts art exhibits. The vestibule is Louis XV style with a white marble staircase and the main hall is in “Imperial” style, in which the anthropomorphic columns stand out.^[1]

Other cultural places of interest include the Alvarez Bravo Photography Center, the Oaxaca Stamp Museum, the Railway Museum of Southern Mexico (in the old train station) and the Planetarium located on the Cerro del Fortín.^[4]

Monte Alban[link]

Monte Albán is a pre-Hispanic city that was an ancient capital of the Zapotecs. It reached its peak between 500 BCE and 800 CE with about 35,000 inhabitants. Monte Alban is known for its architecture, its carved stones and the ceramic urns. In 1987, it was declared a World Heritage Site, along with the city of Oaxaca itself.^[16]

Markets[link]

Vendor stalls at the Mercado Benito Juárez.

The Mercado (Market) Benito Juárez is located one block south of the Zócalo on Flores Magón and Las Casas but it takes up the entire block to 20 de Noviembre and Aldama streets. It offers flowers, fruit, ices, fruit drinks, handcrafts, leather goods, hats and knives, among other things.^[4] The Mercado (Market)20 de Noviembre is the official name, but this market is commonly known as the "Mercado de la Comida (food)" because of the food stands that dominate the place. It is recommended by México Desconocido magazine for Oaxacan regional dishes such as moles, tasajo, tlayudas, pan de yema (a type of egg bread), chapulines (fried grasshoppers in chile), Oaxaca cheese (known locally as "quesillo"), queso fresco (lit. "fresh cheese"), as well as very large cups of hot chocolate made locally that is often spiced with cinnamon and almonds.^[4]

Parks and gardens[link]

Ethnobotanical Garden at the Temple of Santo Domingo.

The city contains a number of parks, gardens and plazas, many of which were former monastery lands. The Ethnobotanical Garden, surrounding the former monastery of Santo Domingo.^[4] Even better known is the Plaza de la Danza y Jardín Sócrates complex on Morelos Street at the foot of the Cerro del Fortín. It is part of the area bounded by the Basilica de la Soledad and the Church of San José. The Plaza de la Danza was constructed in 1959 by Eduardo Vasconcelos to hold the annual Bani-Stui-Gulal (representation of antiquity) dance, held one day before the festival of the Guelaguetza. The Plaza also hosts other cultural events including art shows, concerts and political rallies The Socrates Garden is the old atrium of the Basilica de la Soledad converted into a public park in 1881, conserved the bronze chalice which was also made in 1881. In 1981, the Garden was remodeled adding a new layer of stone to the floor.^[1] The Cerro de Fortín next to it bears in stone letters Benito Juárez's slogan, "El respeto al derecho ajeno es la paz" (Respect for others' rights is peace).^[4] The Antonia Labastida Garden is named alter a woman who fought with Porfirio Díaz during the French Intervention. This park has became a place for artists and artisans to display their wares.^[12]

Festivals and traditions[link]

Guelaguetza[link]

The new Guelaguetza Auditorium, completed in 2010.

The Guelaguetza, also known as the Fiestas de los Lunes del Cerro (Festivals of Mondays at the Hill) is the major cultural event in the city with origins in pre-Hispanic times. The “Hill” is the Cerro del Fortín, which was the scene of the annual rites to the goddess Centeótl, or goddess of the corn. The hill had a teocalli, or sacred plaza, built by the Aztecs. The ritual would end with the sacrifice of a young maiden chosen to represent the goddess.^[3]

This rite was prohibited by the Spanish after the Conquest, who also destroyed the teocalli. In its place, they constructed the Church of Our Lady of Mount Carmen, now known as Carmen Alto. The recently baptized Mixtecs and Zapotecs then replaced ceremonies to Centeótl with those to this manifestation of the Virgin Mary, at the same place, the Cerro del Fortín.^[3]

This revised festival grew over time to be the largest and most anticipated for the town. In 1932, the city of Oaxaca realized its 400th anniversary and decided to combine these festivities with those of the Cerro del Fortín, adding traditional dances, music, regional cuisine and Margarita Santaella as the first Miss Oaxaca, in addition to the religious rites. The word “guelaguetza” is from Zapotec and means offering, sympathy, caring and cooperation. This first Guelaguetza was such a hit that organizers decided to repeat it every year at the Cerro del Fortin, on all the Mondays of July starting in 1953, becoming an amalgam of Oaxacan festivals from many parts of the state.^[3]

Originally, the festival took place at the foot of the Cerro del Fortín, where the curve of the land makes for a natural theatre. Since 1974, many of the events, which have grown in number, have been moved to a number of different venues, included the then-inaugurated Guelaguetza Auditorium. This is a Greek-style venue with seats 11,400 people.^[3]

One venue is the Church of Santo Domingo de Guzmán, where regional band come to play, dressed in colorful costumes as part of the opening ceremonies. They march from here to the Oaxaca Cathedral, where they are joined by folk dance groups such as the China Oaxaqueñas, the Chilenas de Pinotepa Nacional and the Jarabes Serranos. Another major event, which takes place at the Jardin Socrates, is a beauty pageant for indigenous women from different regions of Oaxaca state. The winner represents the goddess Centeótl and presides over the festivities along with public officials. The Bamo-Stui-Gulal takes place at the Plaza de la Danza and represents the history of Oaxaca and the Guelaguetza itself. The Plaza is divided into four quadrants, each representing a different period in Oaxaca’s history. One other event, hosted in the Auditorium is a reenactment of the Legend of Donají, which takes place at the time of the Conquest. On the streets of Oaxaca city, there are parades with children and giant paper mache puppets.^[3]

Noche de Rábanos[link]

The “Noche de Rábano” or Night of the Radishes is a traditional Oaxaca city tradition. Artisans show off designs done on large radishes, often decorated with other plant materials. The event only lasts a few hours but draws most of the city’s population to the main square to look at the creations. It occurs each year on 23 December.^[17]

The event developed from a Dominican Christmas tradition, when they would have a large dinner on the night of 23 December. To decorate the tables, indigenous servants of the monks would carve radishes and adorn them with flowers and other plants. This led 23 December to the known as the Night of the Radishes. This led to a special market on this day selling the radishes along with two other popular Christmas plant materials, the Flor Inmortal (immortal flower) and corn husks. This market has grown into a major cultural event and now is sponsored by the city, which packs the main square on that day. The day also includes a competition where radish creations are judged by originality, technical skill and beauty.^[17]

Donají[link]

The story of Donají is that of a princess from pre-Hispanic Mitla. When she was born, a seer predicted that she would die for her country. When she grew up, her people, the Zapotecs, were involved in one of their many wars with the Mixtecs. One day, Zapotec warriors brought a prisoner, a Mixtec prince named Nucano, to Mitla. Taking pity on him, she took care of his wounds. When he healed, he asked her to let him go, which she did. The war continued with the Zapotec king and Donaji forced to abandon their capital of Zaachila. Peace negotiations were attempted but the Mixtecs did not trust the Zapotec king, taking Donají captive as insurance. This occurred during the Conquest, when the evangelization of the country had begun. Donají asked for baptism and was renamed Doña Juana de Cortés.^[18]

As feared, the Zapotecs broke the peace treaty, attacking Monte Alban as the Mixtecs slept. Donají was found in the Atoyac River, decapitated. Time passed. One day a Shepherd came to the place that Donaji was buried by the river. There was a fragrant lily flower growing. Fifteen days later, he returned to find the same flower, still fresh and fragrant in the same place as if a mysterious force was preserving it.^[18] Her decapitated head serves as part of the coat of arms of the city of Oaxaca^[1] and her story is reenacted every year at the Guelaguetza festival.^[3]

Food and drink[link]

A Benevá mezcal dealer in the city of Oaxaca

A cup of Oaxacan-style hot chocolate served in a traditional clay mug (no handle) and "pan de yema" (egg bread)

The city of Oaxaca has long been considered "Mexico's culinary capital."^[19] The most notable aspect of Oaxacan cuisine is its variety of moles, a type of complex sauce. Their origins go back to the melding of Spanish and Arabic food in Spain. After the Conquest, New World ingredients such as chile mulato, 'miltomate' (a small whitish wild tomato), tomatoes, peanuts, avocado leaves, and chocolate were incorporated. While moles can be found in many parts of Mexico, Oaxaca has the greatest variety including negro (black), Colorado (red), coloradito (faint red), chichilo, verde (green), amarillo (yellow), and mancha manteles (lit. 'stainer of tablecloths'). They are sold in markets all over the city as a paste which is combined with water and simmered with a variety of meats.^[20]

Other notable foods sold in markets include bars of chocolate (primarily used for making hot chocolate), traditional breads, and chapulines (fried grasshoppers with chile). Street foods include tlayudas, which are large, slightly crispy corn tortillas piled high with ingredients such as grilled beef (called tasajo), cheese, tomatoes, avocados, onions etc. Local drinks include those made with water, sugar and a flavoring such as aguamiel (honey water), trocitos de melón (melon), horchata (rice), tuna batida (cactus fruit shake), and nuez (nuts) as well as local fruits such as chilacayota and guanábana. In nearby Tlacolula and Ejutla an indigenous drink called 'tejate' is still prepared and sold in the local market. Known here as the drink of the gods, it is prepared with corn, cacao, cacao flower and the seed of the mamey fruit. As for alcoholic beverages, this area prefers mezcal, which, like tequila is made from a species of agave but the flavor is very different.^[20]

As in other areas in Mexico, chocolate has had special importance here since long before the Conquest. Aside from being a foodstuff, it was also used as medicine and cacao seeds were used as money. The chocolate prepared in this city is well-known within Mexico, as it is distinguished by being flavored with cinnamon, almonds and sugar and is usually prepared with hot water or milk. It is usually served in large coffee cups with a local sweet roll. The best-known producer of this type of chocolate is Chocolate El Mayordomo, which recently has opened outlets in various parts of Mexico, esp. in Mexico City. In their main store in Oaxaca City, you can see them prepare the various types of chocolates they prepare including a chocolate pasta.^[20]

Notable Oaxacans[link]

• Benito Juárez
• Porfirio Díaz
• José Vasconcelos
• Ricardo Flores Magón
• Rodolfo Morales, artist
• Rufino Tamayo, artist
• Francisco Toledo, artist
• Lila Downs, singer
• Vinny Castilla, Major League Baseball Player
• Geronimo Gil, Major League Baseball Player
• Macedonio Alcalá composer
• Nadia Yvonne Lopez Ayuso, singer
• Maria Sabina, shaman

Education[link]

One of the main buildings on the campus of the Universidad Autónoma Benito Juárez de Oaxaca

In terms of institutions of higher education Oaxaca has several universities. Oaxaca is the site of the Universidad Autónoma Benito Juárez de Oaxaca, which has buildings in various parts of the city. The most visible building is the Edificio Central de la Universidad (Central Building of the University), which is located in the historic downtown. It is in a building that originally housed the Sciences Institute. It was constructed between 1899 and 1901, in the European Romantic style that was popular for academic institutions at that time. However, indigenous touches, such as the cresting over the portal, can be seen as well. This building houses the Department of Law and Social Studies as well as the gymnasium.^[1] Additionally, the Universidad de Mesoamérica has locations in the city. The Universidad Anáhuac Oaxaca was opened in 2000.

Transportation[link]

Oaxaca-Xoxocotlan airport (IATA code OAX) is approximately 7 km south of the city centre. Most flights are to Mexico City for onward connection, but there are also flights to Huatulco, Cancún, Tuxtla Gutierrez and Tijuana. Continental Airlines flights between Oaxaca and Houston have also been initiated.

The city has separate first class and second class bus stations, offering services to most places within the state of Oaxaca, including the coastal resorts of Huatulco, Puerto Escondido, Puerto Ángel and Pinotepa Nacional, and also long-distance services to Puebla and Mexico City and other Mexican locations such as Veracruz. There are several bus lines which run in Oaxaca. The largest is TUSUG, a type of "cooperative" company. All of the drivers own their own buses and are aided by other drivers in purchasing new buses.

The major highways serving Oaxaca are Federal Highways 175 and 131, southwards to the Oaxacan coastal resorts; National Highways 190 and 125, southwest to Pinotepa Nacional; National Highways 190 and 130, to Mexico City; the autopista 150D/131D, offering a more rapid route to Mexico City; and National Highway 175 north to Veracruz, Veracruz.

Surrounding towns[link]

A number of small towns surround the main city and are closely linked economically and culturally with the main city. Some of these towns are known for producing certain crafts that are identified with the three central valleys of Oaxaca. In these towns one can see the workshops and the crafts being produced in the traditional manner although most of these towns' products are sold in the main city. Santa María Atzompa produces glazed, glass-inlaid pottery of green, while San Antonio Arrazola and San Martín Tilcajete make alebrijes, small painted wooden figures. San Bartolo Coyotepec is known for its barro negro pottery, and Teotitlán del Valle works with wool and llama to make tapetes, or more commonly, throw rugs. These rugs are known for their intense colors, made traditionally with natural dyes, made from cempasúchil (yellow), cochineal (red) and indigo (blue). In addition, Oaxaca city and surrounding towns have market days, where one can visit the tianguis (open-air markets) set up for that day. There are markets on each day of the week. Monday in Miahuatlan is for buying daily staples, and Tuesday, in Ayoquezco is noted for wood furniture. On Wednesday, people head to Etla and Zimatlán for dairy products, especially cheese. Thursday is reserved for the two largest tianguis in Ejutla and Villa de Zaachila. On Friday, in Coyotepec, Jalietza and Ocotlán cotton textiles, embroidered blouses, corn-husk flowers and glazed pottery from Atzompa are sold. Also Llano park in Oaxaca has a small market. Saturday is reserved for the main city of Oaxaca, and to finish, on Sunday mezcal is sold in Tlacolula.^[4]

Municipality of Oaxaca[link]

Centre of Oaxaca.

As municipal seat, Oaxaca city has governmental jurisdiction over the following communities: Arbolada Ilusión, Camino a San Luis Beltrán, Camino Ancho, Casas del Sol, Colonia Buena Vista, El Bajío (Rancho Guadalupe Victoria), El Silencio, Entrada de el Silencio, Gloria Antonio Cruz, Guadalupe Victoria, Guadalupe Victoria Segunda Sección (La Mina), Lachigulera, Las Salinas (El Arco Grande), Loma Bonita, Lomas Panorámicas, Los Ángeles, Los Ángeles Uno, Miravalle, Paraje Caballetiyo, Paraje el Cerrito, Paraje el Pando, Paraje la Canoa, Paraje la Loma, Paraje la Mina, Paraje la Rabonera, Paraje Pio V (Ojito de Agua), Paraje Tierra Colorada, Pueblo Nuevo Parte Alta, Rancho el Chilar, Rancho los Girasoles, San Bernardo, Solidaridad, and Viguera The municipality has a total area of 85.48 km2^[1] and a population of 265,006, 97% percent of which lives in the city of Oaxaca^[21] While much of the indigenous population disappeared during the colonial era, sixteen different ethnic groups continue to inhabit the municipality. Spanish is the most commonly used tongue^[10] but during the 2005 census, there were 20,109 people who spoke an indigenous language, between seven and eight percent of the population.^[1]

The municipality is bordered by San Pablo Etla, San Antonio de la Cal, Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán, San Andrés Huayapam, San Agustín Yatareni, Santa Lucía del Camino, Santa María Atzompa and San Jacinto Amilpas.^[1] It is located in the Valley of Oaxaca in the Sierra Madre del Sur Mountains, at 17°05′N 96°45′W / 17.083°N 96.75°W / 17.083; -96.75Coordinates: 17°05′N 96°45′W / 17.083°N 96.75°W / 17.083; -96.75 near the geographic center of the state, and at an altitude of about 1550 m (5000 ft). The area is known as the three "Valles Centrales" (Central Valleys) region and is surrounded by thick forests of pine and holm oak.^[4]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website
• Oaxaca Lending Library

v t e World Heritage Sites in Mexico North West Archaeological Zone of Paquimé, Casas Grandes Islands and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California1 Rock Paintings of Sierra de San Francisco Whale Sanctuary of El Vizcaino North Central El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro Franciscan Missions in the Sierra Gorda of Querétaro Historic Centre of Zacatecas Historic Monuments Zone of Querétaro Historic Town of Guanajuato and Adjacent Mines Protected town of San Miguel and the Sanctuary of Jesús Nazareno de Atotonilco West Agave Landscape and Ancient Industrial Facilities of Tequila Historic Centre of Morelia Hospicio Cabañas, Guadalajara Islands and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California1 Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve1 East Earliest 16th-century Monasteries on the slopes of Popocatépetl1 Pre-Hispanic City of El Tajín Historic Centre of Puebla Historic Monuments Zone of Tlacotalpan South West Historic Centre of Oaxaca and Archaeological Site of Monte Albán Pre-Hispanic City and National Park of Palenque South Central Archaeological Monuments Zone of Xochicalco Central University City Campus of the UNAM Earliest 16th-century Monasteries on the slopes of Popocatépetl1 El Camino Real de Tierra Adentro Historic Centres of Mexico City and Xochimilco Luis Barragán House and Studio Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve1 Pre-Hispanic City of Teotihuacán South East Ancient Maya City of Calakmul, Campeche Historic Fortified Town of Campeche Pre-Hispanic City of Chichén Itzá Sian Ka'an Pre-Hispanic Town of Uxmal 1 Shared by more than one region

v t e Mexican state capitals Aguascalientes (Aguascalientes) Mexicali (Baja California) La Paz (Baja California Sur) Campeche (Campeche) Tuxtla Gutiérrez (Chiapas) Chihuahua (Chihuahua) Saltillo (Coahuila) Colima (Colima) Mexico City (DF) Durango (Durango) Guanajuato (Guanajuato) Chilpancingo (Guerrero) Pachuca (Hidalgo) Guadalajara (Jalisco) Toluca (Mexico State) Morelia (Michoacán) Cuernavaca (Morelos) Tepic (Nayarit) Monterrey (Nuevo León) Oaxaca (Oaxaca) Puebla (Puebla) Querétaro (Querétaro) Chetumal (Quintana Roo) San Luis Potosí (San Luis Potosí) Culiacán (Sinaloa) Hermosillo (Sonora) Villahermosa (Tabasco) Cd. Victoria (Tamaulipas) Tlaxcala (Tlaxcala) Xalapa (Veracruz) Mérida (Yucatán) Zacatecas (Zacatecas)

Oaxaca
—  State  —
Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca
Flag Seal
Motto: El Respeto al Derecho Ajeno es la Paz (Respect for the rights of others is peace)
Anthem: Dios Nunca Muere (De facto)
State of Oaxaca within Mexico
Country	Mexico
Capital	Oaxaca de Juárez
Largest City	Oaxaca de Juárez
Municipalities	570
Admission	December 21, 1823[1]
Order	3rd
Government
• Governor	Gabino Cué
• Senators[2]	Ericel Gómez Salomón Jara Cruz Adolfo Toledo
• Deputies[3]	Federal Deputies • Heriberto Ambrosio • Violeta Avilés Álvarez • Sofía Castro Ríos • Desiderio Concha • Manuel De Esesarte • Carlos Díaz Escárraga • Fernando Franco • Manuel García Corpus • Jorge González • Margarita Liborio • Emilio Mendoza Kaplan • Narcedalia Ramírez • Héctor Pablo Ramírez • José Antonio Yglesias • María Mendoza • Bélgica Nabil Carmona • Arcelia Cruz Cruz • Guadalupe García
Area[4]
• Total	93,793 km2 (36,214 sq mi)
	Ranked 5th
Highest elevation[5]	3,720 m (12,200 ft)
Population (2010)[6]
• Total	3,801,962
• Rank	10th
• Density	41/km2 (100/sq mi)
• Density rank	22nd
Demonym	Oaxacan (Spanish; Oaxaqueño -a)
Time zone	CST (UTC−6)
• Summer (DST)	CDT (UTC−5)
Postal code	68–71
Area code	Area codes 1 and 2 • 236 • 274 • 283 • 287 • 924 • 951 • 953 • 954 • 958 • 971 • 972 • 994 • 995
ISO 3166 code	MX-OAX
HDI	0.756 medium Ranked 30th
GDP	US$ 10,076,445.9 mil[a]
Website	Official Web Site
^ a. The state's GDP was 128,978,508 million of pesos in 2008,[7] amount corresponding to 10,076,445.9 millon of dollars, being a dollar worth 12.80 pesos (value of June 3, 2010).[8]

Oaxaca (English /wəˈhɑːkə/ wə-HAH-kə, Spanish: [waˈxaka] ( listen), from Nahuatl: Huaxyacac [waːsʃakak]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca), is one of the 31 states which, along with the Federal District, comprise the 32 federative entities of Mexico. It is divided into 571 municipalities; of which 418 (almost three quarters) are governed by the system of Usos y costumbres (customs and traditions)^[9] with recognized local forms of self governance. Its capital city is Oaxaca de Juárez.

It is located in Southwestern Mexico.^[10] It is bordered by the states of Guerrero to the west, Puebla to the northwest, Veracruz to the north, Chiapas to the east. To the south, Oaxaca has a significant coastline on the Pacific Ocean.

The state is best known for its indigenous peoples and cultures. The most numerous and best known are the Zapotecs and the Mixtecs, but there are sixteen that are officially recognized. These cultures have survived better than most others in Mexico due to the state’s rugged and isolating terrain. Most live in the Central Valleys region, which is also an important area for tourism, attracting people for its archeological sites such as Monte Albán, native culture and crafts. Another important tourist area is the coast, which has the major resort of Huatulco. Oaxaca is also one of the most biologically diverse states in Mexico, ranking in the top three, along with Chiapas and Veracruz, for numbers of reptiles, amphibians, mammals and plants.^[11]

History[link]

Name[link]

The name of the state comes from the name of its capital city, Oaxaca. This name comes from the Nahuatl word “Huaxyacac”,^[12] which refers to a tree called a “guaje” (Leucaena leucocephala) found around the capital city. The name was originally applied to the Valley of Oaxaca by Nahuatl speaking Aztecs and passed on to the Spanish during the conquest of the Oaxaca region. The modern state was created in 1824, and the state seal was designed by Alfredo Canseco Feraud and approved by the government of Eduardo Vasconcelos.^[13]

Pre-historic and pre-Hispanic period[link]

Effigy Head Brazier (500 BC-200 BC)

Most of what is known about pre-historic Oaxaca comes from archeological work in the Central Valleys region. Evidence of human habitation dating back to about 11,000 years BCE has been found in the Guilá Naquitz cave near the town of Mitla. This area was recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2010 in recognition for the "earliest known evidence of domesticated plants in the continent, while corn cob fragments from the same cave are said to be the earliest documented evidence for the domestication of maize." More finds of nomadic peoples date back to about 5000 BCE, with some evidence of the beginning of agriculture. By 2000 BCE, agriculture had been established in the Central Valleys region of the state, with sedentary villages.^[14] The diet developed around this time would remain until the Spanish Conquest, consisting primarily of harvested corn, beans, chocolate, tomatoes, chili peppers, squash and gourds. Meat was generally hunted and included tepescuintle, turkey, deer, peccary, armadillo and iguana.^[15]

The oldest known major settlements, such as Yanhuitlán and Laguna Zope are located in this area as well. The latter settlement is known for its small figures called “pretty women” or “baby face.” Between 1200 and 900 BCE, pottery was being produced in the area as well. This pottery has been linked with similar work done in La Victoria, Guatemala. Other important settlements from the same time period include Tierras Largas, San José Mogote and Guadalupe, whose ceramics show Olmec influence.^[14] The major native language family, Oto-Manguean, is thought to have been spoken in northern Oaxaca around 4400 BCE and to have evolved into nine distinct branches by 1500 BCE.^[15]

Historic events in Oaxaca as far back as the 12th century are described in pictographic codices painted by Zapotecs and Mixtecs in the beginning of the colonial period, but outside of the information that can be obtained through their study, little historical information from pre-colonial Oaxaca exist, and our knowledge of this period relies largely on archaeological remains.^[16] By 500 BCE, the central valleys of Oaxaca were mostly inhabited by the Zapotecs, with the Mixtecs on the western side. These two groups were often in conflict throughout the pre-Hispanic period.^[17] Archeological evidence indicates that between 750 and 1521, there may have been population peaks of as high as 2.5 million.^[16]

The Zapotecs were the earliest to gain dominance over the Central Valleys region.^[15] The first major dominion was centered in Monte Albán, which flourished from 500 BCE until 750 CE.^[16] At its height, Monte Albán was home to some 25,000 people and was the capital city of the Zapotec nation.^[15] It remained a secondary center of power for the Zapotecs until the Mixtecs overran it in 1325.^[17] The site contains a number of notable features including the Danzantes, a set of stone reliefs and the finding of fine quality ceramics.^[14]

Looking southwest over the site of Monte Alban

Starting from 750 CE previous large urban centers such as Monte Alban fell across the Oaxaca area and smaller dominions grew and evolved until the Spanish Conquest in 1521.^[16] Between 700 and 1300, the Mixtec were scattered among various dominions, including those of Achiutla, Tequixtepec-Chazumba, Apoala and Coixtlahuaca. The Zapotecs occupied a large region from Central Valleys region to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.^[16] However, no major city state like Monte Albán arose again, with villages and city-states remaining small, between 1,000 and 3,000 people with a palace, temple, market and residences. In a number of cases, there were Mesoamerican ball courts as well. These and larger centers also functioned as military fortresses in time of invasion. Important Zapotec and Mixtec sites include Yagul, Zaachila, Inguiteria, Yanhuitlan, Tamazulapan, Tejupan, and Teposcolula. During nearly all of this time, these various entities were at war with one another, and faced the threat of Aztec expansion.^[16]

While the Zapotec remained dominant in many parts of the Central Valleys and into the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, the Mixtec were pushing into Zapotec territory, taking Monte Alban. In areas they conquered, they became prolific builders, leaving behind numerous and still unexplored sites. However, the conquest of the Central Valleys was never completed with pressure coming from the Aztecs in Tenochtitlan in the 14th and 15th centuries. The Zapotecs and Mixtecs both allied themselves and fought among themselves as they tried to maintain their lands and valuable trade routes between the high central plains of Mexico and Central America.^[15][17]

The first Aztecs arrived to the Oaxaca area in 1250, but true expansion into the region began in the 15th century. In 1457, Moctezuma I invaded the Tlaxiaco and Coixtlahuaca areas, gaining control, demanding tribute and establishing military outposts.^[16] These were Mixtec lands at first, pushing these people even further into Zapotec territory.^[14] Under Axayacatl and Tizoc, the Aztec began to take control of trade routes in the area and part of the Pacific Coast. By this time, the Zapotec were led by Cosijoeza with the government in Zaachila in the latter 15th century. Under Ahuitzotl, the Aztecs temporarily pushed the Zapotecs into Tehuantepec and established a permanent military base at Huaxyacac (Oaxaca city). The Aztecs were stopped only by the Spanish Conquest.^[14] These conquests would change most of the place names in parts of Oaxaca to those from the Nahuatl language.^[16] In 1486 the Aztecs established a fort on the hill of Huaxyácac (now called El Fortín), overlooking the present city of Oaxaca. This was the major Aztec military base charged with the enforcement of tribute collection and control of trade routes.^[15]

However, Aztec rule in Oaxaca would last only a little more than thirty years.^[15]

Colonial period[link]

Cathedral of Our Lady of the Assumption the motherchurch of the Oaxacan Archdiocese

Very soon after the fall of Tenochtitlan (Mexico City), Spaniards arrived in Oaxaca. Moctezuma II had informed Hernán Cortés that the area had gold.^[18] In addition, when Zapotec leaders heard about the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, they sent an offer of an alliance.^[15] Several captains and representatives were sent to the area to explore the area, looking for gold, and routes to the Pacific to establish trade routes to Asian spice markets. The most prominent of Cortés’ captains to arrive here were Gonzalo de Sandoval, Francisco de Orozco and Pedro de Alvarado. They overcame the main Aztec military stronghold only four months after the fall of Tenochtitlan.^[14] Their reports about the area prompted Cortés to seek the title of the Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca from the Spanish Crown.^[15]

The valley Zapotecs, the Mixtecs of the Upper Mixteca, the Mazatecas and the Cuicatecas, for the most part, choose not to fight the newcomers, instead negotiating to keep most of the old hierarchy but with ultimate authority to the Spanish.^[14][15] Resistance to the new order was sporadic and confined to the Pacific coastal plain, the Zapotec Sierra, the Mixea region and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The Mixes put the most resistance to intrusions on their lands. They not only resisted during the first decade or so of Spanish occupation, like other groups, but through the rest of the 16th century. The last major Mixe rebellion came in 1570, when they burned and looted Zapotec communities and threatened to destroy the Spanish presidio of Villa Alta. However, this rebellion was put down by the Spanish, in alliance with about 2,000 Mixtecs and Aztecs. From this point, the Mixe retreated far into the mountains to isolate themselves, where they are found today.^[15]

The first priest in the territory was Juan Diaz, who accompanied Francisco de Orozco and build the first church in what is now the city of Oaxaca. He was followed by Bartolome de Olmade and others who began the superficial conversion of a number of indigenous, including the baptism of Zapotec leader Cosijoeza. In 1528, the Dominicans settled in the city of Oaxaca, forming the Bishopric of Oaxaca in 1535, and began to spread out from there, eventually reaching Tehuantepec and the coast. Other orders followed such as the Jesuits in 1596, the Mercedarians in 1601, and others in the 17th and 18th centuries.^[14][15]

Spanish conquest and subsequent colonization had a devastating effect on the native population, due to European diseases and forced labor. In some areas the native population nearly or completely disappeared.^[16] It has been estimated that the native population of the region declined from 1.5 million in 1520 to 150,000 in 1650.^[15] Eventually, this would prompt the Spanish to import African slaves to some regions of the state, mostly in the Costa Chica. This poor treatment of indigenous and African populations would continue though the colonial period.^[19] Initially, the Spanish did not change native power structures and allowed nobles to keep their privileges as long as they were loyal to the Spanish crown. However, all indigenous were eventually lumped into the category as the Spanish halted warfare among the city-states and creating the official category of “indio” (Indian).^[16] Settlers arriving from Spain brought with them domestic animals that had never been seen in Oaxaca: horses, cows, goats, sheep, chickens, mules and oxen.^[15] New crops such as sugar cane, vanilla and tobacco were introduced.^[16] However, landholding still remained mostly in indigenous hands, in spite of the fact that only 9% of Oaxaca’s terrain is arable. Spanish official and merchants would try to take indigenous privileges due to their social status, but this was resisted. While some of this was violent, the dominant response was to resort to the administrative-judicial system or yield. Violence was reserved for the worst of situations.^[15] One native product to reach economic importance during the colonial period was the cochineal insect, used for the making of dyes for textiles. This product was exported to Europe, especially in the 17th and 18th centuries. The use of this insect faded in the 19th century with the discovery of cheaper dyes.^[16]

For much of the colonial period, the state (then an intendencia or province) was relatively isolated with few roads and other forms of communication. Most politics and social issues were strictly on the local level. Despite Spanish domination, the indigenous peoples of Oaxaca have to maintain much of their culture and identity, more so than most other places in Mexico. Part of this is due to the geography of the land, making many communities isolated.^[16]

Independence[link]

Benito Juarez

By 1810, the city of Oaxaca had 18,000 inhabitants, most of whom where mestizos or mixed indigenous/European. During the Mexican War of Independence the government of this area remained loyal to the Spanish Crown. When representatives of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla came to meet with them, they were hanged and their heads left out in view. Some early rebel groups emerged in the state, such as those led by Felipe Tinoco and Catarino Palacios, but they were also eventually executed. After 1812, insurgents began to have some success in the state, especially in the areas around Huajuapan de León, where Valerio Trujano defended the city against royalist forces until José María Morelos y Pavón was able to come in with support to keep the area in rebel hands. After that point, insurgents had greater success in various parts of the state, but the capital remained in royalist hands until the end of the war.^[14]

The state was initially a department after the war ended in 1821, but after the fall of emperor Agustín de Iturbide, it became a state in 1824 with Jose Maria Murguia named as its first governor.^[14]

During the 19th century, Oaxaca and the rest of Mexico was split between liberal (federalist) and conservative (centralist) factions. The political and military struggles between the factions resulted in wars and intrigues. Vicente Guerrero, a liberal, was executed by firing squad in Cuilapam in 1831. Liberal Manuel Gomez Pedraza became governor in 1832 but was opposed by General Estaban Moctezuma. He and commandant Luis Quintanar persecuted liberals in the state, including Benito Juárez. The constant warfare had a negative effect on the state’s economy and those in the Tehuantepec area supported a separatist movement which was partially successful in the 1850s.^[14]

Two Oaxacans, Benito Juarez and Porfirio Díaz were prominent players in the Reform War. It is difficult to overstate Juárez’s meaning to the state. He was born on March 21, 1806 in the village of San Pablo Guelatao and was full blooded Zapotec. He began his career studying to be a priest then a lawyer.^[15][20] In 1847, Juarez became governor of Oaxaca, but still faced stern opposition from conservatives such as Lope San Germán. With the success of the Plan de Ayutla, Juarez became governor again, and worked to remove privileges and properties from the Church and landed classes. The Constitution of 1857, was ratified in Oaxaca city, and Juarez left the governor’s position to become President of Mexico.^[14] He was president during one of Mexico’s most turbulent times, fighting invading French forces and conservatives. As a liberal, he imposed many of the reforms which remain today including those in education and separation of church and state. He is also considered to be a legend and a symbol for the indigenous population of the state.^[15]

Porfirio Díaz was Juárez’s ally through the French Intervention. French imperial forces took Oaxaca city, which was defended by Porfirio Diaz, landing the latter in prison. The capital was later recaptured by the liberals under Carlos Oronoz. However, soon after Juarez took back the presidency, Porfirio Diaz declared rebellion against him from Oaxaca in 1872 under the Plan de Tuxtepec. Juárez died in office.(bjarezgob) Diaz would succeed in obtaining the presidency and did not relinquish it until the Mexican Revolution.^[14]

Late 19th century to present[link]

Protesters in Oaxaca, 2006

During Diaz’s rule, called the Porfiriato, a number of modernization efforts were undertaken in the state such as public lighting, first with gas then with electricity, railroad lines, new agriculture techniques and the revitalization of commerce. However, most of the benefits of these advances went to national and international corporations and workers and indigenous farmers organized against the regime.^[14]

After the Mexican Revolution broke out, Diaz was soon ousted and the rest of the war was among the various factions that had power in different parts of the country. Various leaders such as Francisco I. Madero, Victoriano Huerta and Venustiano Carranza came to the state during this time. However; the most important force in the area was the Liberation Army of the South under Emiliano Zapata. This army would ally and fight against the previous leaders, especially Venustiano Carranza,^[14] and hold various portions of the state until 1920.^[15] At the end of the Revolution, a new state constitution was written and accepted in 1922.^[14]

Workers campaigning in the historic 2010 state government election.

A series of major disasters occurred in the state from the 1920s to the 1940s. In 1928, a serious of earthquakes destroyed many of the buildings in the capital. A much larger earthquake in 1931, was the largest in the state’s history, devastating a number of cities along the coast. The 1930s brought the Great Depression, which along with the disasters, prompted wide scale migration to Mexico City. In 1944, torrential rains caused massive flooding in the Tuxtepec region, causing hundreds of deaths.^[21]

In the 1940s and 1950s, new infrastructure projects were begun. These included the Izúcar-Tehuantepec section of the Panamerican Highway and the construction of the Miguel Alemán Dam.^[21] From the 1980s to the present, there has been much development of the tourism industry in the state. This tourism, as well as the population growth of the capital, prompted the construction of the Oaxaca-Mexico City highway in 1994.^[22] Development of tourism has been strongest in the Central Valleys area surrounding the capital, with secondary developments in Huatulco and other locations along the coast. This development was threatened by the violence associated with the 2006 uprising, which severely curtailed the number of incoming tourists for several years.^[23] On February 12, 2008, a 6.4 magnitude earthquake was recorded in Oaxaca.^[24]

From the Mexican Revolution until the 2000s, the ruling PRI party held control of almost all of Oaxacan politics from the local to the state level.^[25] Challenges to the rule were sporadic and included the student movements of the 1970s, which did bring down the state government.^[26] Teachers’ strikes had been frequent since then, culminating in the 2006 uprising in Oaxaca city, which brought in groups protesting the heavy marginalization of the poor.^[23] The PRI lost its 80-year hold on the state government in 2010 with the election of the PAN gubernatorial candidate Gabino Cué Monteagudo. This has led to speculation of major changes for the state.^[25]

Geography[link]

Map of Oaxaca

The state is located in the south of Mexico, bordered by the states of Puebla, Veracruz, Chiapas and Guerrero with the Pacific Ocean to the south. It has a territory of 93,967 km² (36,281 sq mi), accounting for less than 5% of Mexico’s territory.^[27][28] Here several mountain chains come together,^[15] with the elevation varying from sea level to 3,759 m (12,333 ft) asl,^[28] averaging at 1,500 m (4,921 ft) asl.^[15] Oaxaca has one of the most rugged terrains in Mexico, with mountain ranges that abruptly fall into the sea. Between these mountains are mostly narrow valleys, canyons and ravines. Major elevations in the state include Cempoaltepetl (3,396 m/11,142 ft asl), El Espinazo del Diablo, Nindú Naxinda Yucunino and Cerro Encantado.^[28] Oaxaca’s has 533 km (331 mi) of coastline with nine major bays.^[12]