Statelessness is a legal concept describing the lack of any nationality. It is the absence of a recognized link between an individual and any state.
A de jure stateless person is someone who is "not considered as a national by any state under the operation of its law".[1]
A de facto stateless person is someone who is outside the country of his or her nationality and is unable or, for valid reasons, unwilling to avail him- or herself of the protection of that country.[2] This can be a result of persecution, in which case there is an overlap with the definition of a refugee, but it can also be a consequence of lack of diplomatic relations between the state of nationality and the state of residence.
Some de jure stateless persons are also refugees although not all refugees are de jure stateless, and not all de jure stateless persons are refugees. Many stateless persons have never crossed an international border.
A stateless person is someone who is "not considered as a national by any state under the operation of its law".[3] In other words, a stateless person has no citizenship or nationality. As a matter of international law, citizenship and nationality are congruous, although there may be differences between the two concepts in domestic law.
The causes of statelessness around the world are numerous.[4] In most cases, there is an underlying issue of discrimination – usually on the basis of race or ethnicity, religion, or sex. In many cases, statelessness affects entire minority populations that have never been recognized as nationals of the state where they are habitually resident. Statelessness caused in part or whole by ethnic discrimination is often handed down from one generation to the next.
Conflict of nationality laws can be another cause of statelessness. Nationality is usually acquired through one of two modes: jus soli or jus sanguinis. Jus soli denotes a regime by which nationality is acquired through birth on the territory of the state. This is common in the Americas. Jus sanguinis on the other hand is a regime by which nationality is acquired from birth through descent – usually through a parent who is a national. Today, many states apply a combination of the two systems.
Although many states allow for acquisition of nationality through parental descent irrespective of where the child is born, many still do not allow their female citizens to confer nationality to their children.[5] This may result in statelessness where the father is stateless, unknown, or otherwise unable to confer nationality. There have however been recent changes in favor of gender neutrality in nationality laws in some parts of the world. Moreover, the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women[6] prohibits sex discrimination in conferral of nationality.
An important measure to avoid statelessness at birth is to provide nationality to children born on the territory who would otherwise be stateless. This norm is stipulated in the 1961 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness.[7] It also appears in several regional human rights treaties, including the American Convention on Human Rights, the European Convention on Nationality, and the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child. This norm is implicit in the Convention on the Rights of the Child.[8]
In some cases, statelessness is a consequence of state succession.[9] Recent history has shown[according to whom?] that some people have become stateless when their state of nationality ceased to exist, or when the territory on which they live came under the control of another state. This was the case when the Soviet Union disintegrated, and also in the cases of Yugoslavia and Ethiopia.[citation needed]
In rare cases, individuals may become stateless when renouncing their citizenship (e.g. "World Citizen" Garry Davis). People who subscribe to voluntaryist or agorist beliefs may desire or seek statelessness. However, many states do not allow citizens to renounce their nationality unless they acquire another one. However, consular officials are unlikely to be familiar with all citizenship laws of all countries, so there may still be situations where renunciation leads to statelessness.
A final cause of statelessness are non-state territories. As per the definition of a stateless person, only states can have nationals. As a result, people who are “citizens” of non-state territories are stateless. This includes, for instance, occupied territories where statehood has ceased to exist or never emerged in the first place. The Palestinian Territories is one example, but also Western Sahara, Northern Cyprus may be considered as such, depending on the interpretation of statehood and sovereignty.
While statelessness has existed for several centuries, the international community has only been concerned with its eradication since the mid-1900s. In 1954 the United Nations adopted the Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons, which provides a framework for protection of stateless persons. Seven years later, the 1961 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness was adopted, which contains provisions to prevent and reduce statelessness.
In addition, a range of regional and international human rights treaties guarantee a right to nationality, with special protections for certain groups including stateless persons. For examples, states bound by the 1989 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child are obligated to ensure that every child acquires a nationality.[10] The Convention requires states to implement this provision in particular where the child would otherwise be stateless, and in a manner that is in the best interests of the child. It is always in the best interests of the child to have a nationality.[citation needed]
Not holding proof of nationality – or being “undocumented” – is not the same as being stateless. However, lack of key identity documents such as a birth certificate can lead to a risk of statelessness. Many millions of people live their entire lives without documents, without their nationality ever being questioned. Two factors are of particular importance: a. is the nationality in question acquired automatically or through some form of registration; and, b. has the person ever been denied documents on the basis that he or she is not a national. If nationality is acquired automatically, then the person is a national regardless of documentation status (although in practice the person may face problems accessing certain rights and services – not because he or she is stateless but because he or she is undocumented). If registration is required then the person is not a national until that has been completed. As a practical matter, the longer a person is undocumented, the greater the likelihood that he or she will end up in a situation where no state recognizes him or her as a national.
As per the definition of a stateless person, whether someone is statelessness is ultimately a matter of the viewpoint of the state with respect to the individual or a group of people. In some cases the state makes its view clear and explicit. In other cases the viewpoint of the states is harder to discern. In those cases one may need to rely on prima facie evidence of the view of the state, which in turn may give rise to a presumption of statelessness.[11]
The status of slaves and inhabitants of conquered territories in the Greco-Roman world of antiquity is in some ways analogous to contemporary statelessness. In antiquity, "statelessness" could be seen to affect captive and subject populations denied full citizenship (see Roman Citizen) including those enslaved—for instance, conquered populations excluded from Roman citizenship such as the Gauls immediately following the Gallic Wars, or Israelites under Babylonian captivity.
Some characteristics of statelessness could be observed amongst apostates and slaves in Islamic society, the former being persons shunned for rejecting their religious birth identity, the latter being persons separated from that identity and subsumed into an underclass role.
Statelessness used to characterize the existence of Roma People whose traditional nomadic lifestyles meant that they traveled across lands claimed by others.
The Office international Nansen pour les réfugiés was an international organization of the League of Nations in charge of refugees from 1930 to 1939. It received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1938. Their Nansen passports, designed in 1922 by founder Fridtjof Nansen, were internationally recognized identity cards issued to stateless refugees. In 1942 they were honored by governments in 52 countries.
The United Nations (UN) was set up in 1945, right after the end of World War II. From the very start, the UN had to deal with the mass atrocities of the war, not least huge refugee populations across Europe.
To address the nationality and legal status issues of refugees in Europe, the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) of the UN requested the Secretary-General to carry out a study of statelessness in 1948. The ECOSOC appointed a Committee on Refugees and Stateless Persons to draft a convention that would address the problems faced by refugees and stateless persons, including their legal status. A treaty on refugees was prepared with a draft protocol addressing the status of stateless persons. However, as International Refugee Organization – the predecessor to the UN High Commissioner for refugees (UNHCR) – was in the process of being dissolved, the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees was adopted without inclusion of the Protocol addressing statelessness.
Three years prior to the 1951 Refugee Convention, the Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) was adopted. UDHR provides both for a right to asylum (article 14) and a right to nationality (article 15). The UDHR also expressly prohibited arbitrary deprivation of nationality, something which had affected many of the war-time refugees.
In 1949, the International Law Commission included the topic "Nationality, including statelessness" in its list of topics of international law provisionally selected for codification. At the behest of the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) in 1950, that item was given priority.
The Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees was done on 28 July 1951, later attracting the signatures of 145 state parties as of late January 2005.[12]
The International Law Commission at its fifth session in 1953 produced both a Draft Convention on the Elimination of Future Statelessness, and a Draft Convention on the Reduction of Future Statelessness. ECOSOC approved both drafts.
Following these developments in both human rights law and refugee law, the UN eventually adopted in 1954 the Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons.
The 1954 Statelessness Status Convention provided a definition of a stateless person (which has since become part of customary international law, according to the International Law Commission), and sets out a number of rights that stateless persons should enjoy. The Statelessness Status Convention thus became the basis for an international protection regime for stateless persons.
Seven years later – only one year after the 1954 Convention entered into force – the UN adopted another convention on statelessness, namely the 1961 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness.
The Statelessness Reduction Convention was adopted in 1961 and entered into force in 1975. It provides a number of standards regarding acquisition and loss of nationality (including automatic loss, renunciation, and deprivation of nationality). It also requests the UN to establish a mandate for the reduction of statelessness.
In 1974, the UN General Assembly (UNGA) requested UNHCR to undertake the functions foreseen under the Statelessness Reduction Convention.
On 13 December 1975, the 1961 Convention entered into force. To date, the number of states parties is relatively low. As of June 2011, only 38 states had ratified the Convention (compared to 66 states parties to the 1954 Statelessness Status Convention).
Starting in 1994, the UNHCR Executive Committee (ExCom) and the UNGA requested UNHCR to broaden its activities concerning statelessness to include all states.[13][14] In 1996 UNHCR was asked by the UNGA to actively promote accessions to the 1954 and the 1961 conventions, as well as to provide relevant technical and advisory services pertaining to the preparation and implementation of nationality legislation to interested states.
An internal evaluation released in 2001[15] suggested that UNHCR had done little to exercise its mandate on statelessness. Only two individuals were tasked with overseeing work in that area at UNHCR headquarters, though some field officers had been trained to address the issue. The evaluation also noted that there was no dedicated budget line. Concerned organisations such as the Open Society Justice Initiative and Refugees International have advocated for more human and financial resources to be dedicated to statelessness within UNHCR.
In 2004, ExCom invited UNHCR to pay particular attention to situations of protracted statelessness and explore with states measures that would ameliorate the situations and bring them to an end.
In 2006, ExCom provided UNHCR with more specific guidance on how to implement its mandate on statelessness. The Conclusion on the Identification, Prevention and Reduction of Statelessness and the Protection of Stateless Persons[14] requires UNHCR to work with governments, other UN agencies, and civil society to address this problem. UNHCR’s activities are currently categorized as identification, prevention, reduction, and protection.
UNHCR has achieved some success in launching campaigns to prevent and reduce statelessness among formerly deported peoples in Crimea, Ukraine (Armenians, Crimean Tatars, Germans, and Greeks who were deported en masse at the close of World War II). Another success has been the naturalization of Tajik refugees in Kyrgyzstan, as well as the participation in citizenship campaigns enabling 300,000 Estate Tamils to acquire citizenship of Sri Lanka. UNHCR also assisted the Czech Republic to overcome the large number of stateless persons created when it separated from Slovakia.
At the beginning of 2006 the UNHCR claimed to have 'on its books' 2.4 million stateless persons, and made an estimate of 11 million as the size of the stateless population worldwide. In 2011, the estimation increased to 12 million.[16] UNHCR figures do not include stateless refugees and stateless Palestinians under UNRWA's mandate.
While the two conventions on statelessness constitute the primary international framework for protection of stateless persons and reduction of statelessness, there are also regional instruments of great importance. The 1997 European Convention on Nationality, for example, has contributed to protecting the rights of stateless persons, and provides standards for reduction of statelessness in the Council of Europe region. That document underlines the need of every person to have a nationality, and seeks to clarify the rights and responsibilities of states in ensuring individual access to a nationality.
Statelessness of some magnitude exists in every country of the world. Today, some of the largest populations of stateless persons are found in Algeria, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, Côte d'Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Estonia, Iraq, India, Kenya, Kuwait, Latvia, Lebanon, Malaysia, Mauritania, Myanmar, Nepal, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Thailand.
Palestinians arguably comprise the largest stateless population in the world. Abbas Shiblak estimates that over half of the Palestinian people in the world are stateless.[17]
There is a large number of stateless permanent residents in Brunei. Most of these residents have lived on Brunei soil for generations, but Brunei nationality is determined by applying the policy of jus sanguinis; the right to hold the nationality is only by blood ties. However, the government of Brunei has made obtaining citizenship possible, albeit difficult, for stateless people who inhabited Brunei for many generations. The requirements to attain Brunei citizenship include passing rigorous tests in Malay culture, customs and language.
Stateless permanent residents of Brunei are given International Certificates of Identity, which allow them to travel overseas. The majority of Brunei's Chinese are permanent residents. A holder of an International Certificate of Identity can enter Germany and Hungary visa-free for a maximum of 90 days within a 180 day period. In the case of Germany, in theory, in order to benefit from the visa exemption, the ICI must be issued under the terms of the 1954 Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Persons and contain an authorisation to return to Brunei which has a sufficiently long period of validity. However, because Brunei is not a signatory to the 1954 Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Persons, holders of an ICI do not qualify for the visa exemption to Germany. Holders of an ICI can still benefit from the visa exemption to Hungary, since the Hungarian Government does not require the ICI to be issued under the terms of the 1954 Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Persons.
Brunei is a signatory to the 1959 Declaration of the Rights of the Child in which Principle 3 states:
"The child shall be entitled from his birth to a name and a nationality."
However, Brunei does not currently follow the guidelines of the said Convention. There is a recent announcement from the Sultan of Brunei regarding plans to expedite the process of citizenship process for Stateless/Permanent residence status in Brunei to sit for citizenship exams.[18].
Bill C-37 came into effect on 17 April 2009, which changed the rules for Canadian citizenship. Individuals can now become Canadian citizens by descent only if one of their parents was either a native-born citizen or a foreign-born but naturalized citizen of Canada. The new law limits citizenship by descent to one generation born outside Canada. All individuals born outside Canada but within one generation of the native-born or naturalized citizen parent are automatically recognized as Canadian citizens. The second generation born abroad, however, are not citizens of Canada at birth. Such an individual might even be stateless if he or she has no claim to any other citizenship.
Since the passage of Bill C-37, this situation has already occurred at least twice. In one situation, Rachel Chandler was born in China to a father who is a Canadian citizen born in Libya and a mother who is a Chinese citizen. Due to the nationality laws of Canada and China, she was not eligible for citizenship of either country and was born stateless.[19] Rachel Chandler now holds Irish citizenship. This was possible because her paternal grandfather was Irish-born.[20] Another situation occurred to Chloé Goldring who was born in Belgium to a Canadian father born in Bermuda and an Algerian mother. Due to the nationality laws of Belgium, Canada and Algeria, she was not eligible for citizenship of any of those countries and was born stateless.[21] Chloé Goldring is now a Canadian citizen.[22]
Under Bill C-37, the term "native-born" is construed strictly—children born outside of Canada to Canadian government employees working there, including diplomats and Canadian Forces personnel, are considered to be foreign-born.[20] Ironically, the bill was intended to resolve the status of so-called "Lost Canadians"—people who considered themselves Canadians, with undeniable connections to the country, but had either lost or never been granted citizenship due to the vagaries of the country's previous nationality law.[23]
New immigrants from Mainland China to Hong Kong with one-way permits lose their hukou in Mainland China. Without any hukou, they have no access to apply for the People's Republic of China passport. Meanwhile, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region passports are issued only to permanent residents of Hong Kong, a status requiring seven years of ordinary residence in the territory. These new immigrants, although technically still citizens of the PRC, are effectively stateless as far as international travel is concerned. They can travel only with the Documents of Identity (DIs) issued by Hong Kong's Immigration Department
Cases of statelessness have arisen due to different classes in British nationality law which led to situations where people were considered British subjects but not nationals, or where people held a British passport without right of abode in the United Kingdom. People who have no other citizenship in any other country, and simultaneously lacked a right to reside in the United Kingdom are possibly stateless[citation needed]. Examples of this include so-called British Protected Persons, who are not considered British nationals. People in Hong Kong who did not acquire nationality in the People's Republic of China after the turnover in 1997 acquired British National (Overseas) status, which is less than full citizenship but probably does not amount to statelessness. British nationals (irrespective of the class of nationality) who reside abroad but do not enjoy protection by the British government are de facto stateless.
Many situations where people were at risk of statelessness due to the different classes of British nationality were resolved after 30 April 2003, when the Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 came into force. As a result of this Act, the United Kingdom gave most British subjects without any other citizenship the right to register as full British citizens. However, cases still exist where people have not been able or willing to register as citizens.
Bedoun means "without" in Arabic, indicating that this group, between 90,000 and 180,000, has no nationality. Not considered as nationals by Kuwait or any other state, bedoun are stateless. While Kuwaiti nationals enjoy a large number benefits and subsidies, stateless people in this small but very wealthy country live in slum-like settlements on the outskirts of its cities, where they suffer numerous human rights violations.
Many of them failed to acquire nationality at independence. Some did not qualify under the law: they were not able to show residential ties to Kuwait prior to 1920. Others, more commonly, did not quite appreciate the importance of having a nationality and failed to register as citizens.
In the mid-1980s, the situation for bedoun began to deteriorate rapidly. The Nationality Act was amended several times between 1960 and 1985, making access to nationality increasingly difficult. For the first time, in 1986, the government began to apply the Alien Residence Act to bedoun, effectively stripping them of most of the rights they had enjoyed since independence and reclassifying them as "illegal residents." Basic rights such as issuance of key documents, including birth, marriage and death certificates, were denied, which in turn had a whole range of negative consequences. Pilgrimage to Mecca, the Hajj, also became difficult for bedoun. Most were allowed to leave Kuwait only if they agreed not to return. To this day, religious travel still poses a major problem to many bedoun, and bribes are becoming lucrative opportunities for border officials and travel companies.
By the time of the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on August 2, 1990, bedoun in Kuwait were increasingly living in poverty. They had been dismissed from their jobs in large numbers, their children were no longer allowed to attend public schools, and health care had become more or less inaccessible.
After Kuwait was liberated, the bedoun still employed in the public sector were dismissed retroactively from the date of the invasion. The number of deportation orders also increased significantly, but many were not carried out since there was no country to which the bedoun could be deported. Most deportation orders were "administrative orders" so no access to judicial review was available.
In 2000, Act 22, an amendment to the Nationality Act, theoretically provided a greater opportunity for bedoun to naturalize, but the conditions were so strict that few qualified. Also, an annual cap on naturalizations was introduced even if Kuwait has, rarely if ever, used the full quota.
In 2003, allegedly some 5,500 bedoun were permitted to apply for nationality and a smaller number, some 1,600, were naturalized. Then, the process stagnated and did not turn into the kind of reform many had hoped for. A few years later, in 2006, the National Assembly created a committee to deal with the bidoon issue, but for the most part it was ineffective. Another government body was set up in 2011 to deal with the issue, but it too has so far only achieved limited progress.
In 2011, the first bedoun demonstrations for nationality rights took place on February 18. Afraid of the protest spiraling out of control the government quickly promised some reforms, including access to a few basic rights for bedoun. On March 11, 2011, bedoun took to the streets again. The government responded with force, advancing with armored vehicles and riot police, employing tear gas and flares to break up crowds. It was reported that 140 bedoun were detained without charge.[24]
Even though Palestinians living in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip were issued a Palestinian passport according to the Oslo Accords, many countries (such as Germany) still do not recognize their citizenship.
As a matter of international law, only states can have nationals and the nationality status of many Palestinians therefore depends on whether or not Palestine is a state: some countries recognize Palestinian statehood, but others do not.
Palestinians residing in East Jerusalem have automatic permanent resident status in Israel and may apply for citizenship. In 1967, Israel offered to make citizenship automatic, but the offer was rejected by Arab leaders. Between 1967 and 2007 only 12,000 of these 250,000 Palestinians applied for Israeli citizenship.[25][26] Those who do not are therefore generally stateless.
Main article:
Juan Mari BrásIn 1994, Juan Mari Brás, a Puerto Rican lawyer and political historian, renounced his US citizenship before a consular agent in the US Embassy of Venezuela. In December 1995, his denaturalization was confirmed by the US Department of State: Mari Bras was no longer a US citizen. That same month, he requested that the Puerto Rican State Department furnish him with proof of his Puerto Rican citizenship. The request involved more than just a bureaucratic formality, therefore testing the self-determination of Puerto Rico by becoming the first Puerto Rican citizen that was not also an American citizen.[27]
Mari Brás claimed that as a Puerto Rican national born and raised in Puerto Rico, he was clearly a Puerto Rican citizen and therefore had every right to continue to reside, work and, most importantly, vote in Puerto Rico. The State Department responded promptly, claiming that Puerto Rican citizenship does not exist independent of American citizenship, and in 1998 rescinded their recognition of his renunciation of citizenship. The State Department's response to Mari Brás stated that Puerto Rican citizenship currently exists only as an equivalent to residency: Puerto Rican citizens are US citizens who reside in Puerto Rico. The Secretary of State[clarification needed] agreed, claiming that after a year of residence on the island, any US citizen can gain Puerto Rican citizenship. On October 25, 2006, he became the first person to receive a Puerto Rican citizenship certificate from the Puerto Rico State Department.[clarification needed]
In March 2012, the International Stateless Persons Organisation (ISPO)[28], an International non-governmental organization (INGO) was founded by HH Prince Dr. Fernando Macolor Cruz, tribal prince and instructor of History and Political Science at the Palawan State University in the Philippines. It aims to provide institutional representation to stateless persons throughout the world through a network of volunteer human rights law practitioners who act as Country Representatives.
- ^ "Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons, article 1(1)". http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/415c3cfb4.html.
- ^ "The Concept of Stateless Persons under International La". UNHCR. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4ca1ae002.html.
- ^ "Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons". http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/415c3cfb4.html.
- ^ "Statelessness". Forced Migration Review. Refugee Studies Centre. http://www.fmreview.org/statelessness.htm.
- ^ "Remarks on Statelessness and Gender Discrimination". US Department of State. http://www.state.gov/g/176132.htm.
- ^ "Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)". http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/cedaw.htm.
- ^ "Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness". http://untreaty.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/conventions/6_1_1961.pdf.
- ^ "Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)". http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/crc.htm.
- ^ "International Observatory on Statelessness". http://www.nationalityforall.org/state-succession.
- ^ "Children's right to nationality". http://nationality.tumblr.com/post/9918828700/childrens-right-to-nationality.
- ^ "De Jure Statelessness in the Real World: Applying the Prato Summary Conclusions". Open Society Foundations. http://www.soros.org/initiatives/justice/articles_publications/publications/prato-20110302.
- ^ UNHCR in the UK - News and press[dead link]
- ^ "How UNHCR helps the stateless". http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49c3646c16a.html.
- ^ a b "Executive Committee Conclusions". http://www.unhcr.org/41b4607c4.pdf.
- ^ "Evaluation of UNHCR’s role and activities in relation to statelessness". http://www.unhcr.org/3b67d0fa7.pdf.
- ^ "Searching for citizenship". http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49c3646c155.html.
- ^ Shiblak, Abbas (2010). "Passports for what price? Statelessness among Palestinian refugees". In Knudsen, Are J.; Ḥanafī, Sārī. Palestinian refugees: identity, space and place in the Levant. Taylor & Francis. p. 113. ISBN 0-415-58046-3.
- ^ http://www.bt.com.bn/news-national/2011/01/26/citizenship-news-lifts-spirits-stateless-prs
- ^ "Citizenship Act creates a 'stateless' child". The Vancouver Sun. September 25, 2009. http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/editorial/story.html?id=c3a5560d-5170-4d4a-a318-a8675e759171. Retrieved March 13, 2012.
- ^ a b Branham, Daphne (October 9, 2010). "Rachel Chandler's status highlights a policy that could see thousands of stateless children born abroad to Canadians". The Vancouver Sun. LostCanadians.org. http://www.lostcanadians.org/forum/topics/ireland-saves-canadians. Retrieved March 13, 2012.
- ^ http://ccrweb.ca/en/canadas-stateless-children
- ^ CBC News. http://www.cbc.ca/thecurrent/episode/2010/12/30/letters-being-single-god-sex-and-medical-marijuana/.
- ^ Keung, Nicholas (July 6, 2009). "Report warns of 'stateless' babies". Toronto Star. http://www.thestar.com/article/661332. Retrieved March 13, 2012.
- ^ "Without Citizenship: Statelessness, discrimination and repression in Kuwait". http://www.soros.org/initiatives/justice/articles_publications/publications/without-citizenship-20110509.
- ^ http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3468672,00.html
- ^ http://www.haaretz.com/news/israel-reports-jump-in-jerusalem-arabs-seeking-israeli-citizenship-1.232665
- ^ "World's Only Puerto Rican". Digitas.harvard.edu. http://www.digitas.harvard.edu/~perspy/old/issues/1997/jan/first.html. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
- ^ http://ispo.bravesites.com/about
- Bronwen Manby, Struggles for Citizenship in Africa, 2009
- Laura Bingham, Julia Harrington-Reddy and Sebastian Kohn, De Jure Statelessness in the Real World: Applying the Prato Summary Conclusions, 2011
- Jay Milbrandt, Stateless, 2011
- Open Society Foundations and Refugees International, Without Citizenship: Statelessness, Discrimination, and Repression in Kuwait, 2011
- Nationality and Statelessness: a handbook for parliamentarians High Commissioner for Refugees, Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2005
- Stateless Palestinans
- Report describing US contributions to the resettlement of stateless populations in 2007
- Statelessness and the Benefits of Citizenship: A Comparative Study By Brad K. Blitz and Maureen Lynch http://www.udhr60.ch/report/statelessness_paper0609.pdf
- Somers, Margaret. 2008. Genealogies of Citizenship: Markets, Statelessness, and the Right to Have Rights. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-79394-0
- Unravelling Anomaly. Detenation, Discrimination and the Protection Needs of the Stateless Persons London: Equal Rights Trust, 2010. ISBN 978-0-9560717-3-6
- Stateless: The World's Most Invisible People Reuters AlertNet, 2011
- International law: treaties and case law
- Intergovernmental organizations:
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