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- Acharya
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Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh /ˌɑːndrə prəˈdɛʃ/ is one of the 28 states of India, situated on the country's southeastern coast. It is India's fourth largest state by area and fifth largest by population. Its capital and largest city is Hyderabad. Andhra Pradesh lies between 12°41' and 22°N latitude and 77° and 84°40'E longitude, and is bordered by Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh and Orissa in the north, the Bay of Bengal in the east, Tamil Nadu to the south and Karnataka to the west.
Andhra Pradesh has the second-longest coastline of 972 km (604 mi) among the states of India. Two major rivers, the Godavari and the Krishna, run across the state. The small enclave (30 square kilometres (12 sq mi)) of Yanam, a district of Pondicherry, lies in the Godavari delta in the northeast of the state. The state is separated into three regions: Telangana, Andhra, and Rayalaseema.
The primary official language of Andhra Pradesh is Telugu and the co-official language is Urdu. Other languages often spoken in the state include Hindi, Marathi, Tamil, Kannada, and Oriya.
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Badrinath
Badrinath is a Hindu/Jain holy town and a nagar panchayat in Chamoli district in the state of Uttarakhand, India. It is the most important of the four sites in India's Char Dham pilgrimage. The town gets its name from the Holy temple of Badrinath. The deity of Badrinath worshiped as an avatar of Vishnu by Hindus is regarded as "Adinath / Rishabdev" [1st Trithankar] by Jains. This indicates best unity between Jains and Hindus.
Badrinath is located at 30°44′N 79°29′E / 30.73°N 79.48°E / 30.73; 79.48. It has an average elevation of 3,415 metres (11,204 feet). It is in the Garhwal hills, on the banks of the Alaknanda River. The town lies between the Nar and Narayana mountain ranges and in the shadow of Nilkantha peak (6,560m). Badrinath is located 301 km north of Rishikesh. From Gaurikund (near Kedarnath) to Badrinath by road is 233 km.
Badrinath was re-established as a major pilgrimage site by Adi Shankara in the ninth century. In recent years its popularity has increased significantly, with an estimated 600,000 pilgrims visiting during the 2006 season, compared to 90,676 in 1961. The temple in Badrinath is also a sacred pilgrimage site for Vaishnavites.
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Dwarka
Dwarka (
) also spelled Dvarka, Dwaraka, and Dvaraka, is a city and a municipality of Jamnagar district in the Gujarat state in India. Dwarka (Dvaraka in Sanskrit - used in this article when referring to the city in a historical context), also known as Dwarawati in Sanskrit literature is rated as one of the seven most ancient cities in the country. The legendary city of Dvaraka was the dwelling place of Lord Krishna. It is believed that due to damage and destruction by the sea, Dvaraka has submerged six times and modern day Dwarka is therefore the seventh such city to be built in the area.[citation needed]
The modern city of Dwarka is located in the Jamnagar District of Gujarat. The city lies in the westernmost part of India.
Dwarka is located at the geographical coordinates of 22°14′N 68°58′E / 22.23°N 68.97°E / 22.23; 68.97. It is a relatively flat region at sea-level, having an average elevation of 0 metres (0 feet).
Moreover, Dwarka is one of seven most holy places for Hindus in India where Varanasi is considered as the holiest of the seven holy cities.
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Gujarat
Gujarat /ˌɡʊdʒəˈrɑːt/ (Gujarati: ગુજરાત Gujǎrāt [ɡudʒ(ə)ɾat] (
listen)) is a state in western India. It has an area of 75,686 sq mi (196,030 km2) with a coastline of 1,600 km, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula, and a population in excess of 60 million. The state is bordered by Rajasthan to the north, Maharashtra to the south, Madhya Pradesh to the east and the Arabian Sea as well as the Pakistani province of Sindh on the west. Its capital is Gandhinagar, while its largest city is Ahmedabad. Gujarat is home to the Gujarati-speaking people of India.
The state encompasses major sites of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, such as Lothal and Dholavira. Lothal is believed to be one of the world's first ports. Gujarat's coastal cities, chiefly Bharuch and Khambhat, served as ports and trading centers in the Maurya and Gupta empires. Mahatma Gandhi, India's "father of the nation", who led the Indian Independence Movement against the British colonial rule was a Gujarati.Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, independent India's first Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister was also from Gujarat.
wn.com/Gujarat -
India
India (
i/ˈɪndiə/), officially the Republic of India (Bhārat Gaṇarājya), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the south-west, and the Bay of Bengal on the south-east, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west;China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Burma and Bangladesh to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; in addition, India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia.
Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history. Four of the world's major religions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism—originated here, whereas Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived in the 1st millennium CE and also helped shape the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by and brought under the administration of the British East India Company from the early 18th century and administered directly by the United Kingdom from the mid-19th century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by non-violent resistance led by Mahatma Gandhi.
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Jyotirmath
Jyotirmath (Hindi: ज्योतिर मठ), also called Jyotir Math and Joshimath (जोशी मठ), is a city and a municipal board in Chamoli District in the Indian state of Uttarakhand. It is home to one of the four cardinal pīthas established by Adi Shankara.
As of 2001[update] India census, Joshimath had a population of 13,202. Males constitute 61% of the population and females 39%. Joshimath has an average literacy rate of 77%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 83%, and female literacy is 67%. In Joshimath, 12% of the population is under 6 years of age.
Jyotirmath is the uttarāmnāya matha or northern monastery, one of the four cardinal institutions established by Adi Shankara, the others being those at Shringeri, Puri and Dwaraka. Their heads are titled "Shankaracharya". According to the tradition initiated by Adi Shankara, this matha is in charge of the Atharvaveda.
Jyotirmath, which is close to the pilgrimage town of Badrinath, has not always been an active matha. It is sometimes said incorrectly that the original northern matha was established at Badrinath. This place can be a base station for travellers going to Guru Gobind Ghat or the Valley of Flowers National Park.
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Kalady
Kalady (Tamil:காலடி), (Malayalam: കാലടി) is a village located east of the Periyar river, in the Ernakulam district of Kerala, India. Notably, it is the birthplace of Sri Adi Shankara, and thus is a popular destination for pilgrims. Kalady started featuring in the spiritual map of India only after its rediscovery in the late 19th century by the then Shankaracharya of Sringeri and the subsequent consecration of a temple for Sri Adi Shankara in 1910. The Centenary of Kalady was celebrated in May 2010 and the story of Kalady has been documented in digital media.
In the local language, Malayalam, Kalady means "footprint." The village was previously called Sasalam.
Legend holds that one day, the widowed mother of Little Sankara, Aryamba, fainted after walking three kilometers for her daily bath in the Periyar then known as Purna river. Feeling helpless, Little Sankara prayed to Lord Krishna. The tears of the child moved Krishna, who blessed him thus: "the river will flow where your little feet marks (കാലടി വരയുന്നിട്ത്തു നദി ഗതി ആവും). The Purna river took its new course in the place marked by the little boy's feet. That place came to be called Kalady.
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Karnataka
Karnataka /kɑrˈnɑːtəkə/ is a state in South West India. It was created on 1 November 1956, with the passing of the States Reorganisation Act and this day is annually celebrated as Karnataka Rajyotsava (Formation Day). Originally known as the State of Mysore /maɪˈsɔər/, it was renamed Karnataka in 1973. It is the land of the Kannadigas, Tuluvas, Konkanis and Kodavas. The capital and largest city is Bangalore.
Karnataka is bordered by the Arabian Sea to the west, Goa to the northwest, Maharashtra to the north, Andhra Pradesh to the east, Tamil Nadu to the southeast, and Kerala to the southwest. The state covers an area of 191,976 square kilometres (74,122 sq mi), or 5.83% of the total geographical area of India. It is the eighth largest Indian state by area. With over 61 million inhabitants (2011), Karnataka is the ninth largest state by population, comprising 30 districts. Kannada is the most widely spoken and official language of the state.
The two main river systems of the state are Krishna and its tributaries (Bhima, Ghataprabha, Vedavati, Malaprabha, and Tungabhadra) in the north, and the Cauvery and its tributaries (Hemavati, Shimsha, Arkavathi, Lakshmana Thirtha and Kabini) in the south. Both these rivers flow eastward and fall into the Bay of Bengal.
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Kashmir
Kashmir (Balti, Gojri, Poonchi/Chibhali, Dogri: कश्मीर; Kashmiri: कॅशीर, کٔشِیر; Ladakhi: ཀཤམིར; Uyghur: كەشمىر; Shina: کشمیر) is the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term Kashmir geographically denoted only the valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal mountain range. Today Kashmir denotes a larger area that includes the Indian-administered state of Jammu and Kashmir (the Kashmir valley, Jammu and Ladakh), the Pakistani-administered Gilgit–Baltistan and the Azad Kashmir provinces, and the Chinese-administered regions of Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract.
In the first half of the first millennium, the Kashmir region became an important center of Hinduism and later of Buddhism; later still, in the ninth century, Kashmir Shaivism arose. In 1349, Shah Mir became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir and inaugurated the Salatin-i-Kashmir or Swati dynasty. For the next five centuries, Muslim monarchs ruled Kashmir, including the Mughals, who ruled from 1526 until 1751, then the Afghan Durrani Empire that ruled from 1747 until 1820. That year, the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir. In 1846, upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar, the Dogras—under Gulab Singh—became the new rulers. Dogra Rule, under the paramountcy (or tutelage) of the British Crown, lasted until 1947, when the former princely state became a disputed territory, now administered by three countries: India, Pakistan, and the People's Republic of China.
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Kedarnath
Kedarnath (Hindi: केदारनाथ) is a Hindu holy town located in the Indian state of Uttarakhand. It is a nagar panchayat in Rudraprayag district. The most remote of the four Char Dham sites, Kedarnath is located in the Himalayas, about 3584m above sea level near the head of river Mandakini, and is flanked by breathtaking snow-capped peaks. Kedarnath hosts one of the holiest Hindu temples, the Kedarnath Temple, and is a popular destination for Hindu pilgrims from all over the world, being one of the four major sites in India's Chota Char Dham pilgrimage.
Kedarnath is named in honor of King Kedar who ruled in the Satya Yuga. He had a daughter named Vrinda who was a partial incarnation of Goddess Lakshmi. She performed austerities for 60000 years. In honour of her, the land is named Vrindavan. However, Kedarnath and its temple exist from the Mahabharata Era when the Pandavas are supposed to have pleased Lord Shiva by doing penance there.
There are 2 ways to reach Kedarnath: 1) By foot for a steep 14 km trek through a paved path (horses or palanquins are available for rent) from Gaurikund, which is connected by road from Rishikesh, Haridwar, Dehradun and other known hill stations of Garhwal and Kumaon regions in Uttarakhand 2) Through helicopter service.
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Kedarnath Temple
Kedarnath Mandir (Tamil: திருக்கேதாரம், Thiruk Kedaram,Hindi: केदारनाथ मंदिर, Kēdārnāth Maṃdir ) is one of the holiest Hindu temples dedicated to Lord Shiva and is located atop the Garhwal Himalayan range near the Mandakini river in Kedarnath, Uttarakhand in India. Due to extreme weather conditions, the temple is open only between the end of April to Kartik Purnima (the autumn full moon). During the winters, the murtis (idols) from Kedarnath temple are brought to Ukhimath and worshipped there for six months. In this region Lord Shiva is worshipped as Kedarnath, the 'Lord of Kedar Khand', the historical name of the region. This temple is a Paadal Petra Sthalam (the 275 Holy Abodes of Shiva on the continent), praised by the Tamil Nayanars saints in the 6th-9th century CE.
The temple is not directly accessible by road and has to be reached by a 14 km uphill trek from Gaurikund . The temple is believed to have been built by Adi Sankaracharya and is one of the twelve Jyotirlingas, the holiest Hindu shrines of Shiva. The older temple existed from the times of Mahabharata, when the Pandavas are supposed to have pleased Shiva by doing penance in Kedarnath. The temple is also one of the four major sites in India's Chota Char Dham pilgrimage of Northern Himalayas.
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Kerala
Kerala or Keralam /ˈkɛrələ/ is an Indian state located on the Malabar coast of south-west India. It was formed on 1 November 1956 by the States Reorganisation Act by combining various Malayalam speaking regions.
The state has an area of 38,863 km2 (15,005 sq mi) and is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Arabian Sea on the west. Thiruvananthapuram is the state capital. Kochi and Kozhikode are other major cities. According to a survey by The Economic Times, five out of ten best cities to live in India are located in Kerala.
Kerala has the highest Human Development Index in India, higher than that of most developed countries The state has the highest literacy rate in India with 93.91 percent. It hopes to be the first e-literate state in India through the state run Akshaya project. The state recently became and is currently the only one to have banking facilities in every village. A survey conducted in 2005 by Transparency International ranked Kerala as the least corrupt state in the country. Kerala is also ranked as India's cleanest state. Kerala has witnessed significant migration of its people, especially to the Persian Gulf countries during the Kerala Gulf boom and is heavily dependent on remittances from its large Malayali expatriate community.
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Kollur
Kolluru is a tiny hamlet situated about 37 kilometres (23 mi) from Kundapur Town, about 133 kilometres (83 mi) away from Mangalore City in Karnataka state in the southern part of India. This village lies at the foot of the Western Ghats and is famous for the Mookambika temple, a Hindu pilgrim center.
Kollur also called Kollapura, about 42 km north-east of Kundapur town and one of the important places of pilgrimage in Karnataka State has a temple dedicated to Mookambika.
The goddess is called Mookambika as she is said to have slain the demon Mookasura. The goddess is described as in the form of a jyotirlinga incorporating both Shiva and Shakti. The panchaloha image of the goddess on Shri Chakra is stated to have been consecrated by Shri Adi Shankaracharya. The Divine Mother is said to be a manifestation of trigunas or triple forms. The shikhara of the temple which is well gilded with gold is said to have been donated by Sankanna Savantha. Around the chief shrine of Mookambika, there are many other shrines.
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Maharashtra
Maharashtra /mɑːhəˈrɑːʃtrə/ (Marathi: महाराष्ट् mahārāṣṭra [məharaːʂʈrə] ( listen)) is a state located in India. It is the second most populous after Uttar Pradesh and third largest state by area in India. Maharashtra is the richest state in India, contributing 15% of the country's industrial output and 13.3% of its GDP (2006–2007 figures).
Maharashtra is bordered by the Arabian Sea to the west, Gujarat and the Union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli to the northwest, Madhya Pradesh to the northeast, Chhattisgarh to the east, Karnataka to the south, Andhra Pradesh to the southeast, and Goa to the southwest. The state covers an area of 307,731 km2 (118,816 sq mi) or 9.84% of the total geographical area of India. Mumbai, the capital city of the state, is India's largest city and the financial capital of the nation. Nagpur is the second capital of the state. Marathi is the official language.
Maharashtra is the world's second most populous first-level administrative country sub-division. Were it a nation in its own right, Maharashtra would be the world's tenth most populous country ahead of Mexico.
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Mookambika
The Mookambika Devi Temple (Kannada: ಮೂಕಾಂಬಿಕಾ ದೇವಿ) of Kollur, dedicated to Mookambika Devi, is one of the most prominent shrines for people in the state of Karnataka and Kerala, India. Located at a distance of 147 km from Mangalore in the picturesque surroundings presented by the banks of the river Sauparnika and the lush green Kodachadri hill, the temple attracts millions of pilgrims every year. The temple holds immense relevance for the devotees as it is associated with revered Hindu saint and Vedic scholar Adi Shankara. It is believed that Adi Shankara perceived the idea of having a Mookambika Devi temple at Kollur and himself installed the idol of deity in the temple some 1200 years ago. People have high faith in Mookambika Devi Temple as Goddess Mookambika is regarded as a manifestation of Shakti, Saraswathi and Mahalakshmi. In fact the Temple of Mookambika Devi is one of the 'Seven Muktisthala' pilgrimage sites in Karnataka which are Kollur, Udupi, Subrahmanya, Kumbashi, Koteshwara, Shankaranarayana and Gokarna. [1]
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Omkareshwar
See Omkareshwar, East Nimar for town of the same name
Omkareshwar (Hindi: ओंकारेश्वर) is a Hindu temple dedicated to God Shiva. It is one of the 12 revered Jyotirlinga shrines of Shiva. It is on an island called Mandhata or Shivapuri in the Narmada river; the shape of the island is said to be like the Hindu ॐ symbol. There are two temples here, one to Omkareshwar (whose name means "Lord of Omkaara or the Lord of the Om Sound") and one to Amareshwar (whose name means "Immortal lord" or "lord of the Immortals or Devas"). But as per the sloka on dwadash jyotirligam, Mamleshwar is the jyotirling, which is on other side of Narmada river.
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Orissa
Orissa /ɔːˈrɪsə/ (Oriya: ଓଡ଼ିଶା [oˑɽisaˑ], Hindi: ओड़िशा – Oṛiśā), officially spelled Odisha, is a state of India, located on the east coast of India, by the Bay of Bengal. It is the modern name of the ancient nation of Kalinga, which was invaded by the Maurya Emperor Ashoka in 261 BCE. The modern state of Orissa was established on April 1, 1936, as a province in India, and consists predominantly of Oriya speakers. April 1st is therefore celebrated as Utkala Dibasa (formation day of Orissa). Cuttack remained the capital of the state for over eight centuries until April 13, 1948 when Bhubaneswar was officially declared as the new capital of Orissa, and is the present capital of this state.
Orissa is the ninth largest state by area in India, and the eleventh largest by population. Oriya (officially spelled Odia) is the official and most widely spoken language, spoken by three quarters of the population. Orissa has a relatively unindented coastline (about 480 km long) and lacked good ports, except for the deepwater facility at Paradip, until the recent launch of the Dhamara Port (The Dhamra Port Company Limited (DPCL) is a 50:50 joint venture of L&T and Tata Steel. DPCL has been awarded a concession by Government of Orissa to build and operate a port north of the mouth of river Dhamra in Bhadrak district). The narrow, level coastal strip, including the Mahanadi River delta supports the bulk of the population. The interior of the state is mountainous and sparsely populated.Deomali at 1672 m is the highest point of the state. Orissa is subject to intense cyclones. The most intense one, in October 1999, Tropical Cyclone 05B caused severe damage and nearly 15,000 deaths.
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Pakistan
Pakistan (
i/ˈpækɨstæn/ or i/pɑːkiˈstɑːn/; Urdu: پاکستان) (Urdu pronunciation: [paːkɪˈst̪aːn] (
listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (Urdu: اسلامی جمہوریۂ پاکستان), is a sovereign country in South Asia. It sits at the crossroads of the strategically important regions of South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East. It has a 1,046-kilometre (650 mi) coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by India to the east, Afghanistan to the west and north, Iran to the southwest and China in the far northeast. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistan's narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, and it shares a marine border with Oman.
The territory of modern Pakistan was the site of several ancient cultures, including the Neolithic Mehrgarh and the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation, and has undergone invasions or settlements by Hindu, Persian, Indo-Greek, Islamic, Turco-Mongol, Afghan and Sikh cultures. Thus the area has been ruled by numerous empires and dynasties, including the Indian Mauryan Empire, the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the Arab Umayyad Caliphate, the Mongol Empire, the Mughal Empire, the Durrani Empire, the Sikh Empire and the British Empire. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and India's struggle for independence, Pakistan was created in 1947 as an independent nation for Muslims from the regions in the east and west of India where there was a Muslim majority. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a new constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic. A civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh.
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POK
Azad Jammu and Kashmir (Urdu: آزاد جموں و کشمیر, Azaad Jammu o- Kashmir, literally Free Jammu and Kashmir ; AJK) or Azad Kashmir (literally Free Kashmir) for short, is the southernmost political entity within the Pakistani-administered part of the former princely state of Kashmir and Jammu. It borders the present-day Indian-controlled state of Jammu and Kashmir to the east (separated from it by the Line of Control), Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa to the west, Gilgit–Baltistan to the north, and the Punjab province to the south. With its capital at Muzaffarabad, Azad Kashmir covers an area of 13,297 square kilometres (5,134 sq mi) and has an estimated population of about four million. Brad Adams the Asia director at Human Rights Watch has said in 2006
Although ‘azad’ means ‘free,’ the residents of Azad Kashmir are anything but, The Pakistani authorities govern Azad Kashmir with strict controls on basic freedoms.
Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan together constitute the disputed region, referred to as Pakistan-administered Kashmir by the United Nations and other international organisations, and as Pakistan-occupied Kashmir in India in contrast to the name Indian-occupied Kashmir which is given to the Indian administered Jammu and Kashmir by Pakistan. The territories have been under control of the two countries since the first Kashmir war after which Azad Kashmir was successfully captured from the princely state by the rebelling militias with the help of Pakistan army.
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Sharada Peeth
Sharada Peeth (شاردا پیٹھ), located near Sharda in Azad Kashmir, Pakistan, was the famous temple of the goddess Sarasvatī (Sharda) on the banks of what is known as the Neelum River in Pakistan (referred to as Kishenganga River by India). Its ruins are near the Line of Control (LOC) between the Indian and Pakistani-controlled portions of the former princely state of Kashmir and Jammu. Shina, Pahari, and Kashmiri languages are mostly spoken in the area. Kashmir was sometimes called Sharada Desh because of this temple and Sharada was called Kashmira Puravasini (Daughter of Kashmir Kingdom).[citation needed]The Kashmiris are highly devoted towards this great deity whom they call as 'BHAGWATI'.During their daily worship they often say "Namastey Sharada Devi Kashmir Pur Vasini Tvam Ham Prartheye Nityam Vidya Danam Che De hi mey" meaning "Salutations to you, O Sharada, O Goddess, O one who resides in Kashmir. I pray to you daily, please give me the charity of knowledge."
The place was once a celebrated centre of learning headed by Kashmiri Pandits. It is at this temple that Sankaracharya received the right to sit on the Sarvanjnanapeetham (Throne of Wisdom).[citation needed] It was a centre of great Sanskrit scholars and Kashmiri Pandits and was a famous centre of Hinduism and Buddhism. Sharada script and Takri (from which Gurmukhi is derived).[citation needed] According to the Prabhāvakacarita, a Jain historical work dated 1277-78, the Śvetāmbara scholar Hemacandra requested grammatical texts preserved here so he could compile his own grammar, the Siddhahema. The Vaishnava saint Swami Ramanuja traveled all the way from Srirangam to refer to Bodhayana's vritti on Brahma Sutras preserved here, before commencing work on writing his commentary on the Brahma sutras, the Sri Bhasya. The Śāradā image at Shringeri Sharadamba temple was once said to have been made of sandalwood, which is supposed to have been taken by the Sankaracharya from here.[citation needed]
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Shringeri
Sringeri (Kannada: ಶೃಂಗೇರಿ), also written as Sringeri, Śŗngeri and Śŗngagiri is a hill town and taluk headquarters located in Chikmagalur district in the Indian state of Karnataka, is the site of the first maţha established by Adi Shankaracharya, Hindu theologian and exponent of the Advaita Vedanta philosophy, in the 8th century C.E. It is located on the banks of the river Tungā.
The name Sringeri is derived from Rishyashringa-giri, a nearby hill that is believed to have contained the hermitage of Rishi Vibhandaka and his son Rishyashringa. Rishyashringa appears in an episode in the Bala-Kanda of the Ramayana where a story, narrated by Vasishtha, relates how he brought rains to the drought-stricken kingdom of Romapada.
According to legend, Adi Shankaracharya is said to have selected the site as the place to stay and teach his disciples, because when he was walking by the Tunga river, he saw a cobra with a raised hood, providing shelter from the hot sun, to a frog about to spawn. Impressed with the place where natural enemies had gone beyond their instincts, he stayed here for twelve years. Adi Shankaracharya also established mathas in the northern (at Jyotirmath, near Badrinath), eastern (at Puri) and western (at Dwaraka) quarters of India.
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South India
South India is the area encompassing India's states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union territories of Lakshadweep and Pondicherry, occupying 19.31% of India's area (635780 km² or 245476.030 mi²). The region is also known as Dravida as is used in the National anthem.
South India lies in the peninsular Deccan Plateau and is bounded by the Arabian Sea in the west, the Indian Ocean in the south and the Bay of Bengal in the east. The geography of the region is diverse, encompassing two mountain ranges, the Western and Eastern Ghats, and a plateau heartland. The Godavari, Krishna, Tungabhadra and Kaveri rivers are important non-perennial sources of water.
A majority of Indians from the southern region speak one of the Dravidian languages: Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu, Tulu, and Kodava. During its history, a number of dynastic kingdoms ruled over parts of South India whose invasions across southern and southeastern Asia impacted the history and cultures of modern sovereign states such as Sri Lanka, Singapore, the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand and Malaysia. The region was colonised by Britain and gradually incorporated into the British Empire.
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Srisailam
Srisailam (Telugu: శ్రీశైలం) is a holy town and mandal, situated in Nallamala Hills of Kurnool district, Andhra Pradesh, India. It is on the banks of River Krishna, about 232 km south of Hyderabad.
Bhramaramba Mallikarjunaswamy Temple dedicated to Lord Mallikarjuna Swamy (a form of Shiva) and Devi Bhramaramba (a form of Parvathi) is located here and it is one of the 12 Jyotirlinga temples dedicated to Lord Shiva. Srisailam Dam, located about 245 km from Hyderabad and 132 km from Nandyal, is a multipurpose dam built across River Krishna and caters to the irrigation and power needs of the state.
Srisailam is located at 16°04′26″N 78°52′05″E / 16.074°N 78.868°E / 16.074; 78.868. It has an average elevation of 409 meters (1345 ft).
The Bhramaramba Mallikarjuna Temple located in Srisailam is one of the 12 Jyotirlinga temples dedicated to Lord Shiva.
The origins of this temple have been lost in antiquity. The Skanda Purana has a chapter called Srisaila Kandam dedicated to it, which points to the ancient origin. This is confirmed by the fact that saints of the past millennia have sung its praises. It is said that Adi Sankara visited this temple and at that time he composed his Sivananda Lahiri.
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Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu /ˈtæmɨl ˈnɑːduː/ (Tamiḻ Nāṭu [t̪amɨɭ naːɖɯ] ( listen)) is one of the 28 states of India. Its capital is Chennai, the largest city. Tamil Nadu lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Pondicherry, and the states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. It is bound by the Eastern Ghats in the north, the Nilgiri, the Anamalai Hills, and Palakkad on the west, by the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Gulf of Mannar, the Palk Strait in the south east, and by the Indian Ocean in the south.
Tamil Nadu is the eleventh largest state in India by area and the seventh most populous state. It is the fourth largest contributor (as of 2010) to India's GDP and ranks tenth in Human Development Index as of 2006. Tamil Nadu is also the most urbanised state in India. The state has the highest number (10.56%) of business enterprises and stands second in total employment (9.97%) in India, compared to the population share of about 6%.
The region has been the home of the Tamil people since at least 500 BCE. Its official language Tamil has been in use in inscriptions and literature for over 2000 years. Tamil Nadu is home to many natural resources, Hindu temples of Dravidian architecture, hill stations, beach resorts, multi-religious pilgrimage sites and eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
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Thrissur
Thrissur
pronunciation (help·info) (Malayalam: തൃശൂര്), originally Thrisivaperoor and previously known by its anglicized form as Trichur, is the fifth largest city, the third largest urban agglomeration in Kerala (Pop. 1,854,783) and the 20th largest in India. It is also the headquarters of the Thrissur District. Thrissur city is built around a 65-acre (26 ha) hillock called the Thekkinkadu Maidan which seats the Vadakkumnathan temple. Thrissur was once the capital of the Kingdom of Cochin. It is located 300 kilometres (186 mi) towards north-west of the state capital Thiruvananthapuram.
Thrissur is also known as the Cultural Capital of Kerala because of its cultural, spiritual and religious leanings throughout history. It houses the Kerala Sangeetha Nadaka Academy, Kerala Lalita Kala Akademi and Kerala Sahitya Academy. The city hosts the Thrissur Pooram festival, the most colourful and spectacular temple festival in Kerala. The festival is held at the Thekkinkadu Maidan in April or May. Thrissur has a large number of well-known temples including the Thiruvambadi Sri Krishna Temple, Vadakkumnathan temple and Paramekkavu temple, as well as two famous churches, the Our Lady of Lourdes Metropolitan Cathedral and the Basilica of Our Lady of Dolours.
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Ujjain
Ujjain pronunciation (help·info) (also known as Ujain, Ujjayini, Avanti, Avantikapuri), is an ancient city of Malwa region in central India, on the eastern bank of the Kshipra River (Hindi: क्षिप्रा), today part of the state of Madhya Pradesh. It is the administrative centre of Ujjain District and Ujjain Division.
In ancient times the city was called Ujjayini. As mentioned in the Mahabharata epic, Ujjayini was the capital of the Avanti Kingdom, and has been the Prime Meridian for Hindu geographers since the 4th century BCE. Ujjain is one of the seven sacred cities (Sapta Puri) of the Hindus, and the Kumbh Mela religious festival is held there every 12 years. It is also home to Mahakaleshwar Jyotirlinga, one of the twelve Jyotirlinga shrines to the god Shiva and is also the place where Lord Krishna got education with Balarama and Sudama from Maharshi Sandipani.
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Uttarakhand
Uttarakhand[needs IPA] (Sanskrit: उत्तराखण्डम्, Uttarākhanḍam ?, Hindi: उत्तराखण्ड, Uttarākhanḍ ?), formerly Uttaranchal, is a state in the northern part of India. It is often referred to as the Land of Gods (Hindi: देव भूमि, Dēv bhūmi ?) due to the many holy Hindu temples and cities found throughout the state, some of which are among Hinduism's most spiritual and auspicious places of pilgrimage and worship. Known for its natural beauty and wealth of the Himalayas, the Bhabhar and the Terai, the state was carved out of the Himalayan and adjoining north-western districts of Uttar Pradesh on 9 November 2000, becoming the 27th state of the Republic of India. It borders the Tibet Autonomous Region on the north, the Mahakali Zone of Far-Western Region, Nepal on the east and the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh to the south and Himachal Pradesh to the north west.
The region is traditionally referred to as Uttarakhand in Hindu scriptures and old literature, a term which derives from Sanskrit uttara (उत्तर) meaning north, and khaṇḍ (खण्ड्) meaning country or part of a country. It has an area of 20,682 sq mi (53,566 km²).
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Varanasi
Varanasi Hindustani pronunciation: [ʋaːˈraːɳəsi] ( listen)), also commonly known as Banaras or Benaras (Banāras [bəˈnaːrəs] ( listen)) and Kashi, Kāśī [ˈkaːʃi] ( listen)), is a city situated on the banks of the River Ganges in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, 320 kilometres (199 mi) southeast of state capital Lucknow. It is regarded as a holy city by Hindus, Buddhists and Jains. It is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world and the oldest in India.
The Kashi Naresh (Maharaja of Kashi) is the chief cultural patron of Varanasi and an essential part of all religious celebrations. The culture of Varanasi is closely associated with the River Ganges and the river's religious importance. The city has been a cultural and religious centre in North India for several thousand years. The Benares Gharana form of the Indian classical music developed in Varanasi, and many prominent Indian philosophers, poets, writers, and musicians resided or reside in Varanasi. Gautama Buddha gave his first sermon at Sarnath located near Varanasi (Kashi).
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Vidarbha
Nagpur, Amravati, Akola
Vidarbha (Marathi: विदर्भ) is the eastern region of Maharashtra state made up of Nagpur Division and Amravati Division. Its former name is Berar (Varhad in Marathi). It occupies 31.6% of total area and holds 21.3% of total population of Maharashtra. It borders the state of Madhya Pradesh to the north, Chattisgarh to the east, Andhra Pradesh to the south and Marathwada and Khandesh regions of Maharashtra to the west. Situated in central India, Vidarbha has its own rich cultural and historical background distinct from rest of Maharashtra. The largest city in Vidarbha is Nagpur, the second largest is Amravati while Akola stands third followed by Yavatmal, Chandrapur and Gondia. A majority of Vidarbhians speak Vahardi, a dialect of Marathi.
The region is famous for growing oranges and cotton. Vidarbha holds two-thirds of Maharashtra's mineral resources, three quarters of its forest resources, and is a net producer of power. Throughout its history, Vidarbha has remained much calmer during the communal troubles than the rest of India; but it is plagued very much by poverty and malnutrition. It is less economically prosperous compared to the rest of Maharashtra.
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Abhinavagupta
Abhinavagupta (Kashmiri: अभिनवगुप्त) (approx. 950 - 1020 AD) was one of India's greatest philosophers, mystics and aestheticians. He was also considered an important musician, poet, dramatist, exegete, theologian, and logician - a polymathic personality who exercised strong influences on Indian culture.
He was born in the Valley of Kashmir in a family of scholars and mystics and studied all the schools of philosophy and art of his time under the guidance of as many as fifteen (or more) teachers and gurus. In his long life he completed over 35 works, the largest and most famous of which is Tantrāloka, an encyclopedic treatise on all the philosophical and practical aspects of Trika and Kaula (known today as Kashmir Shaivism). Another one of his very important contributions was in the field of philosophy of aesthetics with his famous Abhinavabhāratī commentary of Nāṭyaśāstra of Bharata Muni.
Abhinavgupt was born into a Kashmiri Pandit family. "Abhinavagupt" was not his real name, rather a title he earned from his master, carrying a meaning of "competence and authoritativeness". Abhinavgupt was a one-word title given to him, and he was most likely from the Kaul clan and therefore a Brahmin. In his analysis, Jayaratha (1150-1200 AD) - who was Abhinavagupta's most important commentator - also reveals three more meanings: "being ever vigilant", "being present everywhere" and "protected by praises". Raniero Gnoli, the only Sanskrit scholar who completed a translation of Tantrāloka in a European language, mentions that "Abhinavagupta" also means "new", as a reference to the ever-new creative force of his mystical experience.
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Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara (Sanskrit: आदिशङ्करः Ādi Śaṅkara, pronounced [aːd̪i ɕəŋkəɾə]) (788 CE - 820 CE), also known as Śaṅkara Bhagavatpādācārya and Ādi Śaṅkarācārya was an Indian sage from Kalady in present day Kerala who consolidated the doctrine of advaita vedānta. His teachings are based on the unity of the ātman and brahman— non-dual brahman, in which brahman is viewed as nirguna brahman, brahman without attributes.
Shankara travelled across the Indian subcontinent to propagate his philosophy through discourses and debates with other thinkers. He is reputed to have founded four mathas ("monasteries"), which helped in the historical development, revival and spread of Advaita Vedanta of which he is known as the greatest revivalist. Adi Shankara is believed to be the organizer of the Dashanami monastic order and the founder of the Shanmata tradition of worship.
His works in Sanskrit concern themselves with establishing the doctrine of advaita (nondualism). He also established the importance of monastic life as sanctioned in the Upanishads and Brahma Sutra, in a time when the Mimamsa school established strict ritualism and ridiculed monasticism. Shankara represented his works as elaborating on ideas found in the Upanishads, and he wrote copious commentaries on the Vedic canon (Brahma Sutra, principal upanishads and Bhagavad Gita) in support of his thesis. The main opponent in his work is the Mimamsa school of thought, though he also offers arguments against the views of some other schools like Samkhya and certain schools of Buddhism.
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Ananda Coomaraswamy
Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy (Tamil: ஆனந்த குமாரசுவாமி, Ānanda Kentiś Kūmaraswāmī) (22 August 1877, Colombo, Ceylon − 9 September 1947, Needham, Massachusetts) was a Ceylonese philosopher and metaphysician, as well as a pioneering historian and philosopher of Indian art, particularly art history and symbolism, and an early interpreter of Indian culture to the West. In particular, he is described as "the groundbreaking theorist who was largely responsible for introducing ancient Indian art to the West."
Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy was born in Colombo, Ceylon, now Sri Lanka, to the Ceylonese Tamil legislator and philosopher Sir Muthu Coomaraswamy and his English wife Elizabeth Beeby. His father died when Ananda was 2 years old, and Ananda spent much of his childhood and education abroad.
Coomaraswamy moved to England in 1879 and attended Wycliffe College, a preparatory school in Stroud, Gloucestershire, at the age of 12. In 1900, he graduated from University College, London, with a degree in geology and botany. On June 19, 1902, Coomaraswamy married Ethel Mary Partridge, an English photographer, who then traveled with him to Ceylon. Their marriage lasted until 1913. Coomaraswamy's field work between 1902 and 1906 earned him a doctor of science for his study of Ceylonese mineralogy, and prompted the formation of the Geological Survey of Ceylon which he initially directed. While in Ceylon, the couple collaborated on Mediaeval Sinhalese Art; Coomaraswamy wrote the text and Ethel provided the photographs. His work in Ceylon fueled Coomaraswamy's anti-Westernization sentiments. After their divorce, Partridge returned to England, where she later married the writer Philip Mairet.
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Anandamayi Ma
Sri Anandamayi Ma (Bengali: শ্রী আনন্দময়ী মা Sri Anondomoyi Ma; 30 April 1896 - 27 August 1982) was a spiritual personality from East Bengal. Swami Sivananda (Divine Life Society) described her as "the most perfect flower the Indian soil has produced."Precognition, healing and other miracles were attributed to her by her followers.Paramhansa Yogananda translates Anandamayi as "joy-permeated". This name was given to her by her devotees in the 1920s to describe what they saw as her habitual state of divine joy and bliss.
Anandamayi Ma was born Nirmala Sundari (নির্মলা সুন্দরী; Nirmôla Shundori, English: "Immaculate, Beautiful") on 30 April 1896 to Bipinbihari Bhattacharya and Mokshada Sundari Devi in Kheora, Brahmanbaria District, British India, in what is now Bangladesh. Her father, originally from Vidyakut in Tripura, was a Vaishnavite singer known for his devotion. He had a detached persona. They lived in poverty, and lost many children in their infancy. Nirmala attended the village school for approximately two years. Although her teachers were pleased with her ability, her family thought she was dullminded because of her indifference and constantly happy demeanor. When her mother once fell seriously ill, relatives remarked with puzzlement about the child remaining apparently unaffected.
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Annamacharya
Sri Tallapaka Annamacharya (Telugu: శ్రీ తాళ్ళపాక అన్నమాచార్య) (or Annamayya) (May 9, 1408 – February 23, 1503) was the official songmaster of the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple, and a Telugu composer who composed around 36000 keertana songs, many of which were in praise of Venkateswara, the presiding deity of the temple. The musical form of the keertana songs that he composed have strongly influenced the structure of Carnatic music compositions, which are still popular among Carnatic music concert artists. Sri Annamacharya is remembered for his saintly life, and is honoured as a great Bhakta/devotee of Bhagwaan Govinda by devotees and saintly singers.
He is believed to have been the reincarnation of the precious sword of lord Vishnu ( Venkateshvara ). He is widely regarded as the Pada-kavita Pitaamaha (grand old man of song-writing) of the Telugu language.
Annamacharya was born on Vaisakha Suddha Pournami in the year Sarwadhari (May 9, 1408) in Tallapaka, a village in current day Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh, India. His wife, Thimmakka, had written Subhadra Kalyanam, and is considered the first female poet in Telugu literature. He was born into a Viswakarma Brahmin family. Their son, Pedda Tirumalacharya, and grandson, Tallapaka Chinnayya, were also composers and poets. The Tallapaka compositions are considered to have dominated and influenced the structure of Carnatic music compositions. Annamacharya lived for 94 years until Phalguna Bahula Dwadasi (12th day after full moon) in the year Dhundhubhi (February 23, 1503).
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Bahlikas
The Bahlikas (Hindi: बाह्लिक) were the inhabitants of Balikha, mentioned in Atharvaveda, Mahabharata, Ramayana, Puranas, Vartikka of Katyayana, Brhatsamhita, Amarkosha etc. and in the ancient Inscriptions. The other variations of Bahlika are Bahli, Balhika, Vahlika, Valhika, Bahlava, Bahlam/Bahlim, Bahlayana and Bahluva
According to the Bhuvanakosha section of the Puranas, Bahlika was a Janapada located in the Udichya (Uttarapatha) division .
Some hymns of Atharvaveda invoke the fever to go to the Gandharis, Mahavrsas (a tribe of Punjab), Mujavants and, further off, to the Bahlikas. Since Mujavant is the name of a hill (and a people) located in Hindukush/Pamir, therefore, the Bahlikas must lie beyond the Hindukush ranges.
Atharvaveda-Parisista juxtaposes the Vedic Bahlikas with the Kambojas (i.e. Kamboja-Bahlika--).
Besides Atharvaveda Parisista, several other ancient texts also associate the Bahlikas with the Kambojas.
Kashmir recension of ancient Ramayana has the following reading:
Sanskrit Acharya Kshmendra of Kashmir has rendered the above text into his Ramayana Manjri as follows:
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Bamakhepa
Bamakhepa (1837–1911) popularly known as the "mad saint" was a Hindu saint, held in great reverence in Tarapith and whose shrine is also located in the vicinity of the Tara temple. Bama-khepa, literally means the mad ("khepa") follower of "left handed" ("Bama" or "Vama" in Sanskrit) path – the Tantric way of worship. Bamakhepa, goddess Tara's ardent devotee lived near the temple and mediated in the cremation grounds. He was a contemporary of another famous Bengali saint Ramakrishna. At a young age, he left his house and came under the tutelage of a saint named Kailsahpathi Baba, who lived in Tarapith. He perfected yoga and Tantric sadhana (worship), which resulted in his becoming the spiritual head of Tarapith. People came to him seeking blessings or cures for their illness, in distress or just to meet him. He did not follow the set rules of the temple and as result was even once roughed up by the temple priests for taking food meant as offering for the deity. It is said: Tara appeared in the dream of Maharani ("Queen") of Natore and told her to feed the saint first as he was her son. After this incident, Bamakhepa was fed first in the temple before the deity and nobody obstructed him. It is believed that Tara gave a vision to Bamakhepa in the cremation grounds in her ferocious form and then took him to her breast.
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Basava
Basava (Kannada: ಬಸವ) (also known as Guru Basavanna (Kannada: ಗುರು ಬಸವಣ್ಣ) or Basaveshwara (Kannada: ಬಸವೇಶ್ವರ), (1134–1196)) was a philosopher, Statesman and a social reformer from present-day Karnataka, India. He was the founder of Lingayatism and is popularly called as Vishwa Guru(Teacher of the World) and Bhakti-Bhandari(Champion of Devotion). His teachings and preachings which are universal, go beyond all boundaries of belief systems. He was a great humanitarian and preached a new way of life wherein the divine experience being the center of life regardless of gender, belief, tradition, religion, caste or social status. The key aspect of his preaching is monotheistic concept of God.
A true visionary with ideas ahead of his time; he envisioned a society that flourished enriching one and all. He was a great mystic of his time and originated a literary revolution through his literary creation called Vachana Sahitya. He was a mystic by temperament, an idealist by choice, a statesman by profession: as he was the Prime Minister of the Southern Kalachuri Empire in South India, a man of letters by taste, a humanist by sympathy, and a social reformer by conviction. Many great yogis and mystics of his time joined his movement enriching it with the essence of divine experience in the form of Vachanas.
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Benedict Ashley
Benedict M. Ashley, O.P. (born Winston Norman Ashley on May 3, 1915), is a theologian and philosopher who had a major influence on 20th century Catholic theology and ethics in America through his writing, teaching, and consulting with the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops. Author of 19 books, Ashley was a major exponent of the "River Forest School" of Thomism. Health Care Ethics, which he co-authored in 1975 and now in its fifth edition, continues to be a fundamental text in the field of Catholic Medical Ethics. Ashley, now in his 90's, has taught at numerous institutions and is still an active teacher, consultant, and author.
Ashley is now, and has been since 2003, an Associate Faculty of Philosophy for the Institute for Advanced Physics, a physics research and educational organization that is also trying to establish lasting links to non-physics communities by showing the relevance of physics to all areas of life.
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Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (also transliterated Caitanya, IAST caitanya mahāprabhu) (1486–1534) was a Vaishnava saint and social reformer in eastern India (specifically present-day Bangladesh and states of West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Manipur, Assam, and Orissa of India) in the 16th century, believed by followers of Gaudiya Vaishnavism to be the full incarnation of Lord Krishna. Sri Krishna Chaitanya was a notable proponent for the Vaishnava school of Bhakti yoga (meaning loving devotion to Krishna/God) based on the philosophy of the Bhagavata Purana and Bhagavad Gita. Specifically, he worshipped the forms of Krishna, popularised the chanting of the Hare Krishna maha mantra and composed the Siksastakam in Sanskrit. His line of followers, known as Gaudiya Vaishnavas, revere him as an Avatar of Krishna in the mood of Radharani who was prophesised to appear in the later verses of the Bhagavata Purana.
He was also sometimes referred to by the names Gaura (Sanskrit for golden one) due to his light skin complexion, and Nimai due to his being born underneath a Neem tree. There are numerous biographies available from the time giving details of Chaitanya's life, the most prominent ones being the Chaitanya Charitamrita of Krishnadasa Kaviraja Goswami and the earlier Chaitanya Bhagavata of Vrindavana Dasa (both originally written in Bengali but now widely available in English and other languages) and the Chaitanya Mangala, written by Lochana Dasa.
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Chandragupta II
Chandragupta II The Great, very often referred to as Vikramaditya or Chandragupta Vikramaditya in Sanskrit; was one of the most powerful emperors of the Gupta empire in northern India. His rule spanned c. 380–413/415 CE, during which the Gupta Empire achieved its zenith, art, architecture, and sculpture flourished, and the cultural development of ancient India reached its climax. The period of prominence of the Gupta dynasty is very often referred to as the Golden Age of India. Chandragupta II was the son of the previous ruler, Samudragupta the Great. He attained success by pursuing both a favorable marital alliance and an aggressive expansionist policy in this which his father and grandfather (Chandragupta I) set the precedent. Samudragupta set the stage for the emergence of classical art, which occurred under the rule of Chandragupta II. Chandragupta II gave great support to the arts. Artists were so highly valued under his rule that they were paid for their work — a rare phenomenon in ancient civilizations.
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Daradas
Daradas were a people who lived north and north-east to the Kashmir valley. This kingdom is identified to be the Gilgit region in Kashmir along the river Sindhu or Indus. They are often spoken along with the Kambojas. The Pandava hero Arjuna had visited this country of Daradas during his northern military campaign to collect triubute for Yudhisthira's Rajasuya sacrifice.
All the above references locate the Daradas in Uttarapatha as neighbors to Kambojas of Kashmir-Nuristan.
Sabha Parva of Mahabharata attests that Arjuna had led a digvijaya expedition against the Kashmiras, Ursas, Abhisaras, Sinhapuras, Suhmas, Daradas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, Lohas, Rishikas and Parama Kambojas etc.
Drona Parva of Mahabvharata attests that Krishna had vanquished the Daradas along with Anga, Vanga, Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, Vatsa, Garga, Karusha, Pundra, Avanti, Daserka, Kashmira, Ursa, Madugalas, Kambojas, Pisachas, Cholas, Malavas, Sakas, Yavanas etc.
The Daradas along with numerous other tribes from northwest had including the Bahlikas, Kiratas, Pahlavas, Paradas, Kambojas, Shakas, Yavanas, Trigartas, Kshudrakas, Malavas, Angas, Vangas etc had joined Yudhishtra at his Rajasuya ceremony and brought him numerous gifts.
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Dayananda Saraswati
Maharishi Dayanand Saraswati (Hindi:स्वामी दयानन्द सरस्वती, Gujarati: મહષિૅ દયાનંદ સરસ્વતી) (Born:12 February 1824 – Died:30 October 1883. ) was an important Hindu religious scholar, reformer, and founder of the Arya Samaj, a Hindu reform movement. He was the first to give the call for Swarajya – "India for Indians" – in 1876, later taken up by Lokmanya Tilak. Denouncing the idolatry and ritualistic worship prevalent in Hinduism at the time, he worked towards reviving Vedic ideologies. Subsequently the philosopher and President of India, S. Radhakrishnan, called him one of "makers of Modern India," as did Sri Aurobindo.
One of his notable disciples was Shyamji Krishna Varma, who founded India House in London and guided other revolutionaries. Others who were influenced by and followed him included Madam Cama, Pran Sukh Yadav, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Lala Hardayal, Madan Lal Dhingra, Ram Prasad Bismil, Bhagat Singh, Swami Shraddhanand Swami Shradhanad gave Mohan Das Karam Chand Gandhi the title of Mahatma Gandhi when Gandhi visited Gurukul Kangri along with Madan Mohan Malviya, Mahatma Hansraj and Lala Lajpat Rai. One of his most influential works is the book Satyarth Prakash, which contributed to the Indian independence movement. He was a sanyasi (ascetic) from boyhood, and a scholar, who believed in the infallible authority of the Vedas.
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Dharmakirti
Dharmakīrti (ca. 7th century) also known as Serlingpa Dharmakīrti or Suvarnadvipi Dharmakīrti, was a Buddhist scholar of Srivijayan origin, Suvarnadvipa (Sumatra). He was one of the Buddhist founders of Indian philosophical logic. He was one of the primary theorists of Buddhist atomism, according to which the only items considered to exist are momentary states of consciousness.
Born around the turn of the 7th century in Sumatra, Dharmakirti was a Srivijayan prince of Sailendra dynasty. He became a revered scholar monk in Srivijaya and moved to India to became a teacher at the famed Nalanda University, as well as a poet. He built on and reinterpreted the work of Dignaga, the pioneer of Buddhist Logic, and was very influential among Brahman logicians as well as Buddhists. His theories became normative in Tibet and are studied to this day as a part of the basic monastic curriculum.
Collins (2000: p. 240) colourfully contextualized Dharmakirti and his experience of disaffection and collegiate misunderstanding at Nalanda:-
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Dnyaneshwar
Sant Dnyāneshwar (or Sant Jñāneshwar) (Marathi: संत ज्ञानेश्वर) (1275–1296) is also known as Jñanadeva (Marathi: ज्ञानदेव).
He was a 13th century Maharashtrian Hindu saint (Sant - a title by which he is often referred), poet, philosopher and yogi of the Nath tradition whose works Bhavartha Deepika (a commentary on Bhagavad Gita, popularly known as "Dnyaneshwari"), and Amrutanubhav are considered to be milestones in Marathi literature.
According to Nath tradition Sant Dnyaneshwar [1] was the second of the four children of Vitthal Govind Kulkarni and Rukmini, a pious couple from Apegaon near Paithan on the banks of the river Godavari. Vitthal had studied Vedas and set out on pilgrimages at a young age. In Alandi, about 30 km from Pune, Sidhopant, a local Yajurveda brahmin, was very much impressed with him and Vitthal married his daughter Rukmini.
After some time, getting permission from Rukmini, Vitthal went to Kashi(Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh, India), where he met Ramananda Swami and requested to be initiated into sannyas, lying about his marriage. But Ramananda Swami later went to Alandi and, convinced that his student Vitthal was the husband of Rukmini, he returned to Kashi and ordered Vitthal to return home to his family. The couple was excommunicated from the brahmin caste as Vitthal had broken with sannyas, the last of the four ashrams. Four children were born to them; Nivrutti in 1273, Dnyandev (Dnyaneshwar) in 1275, Sopan in 1277 and daughter Mukta in 1279. According to some scholars their birth years are 1268, 1271, 1274, 1277 respectively. It is believed that later Vitthal and Rukmini ended their lives by jumping into the waters at Prayag where the river Ganges meets Yamuna hoping that their children would be accepted into the society after their death.
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Gaudapada
Gaudapada (c. 8th century CE) (also referred as Shri Gaudapadacharya) was a very early guru in the tradition of Advaita Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy. He is traditionally said to have been the grand-guru of the great teacher Adi Shankara, one of the most important figures in Hindu philosophy and also believed to be the founder of Shri Gaudapadacharya Math.
There is some dispute about the date of Shankara, but the most probable date is in the 8th century CE, as per the evidence cited by scholars such as Bhandarkar, K. B. Pathak and Deussen. Gaudapada is said to have been the teacher of Govinda, who was the teacher of Shankara. Shankara himself affirms this and quotes and refers to Gaudapada as the teacher's teacher who knows the tradition of the Vedānta (sampradāya-vit). Therefore, Gaudapada must have lived and taught during the 7th century CE.
The following well known Sanskrit Verse among Smarthas provides the list of the early teachers of the Vedanta in their order.
From this verse we can understand that, first teacher being Lord Narayana himself and line of descent from father to son up-to Sri Shuka Acharya. From Lord Narayana to Sri Shuka Acharya the line of succession is known as Vamsarsi-Parampara and from Sri Gaudapadcharya starts the descent of Sanyasins and known as Manava-Guru-Sampradaya.
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Gautama Buddha
Gautama Buddha or Siddhārtha Gautama Buddha (Sanskrit: सिद्धार्थ गौतम बुद्ध; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual teacher from the Indian subcontinent, on whose teachings Buddhism was founded. The word Buddha is a title for the first awakened being in an era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as the Supreme Buddha (P. sammāsambuddha, S. samyaksaṃbuddha) of our age, "Buddha" meaning "awakened one" or "the enlightened one." Gautama Buddha may also be referred to as Śākyamuni (Sanskrit: शाक्यमुनि "Sage of the Śākyas"). The Buddha found a Middle Way that ameliorated the extreme asceticism found in the Sramana religions.
The time of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain: most early 20th-century historians dated his lifetime as c. 563 BCE to 483 BCE, but more recent opinion dates his death to between 486 and 483 BCE or, according to some, between 411 and 400 BCE. UNESCO lists Lumbini, Nepal, as a world heritage site and birthplace of Gautama Buddha. There are also claims about birth place of Gautama Buddha to be Kapileswara, Orissa or Kapilavastu at Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh He later taught throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kośala.
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Jagannatha Dasa
Jagannatha Dasa (Kannada: ಜಗನ್ನಾಥ ದಾಸ) (1728–1809), a native of Manvi town in the Raichur district, Karnataka state, India, is considered one of the notable Haridasa ("devotee of the Hindu god Vishnu") saint-poets of the Kannada language. Apart from authoring numerous well-known devotional songs that propagate the Vaishnava bhakti ("faith"), Jagannatha Dasa wrote the Harikathamritasara in the native shatpadi (six-line verse) metre and Tattva suvvali in the native tripadi (three-line verse) metre. He was also an accomplished scholar in the Sanskrit language.
For about a century after Sri Vadirajatirtha (1480–1600), a noted saint-poet, became "Vrindavanastha" the Haridasa devotional cult which propagated the Dvaita philosophy of Madhvacharya through lucid Kannada devotional songs, seemed to wane. The movement however revived in the 18th century under the guidance of Vijaya Dasa, this time centred on the holy town of Mantralayam in modern Andhra Pradesh and a large area covering the Raichur district in modern Karnataka. The poetry written by these later day saints closely followed the style established by the 15th and 16th century saints of the Haridasa cadre. The Haridasa contribution to Hindu mysticism and the Bhakti literature overall is similar to the contributions of the Alvars and Nayanmars of modern Tamil Nadu and that of the devotional saint-poets of Maharashtra and Gujarat. According to the scholar H.S. Shiva Prakash, about 300 saint-poets from this cadre enriched Kannada literature during the 18th–19th centuries.
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Jaimini
Jaimini was an ancient Indian rishi (sage), who was a great philosopher of the Mimansa school of Indian philosophy. He was the disciple of the great Rishi Veda Vyasa, the son of Rishi Parashara.
Jaimini is most known for his great treatise Purva Mimamsa Sutras (“First Reflection”), or Karma-mimamsa (“Study of Ritual Action”), a system that investigates the nature of Vedic injunctions. The text founded the Purva-Mimamsa school of Ancient Indian philosophy, one of the six Darsanas or schools of Ancient Indian philosophy.
Dated to ca. the 3rd century BC, the text contains about 3,000 sutras and is the foundational text of the Mimamsa school. The text aims at an exegesis of the Vedas with regard to ritual practice (karma) and religious duty (dharma), commenting on the early Upanishads. Jaimini's Mimamsa is a ritualist counter-movement to the mysticist Vedanta currents of his day. He was commented upon by Śābara in the early centuries CE.
He is also considered the author of epic work, Jaimini Bharata, which presents a version of Mahabharata, which most known for its Aswamedha parva.
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Jayadeva
Jayadeva (Oriya: ଜୟଦେବ, Sanskrit: जयदेव) was a Sanskrit poet circa 1200 AD. He is most known for his composition, the epic poem Gita Govinda, which depicts the divine love of Krishna-an avatar of Vishnu and his consort, Radha, and it is mentioned that Radha is greater than Hari, and is considered an important text in the Bhakti movement of Hinduism. He was born to a Hindu Brahmin family
Jayadeva was born in Kenduli Sasan (formerly Kendubilva), in the Prachi valley, Khurda district in Orissa.[citation needed]Kenduli Sasan is a village near the famous temple city of Puri. At the time of Jayadeva's birth, Orissa was under the rule of Eastern Ganga dynasty king Chodaganga Deva. It was during the reign of this monarch and his son and successor, Raghava, that Jayadeva composed his Sanskrit epics. Chodaganga Deva, originally a Shaiva, was strongly influenced by the devotion to Krishna in and around Puri and became a Vaishnava devotee of Krishna himself.
The poet's parents were named Bhojadeva and Ramadevi. From temple inscriptions it is now known that Jayadeva received his education in Sanskrit poetry from a place called Kurmapataka, possibly near Konark in Orissa. Later on, Jayadeva married Padmavati, who according to temple inscriptions, may have been an accomplished temple dancer on her own right.
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Jayanta Bhatta
Jayanta Bhatta (c. 9th Century CE) was a Kashmiri poet and philosopher of Nyaya school of Indian philosophy. In his philosophical treatise Nyayamanjari and drama Agamadambara, Jayanta mentioned about the king Shankaravarman (883 – 902 CE) as his contemporary. Also, his son Abhinanda in his Kadambari-kathasara, mentioned that the great grandfather of Jayanta was a minister of king Lalitaditya of 8th Century CE. So most probably Jayanta belonged to the last quarter of 9th Century CE.
From Abhinanda’s Kadambari-kathasara (5-12), we came to know about the genealogy of Jayanta. His ancestor Shakti was a Brahman of Bharadvaja gotra from Gauda, who settled at Darvabhisara, a place at the border of Kashmir. His son was Mitra and grandson was Shaktisvamin. Shaktisvamin, great grandfather of Jayanta was a minister of Karkota dynasty king of Kashmir Lalitaditya Muktapida (c. 724 – 761 CE). Jayanta in Nyayamanjari mentioned that his grandfather obtained a village named Gauramulaka (probably located north of Rajouri) from the king. The name of Jayanta’s father was Chandra.
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Jayatirtha
Jayatirtha or Seer Jayateertharu (ca. 1365 – ca. 1388) was the sixth pontiff of Sri Madhvacharya Peetha. He is one of the most important seers in the Dvaita philosophy on account of his elucidations of Sri Ananda Teertha's masterpieces. He is the one who elucidated Sri Madhvacharya’s philosophy clearly and simply so as to be understood by the common man which helped much to spread the Madhva philosophy.
He was born as Dhondupant (a.k.a. Dhondurao) to Raghunath and Sakubai Deshpande. His birthplace is Mangalavedhe which lies near Pandharapur in today’s Maharashtra. Because he was born to a local Brahmin chieftain’s family, he had all the wealth, power, affection. He was very handsome, healthy, intelligent, endowed with physical vigor, and given to outdoor activity such as horse riding.
Sri Jayateertha was supposed to have been born as a bull in his previous life – the bull that traveled with Sri Ananda Teertha (another name of Sri Madhvacharya), carrying the volumes of his philosophical works. With such close proximity, the bull would stand and listen to Sri Ananda Teertha’s teachings. When some disciples approached Sri Ananda Teertha to seek the privilege of writing commentaries on his works, he told them it would not be any of them but the bull that would get the privilege. This resulted in jealousy amongst some of the disciples and the bull being cursed by them to die of a snakebite. Sri Anand Teertha came to know about this and changed the wordings of the curse such that the snake that bit the bull would die, and not the bull!
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Kabir
Kabīr (also Kabīra) (Hindi: कबीर, Punjabi: ਕਬੀਰ, Urdu: کبير) (1440–1518) was a mystic poet and saint of India, whose writings have greatly influenced the Bhakti movement. The name Kabir comes from Arabic al-Kabīr which means 'The Great' - the 37th name of God in Islam.
Apart from having an important influence on Sikhism, Kabir's legacy is today carried forward by the Kabir Panth ("Path of Kabir"), a religious community that recognizes him as its founder and is one of the Sant Mat sects. Its members, known as Kabir panthis, are estimated to be around 9,600,000. They are spread over north and central India, as well as dispersed with the Indian diaspora across the world, up from 843,171 in the 1901 census. His writings include Bijak, Sakhi Granth, Kabir Granthawali and Anurag Sagar.
Not much is known of Kabir's birth parents, but it is known that he was brought up in a family of Muslim weavers. He was found by a Muslim weaver named Niru and his wife, Nima, in Lehartara, situated in Varanasi. They adopted the boy and taught him the weaver's trade.
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Kambojas
The Kambojas (Sanskrit: कम्बोज, Kamboja; Persian: کمبوہ, Kambūh) were a kshatriya tribe of Iron Age India, frequently mentioned in Sanskrit and Pali literature. Modern scholars conclude that the Kambojas were an Avestan speaking Eastern Iranian tribe at the boundary of the Indo-Aryans and the Iranians, and appear to have moved from the Iranian into the Indo-Aryan sphere over time.
The Kambojas migrated into India during the Indo-Scythian invasion from the 2nd century BCE to 5th century CE. Their descendants controlled various principalities in Medieval India.
The Kambojas were an Indo-Iranian tribe. However, the ancient Kambojas are sometimes described as Indo-Aryans or as having both Indian and Iranian affinities. However, most scholars now agree that the Kambojas were Iranians, cognate with the Indo-Scythians. The Kambojas are also described as a royal clan of the Sakas. This seems to be confirmed by the Mathura lion capital inscriptions made by Rajuvula and by one of the Edicts of Asoka. The Aśvakas were a subtribe of the Kambojas.
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Kanada
It has been claimed that Kashyapa, later known as Kanada (Sanskrit: कणाद; also transliterated as Canada as well as other forms) was a Hindu sage and philosopher who founded the philosophical school of Vaisheshika and authored the text Vaisheshika Sutra. He talked of Dvyanuka (biatomic molecule) and tryanuka (triatomic molecule).[citation needed] He probably lived around the 2nd century BCE, while other sources claim he lived in the 6th Century BCE. It is believed that he was born in Prabhas Kshetra (near Dwaraka) in Gujarat, India.
His primary area of study was Rasavādam, considered to be a type of alchemy. He is said to have believed that all living beings are composed of five elements: water, fire, earth, air, ether. Vegetables have only water, insects have water and fire, birds have water, fire, earth and air, and Humans, the top of the creation, have ether—the sense of discrimination (time, space, mind) are one. He theorized that Gurutva(Hindi/Sanskrit for Gravity) was responsible for the falling of objects on the Earth.
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Kapila
Kapila (Hindi: कपिल ऋषि) was a Vedic sage credited as one of the founders of the Samkhya school of philosophy. He is prominent in the Bhagavata Purana, which features a theistic version of his Samkhya philosophy. Traditional Hindu sources describe him as a descendant of Manu, a grandson of Brahma. The Bhagavad Gita depicts Kapila as a yogi hermit with highly developed siddhis, or spiritual powers.
Many of the details about sage Kapila's life are described in Book 3 of the Bhagavata Purana, where it is mentioned that his parents were Kardama Muni and Devahuti. Kapila is considered an incarnation of the supreme-being (Narayana) and listed as such in the list of incarnations in Bhagavata Purana .After his father left home, Kapila instructed his mother, Devahuti in the philosophy of yoga and devotional worship of Lord Vishnu, enabling her to achieve liberation (moksha). Kapila's Sankhya is also given by Krishna to Uddhava in Book 11 of the Bhagavata Purana, a passage also known as the "Uddhava Gita".
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Kumārila Bhaṭṭa
Kumārila Bhaṭṭa (Devanagari: कुमारिल भट्ट, fl. roughly AD 700) was a Hindu philosopher and Mimamsa scholar from Assam. He is famous for many of his seminal theses on Mimamsa, such as Mimamsaslokavarttika. Bhaṭṭa was a staunch believer in the supreme validity of Vedic injunction, a great champion of Purva-Mimamsa and a confirmed ritualist. The varttika is mainly written as a subcommentary of Sabara's commentary on Jaimini's Purva Mimamsa Sutra. His philosophy is classified by some scholars as existential realism.
Scholars differ as regards Kumārila's views on a personal God. For example, Manikka Vachakar believed that Kumārila promoted a personal God (Parabrahman), which conflicts with the Mimamsa school. In his varttika Kumārila Bhaṭṭa goes to great lengths to argue against the theory of a creator God and held that the actions enjoined in the Veda had definite results without an external interference.
Bhaṭṭa is also credited with the logical formulation of the Mimamsic belief that the Vedas are unauthored (apaurusheya). In particular his defence against medieval Buddhist position on Vedic rituals, is noteworthy. Some believe that this contributed, to the decline of Buddhism in India because his lifetime coincides with the period in which Buddhism began to decline. Indeed, his dialectical success against buddhists is confirmed by Buddhist historian Tathagatha, who reports that Kumārila defeated disciples of Buddhapalkita, Bhavya, Dharmadasa, Dignaga and others. Though, records from Yi Jing's travelogue show Buddhism continued to proliferate in most of southern and northern India until the late 8th century CE.[citation needed] His work strongly influenced other schools of Indian philosophy, most notably Advaita Vedanta, especially since Vedanta adopts purva Mimamsa's epistemological arguments almost verbatim, with the exception that while Mimamsa considers the Upanishads to be subservient to the Vedas, the Vedanta school does not think so.
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Madhvacharya
Madhvacharya (Tulu: ಶ್ರೀ ಮಧ್ವಾಚಾರ್ಯ, Sanskrit: श्री मध्वाचार्यः Śrī Madhvācāryaḥ) (1238–1317 CE), also known as Purna Prajna and Ananda Tirtha, was the chief proponent of Tattvavāda "Philosophy of Reality", popularly known as the Dvaita (dualism) school of Hindu philosophy. It is one of the three most influential Vedānta philosophies. Madhvācārya was one of the important philosophers during the Bhakti movement. He was a pioneer in many ways, going against standard conventions and norms. According to tradition, Madhvācārya is believed to be the third incarnation of Vāyu (Mukhyaprāṇa).
Madhvācārya was born on the auspicious day of Vijaya-daśami (Dussehra) in 1238 CE (AD) at Pājaka, a tiny hamlet near Uḍupi. Nārāyaṇa Paṇḍitācārya who later wrote Madhvācārya's biography has not recorded his parents' names. Traditionally it is believed that Nadillaya Nārāyaṇa Bhaṭṭa as name of the father and Vedavati as Madhvācārya's mother. They named him Vāsudeva at birth. Later he became famous by the names Pūrṇa-prajña, Ānanda-tīrtha and Madhvācārya.
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Malayali
Malayali (also spelled Malayalee; Malayalam: മലയാളി, Malayāḷi ?) is the term used to refer to the native speakers of Malayalam, originating from the Indian state of Kerala. The Malayali identity is primarily linguistic, although in recent times the definition has been broadened to include emigrants of Malayali descent who partly maintain Malayali cultural traditions, even if they do not regularly speak the language. While the origins of the Malayali people are in the state of Kerala, significant populations also exist in other parts of India, the Middle East, Europe and North America. According to the Indian census of 2001, there were 30,803,747 speakers of Malayalam in Kerala, making up 96.7% of the total population of that state. Hence the word Keralite is often used in the same context, though a proper definition is ambiguous.
Malayalam, the Malayalis' native language, has its origin from the words mala meaning mountain and alam meaning land (Tamil/Malayalam) or locality (which lies alongside the mountain). Hence 'Malayali' means people from the mountains who lived beyond the Western Ghats, and Malayalam the language that was spoken there.
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Manavala Mamunigal
Manavala Mamunigal (1370-1443) was a Hindu religious leader, who during the 15th century in Tamil Nadu, with the help of his eight disciples helped spread Vaishnavism. The disciples of Mamunigal established places of learning to teach Vaishnavite philosophy in Tamil Nadu.
Srirangam in southern India is a celebrated pilgrimage centre. It is the only dhivyakshetram sung by all ten azhwars and Andal. It is called Bhuloka Vaikunta. It is the root of all 108 dhivya kshetras. But over these and several other distinctions, the most outstanding is that the Lord showed here the ideal Acharya in the person of Swamy Manavala Mamuni. Manavala Mamunigal is one of the most well known and significant acharyas of Ramanuja's Sri Vaishnava Tradition-southern sect. Manavala Mamuni is the final acharya of a lineage that begins with the Supreme Being Sriman Narayana, passes through Acharyas such as Yamunacharya, Ramanuja, Embar, Pillai Lokacharya and ends with Manavala Mamuni. Manavala Mamuni is accepted by the Lord of Srirangam, Sri Ranganatha, as His own acharya at Srirangam.
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Maṇḍana Miśra
Maṇḍana Miśra (c. 8th century CE) was a Hindu philosopher, who wrote on the Mīmāmsā and Advaita systems of thought, and was a student and follower of Ādi Śankara. Maṇḍana Miśra, also known as Suresvaracharya, was a follower of the Karma Mimamsa school of philosophy and a staunch defender of the holistic sphota doctrine of language. Later, he became a disciple of Adi Sankara.
Maṇḍana Miśra lived in the ancient Indian town of Mithila (Bihar) during the time of Adi Sankara. He is known to be a student of a mimansa scholar Kumarila Bhatta. Being a follower of the Karma Mimamsa school, he was a ritualist and performed all of the ritualistic duties prescribed by the Vedas. In certain Hindu traditions, Maṇḍana Miśra is considered to be an incarnation of Brahma.
Maṇḍana Miśra is best known as the author of the Brahmasiddhi. He has often been identified with Sureśvara, a strong tradition in Hinduism being that he started life as a Mīmāmsaka, but changed his name and became a sannyāsin and an Advaitin after being defeated in debate by Śankara. This is controversial, however, as it is said that the two men's works are too different for them to have been the same person. According to Kuppuswami Sastri, it is not likely that Maṇḍana Miśra, the author of Brahmasiddhi, is identical with Sureśvara, but the tradition is correct in describing Maṇḍana Miśra and Śankara as contemporaries. His critical edition of the Brahmasiddhi also points out that the name Maṇḍana Miśra is both a title and a first name, which is a possible cause for a confusion of personalities. Maṇḍana Miśra's brand of Advaita differs in certain critical details from that of Śankara, whereas Sureśvara's thought is very faithful to that of Śankara.
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Meera
Meerabai (c. 1498 – c. 1547 AD) (alternate orthographies: Meera, Mira, Meera Bai) was an aristocratic Hindu mystical singer and devotee of Lord Krishna from Rajasthan and one of the most significant figures of the Sant tradition of the Vaishnava bhakti movement. Some 1,200–1,300 prayerful songs or bhajans attributed to her are popular throughout India and have been published in several translations worldwide. In the bhakti tradition, they are in passionate praise of Lord Krishna.
Details of her life, which has been the subject of several films, are pieced together from her poetry and stories recounted by her community and are of debatable historical authenticity, particularly those that connect her with the later Tansen. On the other hand, the traditions that make her a disciple of Guru Ravidas who disputed with Rupa Goswami are consonant with the usual account of her life.
Meera, a Rajput princess was born in Kudki (Kurki), a little village near Merta City which is presently in the Nagaur district of Rajasthan in northwest India. Her father, jai Singh aman, was a friend of the Rathore clan, the son of Rao Duda of Merta. Rao Duda was son of Rao Jodha of Mandore, founder of Mandsaur.
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Muhammad Iqbal
Sir Muhammad Iqbal (Urdu: محمد اقبال) (November 9, 1877 – April 21, 1938), also known as Allama Iqbal (Urdu: علامہ اقبال), was a philosopher, poet and politician in British India who is widely regarded as having inspired the Pakistan Movement. He is considered one of the most important figures in Urdu literature, with literary work in both the Urdu and Persian languages.
Iqbal is admired as a prominent classical poet by Pakistani, Indian and other international scholars of literature. Though Iqbal is best known as an eminent poet, he is also a highly acclaimed "Muslim philosophical thinker of modern times". His first poetry book, Asrar-e-Khudi, appeared in the Persian language in 1915, and other books of poetry include Rumuz-i-Bekhudi, Payam-i-Mashriq and Zabur-i-Ajam. Amongst these his best known Urdu works are Bang-i-Dara, Bal-i-Jibril, Zarb-i Kalim and a part of Armughan-e-Hijaz. Along with his Urdu and Persian poetry, his various Urdu and English lectures and letters have been very influential in cultural, social, religious and political disputes over the years. In 1922, he was knighted by King George V, giving him the title "Sir".
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Muthuswami Dikshitar
Muthuswami Dikshitar (Tamil:முத்துஸ்வாமி தீக்ஷிதர, Devanagari:मुत्तुस्वामि दीक्षित:, Telugu:ముత్తు స్వామీ దీక్షితులు, Kannada:ಮುತ್ತು ಸ್ವಾಮೀ ದೀಕ್ಷಿತರು, March 24, 1775 – October 21, 1835) is a South Indian poet and composer and is one of the Musical Trinity of Carnatic music. His compositions, of which around 500 are commonly known, are noted for their contemplative nature and for capturing the essence of the raga forms through the vainika (veena) style that emphasises gamakas. They are typically in a slower speed (chowka kala). He is also known by his signature name of Guruguha. His compositions are widely sung and played in classical concerts of Carnatic music.
The musical trinity consists of Dikshitar, Thyagaraja (1767–1847), and Syama Sastri (1762–1827) although, unlike the Telugu compositions of the others, his compositions are predominantly in Sanskrit.
Muthuswami Dikshitar was born in Tiruvarur (of Thiruvarur district in what is now the state of Tamil Nadu) to a Tamil Iyer Brahmin couple Ramaswami Dikshitar and Subbamma, as the eldest son. According to the account of Subbarama Dikshitar, Muttuswami Dikshitar was born in the manmatha year, in the month of Panguni under the asterism Krittikaa. He was named after the temple deity, Muttukumaraswamy; legend has it that he was born after his parents prayed for a child in the Vaitheeswaran Temple. He had two younger brothers Baluswami, Chinnaswami and a sister Balambal.
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Nagarjuna
Acharya Nāgārjuna (Devanagari:नागार्जुन, Telugu: నాగార్జున, Tibetan: ཀླུ་སྒྲུབ་ klu sgrub, Chinese: 龍樹, Sinhala නාගර්පුන) (ca. 150–250 CE) was an important Buddhist teacher and philosopher. Along with his disciple Āryadeva, he is credited with founding the Mādhyamaka school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. The Mādhyamaka school was in turn transmitted to China under the name of the Sānlùn School (Ch. 三論宗, "Three Treatise School").
Nāgārjuna is sometimes credited with developing the philosophy of the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, and being associated with the Buddhist university of Nālandā. In the Jodo Shinshu and Shingon schools of Buddhism in Japan he is considered the First Patriarch. In some Mahāyāna traditions, Nāgārjuna is regarded as a second buddha.
According to most available accounts, Nāgārjuna was originally from Southern India. Archaeological discoveries at Amarāvatī confirm the fact that Nāgārjuna maintained a friendship with the Sātavāhana king Gautamīputra Śātakarṇi, to whom he addressed his Letter to a Friend (Skt. Sahṛd-lekhā). On this basis, Nāgārjuna is conventionally placed at around 150–250 CE.
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Namdev
Saint Namdeo (29 October, 1270 - 1350) (Marathi: संत नामदेव) or Bhagat Namdeo (Gurmukhi: ਭਗਤ ਨਾਮਦੇਵ) was born on October 29, 1270 in the state of Maharashtra village of Narasi-Bamani, in Hingoli district (presently called Narsi Namdev). His father, a calico printer/tailor, was named Damshet and his mother's name was Gonabai. Most of the spiritual message of Bhagat Namdeo emphasized the importance of living the life of a householder (गृहस्थ जीवन) and that through marriage and having a family one could attain enlightenment.
The first biographer and auto-biographer in Marathi and the foremost proponent of Bhagawad-Dharma who propagated the religion right up to Punjab
Saint Namdev, a contemporary saint-poet of Saint Dnyaneshwar, is considered a prominent religious poet of Maharashtra. He was one the earliest writers who wrote in the Marathi language. He is the foremost proponent of the Bhagwad-Dharma who reached beyond Maharashtra, right into Punjab. He also wrote some hymns in Hindi and Punjabi. His depth of devotion and talent in delivering Kirtan was of such a high standard that it is said even the Lord Pandurang swayed to his tune. Despite being a proponent of the Warkari sect, Saint Namdev established religious unity across the country.
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Narayana Guru
Sri Nārāyana Guru (Malayalam: ശ്രീ നാരായണ ഗുരു) (1856–1928), also known as Sree Nārāyana Guru Swami, was a Hindu saint, sadhu[Full citation needed] and social reformer of India. The Guru was born into an Ezhava family, in an era when people from backward communities like the Ezhavas faced much social injustices in the caste-ridden Kerala society. Gurudevan, as he was fondly known to his followers, led Reform movement in Kerala, revolted against casteism and worked on propagating new values of freedom in spirituality and of social equality, thereby transforming the Kerala society and as such he is adored as a prophet.
Nārāyana Guru is revered for his Vedic knowledge[citation needed], poetic proficiency[citation needed], openness to the views of others[citation needed], non-violent philosophy[citation needed] and his unrelenting resolve to set aright social wrongs. Nārāyana Guru was instrumental in setting the spiritual foundations for social reform in today's Kerala and was one of the most successful social reformers who tackled caste in India. He demonstrated a path to social emancipation without invoking the dualism of the oppressed and the oppressor.
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Narsinh Mehta
Narsinh Mehta (Gujarati:નરસિંહ મહેતા)also known as Narsi Mehta or Narsi Bhagat (1414? – 1481?) was a poet-saint of Gujarat, India, and a member of the Nagar Brahmins community, notable as a bhakta, an exponent of Vaishnava poetry. He is especially revered in Gujarati literature, where he is acclaimed as its Adi Kavi (Sanskrit for "first among poets"). His bhajan, Vaishnav Jan To is Mahatma Gandhi's favorite and has become synonymous to him.
Narsinh Mehta was born in the ancient town of Talaja and then shifted to Jirndurg now known as Junagadh in the District of Saurashtra, in Vaishnava Brahmin community. He lost his mother and his father when he was 5 years old. He could not speak until the age of 8 and after his parents expired his care was taken by his grand mother Jaygauri.
Narsinh married Manekbai probably in the year 1429. Narsinh Mehta and his wife stayed at his brother Bansidhar’s place in Junagadh. However, his cousin's wife (Sister-in-law or bhabhi) did not welcome Narsinh very well. She was an ill-tempered woman, always taunting and insulting Narsinh mehta for his worship (Bhakti). One day, when Narasinh mehta had enough of these taunts and insults, he left the house and went to a nearby forest in search of some peace, where he fasted and meditated for seven days by a secluded Shiva lingam until Shiva appeared before him in person. On the poet’s request, the Lord took him to Vrindavan and showed him the eternal raas leela of Sri Krishna and the gopis. A legend has it that the poet transfixed by the spectacle burnt his hand with the torch he was holding but he was so engrossed in the ecstatic vision that he was oblivious of the pain. Narsinh mehta, as the popular account goes, at Sri Krishna's command decided to sing His praises and the nectarous experience of the rasa in this mortal world. He resolved to compose around 22,000 kirtans or compositions.
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Nimbarka
Nimbarka (Sanskrit: श्री निम्बार्काचार्य, Telugu: నింబార్కాచార్య Śrī Nimbārkācārya), is known for propagating the Vaishnava Theology of Dvaitadvaita, duality in unity. According to scholars headed by Prof. Roma Bose, he lived in the 13th Century, on the assumption that Śrī Nimbārkācārya was the author of the work Madhvamukhamardana. According to Nimbārka Sampradāya however, Śrī Nimbārkācārya appeared over 5000 years ago, in the year 3096 BCE at the time when the grandson of Arjuna was on the throne. He hailed from the present-day Andhra Pradesh, in South India.
Nimbarka's date is subject to much controversy. Although current research and scholarly consensus centres on a date somewhere just before Sankaracarya, in general scholars have not been able to come to a unilateral conclusion.
Dr. Bhandarkar has placed him as a philosopher after Ramanuja and has maintained his demise date as 1162 AD. Some hold that he is dated around 13th Century. However, Dr. S.N.Dasgupta dated Nimbarka to around middle of 14th Century. On the other hand, Dr. S A A Rizvi assigns the date of Circa 1130-1200 AD But Jadunath Sinha, has counted him as a 13th century philosopher, and Dr. Tarachand has held him to be a younger contemporary of Ramanuja.
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Nisargadatta Maharaj
Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj (April 17, 1897 – September 8, 1981), born Maruti Shivrampant Kambli, was an Indian spiritual teacher and philosopher of Advaita (Nondualism), and a Guru, belonging to the Inchgiri branch of the Navnath Sampradaya.
One of the 20th century's exponents of the school of Advaita Vedanta philosophy (nondualism), Sri Nisargadatta, with his direct and minimalistic explanation of non-dualism, is considered the most famous teacher of Advaita since Ramana Maharshi.
In 1973, the publication of his most famous and widely translated book, I Am That, an English translation of his talks in Marathi by Maurice Frydman, brought him worldwide recognition and followers.
Sri Nisargadatta was born on April 17, 1897, at break of dawn, the full moon in the month of Chaitra, to a devout Hindu couple Shivrampant Kambli and Parvatibai, in Bombay. The day was also the birthday of Lord Hanuman, hence the boy was named 'Maruti', after Lord Hanuman himself. Maruti Shivrampant Kambli was brought up in Kandalgaon, a small village in the Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra, where he grew up amidst his family of six siblings, two brothers and four sisters, and deeply religious parents. His father, Shivrampant, worked as a domestic servant in Mumbai and later became a petty farmer in Kandalgaon.
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Padmapadacharya
Padmapadacharya (fl. 8th century CE) was an Indian philosopher, a follower of Adi Shankara.
Padmapāda's dates are unknown, but modern scholarship places his life around the middle of the 8th century; similarly information about him comes mainly from hagiographies. What is known for certain is that he was a direct disciple of Shankara, of whom he was a younger contemporary. His hometown is considers as Vettathu Nadu, Tirur. Padmapada was the first head of Puri Govardhana matha. He founded a matha by name Thekke Matham in Thrissur, Kerala. Keralites popularly believe that he was a Nambuthiri belonging to Vemannillom ,though textual sources claim him hailing from Chola territory in South India.
Padmapāda, together with Sureśvara, developed ideas that led to the founding of the Vivarana school of commentators. The only surviving work of Padmapāda known to be authentic is the Pañcapādikā. According to tradition, this was written in response to Shankara's request for a commentary on his own Brahmasūtrabhāsya, and once written was destroyed by a jealous uncle. The surviving text is supposed to be what Shankara could recall of the commentary; certainly, all that survives of the work is an extended gloss on the first four aphorisms.
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Padmasambhava
Padmasambhava Tibetan: པདྨ་འབྱུང་གནས།, Wylie: pad+ma 'byung gnas (EWTS), ZYPY: Bämajungnä); Mongolian ловон Бадмажунай, lovon Badmajunai, Chinese: 蓮花生大士 (pinyin: Liánhuāshēng), Means The Lotus-Born, was a sage guru from Oddiyāna who is said to have transmitted Vajrayana Buddhism to Bhutan and Tibet and neighboring countries in the 8th century.
In those lands he is better known as Guru Rinpoche ("Precious Guru") or Lopon Rinpoche, or, simply, Padum in Tibet, where followers of the Nyingma school regard him as the second Buddha.
He is further considered an emanation of Buddha Amitabha and traditionally even venerated as "a second Buddha". He was born into a Brahmin family of Northwest India.
Padmasambhava said:
His Pureland Paradise is Zangdok Palri (the Copper-coloured Mountain).
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Patanjali
Patañjali (Sanskrit: पतञ्जलि, IPA: [pət̪əɲɟəli]; fl. 150 BCE or 2nd c. BCE) is the compiler of the Yoga Sūtras, an important collection of aphorisms on Yoga practice. According to tradition, the same Patañjali was also the author of the Mahābhāṣya, a commentary on Kātyāyana's vārttikas (short comments) on Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī as well as an unspecified work of medicine (āyurveda).
In recent decades the Yoga Sutra has become quite popular worldwide for the precepts regarding practice of Raja Yoga and its philosophical basis. "Yoga" in traditional Hinduism involves inner contemplation, a system of meditation practice and ethics.
Whether the two works, the Yoga Sutras and the Mahābhāṣya, are by the same author has been the subject of considerable debate. The authorship of the two is first attributed to the same person in Bhojadeva's Rajamartanda, a relatively late (10th c.) commentary on the Yoga Sutras, as well as several subsequent texts. As for the texts themselves, the Yoga Sutra iii.44 cites a sutra as that from Patanjali by name, but this line itself is not from the Mahābhāṣya. This 10th century legend of single-authorship is doubtful. The literary styles and contents of the Yogasūtras and the Mahābhāṣya are entirely different, and the only work on medicine attributed to Patañjali is lost. Sources of doubt include the lack of cross-references between the texts, and no mutual awareness of each other, unlike other cases of multiple works by (later) Sanskrit authors. Also, some elements in the Yoga Sutras may date from as late as the 4th c. CE, but such changes may be due to divergent authorship, or due to later additions which are not atypical in the oral tradition. Most scholars refer to both works as "by Patanjali", without meaning that they are by the same author.
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Pillai Lokacharya
Pillai Lokacharya (1205–1311 CE) was a prominent Vaishnavite leader and philosopher who authored several works important to Vishishtadvaita philosophy.
The name Ulag-Ariya (or Lokacharya) first became associated with Sri Nampillai when Sri Kanthadai Thozhappar celebrated him as the acharya for the world ("kanthAdai thOzhappar tham ugappAl enna ulagAriyanO enRu uraikka"). Nampillai's disciple was Sri Vadakku Thiruveethippillai. Out of great affection for his acharya, Vadakku Thiruveethippillai named his first son as Pillai Lokacharya ("anbAl anna thiru nAmaththai Athariththu mannu pugazh maintharkku sARRukaiyAl").
One time Nampillai was enquiring Vadakkuth Thiruveethip pillai's mother Ammi about her welfare. She told him that she was sad as her family was not being furthered because her son was staying away from his wife and was not having a child. Nampillai asked her to bring her daughter-in-law to his presence. When she did, he told her daughter-in-law that she would give birth to a son just like himself. He then called his disciple Vadakkuth Thiruveethippillai and told him to follow proper gruhastAsrama and that it would not cause any damage to his vairAgya.
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Prabhākara
Prabhākara (ca. 7th c. AD) was an Indian philosopher grammarian in the Mimamsa tradition. His views and his debate with Kumārila Bhaṭṭa led to the Prābhākara school within Mimamsa.
Commentaries on Prabhakara have been written by Shalikanatha in the 8th c.[citation needed]
One of the views of the prābhākaras is that words do not directly designate meaning; any meaning that arises is because it is connected with other words (anvitābhidhāna, anvita = connected; abhidhā = denotation). We know or learn the meaning of a word only by considering the sentential context which it appears; we learn such word meanings together with their possible semantic connections with other words. Sentence meanings are grasped directly, from perceptual and contextual cues, skipping the stage of grasping singly the individual word meanings (Matilal 1990:108).
This is very similar to the modern view of linguistic underspecification, and relates to the Dynamic Turn in Semantics, which opposes the purely compositional view of arriving at sentence meaning.
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Purandara Dasa
Purandara Dāsa (Kannada: ಪುರಂದರ ದಾಸ) (1484–1564) (sometimes spelled as a single word) is one of the most prominent composers of Carnatic music and is widely regarded as the "father of Carnatic Music". Purandara Dasa addressed social issues in addition to worship in his compositions, a practice emulated by his younger contemporary, Kanaka Dasa. Purandara Dasa's Carnatic music compositions are mostly in Kannada; some are in Sanskrit. He signed his compositions with the mudra (pen name), "Purandara Vittala" (Vittala is one of the incarnations of the Hindu god Vishnu). About 1000 of his songs are extant.
Inscriptional evidence suggests Purandara Dasa was born in 1484 AD in Kshemapura, near Tirthahalli, Shivamogga district, Karnataka state. According to other opinions, his native town was Purandaraghatta in Karnataka, or Purandaragad near Pune, but the latter is considered a historical mistake - connecting his "pen name" (his ankita) with a location that mainly served as a military encampment in the 15th and 16th century. The only son of Varadappa Nayaka, a wealthy merchant, and Leelavati, he was named Srinivasa Nayaka, after the Lord of the Seven Hills. He received a good education in accordance with family traditions and acquired proficiency in Kannada, Sanskrit, and sacred music. At age 16 he married Saraswatibai, said by tradition to have been a pious young girl. He lost his parents at age 20, thereby inheriting his father's business of gemstones and pawning. He prospered and became known as "navakoti narayana" (abundantly rich man; owner of nine crores).
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Raghavendra Swami
Raghavendra Swami (1595–1671 CE) was a Hindu saint and philosopher who served as the head of the Sri Mutt in Kumbakonam from 1624 to 1636. He wrote a commentary Sudha Parimala on the Nyaya Sudha, an exposition of Dvaita philosophy. His samadhi in Mantralayam in the present-day Andhra Pradesh is an important place of pilgrimage. The numerous miracles he performed have led to him being worshipped even today in the form of god and he is believed to be the saviour for those who placed faith in him.
Raghavendra was born Venkatanatha in the town of Bhuvanagiri in the present-day Tamil Nadu to Kannada-speaking Madhwa Brahmin parents in 1595, 1598 or 1601. After having his initial education under his brother-in-law Lakshminarasimhachar, Venkatanatha was admitted to the Sri Mutt in Kumbakonam where he took sanyasa and adopted the name Raghavendra Theertha. Raghavendra succeeded his guru Sudheendra Theertha as the head of the Sri Mutt and served from 1624 to 1636. He travelled all over South India expounding Madhvacharya's Dvaita philosophy and is attributed with a number of miracles. In 1671, after assuring his disciples in a speech that he will be in spirit with them for the next eight hundred years, Raghavendra attained samadhi at Mantralayam.
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Raghunatha Siromani
Raghunatha Shiromani (Bengali: রঘুনাথ শিরোমণি, IAST: Raghunātha Śiromaṇi) (c. 1477–1547) was an Indian philosopher and logician. He was born at Nabadwip in present day Nadia district of West Bengal state. He was the grandson of Śulapāṇi (c. 14th century CE), a noted writer on Smṛti from his mother's side. He was a pupil of Vāsudeva Sārvabhauma. He brought the new school of Nyaya, Navya Nyāya, representing the final development of Indian formal logic, to its zenith of analytic power.
Raghunatha's analysis of relations revealed the true nature of number, inseparable from the abstraction of natural phenomena, and his studies of metaphysics dealt with the negation or nonexistence of a complex reality. His most famous work in logic was the Tattvacintāmaṇidīdhiti, a commentary on the Tattvacintāmaṇi of Gangeśa Upādhyāya, founder of the Navya Nyāya school.
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Raja Ravi Varma
Raja Ravi Varma (Malayalam: രാജാ രവി വർമ്മ) (April 29, 1848 - October 2, 1906) was an Indian painter from the princely state of Travancore (presently in Kerala) who achieved recognition for his depiction of scenes from the epics of the Mahabharata and Ramayana. His paintings are considered to be among the best examples of the fusion of Indian traditions with the techniques of European academic art.
During his life-time Varma is most remembered for his paintings of beautiful sari-clad women, who were portrayed as shapely and graceful. Varma's paintings became an important motif in kitsch of the time, reproductions being found in almost every middle-class home. His exposure in the west came when he won the first prize in the Vienna Art Exhibition in 1873. Raja Ravi Varma died in 1906 at the age of 58. He is considered among the greatest painters in the history of Indian art.
Raja Ravi Varma was born as Ravi Varma Koil Thampuran of Kilimanoor palace, in the erstwhile princely state of Travancore (Thiruvithankur) in Kerala. His father Ezhumavail Neelakanthan Bhattatiripad was an accomplished scholar, and his mother Umayamba Thampuratti (died 1886) was a poet and writer whose work Parvati Swayamvaram was published by Raja Ravi Varma after her death. His siblings were C. Goda Varma (born 1854), C. Raja Raja Varma (born 1860) and Mangala Bayi Thampuratti, who was also a painter.
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Ramana Maharshi
Sri Ramana Maharshi (Tamil: ரமண மஹரிஷி) (December 30, 1879 – April 14, 1950), born Venkataraman Iyer, was a Hindu spiritual master ("jnani"). He was born to a Tamil-speaking Brahmin family in Tiruchuzhi, Tamil Nadu. After experiencing at age 16 what he later described as liberation (moksha), he left home for Arunachala, a mountain considered sacred by Hindus. He lived at the mountain for the rest of his life. Although born a Brahmin, he declared himself an "Atiasrami", a Sastraic state of non-attachment to anything in life and beyond all caste restrictions. The ashram that grew around him, Sri Ramana Ashram, is situated at the foothill of Arunchala, to the west to the pilgrimage town of Tiruvannamalai.
Sri Ramana Maharshi maintained that the purest form of his teachings was the powerful silence which radiated from his presence and quieted the minds of those attuned to it. He gave verbal teachings only for the benefit of those who could not understand his silence (or, perhaps, could not understand how to attain the silent state). His verbal teachings were said to flow from his direct experience of Atman as the only existing reality. When asked for advice, he recommended self-enquiry as the fastest path to moksha. Though his primary teaching is associated with Non-dualism, Advaita Vedanta, and Jnana yoga, he recommended Bhakti to those he saw were fit for it, and gave his approval to a variety of paths and practices.
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Ramananda
Ramananda (1400–1476 CE), also referred to as Sant Ramanand or Swami Ramanand, was a Vaishnava sant. He is considered to be the reviver of the Ramanandi sect. Ramananda for the most part of his life lived in the holy city of Varanasi, and was a pioneer of the Bhakti movement, as well as a social reformer in Northern India. He was known for communicating in vernacular Hindi, and accepting disciples of all castes. His 12 disciples are very famous-Anantananda, Bhavananda, Dhanna Bhagat, Kabir, Nabha, Naraharyanda, Pipa, Ravidas (also known as Guru Ravidas), Bhagat Sain, Sukhanada, Ranka and Tulsidas (not the author of the Ramcharitmanas).
Saint Ramananda is generally considered to have been born around AD 1400, some say that he was born in 1366 CE. Although there is disagreement on the exact date and place of birth, due to the few texts regarding his early life. The birthplace has been suggested to be Triveni Sangam Allahabad, Prayaga. He was born to an upper-caste Brahmin family, and his parents were probably named Sushila and Punyasadan Sharma. He was spiritually inclined right from his childhood. Acharya Raghavanand who is also known as Dakshinayat Rishi (as he lived in Jagannath Puri which is always considered a southern city in Hindu scriptures) included him in the Ramavat sect. Ramananda spent most of his life in Kashi (Banaras / Varanasi), where, as a mark of respect, people built a memorial that stands there to this day.
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Ramanuja
Śrī Ramanuja (Tamil: இராமானுஜர், Rāmānujar ?, Telugu: రామానుజాచార్యుల వారు, Rāmānujācārya ?, Kannada: ರಾಮಾನುಜಾಚಾರ್ಯ, Rāmānujācārya ?, Devanagari: रामानुज); traditionally 1017–1137, also known as Śrī Ramanujacharya, Ethirajar (Yatiraja), Emberumannar, Lakshmana Muni, was a theologian, philosopher, and scriptural exegete. He is seen by Śrīvaiṣṇavas as the most important teacher (ācārya) of their tradition who followed Nathamuni and Yamunacharya, and by Hindus in general as the leading expounder of Viśiṣṭādvaita, one of the classical interpretations of the dominant Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy.
The traditional biographies of Ramanuja place his life in the period of 1017–1137, yielding a lifespan of 120 years. However, the unusual length and roundness of this lifetime has led scholars to propose that Ramanuja was born 20–60 years later, and died as many as 20 years earlier than the traditional dates[citation needed]. Any chronology depends crucially on the major historical event mentioned in the traditional biographies: the persecution of Srivaishnavas under the Chola king Kulothunga and Ramanuja's subsequent 12-year exile in Melkote, in Karnataka[citation needed].
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Ramprasad Sen
Rāmprasād Sen (Bengali: রামপ্রসাদ সেন; c. 1718 or ca. 1723 – c. 1775) was a Shakta poet of eighteenth century Bengal. His bhakti poems, known as Ramprasadi, are still popular in Bengal—they are usually addressed to the Hindu goddess Kali and written in Bengali. Stories of Ramprasad's life typically include legends and myths mixed with biographical details.
It is said that, Ramprasad was born into a Tantric family, and showed an inclination towards poetry from an early age. He became a disciple of Agamavisha, a Tantric scholar and yogi. Ramprasad became well known for his devotional songs, eventually becoming the court poet for the king Krishna Chandra of Nadia. His life has been the subject of many stories depicting his devotion to, and relationship with, Kali. Ramprasad's literary works include Vidyasundar, Kali-kirtana, Krishna-kirtana and Shaktigiti.
Ramprasad is credited with creating a new compositional form that combined the Bengali folk style of Baul music with classical melodies and kirtan. The new style took root in Bengali culture with many poet-composers combining folk and raga-based melodies, mixing every common style of music from classical to semi-classical and folk. His songs are sung today, with a popular collection—Ramprasadi Sangit ("Songs of Ramprasad")—sold at Shakta temples and pithas in Bengal.
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Ron Geaves
Ron Geaves is a professor of religion at Liverpool Hope University in England. He was formerly Programme Leader and Chair in religious studies at the University of Chester in England and Head of Department at the University of Chichester. He is currently Chair of the Muslims in Britain Research Network. His Ph.D. from the University of Leeds was on community formation amongst British Muslims. He has become known by his expertise in the adaptation and transmigration of religions to the West, especially Islam, Sikhism and Hinduism. He is the author of several books, including The Sufis of Britain, which explored the manifestations of Islamic mysticism in the UK and The Continuum Glossary of Religious Terminology an extensive glossary of seven major world faiths.
Geaves has taught several subjects including Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, the Sociology and Anthropology of Religion, Judaism, Christianity and ancient religions. His interests lie in the spiritual manifestations of Islam and Indian traditions.
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Samarth Ramdas
Ramdas (Marathi: समर्थ रामदास, Rāmdās) (1608–1681) was a prominent Marathi saint and religious poet in the Hindu tradition in Maharashtra, India. Samarth Ramdas was a devotee of Lord Hanuman and Lord Rama. His birth name was Narayan Suryajipant Kulkarni Thosar.
Ramdas Swami was born in a Deshastha Rugvedi Bramhan family to Suryāji and Rānu-Bāi Thosar in Jāmb in Jalna District of Maharashtra on Ram Navami (the birth festival of Lord Ram), 1530 according to "Shāliwāhan Shak" calendar. His given name was Nārāyan.
As a child, Ramdas showed an inclination toward metaphysical contemplation and religion. When Ramdas was eight, his father died; and when he was 18, his mother arranged his marriage. However, he wanted to pursue a monastic life. He ran away in the middle of the wedding ceremony, before the marriage vows were exchanged.
During the Hindu marriage ceremony, the last word which seals the marriage is "Saavdhan" meaning, 'be careful'. Swami Ramdas interpreted that word to mean that he had to be careful not to get entangled in the bonds of Maya, and must seek Self realization.
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Shankaracharya
Shankaracharya, (IAST: Śaṅkarācārya, Shankara acharya) is a commonly used title of heads of mathas in the Advaita Vedanta tradition. The title derives from Adi Shankara, a 9th century CE reformer of Hinduism. He is honored as Jagadguru, a title that was used earlier only to Lord Krishna. The popular view among historians is that there were four mathas established by Ādi Śankara:
Sri Adi Shankara established a fifth math in Kanchipuram, with jurisdiction over the four mathas and that Sankaracharya ascended a sarvagna-pitha at Kanchipuram and he died in Kanchi.[citation needed]
Like other religions and sects, some rivalry exists between some groups who claim to have been initiated into the Shankaracharya Order.
The existence of such multiple mathas occurs because a Guru/or descendant of the shankaracharya lineage could have had many disciples. This could have resulted in the branching out of the parent institution. It is also possible that a Guru might have died without naming a successor, leading to the formation of rival groups.
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Sivananda Saraswati
Swami Sivananda Saraswati (September 8, 1887 – July 14, 1963) was a Hindu spiritual teacher and a proponent of Yoga and Vedanta. Sivananda was born Kuppuswami in Pattamadai, in the Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu. He studied medicine and served in Malaya as a physician for several years before taking up monasticism. He lived most of the later part of his life near Muni Ki Reti, Rishikesh.
He is the founder of The Divine Life Society (1936), Yoga-Vedanta Forest Academy (1948) and author of over 200 books on yoga, vedanta and a variety of other subjects. He established Sivananda Ashram, the location of the headquarters of The Divine Life Society (DLS), on the bank of the Ganges at Shivanandanagar, at a distance of 3 kilometres from Rishikesh.
Sivananda Yoga, the yoga form propagated by him, are now spread in many parts of the world through Sivananda Yoga Vedanta Centres, but these centres are not affiliated with Swami Sivananda's original ashrams which are run by the Divine Life Society.
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Sri Aurobindo
Sri Aurobindo (Bengali: শ্রী অরবিন্দ Sri Ôrobindo) (15 August 1872 – 5 December 1950), born Aurobindo Ghosh or Ghose (Bengali: অরবিন্দ ঘোষ Ôrobindo Ghosh), was an Indian nationalist, freedom fighter, philosopher, yogi, guru, and poet. He joined the Indian movement for freedom from British rule and for a duration became one of its most important leaders, before developing his own vision of human progress and spiritual evolution.
The central theme of Aurobindo's vision was the evolution of human life into life divine. He wrote: "Man is a transitional being. He is not final. The step from man to superman is the next approaching achievement in the earth evolution. It is inevitable because it is at once the intention of the inner spirit and the logic of nature's process."
Aurobindo's writings synthesized Eastern and Western philosophy, religion, literature, and psychology. Aurobindo was the first Indian to create a major literary corpus in English.His works include philosophy; poetry; translations of and commentaries on the Vedas, Upanishads, and the Gita; plays; literary, social, political, and historical criticism; devotional works; spiritual journals and three volumes of letters. His principal philosophical writings are The Life Divine and The Synthesis of Yoga, while his principal poetic work is Savitri: A Legend and a Symbol.
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Srimanta Sankardeva
Srimanta Shankardeva (1449–1568) (Assamese: মহাপুৰুষ শ্ৰীমন্ত শঙ্কৰদেৱ Môhapurux Srimôntô Xônkôrdev), was a 15th-16th century Assamese saint-scholar, playwright, social-religious reformer and a colossal figure in the cultural and religious history of Assam, India. He is credited with providing a thread of unity to Assam straddling two major kingdoms (Ahom and Koch kingdoms), building on past literary activities to provide the bedrock of Assamese culture, and creating a religion that gave shape to a set of new values and social synthesis. The religion he started, Mahapuruxiya Dharma, was part of the Bhakti movement then raging in India, and he inspired bhakti in Assam just as Ramananda, Guru Nanak, Kabir, Basava and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu inspired it elsewhere.
His literary and artistic contributions are living traditions in Assam today. The religion he preached is practiced by a large population, and Sattras (monasteries) that he and his followers established continue to flourish and sustain his legacy.
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Surdas
Surdas (Sant Kavi Surdas) was a 15th century blind saint, poet and musician, known for his devotional songs dedicated to Lord Krishna. Surdas is said to have written and composed a hundred thousand songs in his magnum opus the 'Sur Sagar' (Ocean of Melody), out of which only about 8,000 are extant. He is considered a saint and so also known as Sant Surdas, a name which literally means the "slave of melody".
The time of Surdas's birth and death are uncertain and suggest that he lived over a hundred years, which make the facts even murkier. Some say, he was born blind in 1478 in Siri village near Delhi, India. Many others believe, Surdas was born in Renuka or runakta area near Mathura, a holy place in northern Indian district of Mathura, associated with the exploits of Lord Krishna. His family was too poor to take good care of him, which led the blind boy to leave home at the age of 6 to join a wondering group of religious musicians. According to one legend, one night he dreamt of Krishna, who asked him to go to Vrindavan, and dedicate his life to the praise of the Lord.
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Swami Vivekananda
Swami Vivekananda (pronounced: IPA: [ʂāmiː biːbeːkānoːnɗoː] listen (help·info)) (12 January 1863 – 4 July 1902), born Narendra Nath Datta (IPA: [nôreːnd̪roː naːt̪ʰ d̪ôttoː] was the chief disciple of the 19th century saint Ramakrishna and the founder of the Ramakrishna Math and the Ramakrishna Mission. He is considered a key figure in the introduction of Indian philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga to the western world, mainly in America and Europe and is also credited with raising interfaith awareness, bringing Hinduism to the status of a major world religion during the end of the 19th century CE. Vivekananda is considered to be a major force in the revival of Hinduism in modern India. He is perhaps best known for his inspiring speech which began: "Sisters and Brothers of America," through which he introduced Hinduism at the Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago in 1893.
Swami Vivekananda was born in an aristocratic Bengali Kayastha family of Calcutta on 12 January 1863. Vivekananda's parents influenced his thinking—his father by his rationality and his mother by her religious temperament. From his childhood, he showed an inclination towards spirituality and God realisation. His guru, Ramakrishna, taught him Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism); that all religions are true and that service to man was the most effective worship of God. After the Mahasamadhi of his guru, Vivekananda became a wandering monk, touring the Indian subcontinent and acquiring first-hand knowledge of conditions in India. He later travelled to Chicago and represented India as a delegate in the 1893 Parliament of World Religions. He conducted hundreds of public and private lectures and classes, disseminating Vedanta and Yoga in America, England and Europe. He also established the Vedanta societies in America and England.
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Syama Sastri
Syama Sastri (శ్యామ శాస్త్రి ஸ்ரீ சியாமா சாஸ்திரி்) (also commonly transliterated as Shyama Shastri) (1762-1827) is one of the most renowned composers of Carnatic music. He is the oldest among the Trinity of Carnatic music, Tyagaraja and Muthuswami Dikshitar being the other two. A major source for his biography is a chapter in P. Sambamoorthy's book, Great Composers, 69-94. (Madras: The Indian Music Publishing House).
Syama Sastri was born in Tiruvarur in Thiruvarur district, into a scholarly and priestly Tamil speaking Brahmin,Iyer Vadama family. His father Viswanatham was the hereditary priest responsible for the care and worship of the image of the goddess, Bangaru Kamakshi, whose temple is in Thanjavur. Syama Sastri's father was 25 at the time of his birth and his mother, Vengalakshmi, 20 years old. A family tradition holds that she had received a prophecy of his birth from a devout neighbour. The infant was named Venkatasubrahmanya, but came to be affectionately known as Syama Krishna.
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Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas, O.P. ( /əˈkwaɪnəs/ ə-KWY-nəs; 1225 – 7 March 1274), also Thomas of Aquin or Aquino, was an Italian Dominican priest of the Roman Catholic Church, and an immensely influential philosopher and theologian in the tradition of scholasticism, known as Doctor Angelicus ([the] Angelic Doctor), Doctor Communis, or Doctor Universalis. "Aquinas" is not a surname, but is a Latin demonym for a resident of Aquino, his place of birth. He was the foremost classical proponent of natural theology, and the father of Thomism. His influence on Western thought is considerable, and much of modern philosophy was conceived as a reaction against, or as an agreement with, his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law, metaphysics, and political theory.
Thomas is held in the Catholic Church to be the model teacher for those studying for the priesthood. The works for which he is best-known are the Summa Theologica and the Summa Contra Gentiles. As one of the 33 Doctors of the Church, he is considered the Church's greatest theologian and philosopher. Pope Benedict XV declared: "This (Dominican) Order ... acquired new luster when the Church declared the teaching of Thomas to be her own and that Doctor, honored with the special praises of the Pontiffs, the master and patron of Catholic schools."
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Totakacharya
Note the misspelling of the title
Trotakacharya (IAST Troţakācārya) (c. 8th century CE) was a disciple of Adi Shankara, the Advaita philosopher. He was made the first Jagadguru (head) of the Jyotirmatha Peetham, the northern matha founded by Adi Shankara near Badrinath. He founded a matha by name Vadakke Matham in Thrissur, Kerala.
The Mādhavīya Śaṃkaravijayam states that when Adi Shankara was at Sringeri, he met a boy named Giri. Adi Shankara accepted the boy as his disciple. Giri was a hard-working and loyal servant of his Guru, Adi Shankara, though he did not appear bright to the other disciples. One day, Giri was washing his Guru's clothes, when Adi Shankara sat down to begin a lesson on Advaita Vedanta. He however did not start the lesson saying he was waiting for Giri to come back from his chores and singing lessons. At this, Padmapada pointed to a wall and said that it would be the same if Adi Shankara taught to this dumb object as he taught to Giri. Now, Adi Shankara wanted to reward Giri for his loyalty and devotion. Thus he mentally granted Giri the complete knowledge of all the śāstras (sciences). The enlightened Giri composed extempore the Totakashtakam, a Sanskrit poem in the toţaka metre, in praise of the Guru Adi Shankara. Thus the dumb disciple Giri became Totakacharya.
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Tukaram
Sant Tukaram (1608–1650) was a prominent Varkari Sant (Saint) and spiritual poet during a Bhakti movement in India.
Sant Tukaram was born and lived most of his life in Dehu, a town close to Pune in Mahārāshtra, India. Kumar, Munshi, Kincaid and Parasanisa, consider him to be of the Vani or grocer caste. In accordance with an ancient Indian tradition, Tukaram's family name is rarely used in identifying him. His real name is Tukaram Vhilhoba Aambe. Rather, in accord with another tradition in India of assigning the epithet "sant" (संत) to persons regarded as thoroughly saintly, Tukaram is commonly known in Maharashtra as Sant Tukaram (संत तुकाराम). He is known as Bhakta Tukaram to southern Indian people.
Scholars assign various birth years to Sant Tukaram: 1577, 1598, 1608 and 1609 CE. The year of Sant Tukaram's death —1650 CE— is much more certain.
Sant Tukaram's first wife, Rakhumābāi, died in 1602 in her early youth. Sant Tukaram and his second wife, Jijābāi (also known as Āvali), had three sons: Santu or Mahādev, Vithobā, and Nārāyan.
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Tulsidas
Tulsidas (Devanagari: तुलसीदास, Hindi pronunciation: [t̪uls̪iːd̪ɑːs̪], also known as Goswami Tulsidas), (1497/1532–1623) was a Hindu poet-saint, reformer and philosopher renowned for his devotion for the god Rama. A composer of several popular works, he is best known for being the author of the epic Ramcharitmanas, a retelling of the Sanskrit Ramayana in the vernacular Awadhi. Tulsidas was acclaimed in his lifetime to be a reincarnation of Valmiki, the composer of the original Ramayana in Sanskrit. He is also considered to be the composer of the Hanuman Chalisa, a popular devotional hymn dedicated to Hanuman, the divine monkey helper and devotee of Rama. Tulsidas lived permanently and died in the city of Varanasi. The Tulsi Ghat in Varnasi is named after him. He founded the Sankatmochan Temple dedicated to Hanuman in Varanasi, believed to stand at the place where he had the sight of Hanuman. Tulsidas started the Ramlila plays, a folk-theatre adaption of the Ramayana. He has been acclaimed as one of the greatest poets in Hindi, Indian, and world literature. The impact of Tulsidas and his works on the art, culture and society in India is widespread and is seen to date in vernacular language, Ramlila plays, Hindustani classical music, popular music, and television series.
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Tyagaraja
Kakarla Tyagabrahmam (Telugu: త్యాగరాజు) (May 4, 1767–January 6, 1847), colloquially known as Tyāgarājar and Tyagayya, was one of the greatest composers of Carnatic music or classical South Indian music. He, along with his contemporaries Muthuswami Dikshitar and Shyama Shastry, forms the Trinity of Carnatic music. He was a prolific composer and highly influential in the development of the South Indian classical music tradition. Tyagaraja composed thousands of devotional compositions, most of them in praise of Lord Rama — most of which remain very popular even today. Of special mention are five of his compositions called the Pancharatna Krithis (English: 'five gems'), which are often sung in programs in his honor.
Tyagaraja was born in 1767 in Tiruvarur, Tiruvarur district, in what is now called Tamil Nadu, to Kakarla Ramabrahmam and Sitamma in a Telugu Brahmin family of the Mulukanadu subsect. He was named Tyagaraja, after Lord Tyagaraja, the presiding deity of the temple at Tiruvarur. Tyagaraja was born at his maternal grandfather Giriraja Kavi's house. Giriraja Kavi was a poet-composer in the court of the king of Thanjavur.
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Vallabha Acharya
Vallabhacharya (Telugu: వల్లబ్హాచార్య) (1479–1531 CE) was a devotional philosopher, who founded the Pushti sect in India, following the philosophy of Shuddha advaita (Pure Non-dualism).
Vallabhacharya accepted the 'Acharya' designation of Vishnuswami Sampraday (Rudra Sampraday) upon request of Bilvamangala Acharya, the last Vishnuswami Sampraday acharya before Vallabhacharya. This was after Vallabhacharya won the famous debate of Brahmavada over Shankaras in the courtyard of the Emperor Krishna Deva Raya of Vijayanagara Empire - the prosperous South Indian Empire. Apart from being the acharya of Vishnuswami Sampradaya, Vallabhacharya also propagated the Pushtimarga upon the god Krishna's order and thus became the acharya of not only Vishnuswami Sampradaya but also Pushti Sampradaya.
He is the Acharya and Guru within the Vaishnava traditions as promulgated and prescribed by the Vedanta philosophy. He is associated with Vishnuswami, a prominent Acharya of Rudra Sampradaya out of the four Vaishnava Sampradayas.
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Vasubandhu
Vasubandhu (Sanskrit: वसुबन्दु; traditional Chinese: 世親; pinyin: Shìqīn; Tibetan: དབྱིག་གཉེན་, Wylie: dbyig gnyen) (fl. 4th c.) was an Indian Buddhist monk, and along with his half-brother Asanga, one of the main founders of the Indian Yogācāra school. However, some scholars consider Vasubandhu to be two distinct people. Vasubandhu is one of the most influential figures in the entire history of Buddhism. In the Jodo Shinshu branch of Buddhism, he is considered the Second Patriarch. In Zen, he is the 21st Patriarch.
Born a brahmin Vasubandhu was said to have been the half brother of Asanga, another key personage in the founding of the Yogacara School. He was also, as well as his elder half brother Asanga, one of the ‘Six Ornaments’(i.e. six great commentators on the Buddha’s teachings). He resided at Kausambhi (near modern Allahabad) where he was trained in the orthodox Sarvastivada Order of Buddhism, which had its seat at Kausambhi. He was contemporaneous with King Chandragupta I, the father of Samudragupta. This information temporally places this Vasubandhu in the fourth century CE.
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Vedanta Desika
Vedanta Desika (Swami Desikan, Swami Vedanta Desikan, Thoopul Nigamaantha Desikan) (1269–1370) was a Sri Vaishnava Guru. He was a poet, devotee, philosopher and master-teacher. He was the disciple of Swamy Sri Kidambi Appullar alias Sri Aathreya Ramanujachariar who comes in the lineage starting from Sri Ramanuja with Sri Thirukurugai Piran Pillan alias Sri Kurugesar,Sri Kidambi Aachan, Sri Aathreya Ramanujar, Sri Aathreya Rangarajachariar and many in the order. He is considered as an Avatar (incarnation) of Lord Venkateswara of Tirumalai by Sri Vaishavites.
In the case Swami Vedanta Desika, certain oblique biographical references are available internally in his works, for example in the Prologue to his Sankalpa Suryodayam. Prathivadi Bhayankaram Annan (1300–1400), a junior contemporary of Swami Desika and a disciple of Kumara Varadhacharya (son of Swamy Vedanta Desika) gives some details about Vedanta Desika's parentage, education etc. in his " Saptati Ratna Maalika".
The birth of Vedanta Desika was in the Kali yuga year 4370, which corresponds to 1268 AD in the Tamil Year Vibhava, month Purattaasi, on the Dasami day of Sukla Paksha, a Wednesday, in the constellation of Sravanam (the same as that of Lord of Tirumalai).He was born in Thooppul, near Tiruttangaa (Himavanam) adjacent to the temple of Deepa Prakaasar in Kanchipuram, the birthplace of Poigai Alwar.
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Vidyaranya
Vidyāraṇya also known as Mādhava Vidyāranya is variously known as being a kingmaker, patron saint and high priest to Harihara Raya I and Bukka Raya I, the founders of the Vijayanagar Empire. He was the 12th Jagadguru of the Sringeri Sharada Peetham from 1380 to 1386 A.D. He was born to Māyaṇācārya and Śrīmatīdevī in Pampakṣetra (modern day Hampi) in 1268 CE. Another account has it that he was born in Ekasila nagari (modern Warangal). He helped the brothers establish the empire sometime in 1336 AD. He later served as a mentor and guide to three generations of kings who ruled over the Vijayanagar empire. Vijayanagara or Hampi, the capital of the empire, has a temple dedicated to Mādhavācārya. He is the author of the Sarvadarśanasaṅ̇graha (सर्वदर्शनसङ्रह), a compendium of different philosophical schools of Hindu thought and Pañcadaśī, an important text in the Advaita Vedanta tradition.
Vidyaranya was an exponent of the Advaita school of philosophy in Hinduism. He is said to be the brother of Sāyaṇācārya who wrote a commentary on the four Vedas. He was a Hindu statesman and philosopher who lived at the court of Vijayanagara, the Southern Hindu kingdom. He is believed to have served as a minister under King Bukka of the Vijayanagara empire. His younger brother, Shyapa, was associated with him in the administration and was a famous commentator on the Rigveda. Shyapa's commentaries were influenced by and dedicated to Mādhava.
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Vikramaditya II
Vikramaditya II (reigned 733 – 744 CE) was the son of King Vijayaditya and ascended the Badami Chalukya throne following the death of his father. This information comes from the Lakshmeshwar inscriptions in Kannada dated January 13, 735 A.D. From inscriptions it has come to be known that even before his coronation, Vikramaditya II, as a crown prince (Yuvaraja), had conduced successful military campaigns against their arch enemy, the Pallavas of Kanchipuram. His most important achievements were the capture of Kanchipuram on three occasions, the first time as a crown prince, the second time as an emperor and the third time under the leadership of his son and crown prince Kirtivarman II. This is attested to by another Kannada inscription, known as the Virupaksha Temple inscription which alludes to the emperor as the conqueror of Kanchi on three occasions and reads Sri Vikramaditya-bhatarar-mume-Kanchiyan-mume parajisidor. The other notable achievement was the consecration of the famous Virupaksha Temple (Lokeshwara temple) and Mallikarjuna Temple (Trilokeshwara temple) by his queens Lokadevi and Trilokadevi at Pattadakal. These two monuments are the centre piece of the UNESCO World Heritage Monuments at Pattadakal.
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Vyasa
Vyasa (Devanagari: व्यास, vyāsa) is a central and revered figure in most Hindu traditions. He is also sometimes called Veda Vyasa (वेद व्यास, veda vyāsa), (the one who classified the Vedas in to four parts) or Krishna Dvaipayana (referring to his complexion and birthplace). He is the author as well as a character in the Mahabharata and considered to be the scribe of both the Vedas, and the supplementary texts such as the Puranas. A number of Vaishnava traditions regard him as an Avatar of Vishnu. Vyasa is sometimes conflated by some Vaishnavas with Badarayana, the author of the Vedanta Sutras. Vyāsa is also considered to be one of the seven Chiranjivins (long lived, or immortals), who are still in existence according to general Hindu belief. He is also the fourth member of the Rishi Parampara of the Advaita Guru Paramparā of which Adi Shankara is the chief proponent.
The festival of Guru Purnima, is dedicated to him, and also known as Vyasa Purnima as it is the day, which is believed to be his birthday and also the day he divided the Vedas.
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Vācaspati Miśra
Vācaspati Miśra (900–980 CE) was an Indian philosopher who founded one of the main Advaita Vedanta schools, the Bhāmatī school (named after his commentary on Śankara's Brahma-sūtra-bhāṣya), and whose work was an important forerunner of the Navya-Nyāya system of thought.
Vācaspati was a Maithili Brahmin who lived near the frontier between India and Nepal (what is now Vachaspati Nagar (Andhra Thardhi), Madhubani). The details of his life have been lost, though he is said to have named one of his works after his wife, Bhāmatī. He wrote commentaries on the main works of all the major Hindu schools of thought at the time, as well as one non-commentary, Tattvabindu.
In Tattvabindu, Vācaspati examines four competing theories of linguistic meaning:
After examining each of these theories, Vācaspati presents his own theory, abhihitānvayavāda, according to which understanding of the meaning of a whole sentence is reached by inferring it, in a separate act of lakṣanā or implication, from the individual meanings of the constituent words.
wn.com/Vācaspati_Miśra -
Wikipedia Persondata
wn.com/Wikipedia_Persondata -
Xuanzang
Xuanzang (Chinese: 玄奘; pinyin: Xuánzàng; Wade–Giles: Hsüan-tsang Sanskrit: ह्वेनसांग) (c. 602 – 664) was a famous Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator who described the interaction between China and India in the early Tang period. Born in Henan province of China in 602 or 603, from boyhood he took to reading sacred books, including the Chinese Classics and the writings of the ancient sages.
While residing in the city of Luoyang, Xuanzang entered Buddhist monkhood at the age of thirteen. Due to the political and social unrest caused by the fall of the Sui dynasty, he went to Chengdu in Sichuan (Szechuan), where he was ordained at the age of twenty. He later traveled throughout China in search of sacred books of Buddhism. At length, he came to Chang'an, then under the peaceful rule of Emperor Taizong of Tang. Here Xuanzang developed the desire to visit India. He knew about Faxian's visit to India and, like him, was concerned about the incomplete and misinterpreted nature of the Buddhist scriptures that had reached China.
wn.com/Xuanzang -
Yajnavalkya
Yājñavalkya (Devanagari: याज्ञवल्क्य) of Mithila was a legendary sage of Vedic India, credited with the authorship of the Shatapatha Brahmana (including the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad), besides the Yoga Yajnavalkya and the Yājñavalkya Smṛti. He is also a major figure in the Upanishads.
According to tradition, Yājñavalkya was the son of Devarāta and was the pupil of sage Vaiśampāyana. Once, Vaiśampāyana got angry with Yājñavalkya as the latter argued too much to separate some latter additions to Yajurveda in being abler than other students. The angry teacher asked his pupil Yājñavalkya to give back all the knowledge of Yajurveda that he had taught him.
As per the demands of his Guru, Yājñavalkya vomited all the knowledge that he acquired from his teacher in form of digested food. Other disciples of Vaiśampāyana took the form of partridge birds and consumed the digested knowledge (a metaphor for knowledge in its simplified form without the complexities of the whole but the simplicity of parts) because it was knowledge and they were very eager to receive the same.
wn.com/Yajnavalkya -
Yamunacharya
Yamunacharya or Alavandar was a vishistadvaita philosopher in Srirangam, Tamil Nadu, India. Ramanuja, one of the leaders of the srivaishnava school sought to be his disciple. He was born in early 10th century CE and was the grandson of a Brahmin, Nathamuni. Nathamuni was a famed yogi who collected to the works of Tamil alvars. He grew up learning Vedic texts from Rama Misra also known as Manakkal Nambi and was skilled in mimansa. Sirvaishnavite legend relates this history—As a teenager he challenged the royal priest Akkiyalvan of the Pandya king (the name of the king is disputed). Akkiyalvan, when he saw the age of the youth, asked sarcastically "alavandara?" meaning "has he come to rule me?". He defeated Akkiyalvan by proving through the accepted rules of logic that Akkiyalvan's mother was barren, the king was not righteous and the queen unchaste. The king and queen, impressed that the boy has understood the shortcomings of logic, adopted him. In other versions of the legend, he is given half the kingdom. There is no historical record to show his reign so it is possible that this happened in a smaller village rather than the kingdom of Pandya.
wn.com/Yamunacharya
Famous quotes by Adi Shankara:
"When your last breath arrives,Grammar can do nothing."
"From a clear knowledge of the Bhagavad-Gita all the goals of human existence become fulfilled. Bhagavad-Gita is the manifest quintessence of all the teachings of the Vedic scriptures."
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Adi Shankarachariya - Full Movie
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 160:55
- Updated: 07 Jan 2013
This documentary tells the story about life of Adi Shankaracharya - the founder of the non-duality (Advaita Vedanta).The first and only Indian movie to be made in Sanskrit
http://wn.com/Adi_Shankarachariya_Full_Movie
This documentary tells the story about life of Adi Shankaracharya - the founder of the non-duality (Advaita Vedanta).The first and only Indian movie to be made in Sanskrit
Adi Shankara -Sanskrit Movie(full)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 136:59
- Updated: 08 Jan 2013
Adi Shankaracharya full movie to download full movie link: www.4shared.com Folder name: Adi Shankara -Sanskrit Movie www.mediafire.com
http://wn.com/Adi_Shankara_-Sanskrit_Moviefull
Adi Shankaracharya full movie to download full movie link: www.4shared.com Folder name: Adi Shankara -Sanskrit Movie www.mediafire.com
- published: 02 Jul 2011
- views: 88065
- author: ysreddy94hyd
Adi Shankaracharya (part 1 of 16)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 06 Jan 2013
This documentary tells the story about life of Adi Shankaracharya - the founder of the non-duality (Advaita Vedanta).The first and only Indian movie to be made in Sanskrit. Directed by GV Iyer. With Sarvadaman D. Banerjee, MV Narayana Rao, Manjunath Bhatt.
http://wn.com/Adi_Shankaracharya_part_1_of_16
This documentary tells the story about life of Adi Shankaracharya - the founder of the non-duality (Advaita Vedanta).The first and only Indian movie to be made in Sanskrit. Directed by GV Iyer. With Sarvadaman D. Banerjee, MV Narayana Rao, Manjunath Bhatt.
- published: 09 May 2009
- views: 135897
- author: awaresilence
Adi Shankara and Devi
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:08
- Updated: 29 Dec 2012
In this scene from the movie "Kollur sri Mookambika" young Adi Shankara asks Goddess Mahakali to become a calm Goddess and he succeeds in doing it
http://wn.com/Adi_Shankara_and_Devi
In this scene from the movie "Kollur sri Mookambika" young Adi Shankara asks Goddess Mahakali to become a calm Goddess and he succeeds in doing it
- published: 20 Jul 2008
- views: 103991
- author: goddessrulezme
Adi Shankaracharya (part 2 of 16)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 02 Dec 2012
This documentary tells the story about life of Adi Shankaracharya - the founder of the non-duality (Advaita Vedanta).The first and only Indian movie to be made in Sanskrit. Directed by GV Iyer. With Sarvadaman D. Banerjee, MV Narayana Rao, Manjunath Bhatt.
http://wn.com/Adi_Shankaracharya_part_2_of_16
This documentary tells the story about life of Adi Shankaracharya - the founder of the non-duality (Advaita Vedanta).The first and only Indian movie to be made in Sanskrit. Directed by GV Iyer. With Sarvadaman D. Banerjee, MV Narayana Rao, Manjunath Bhatt.
- published: 09 May 2009
- views: 54345
- author: awaresilence
Adi Shankaracharya (part 3 of 16)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 19 Oct 2012
This documentary tells the story about life of Adi Shankaracharya - the founder of the non-duality (Advaita Vedanta).The first and only Indian movie to be made in Sanskrit. Directed by GV Iyer. With Sarvadaman D. Banerjee, MV Narayana Rao, Manjunath Bhatt.
http://wn.com/Adi_Shankaracharya_part_3_of_16
This documentary tells the story about life of Adi Shankaracharya - the founder of the non-duality (Advaita Vedanta).The first and only Indian movie to be made in Sanskrit. Directed by GV Iyer. With Sarvadaman D. Banerjee, MV Narayana Rao, Manjunath Bhatt.
- published: 09 May 2009
- views: 42798
- author: awaresilence
Adi Shankara movie clip
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:48
- Updated: 06 Jan 2013
In this movie clip, Adi Shankara encounters a Chandala (untouchable) and orders him to move. It is actually Lord Shiva in the guise of chandala. The Chandala makes Shankara realize that the Self ( Truth ) is all pervading but the gross (Body) is transient. Through this episode, Shankara realizes the main essence of the non-dual Advaita philosophy. Shankara is ashamed and perceives this divine incident and falls at the chandala's feet.
http://wn.com/Adi_Shankara_movie_clip
In this movie clip, Adi Shankara encounters a Chandala (untouchable) and orders him to move. It is actually Lord Shiva in the guise of chandala. The Chandala makes Shankara realize that the Self ( Truth ) is all pervading but the gross (Body) is transient. Through this episode, Shankara realizes the main essence of the non-dual Advaita philosophy. Shankara is ashamed and perceives this divine incident and falls at the chandala's feet.
- published: 06 Aug 2007
- views: 61247
- author: justprams
Adi Shankaracharya (part 4 of 16)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 19 Oct 2012
This documentary tells the story about life of Adi Shankaracharya - the founder of the non-duality (Advaita Vedanta).The first and only Indian movie to be made in Sanskrit. Directed by GV Iyer. With Sarvadaman D. Banerjee, MV Narayana Rao, Manjunath Bhatt.
http://wn.com/Adi_Shankaracharya_part_4_of_16
This documentary tells the story about life of Adi Shankaracharya - the founder of the non-duality (Advaita Vedanta).The first and only Indian movie to be made in Sanskrit. Directed by GV Iyer. With Sarvadaman D. Banerjee, MV Narayana Rao, Manjunath Bhatt.
- published: 09 May 2009
- views: 35233
- author: awaresilence
Adi Shankara Bhaja Govindam
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:18
- Updated: 22 Nov 2012
In this incident, Adi Shankara decries the importance of grammar and instead emphasizes the importance of a pure heart for chanting mantras. Adi Shankara also composed the famous Bhaja Govindam song.
http://wn.com/Adi_Shankara_Bhaja_Govindam
In this incident, Adi Shankara decries the importance of grammar and instead emphasizes the importance of a pure heart for chanting mantras. Adi Shankara also composed the famous Bhaja Govindam song.
- published: 06 Aug 2007
- views: 59530
- author: justprams
A rare Video of Chandrasekhara Saraswathi explaining about Thotakacharya and Adi Sankara part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:04
- Updated: 26 Dec 2012
A rare Video of Chandrasekhara Saraswathi explaining about Thotakacharya and Adi Sankara part 1 The simplicity : Even being the almighty veera Hanuma was at the feet of his Lord Sri Rama his prabhu, the same simplycity again can be seen at this age he was renowed as the nadabadu deivam, but not even 0000% EGO touched this saint who sat beside his deciples and explains about totakacharya and Adisankara ataining Kailasam at Kancheepuram
http://wn.com/A_rare_Video_of_Chandrasekhara_Saraswathi_explaining_about_Thotakacharya_and_Adi_Sankara_part_1
A rare Video of Chandrasekhara Saraswathi explaining about Thotakacharya and Adi Sankara part 1 The simplicity : Even being the almighty veera Hanuma was at the feet of his Lord Sri Rama his prabhu, the same simplycity again can be seen at this age he was renowed as the nadabadu deivam, but not even 0000% EGO touched this saint who sat beside his deciples and explains about totakacharya and Adisankara ataining Kailasam at Kancheepuram
- published: 10 Jul 2009
- views: 26997
- author: kamakotisankara
Guru Paduka Stotram - Adi Shankaracharya
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:14
- Updated: 07 Jan 2013
Guru Paduka Stotram - by Adi Shankaracharya Translated Text of the Stotram is from : www.chinmaya-chicago.org www.vmission.org.in The crossing of this Endless ocean of samsara is enabled by the boat that is sincere devotion to Guru Showing me the way to the valuable dominion of renunciation, O dear Guru, I bow to thy holy sandals. Like a full moon for the ocean of the Knowledge, Like down pour of water to put out the fire of misfortunes, Removing the various distresses of those who surrender to them, O dear Gurudev, I bow to thy holy sandals. Those who prostrate to the blessed padukas of their Guru become possessors of great wealth and overcome the curse of their poverty very quickly. To such padukas my infinite prostrations. Attracting us to the Lotus-like feet of our Guru, removing all kinds of desires borne out of ignorance, fulfilling all the desires of the disciple who bows humbly To such padukas I humbly offer my obeisance. Shining like a precious stone adorning the crown of a king They stand out like a beautiful damsel in a river infested with crocodiles They raise the devotees to the state of sovereign emperors, To such padukas I humbly offer my obeisance. Shining radiantly like the Sun, effacing the endless darkness of the disciples sins, Like an eagle for the snake like three-fold pains of Samsara like a conflagration of fire whose heat dries away the ocean of ignorance To such supreme padukas of my Gurudev, I humbly surrender. They endow us with the glorious ...
http://wn.com/Guru_Paduka_Stotram_Adi_Shankaracharya
Guru Paduka Stotram - by Adi Shankaracharya Translated Text of the Stotram is from : www.chinmaya-chicago.org www.vmission.org.in The crossing of this Endless ocean of samsara is enabled by the boat that is sincere devotion to Guru Showing me the way to the valuable dominion of renunciation, O dear Guru, I bow to thy holy sandals. Like a full moon for the ocean of the Knowledge, Like down pour of water to put out the fire of misfortunes, Removing the various distresses of those who surrender to them, O dear Gurudev, I bow to thy holy sandals. Those who prostrate to the blessed padukas of their Guru become possessors of great wealth and overcome the curse of their poverty very quickly. To such padukas my infinite prostrations. Attracting us to the Lotus-like feet of our Guru, removing all kinds of desires borne out of ignorance, fulfilling all the desires of the disciple who bows humbly To such padukas I humbly offer my obeisance. Shining like a precious stone adorning the crown of a king They stand out like a beautiful damsel in a river infested with crocodiles They raise the devotees to the state of sovereign emperors, To such padukas I humbly offer my obeisance. Shining radiantly like the Sun, effacing the endless darkness of the disciples sins, Like an eagle for the snake like three-fold pains of Samsara like a conflagration of fire whose heat dries away the ocean of ignorance To such supreme padukas of my Gurudev, I humbly surrender. They endow us with the glorious ...
- published: 30 Nov 2008
- views: 192984
- author: Vinayak Kudva
Atma-Shatakam by Adi Shankaracharya
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:43
- Updated: 07 Jan 2013
Atma-Shatakam / Nirvana Shatakam The Song of the Self by Adi Shankara 788-820 CE
http://wn.com/Atma-Shatakam_by_Adi_Shankaracharya
Atma-Shatakam / Nirvana Shatakam The Song of the Self by Adi Shankara 788-820 CE
- published: 26 Oct 2009
- views: 80395
- author: lin777
Adi Shankaracharya (part 5 of 16)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 19 Oct 2012
This documentary tells the story about life of Adi Shankaracharya - the founder of the non-duality (Advaita Vedanta).The first and only Indian movie to be made in Sanskrit. Directed by GV Iyer. With Sarvadaman D. Banerjee, MV Narayana Rao, Manjunath Bhatt.
http://wn.com/Adi_Shankaracharya_part_5_of_16
This documentary tells the story about life of Adi Shankaracharya - the founder of the non-duality (Advaita Vedanta).The first and only Indian movie to be made in Sanskrit. Directed by GV Iyer. With Sarvadaman D. Banerjee, MV Narayana Rao, Manjunath Bhatt.
- published: 09 May 2009
- views: 34261
- author: awaresilence
Adi Shankara - Vedas are eternal
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:59
- Updated: 08 Oct 2012
In this incident Shankara encounters Kumarila, a Vedic scholar who was about to self immolate as a repentance to his sin of cheating his Buddhist teacher. Shankara looks for Kumarila's disciple Mandana Mishra to request him to comment on his work.
http://wn.com/Adi_Shankara_Vedas_are_eternal
In this incident Shankara encounters Kumarila, a Vedic scholar who was about to self immolate as a repentance to his sin of cheating his Buddhist teacher. Shankara looks for Kumarila's disciple Mandana Mishra to request him to comment on his work.
- published: 08 Aug 2007
- views: 32281
- author: justprams
Lakshmi Narasimha Karavalamba Stotram by Adi Shankaracharya
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:50
- Updated: 06 Jan 2013
Srila Prabhupada's ISKCON Bangalore team has made this video of Sri Lakshmi Narasimha Karavalamba stotram by Adi Shankaracharya, as an offering to Sri Prahlada Narasimha of ISKCON Bangalore Temple. For more info please visit: www.iskconbangalore.org
http://wn.com/Lakshmi_Narasimha_Karavalamba_Stotram_by_Adi_Shankaracharya
Srila Prabhupada's ISKCON Bangalore team has made this video of Sri Lakshmi Narasimha Karavalamba stotram by Adi Shankaracharya, as an offering to Sri Prahlada Narasimha of ISKCON Bangalore Temple. For more info please visit: www.iskconbangalore.org
- published: 05 Oct 2011
- views: 36319
- author: Iskconbangaloregroup
Adi Shankaracharya (part 6 of 16)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 19 Oct 2012
This documentary tells the story about life of Adi Shankaracharya - the founder of the non-duality (Advaita Vedanta).The first and only Indian movie to be made in Sanskrit. Directed by GV Iyer. With Sarvadaman D. Banerjee, MV Narayana Rao, Manjunath Bhatt.
http://wn.com/Adi_Shankaracharya_part_6_of_16
This documentary tells the story about life of Adi Shankaracharya - the founder of the non-duality (Advaita Vedanta).The first and only Indian movie to be made in Sanskrit. Directed by GV Iyer. With Sarvadaman D. Banerjee, MV Narayana Rao, Manjunath Bhatt.
- published: 09 May 2009
- views: 28353
- author: awaresilence
Bhaja Govindam MS Subbulakshmi Adi Shankaracharya
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:10
- Updated: 08 Jan 2013
http://wn.com/Bhaja_Govindam_MS_Subbulakshmi_Adi_Shankaracharya
Adi Shankaracharya movie clip
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:35
- Updated: 18 Oct 2012
This is a short video clip of Adi Shankara movie. In this clip, Shankara explains how the human body is linked to the earth. He explains how the subtle elements get carried on in the gross body. The movie is in Sanskrit. I was unable to map the subtitles from the original movie to this clip, so I keyed in myself.
http://wn.com/Adi_Shankaracharya_movie_clip
This is a short video clip of Adi Shankara movie. In this clip, Shankara explains how the human body is linked to the earth. He explains how the subtle elements get carried on in the gross body. The movie is in Sanskrit. I was unable to map the subtitles from the original movie to this clip, so I keyed in myself.
- published: 06 Aug 2007
- views: 54533
- author: justprams
Shivoham - Nirvana Shatkam - Sri Jagadguru Adi Shankaracharya - by Sri Balasubramanyam
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:47
- Updated: 06 Jan 2013
Rendered by Sri Balasubramanyam Mano budhyahankara chithaa ninaham, Na cha srothra jihwe na cha graana nethrer, Na cha vyoma bhoomir na thejo na vayu, Chidananada Roopa Shivoham, Shivoham. Neither am I mind, nor intellect, Nor ego, nor thought, Nor am I ears or the tongue or the nose or the eyes, Nor am I earth or sky or air or the light, I am Shiva, I am Shiva, the nature of Bliss. Na cha praana sangno na vai pancha vaayuh, Na vaa saptha dhathur na va pancha kosa, Na vak pani padam na chopastha payu, Chidananada Roopa Shivoham, Shivoham. Neither am I the movement due to life, Nor am I the five airs, nor am I the seven elements constituting the body (Dhatu), Nor am I the five sheaths which invest the soul, Nor am I voice or hands or feet or other organs, I am Shiva, I am Shiva, the nature of Bliss. Na me dwesha raghou na me lobha mohou, Madho naiva me naiva matsarya bhava, Na dharmo na cha artha na kamo na moksha, Chidananada Roopa Shivoham, Shivoham. I am not the state of envy and passion or the emotions of hatred, greed and attachment, Neither I am intoxication nor I am the emotion of jealousy, And I am not even the four Purushartha — Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha, I am Shiva, I am Shiva, the nature of Bliss. Na punyam na paapam na soukhyam na dukham, Na manthro na theertham na veda na yagna, Aham bhojanam naiva bhojyam na bhoktha, Chidananada Roopa Shivoham, Shivoham. I am not a good deed(Punya), or a Sinful deed(Paapa), or well-being/comfort(Saukhya), or Grief(Dukha ...
http://wn.com/Shivoham_Nirvana_Shatkam_Sri_Jagadguru_Adi_Shankaracharya_by_Sri_Balasubramanyam
Rendered by Sri Balasubramanyam Mano budhyahankara chithaa ninaham, Na cha srothra jihwe na cha graana nethrer, Na cha vyoma bhoomir na thejo na vayu, Chidananada Roopa Shivoham, Shivoham. Neither am I mind, nor intellect, Nor ego, nor thought, Nor am I ears or the tongue or the nose or the eyes, Nor am I earth or sky or air or the light, I am Shiva, I am Shiva, the nature of Bliss. Na cha praana sangno na vai pancha vaayuh, Na vaa saptha dhathur na va pancha kosa, Na vak pani padam na chopastha payu, Chidananada Roopa Shivoham, Shivoham. Neither am I the movement due to life, Nor am I the five airs, nor am I the seven elements constituting the body (Dhatu), Nor am I the five sheaths which invest the soul, Nor am I voice or hands or feet or other organs, I am Shiva, I am Shiva, the nature of Bliss. Na me dwesha raghou na me lobha mohou, Madho naiva me naiva matsarya bhava, Na dharmo na cha artha na kamo na moksha, Chidananada Roopa Shivoham, Shivoham. I am not the state of envy and passion or the emotions of hatred, greed and attachment, Neither I am intoxication nor I am the emotion of jealousy, And I am not even the four Purushartha — Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha, I am Shiva, I am Shiva, the nature of Bliss. Na punyam na paapam na soukhyam na dukham, Na manthro na theertham na veda na yagna, Aham bhojanam naiva bhojyam na bhoktha, Chidananada Roopa Shivoham, Shivoham. I am not a good deed(Punya), or a Sinful deed(Paapa), or well-being/comfort(Saukhya), or Grief(Dukha ...
- published: 28 Aug 2010
- views: 68318
- author: rajconnexant
Guru Ashtakam - Shri Adi Shankaracharya
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:02
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
Guru Ashtakam was written by Shri Adi Shankaracharya and tells about the necessity of the Guru and attaching our mind to the Lotus Feet of the Guru. Also, given are extracts from a lecture of Swami Vivekananda on the need of a spiritual Guru. Hari Om!!
http://wn.com/Guru_Ashtakam_Shri_Adi_Shankaracharya
Guru Ashtakam was written by Shri Adi Shankaracharya and tells about the necessity of the Guru and attaching our mind to the Lotus Feet of the Guru. Also, given are extracts from a lecture of Swami Vivekananda on the need of a spiritual Guru. Hari Om!!
- published: 11 Jul 2009
- views: 43127
- author: sachidaananda
Adi Shankaracharya (part 7 of 16)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 26 Oct 2012
This documentary tells the story about life of Adi Shankaracharya - the founder of the non-duality (Advaita Vedanta).The first and only Indian movie to be made in Sanskrit. Directed by GV Iyer. With Sarvadaman D. Banerjee, MV Narayana Rao, Manjunath Bhatt.
http://wn.com/Adi_Shankaracharya_part_7_of_16
This documentary tells the story about life of Adi Shankaracharya - the founder of the non-duality (Advaita Vedanta).The first and only Indian movie to be made in Sanskrit. Directed by GV Iyer. With Sarvadaman D. Banerjee, MV Narayana Rao, Manjunath Bhatt.
- published: 09 May 2009
- views: 28433
- author: awaresilence
Adi Shankaracharya (part 8 of 16)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 10 Oct 2012
This documentary tells the story about life of Adi Shankaracharya - the founder of the non-duality (Advaita Vedanta).The first and only Indian movie to be made in Sanskrit. Directed by GV Iyer. With Sarvadaman D. Banerjee, MV Narayana Rao, Manjunath Bhatt.
http://wn.com/Adi_Shankaracharya_part_8_of_16
This documentary tells the story about life of Adi Shankaracharya - the founder of the non-duality (Advaita Vedanta).The first and only Indian movie to be made in Sanskrit. Directed by GV Iyer. With Sarvadaman D. Banerjee, MV Narayana Rao, Manjunath Bhatt.
- published: 09 May 2009
- views: 34571
- author: awaresilence
Adi Shankaracharya (part 9 of 16)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 19 Oct 2012
This documentary tells the story about life of Adi Shankaracharya - the founder of the non-duality (Advaita Vedanta).The first and only Indian movie to be made in Sanskrit. Directed by GV Iyer. With Sarvadaman D. Banerjee, MV Narayana Rao, Manjunath Bhatt.
http://wn.com/Adi_Shankaracharya_part_9_of_16
This documentary tells the story about life of Adi Shankaracharya - the founder of the non-duality (Advaita Vedanta).The first and only Indian movie to be made in Sanskrit. Directed by GV Iyer. With Sarvadaman D. Banerjee, MV Narayana Rao, Manjunath Bhatt.
- published: 09 May 2009
- views: 30766
- author: awaresilence
photo: AP / Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics
08 Jan 2013
MOSCOW, January 8 (RIA Novosti) – At least 17 billion Earth-size planets may inhabit the Milky Way galaxy, SPACE.com reported citing a new study by US astronomers ... That translates to a minimum of 17 billion planets as there are about 100 billion stars in the Milky Way ... Over a hundred of candidates have been confirmed as planets so far, NASA said....(size: 1.7Kb)
photo: WN / Imran Nissar
06 Jan 2013
ISLAMABAD - The Pakistani military is accusing forces from neighboring India of crossing the boundary between the two sides' forces in Kashmir and attacking a Pakistani border post, killing a soldier. The military's public relations office said in a statement Sunday that another Pakistani soldier was critically wounded in the incident early Sunday. They said troops are still exchanging gunfire in the area ... All rights reserved ... Parker ... ....(size: 4.3Kb)
photo: UN / Evan Schneider
06 Jan 2013
LONDON -- They have barely 3,000 inhabitants and far more sheep than people. They are more than 8,700 miles from London. For much of the year, they are bitterly cold and wind-swept, with only open sea and ice between them and Antarctica ... But the Falkland Islands, the focus of a short war between Britain and Argentina in 1982, have been in the headlines again recently ... Their arguments suggest what has long been evident ... Ms ... Mr ... Cameron said....(size: 5.1Kb)
photo: US Army / Sgt. Christopher Bonebrake
07 Jan 2013
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. When Congress granted President Lyndon B. Johnson absolute powers to "take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression," Congress could have also included "all necessary vanities." The 1964 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which greatly escalated a foreign imperial war in Vietnam, added fuel to the bonfires of vanity....(size: 5.2Kb)
photo: AP / New South Wales Rural Fire Service
08 Jan 2013
SYDNEY - Firefighters battled scores of wildfires raging across southeast Australia on Tuesday with officials evacuating national parks and warning that blistering temperatures and high winds had led to "catastrophic" fire conditions in some areas. Enlarge. A charred vehicle sits near the remains of a destroyed home following a wildfire near Dunalley, east of the Tasmanian capital of Hobart, Australia, Saturday, Jan. 5, 2013 ... Editorial ... ....(size: 6.3Kb)
The Hindu
29 Dec 2012
The Hindu
27 Dec 2012
The current Margazhi has been packed with youngsters spilling their talent across various sabha-s with a plethora of performances. Navia Natarajan was much-admired as an upcoming star in the last few years. With able training under gurus like Padmini Ramachandran and, later, A ... After a quick Pushpanjali, she continued into an excerpt from the ‘Sharada Bhujangaashtakam’ composed by Adi Shankara ... ....(size: 2.9Kb)
The Hindu
21 Dec 2012
The drive along the Chennai coast is beautiful and balmy, especially during this time of the year ... 1 ... 2. 'Ottri' in Tamil means, 'to be exempted' ... 3 ... 4 ... 5. Several saints including Appar, Sundarar, Tirugnanasambandar, Pattinattar Pillayar, Vallalar and Adi Shankara are believed to have visited these temples. 6 ... Powered by ... Keywords....(size: 1.5Kb)
The Hindu
19 Dec 2012
Talking to students of the Adi Shankara Institute of Engineering and Technology at Kalady near Kochi recently, he drew their attention to the fact that regulators of the capital market offer various specialised courses targeted towards jobs in the stock markets ... financial markets career, Akshay Agarwal, Acumen Capital Markets, Adi ......(size: 2.1Kb)
The Hindu
15 Nov 2012
Samskrithi, attired in her school uniform, is riding her bicycle. Niranj, also in uniform and on a bicycle, is trying to catch up with her and strike a conversation ... A student of Adi Shankara Institue of Science and Technology, Kalady, he took his first steps in tinsel town in Vajram (remember the boy in the song ‘Madathakkili…’) and has acted in movies such as Ayurrekha and Chandranilekkoru Vazhi ... Keywords....(size: 3.5Kb)
The Times of India
26 Sep 2012
Bhagwad Gita 4.35. *. Who sees all beings in his own Self, and his own Self in all beings, loses all fear. Isha Upanishad. * ... Adi Shankara. * ... Swami Vivekananda. * ... Eckhart Tolle ....(size: 0.9Kb)
The Hindu
20 Sep 2012
While protestors and police clashed on one side of the city, thousands thronged the festival held in remembrance of their favourite guru ... After the inaugural ceremony, Odissi exponent Madhavi Mudgal opened with Adi Shankara’s ‘Jagannathashtakam’ that set the ball rolling for the first evening’s performances ... One missed Arushi Mudgal, who normally accompanies her on stage ... Standing ovation ... Chitresh Das ... Pt....(size: 4.9Kb)
Deccan Chronicle
31 Aug 2012
The Kalikambal temple not only has the sanctity of the two Pancha Bhootha Sthalams, Kanchipuram and Tiruvannamalai, but it is also seeped in religious history and is a part of Chennai ... Sri Adi Shankaracharya, who worshipped the Goddess here, installed the Arthameru at the foot of the Ambal. There are also images of Adi Shankaracharya and poet Subramanya Bharathiar worshipping the goddess engraved on the walls ... Renowned singer T.M ... ....(size: 2.3Kb)
The Times of India
06 Aug 2012
SHARE. AND. DISCUSS. Tweet. A friend called up excitedly saying she was going to get her kundalini awakened in three days. Sheer curiosity made me accompany her ... My kundalini didn't like the hen position and so nothing happened to my body ... The world is neither unreal nor real ... Very few seekers with intense spiritual longing could pursue Adi Shankara's teachings, so various teachers have come to present their own versions of bhakti marga ... ....(size: 3.5Kb)
The Hindu
14 Jul 2012
The students sang ‘Thodakashtakam’ and Adi Shankara’s ‘Guru Vandanam.’ Former chemistry professor from Madras Christian College, Venkatraman, and Odhuvar Gomathinayagam were the guests of honour ... Keywords ... ....(size: 1.1Kb)
Deccan Chronicle
13 May 2012
The ABVP and RSS attacked the students who ate beef, burnt media vans covering the festival and a bus on the Osmania campus. Predictably, they used only SC/ST/OBC students to get the job done ... Culture engenders passion and throughout history cultural battles have claimed more lives than wars fought over land ... One theory is that they adopted the pure vegetarian food culture during Adi Shankara’s anti-Buddhist Advaita campaigns ... ....(size: 6.3Kb)
Deccan Chronicle
10 May 2012
When the 8th-century saint-philosopher Adi Shankara wrote, “Kuputro jaayeta kvachidapi kumaata na bhavati” (A bad son there might be, but not a bad mother), his thoughts may have dwelt on two mothers....(size: 1.0Kb)
The Times of India
29 Mar 2012
SHARE. AND. DISCUSSTweet ... Adi Shankara. *. From earth, herbs; from herbs, food; from food, seed; and from seed, human beings ... Taittiriya Upanishad. * ... * ... * ... James Beard ... ....(size: 0.9Kb)
| Adi Shankara | |
|---|---|
 Srimad Guru Adi Shankaracharya by Raja Ravi Varma |
|
| Born | 788 CE Kalady, present day Kerala, India |
| Died | 820 CE[1] Kedarnath, Pala Empire present day Uttarakhand, India |
| Birth name | Shankara |
| Titles/honours | Expounded Advaita Vedanta, Hindu Revivalism, Founded Dashanami Sampradaya, Shanmata |
| Guru | Govinda Bhagavatpada |
| Philosophy | Advaita Vedanta |
Adi Shankara (Sanskrit: आदिशङ्करः Ādi Śaṅkara, pronounced [aːd̪i ɕəŋkəɾə]) (788 CE - 820 CE), also known as Śaṅkara Bhagavatpādācārya and Ādi Śaṅkarācārya was an Indian sage from Kalady in present day Kerala who consolidated the doctrine of advaita vedānta.[1][2] His teachings are based on the unity of the ātman and brahman— non-dual brahman, in which brahman is viewed as nirguna brahman, brahman without attributes.[3]
Shankara travelled across the Indian subcontinent to propagate his philosophy through discourses and debates with other thinkers. He is reputed to have founded four mathas ("monasteries"), which helped in the historical development, revival and spread of Advaita Vedanta of which he is known as the greatest revivalist.[2] Adi Shankara is believed to be the organizer of the Dashanami monastic order and the founder of the Shanmata tradition of worship.
His works in Sanskrit concern themselves with establishing the doctrine of advaita (nondualism). He also established the importance of monastic life as sanctioned in the Upanishads and Brahma Sutra, in a time when the Mimamsa school established strict ritualism and ridiculed monasticism. Shankara represented his works as elaborating on ideas found in the Upanishads, and he wrote copious commentaries on the Vedic canon (Brahma Sutra, principal upanishads and Bhagavad Gita) in support of his thesis. The main opponent in his work is the Mimamsa school of thought, though he also offers arguments against the views of some other schools like Samkhya and certain schools of Buddhism.[3][4][5]
Contents |
Life[link]
Traditional accounts of Adi Shankara's life can be found in the Shankara Vijayams, which are poetic works that contain a mix of biographical and legendary material, written in the epic style. The most important among these biographies are the Mādhavīya Śaṅkara Vijayaṃ (of Mādhava, c. 14th century), the Cidvilāsīya Śaṅkara Vijayaṃ (of Cidvilāsa, c. between 15th century and 17th century), and the Keraļīya Śaṅkara Vijayaṃ (of the Kerala region, extant from c. 17th century).[6][7]
Birth and childhood[link]
File:SankaraSthampaMandapam.jpg
Adi Sankara Keerthi Sthampa Mandapam, Kalady, Kerala
Shankara was born in orthodox Hindu family to Sivaguru and Aryamba in Kaladi in central present day Kerala. According to lore, it was after his parents, who had been childless for many years, prayed at the Vadakkunnathan temple, Thrissur that Sankara was born under the star Thiruvathira.[8][9]
His father died while Shankara was very young. Shankara's upanayanaṃ, the initiation into student-life, had to be delayed due to the death of his father, and was then performed by his mother.[10] As a child, Shankara showed remarkable scholarship, mastering the four Vedas by the age of eight.[11]
Sannyasa[link]
At the age of 7, Shankara was inclined towards sannyasa, but it was only after much persuasion that his mother finally gave her consent. He only received her consent in a very interesting manner. While bathing in the river Poorna one day, a crocodile caught hold of his leg. Shankara appealed to his mother, who had arrived at Poorna, asking for permission to become a sanyasi. His mother finally gave consent, only to have the crocodile let go of young Shankara. A crocodile had never been found in Poorna ever or since[12] Shankara then left Kerala and travelled towards North India in search of a guru. On the banks of the Narmada River, he met Govinda Bhagavatpada the disciple of Gaudapada at Omkareshwar. When Govinda Bhagavatpada asked Shankara's identity, he replied with an extempore verse that brought out the Advaita Vedanta philosophy. Govinda Bhagavatapada was impressed and took Shankara as his disciple.[13]
The guru instructed Shankara to write a commentary on the Brahma Sutras and propagate the Advaita philosophy. Shankara travelled to Kashi, where a young man named Sanandana, hailing from Chola territory in South India, became his first disciple. According to legend, while on his way to the Vishwanath Temple, Sankara came upon an untouchable accompanied by four dogs. When asked to move aside by Shankara's disciples, the untouchable replied: "Do you wish that I move my ever lasting Ātman ("the Self"), or this body made of flesh?" Realizing that the untouchable was none other than god Shiva himself, and his dogs the four Vedas, Shankara prostrated himself before him, composing five shlokas known as Manisha Panchakam.[14][15]
At Badari he wrote his famous Bhashyas ("commentaries") and Prakarana granthas ("philosophical treatises").[16][17]
Meeting with Mandana Mishra[link]
One of the most famous debates of Adi Shankara was with the ritualist Maṇḍana Miśra. Maṇḍana Miśra held the view that the life of a householder was far superior to that of a monk. This view was widely shared and respected throughout India at that time.[18] Thus it would have been important for Adi Shankara to debate with him. Madana Mishra's guru was the famous Mimamsa philosopher, Kumārila Bhaṭṭa. Shankara sought a debate with Kumārila Bhaṭṭa and met him in Prayag where he had buried himself in a slow burning pyre to repent for sins committed against his guru: Kumārila Bhaṭṭa had learned Buddhist philosophy from his Buddhist guru under false pretenses, in order to be able to refute it. Learning anything without the knowledge of one's guru while still under his authority constitutes a sin according to the Vedas.[19] Kumārila Bhaṭṭa thus asked Adi Shankara to proceed to Mahiṣmati to meet Maṇḍana Miśra and debate with him instead.(Mahishmati is on the banks of the holy river - Narmada, in Madhya Pradesh. Mahishmati is now known as Mandala. . Mandala finds mention in Pauranic literature as the capital of Sahasrabahu Kartyaveer Arjun who had obstructed the river by his thousand arms by his frolicking, at his capital Mahishmati),
After debating for over fifteen days, with Maṇḍana Miśra's wife Ubhaya Bhāratī acting as referee, Maṇḍana Miśra accepted defeat.[20] Ubhaya Bhāratī then challenged Adi Shankara to have a debate with her in order to 'complete' the victory. She asked him questions related to sexual congress between man and woman - a subject in which Shankaracharya had no knowledge, since he was a true celibate and sannyasi. Sri Shankracharya asked for a "recess" of 15 days. As per legend, he used the art of "para-kaya pravesa" (the spirit leaving one's own body and entering another's) and exited his own body, which he asked his disciples to look after, and psychically entered the dead body of a king. The story goes that from the King's two wives, he acquired all knowledge of "art of love". The queens, thrilled at the keen intellect and robust love-making of the "revived" King, deduced that he was not their husband, as of old. The story continues that they sent their factotums to "look for the lifeless body of a young sadhu and to cremate it immediately" so that their "king" (Shankracharya in the king's body) would continue to live with them. Just as the retainers piled Shankracharaya's lifeless corpse upon a pyre and were about to set fire to it, Shankara entered his own body and regained consciousness. Finally, he answered all questions put to him by Ubhaya Bhāratī; and she allowed Maṇḍana Miśra to accept sannyasa with the monastic name Sureśvarācārya, as per the agreed-upon rules of the debate.[21]
Philosophical tour[link]
Adi Shankara then travelled with his disciples to Maharashtra and Srisailam. In Srisailam, he composed Shivanandalahari, a devotional hymn in praise of Shiva. The Madhaviya Shankaravijayam says that when Shankara was about to be sacrificed by a Kapalika, the god Narasimha appeared to save Shankara in response to Padmapadacharya's prayer to him. As a result, Adi Shankara composed the Laksmi-Narasimha stotra.[22]
He then travelled to Gokarṇa, the temple of Hari-Shankara and the Mūkambika temple at Kollur. At Kollur, he accepted as his disciple a boy believed to be dumb by his parents. He gave him the name, Hastāmalakācārya ("one with the amalaka fruit on his palm", i.e., one who has clearly realised the Self). Next, he visited sringeri to establish the Śārada Pīṭham and made Sureśvarācārya his disciple.[23]
After this, Adi Shankara began a Dig-vijaya "tour of conquest" for the propagation of the Advaita philosophy by controverting all philosophies opposed to it. He travelled throughout India, from South India to Kashmir and Nepal, preaching to the local populace and debating philosophy with Hindu, Buddhist and other scholars and monks along the way.
With the Malayali King Sudhanva as companion, Shankara passed through Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Vidarbha. He then started towards Karnataka where he encountered a band of armed Kapalikas. King Sudhanva, with his Nairs, resisted and defeated the Kapalikas. They safely reached Gokarna where Shankara defeated in debate the Shaiva scholar, Neelakanta.
Proceeding to Saurashtra (the ancient Kambhoja) and having visited the shrines of Girnar, Somnath and Prabhasa and explaining the superiority of Vedanta in all these places, he arrived at Dwarka. Bhaṭṭa Bhāskara of Ujjayini, the proponent of Bhedābeda philosophy, was humbled. All the scholars of Ujjayini (also known as Avanti) accepted Adi Shankara's philosophy.
He then defeated the Jainas in philosophical debates at a place called Bahlika. Thereafter, the Acharya established his victory over several philosophers and ascetics in Kamboja (region of North Kashmir), Darada and many regions situated in the desert and crossing mighty peaks, entered Kashmir. Later, he had an encounter with a tantrik, Navagupta at Kamarupa.[24]
Accession to Sarvajnapitha[link]
Adi Shankara visited Sarvajñapīṭha (Sharada Peeth) in Kashmir (now in POK, Pakistan).[25] The Madhaviya Shankaravijayam states this temple had four doors for scholars from the four cardinal directions. The southern door (representing South India) had never been opened, indicating that no scholar from South India had entered the Sarvajna Pitha. Adi Shankara opened the southern door by defeating in debate all the scholars there in all the various scholastic disciplines such as Mimamsa, Vedanta and other branches of Hindu philosophy; he ascended the throne of Transcendent wisdom of that temple.[26]
Towards the end of his life, Adi Shankara travelled to the Himalayan area of Kedarnath-Badrinath and attained videha mukti ("freedom from embodiment"). There is a samadhi mandir dedicated to Adi Shankara behind the Kedarnath temple. However, there are variant traditions on the location of his last days. One tradition, expounded by Keraliya Shankaravijaya, places his place of mahasamadhi (leaving the body) as Vadakkunnathan temple in Thrissur, Kerala.[27] The followers of the Kanchi kamakoti pitha claim that he ascended the Sarvajñapīṭha and attained videha mukti in Kanchipuram (Tamil Nadu).
Dates[link]
Several different dates have been proposed for Shankara:
- 788–820 CE: This is the mainstream scholarly opinion, placing Shankara in mid to late 8th century CE. These dates are based on records at the Śṛṅgeri Śāradā Pīṭha, which is the only matha to have maintained a relatively unbroken record of its Acharyas; starting with the third Acharya, one can with reasonable confidence date the others from the 8th century to the present.[28] The Sringeri records state that Shankara was born in the 14th year of the reign of "VikramAditya", but it is unclear as to which king this name refers. Though some researchers identify the name with Chandragupta II (4th. c. CE), modern scholarship accepts the VikramAditya as being from the Chalukya dynasty of Badami, most likely Vikramaditya II (733–746 CE),[29] which would place him in the middle of the 8th c.[28] Max Muller, Macdonnel, Pathok, Deussen and Radhakrishnan all accept the dates 788-820 CE.[30] The date 788–820 is also among those considered acceptable by Swami Tapasyananda, though he raises a number of questions.[31][32]
- 509–477 BCE: This dating, more than a millennium ahead of all others, is based on records of the heads of the Shankara Maṭhas at Dvaraka Pitha and Govardhana matha and the fifth Peetham at Kanchi.[33] However, such an early date is not consistent with the fact that Shankara quotes the Buddhist logician Dharmakirti, who finds mention in Xuanzang (7th c.).[28] Also, his near-contemporary Kumārila Bhaṭṭa is usually dated ca. 8th c. CE. Most scholars feel that due to invasions and other discontinuities, the records of the Dwaraka and Govardhana mathas are not as reliable as those of Sringeri.[28] Thus, while considerable debate exists, the pre-Christian Era dates are usually discounted, and the most likely period for Shankara is during the 8th c. CE.
- 6th Century CE: Telang placed him in this century. Sir R G Bandarkar believed he was born in 680 CE.[30]
- 805-897 CE: A D Venkiteswara not only places Adishankara later than most, but also had the opinion that it would not have been possible for him to have achieved all the works apportioned to him, and has him live ninety two years.[30]
Mathas[link]
Adi Shankara founded four Maṭhas (Sanskrit: मठ) to guide the Hindu religion. These are at Sringeri in Karnataka in the south, Dwaraka in Gujarat in the west, Puri in Orissa in the east, and Jyotirmath (Joshimath) in Uttarakhand in the north. Hindu tradition states that he put in charge of these mathas his four main disciples: Sureśvara, Hastamalakacharya, Padmapāda, and Totakacharya respectively. The heads of the mathas trace their authority back to these figures. Each of the heads of these four mathas takes the title of Shankaracharya ("the learned Shankara") after the first Shankaracharya. The table below gives an overview of the four Amnaya Mathas founded by Adi Shankara and their details.[34]
| Shishya | Direction | Maṭha | Mahāvākya | Veda | Sampradaya |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Padmapāda | East | Govardhana Pīṭhaṃ | Prajñānam brahma (Brahman is Knowledge) | Rig Veda | Bhogavala |
| Sureśvara | South | Śārada Pīṭhaṃ | Aham brahmāsmi (I am Brahman) | Yajur Veda | Bhūrivala |
| Hastāmalakācārya | West | Dvāraka Pīṭhaṃ | Tattvamasi (That thou art) | Sama Veda | Kitavala |
| Toṭakācārya | North | Jyotirmaṭha Pīṭhaṃ | Ayamātmā brahma (This Atman is Brahman) | Atharva Veda | Nandavala |
According to the tradition in Kerala, after Sankara's samadhi at Vadakkunnathan Temple his disciples founded four mathas in Thrissur, namely Naduvil Madhom, Thekke Madhom, Idayil Madhom and Vadakke Madhom.
Philosophy and religious thought[link]
Advaita ("non-dualism") is often called a monistic system of thought. The word "Advaita" essentially refers to the identity of the Self (Atman) and the Whole (Brahman[35]). Advaita Vedanta says the one unchanging entity (Brahman) alone exists, and that changing entities do not have absolute existence, much as the ocean's waves have no existence in separation from the ocean. The key source texts for all schools of Vedānta are the Prasthanatrayi–the canonical texts consisting of the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutras.
Adi Shankara was the first in the tradition to consolidate the siddhānta ("doctrine") of Advaita Vedanta. He wrote commentaries on the Prasthana Trayi. A famous quote from Vivekacūḍāmaṇi, one of his prakarana granthas that succinctly summarises his philosophy is:
Brahma satyaṃ jagat mithyā, jīvo brahmaiva nāparah
Brahman is the only truth, the spatio-temporal world is an illusion, and there is ultimately no difference between Brahman and individual self.
Advaita Vedanta is based on śāstra ("scriptures"), yukti ("reason") and anubhava ("experience"), and aided by karmas ("spiritual practices").[36] This philosophy provides a clear-cut way of life to be followed. Starting from childhood, when learning has to start, the philosophy has to be realised in practice throughout one's life, even up to death. This is the reason why this philosophy is called an experiential philosophy-the underlying tenet being "That thou art", meaning that ultimately there is no difference between the experiencer and the experienced (the world) as well as the universal spirit (Brahman). Among the followers of Advaita, as well those of other doctrines, there are believed to have appeared Jivanmuktas, ones liberated while alive. These individuals (commonly called Mahatmas, great souls, among Hindus) are those who realised the oneness of their self and the universal spirit called Brahman.
Adi Shankara's Bhashyas (commentaries) on the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutras are his principal works. Although he mostly adhered to traditional means of commenting on the Brahma Sutra, there are a number of original ideas and arguments to establish that the essence of Upanishads is Advaita. He taught that it was only through direct knowledge that one could realize Brahman. "A perception of the fact that the object seen is a rope will remove the fear and sorrow which result from the illusory idea that it is a serpent". Cited from Shankara's "Vivekachuudaamani"/ verse #12/translated by Mohini M Chatterji. This metaphor was borrowed from Yogacara Buddhist thinkers, who used it in a different context.[37]
Adi Shankara's opponents accused him of teaching Buddhism in the garb of Hinduism, because his non-dualistic ideals seemed rather radical to contemporary Hindu philosophy, and so he earned the title "pracchannabauddha". However, although Advaita proposes the theory of Maya, explaining the universe as a "trick of a magician", Adi Shankara and his followers see this as a consequence of their basic premise that Brahman alone is real. Their idea of Maya emerges from their belief in the reality of Brahman, as opposed to Buddhist doctrines of emptiness, which emerge from the empirical Buddhist approach of observing the nature of reality.
Historical and cultural impact[link]
 |
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See also: History of Hinduism
Because of his unification of two seemingly disparate philosophical doctrines, Atman and Brahman, Westerners who know about him perceive him as the "St. Thomas Aquinas of Indian thought"[38] and "the most brilliant personality in the history of Indian thought."[39]
At the time of Adi Shankara's life, Hinduism was increasing in influence in India at the expense of Buddhism and Jainism.[40] Hinduism was divided into innumerable sects, each quarreling with the others. The followers of Mimamsa and Sankhya philosophy were atheists, insomuch that they did not believe in God as a unified being. Besides these atheists there were numerous theistic sects. There were also those who rejected the Vedas, like the Charvakas.[citation needed]
Adi Shankara held discourses and debates with the leading scholars of all these sects and schools of philosophy to controvert their doctrines. He unified the theistic sects into a common framework of Shanmata system. In his works, Adi Shankara stressed the importance of the Vedas, and his efforts helped Hinduism regain strength and popularity. Many trace the present worldwide prominence of Vedanta to his works. He travelled on foot to various parts of India to restore the study of the Vedas.
Even though he lived for only thirty-two years his impact on India and on Hinduism was striking. He reintroduced a purer form of Vedic thought. His teachings and tradition form the basis of Smartism and have influenced Sant Mat lineages.[41] He is the main figure in the tradition of Advaita Vedanta. He was the founder of the Daśanāmi Sampradāya of Hindu monasticism and Ṣaṇmata of Smarta tradition. He introduced the Pañcāyatana form of worship.
Adi Shankara, along with Madhva and Ramanuja, was instrumental in the revival of Hinduism. These three teachers formed the doctrines that are followed by their respective sects even today. They have been the most important figures in the recent history of Hindu philosophy. In their writings and debates, they provided polemics against the non-Vedantic schools of Sankhya, Vaisheshika etc. Thus they paved the way for Vedanta to be the dominant and most widely followed tradition among the schools of Hindu philosophy. The Vedanta school stresses most on the Upanishads (which are themselves called Vedanta, End or culmination of the Vedas), unlike the other schools that gave importance to the ritualistic Brahmanas, or to texts authored by their founders. The Vedanta schools hold that the Vedas (which include the Upanishads) are unauthored, forming a continuous tradition of wisdom transmitted orally. Thus the concept of apaurusheyatva ("being unauthored") came to be the guiding force behind the Vedanta schools. However, along with stressing the importance of Vedic tradition, Adi Shankara gave equal importance to the personal experience of the student. Logic, grammar, Mimamsa and allied subjects form main areas of study in all the Vedanta schools.
Regarding meditation, Shankara refuted the system of Yoga and its disciplines as a direct means to attain moksha, rebutting the argument that it can be obtained through concentration of the mind. His position is that the mental states discovered through the practices of Yoga can be indirect aids to the gain of knowledge, but cannot themselves give rise to it. According to his philosophy, knowledge of Brahman springs from inquiry into the words of the Upanishads, and the knowledge of Brahman that shruti provides cannot be obtained in any other way.[42] It has to be noted that it is generally considered that for Shankara the Absolute Reality is attributeless and impersonal, while for Madhava and Ramanuja, the Absolute Truth is Vishnu. This has been a subject of debate, interpretation, and controversy since Shankara himself is attributed to composing the popular 8th century Hindu devotional composition Bhaja Govindam (literal meaning, "Worship Govinda"). This work of Adi Shankara is considered as a good summary of Advaita Vedanta and underscores the view that devotion to God, Govinda, is not only an important part of general spirituality, but the concluding verse drives through the message of Shankara: "Worship Govinda, worship Govinda, worship Govinda, Oh fool! Other than chanting the Lord's names, there is no other way to cross the life's ocean". Bhaja Govindam invokes the almighty in the aspect of Vishnu; it is therefore very popular not only with Sri Adi Shankaracharya's immediate followers, the Smarthas, but also with Vaishnavas and others.
A well known verse, recited in the Smarta tradition, in praise of Adi Shankara is:
श्रुतिस्मृतिपुराणानामालयं करुणालयम्|
नमामि भगवत्पादशंकरं लोकशङ्करम् ||
Śruti smṛti purāṇānāṃālayaṃ karuṇālayaṃ|
Namāmi Bhagavatpādaśaṅkaraṃ lokaśaṅkaraṃ||
I salute the compassionate abode of the Vedas, Smritis and Puranas known as Shankara Bhagavatpada, who makes the world auspicious.
Adi Shankara begins his Gurustotram or Verses to the Guru with the following Sanskrit Sloka, that has become a widely sung Bhajan:
Guru Brahma, Guru Vishnu, Guru Deva Maheshwara. Guru Sakshath Parambrahma, Tasmai Shri Gurave Namaha.
Translation: Guru is the creator Brahma, Guru is the preserver Vishnu, Guru is the destroyer Shiva. Guru is directly the supreme spirit — I offer my salutations to this Guru.)
The great Indian Muslim Philosopher Muhammad Iqbal considered him to be one of the greatest thinkers of medieval India and acknowledged influence by him.[43]
Works[link]
For more details on this topic, see Adi Shankara bibliography.
Adi Shankara's works deal with logically establishing the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta as he saw it in the Upanishads. He formulates the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta by validating his arguments on the basis of quotations from the Vedas and other Hindu scriptures. He gives a high priority to svānubhava ("personal experience") of the student. His works are largely polemical in nature. He directs his polemics mostly against the Sankhya, Buddha, Jaina, Vaisheshika and other non-vedantic Hindu philosophies.
Traditionally, his works are classified under Bhāṣya ("commentary"), Prakaraṇa grantha ("philosophical treatise") and Stotra ("devotional hymn"). The commentaries serve to provide a consistent interpretation of the scriptural texts from the perspective of Advaita Vedanta. The philosophical treatises provide various methodologies to the student to understand the doctrine. The devotional hymns are rich in poetry and piety, serving to highlight the relationship between the devotee and the deity.
Adi Shankara wrote Bhashyas on the ten major Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita. In his works, he quotes from Shveshvatara, Kaushitakai, Mahanarayana and Jabala Upanishads, among others. Bhashyas on Kaushitaki, Nrisimhatapani and Shveshvatara Upanishads are extant but the authenticity is doubtful.[44] Adi Shankara's is the earliest extant commentary on the Brahma Sutras. However, he mentions older commentaries like those of Dravida, Bhartrprapancha and others.[45]
In his Brahma Sutra Bhashya, Adi Shankara cites the examples of Dharmavyadha, Vidura and others, who were born with the knowledge of Brahman acquired in previous births. He mentions that the effects cannot be prevented from working on account of their present birth. He states that the knowledge that arises out of the study of the Vedas could be had through the Puranas and the Itihasas. In the Taittiriya Upanishad Bhashya 2.2, he says:[46]
Sarveśāṃ cādhikāro vidyāyāṃ ca śreyah: kevalayā vidyāyā veti siddhaṃ
It has been established that everyone has the right to the knowledge (of Brahman) and that the supreme goal is attained by that knowledge alone.
Some western academics consider only Upadeśasāhasrī among independent philosophical works as authentic. Many other such texts exist, among which there is a difference of opinion among scholars on the authorship of Viveka Chudamani. The former pontiff of Sringeri Math, Shri Shri Chandrashekhara Bharati III has written a voluminous commentary on the Viveka Chudamani.
Adi Shankara also wrote commentaries on other scriptural works, such as the Vishnu sahasranāma and the Sānatsujātiya.[47] Like the Bhagavad Gita, both of these are contained in the Mahabhārata.
Film[link]
In 1983 a film directed by G. V. Iyer named Adi Shankaracharya was premiered, the first film ever made entirely in Sanskrit language in which all of Adi Shankaracharya's works were compiled.[48] The movie received the National Film Awards for Best Film, Best Screenplay, Best Cinematography and Best Audiography and has been known as a master piece.[49][50]
See also[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ a b Sharma, Chandradhar (1962). "Chronological Summary of History of Indian Philosophy". Indian Philosophy: A Critical Survey. New York: Barnes & Noble. p. vi.
- ^ a b The Seven Spiritual Laws Of Yoga, Deepak Chopra, John Wiley & Sons, 2006, ISBN 81-265-0696-2, ISBN 978-81-265-0696-5
- ^ a b Sri Adi Shankaracharya, Sringeri Sharada Peetham, India
- ^ Biography of Sri Adi Shankaracharya, Sringeri Sharada Peetham, India
- ^ The philosophy of Sankar's Advaita Vedanta, Shyama Kumar Chattopadhyaya, Sarup & Sons, 2000, ISBN 81-7625-222-0, ISBN 978-81-7625-222-5
- ^ Vidyasankar, S.. "The Sankaravijaya literature". http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/sankara-vijayam.html. Retrieved 2006-08-23.
- ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. viii.
- ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. p. 14.
- ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. p. 17.
- ^ Y Keshava Menon 1976, The Mind of Adi Shankara pp109
- ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 28–29.
- ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 40–50.
- ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 51–56.
- ^ Adi Shankara. "Manisha Panchakam". Archived from the original on 26 August 2006. http://www.celextel.org/adisankara/manishapanchakam.html. Retrieved 2006-08-04.
- ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 57–62.
- ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 62–63.
- ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 70–73.
- ^ Swami Prabhavananda and Christopher Isherwood (1978) Shankara's Crest-Jewel of Discrimination - Timeless Teachings on Nonduality pp4
- ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 77–80.
- ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 81–104. . We have broad notes of this debate recorded in the Madhaviya Shankara Vijaya.
- ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 117–129.
- ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 130–135.
- ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 136–150.
- ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 160–185.
- ^ "Photos of Sharada Temple (Sarvajna Pitha), Sharda, PoK". http://closing.photos.yahoo.com/uk/photos_closed.php. Retrieved 2006-06-26.
- ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. 186–195.
- ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya. xxv-xxxv.
- ^ a b c d Vidyasankar, S.. "Determining Shankara's Date — An overview of ancient sources and modern literature". Archived from the original on 17 June 2006. http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/dating-Sankara.html. Retrieved 2006-06-26.
- ^ K. A. Nilakantha Sastry, A History of South India, 4th ed., Oxford University Press, Madras, 1976.
- ^ a b c d Y. Keshava Menon, The Mind of Adi Shankaracharya 1976 pp 108
- ^ Tapasyananda, Swami (2002). Shankara-Dig-Vijaya. pp. xv-xxiv.
- ^ The dating of 788–820 is accepted in Keay, p. 194.
- ^ "(53) Chronological chart of the history of Bharatvarsh since its origination". encyclopedia of authentic hinduism. http://encyclopediaofauthentichinduism.org/articles/53.3.htm. This site claims to integrate characters from the epics into a continuous chronology. They present the list of Dwarka and Kanchi Acharyas, along with their putative dates. However, the succession of acharyas at these two mathas were often disrupted by geopolitical realities and these records are not considered as reliable as the Sringeri chronology. Also, such an early date would be in conflict with much else in Indian chronology. According to these revisionist models, these are the actual dates, and it is other collateral dates, such as the date of Gautama Buddha (which serves as an anchor for modern academic history of India), that need to be moved back.
- ^ "Adi Shankara's four Amnaya Peethams". Archived from the original on 2006-06-26. http://web.archive.org/web/20060626233820/http://www.sringerisharadapeetham.org/html/History/amnaya.html. Retrieved 2006-08-20.
- ^ Brahman is not to be confused with Brahma, the Creator and one-third of the Trimurti along with Shiva, the Destroyer and Vishnu, the Preserver.
- ^ See "Study the Vedas daily. Perform diligently the duties ("karmas") ordained by them" from Sadhana Panchakam of Adi Shankara
- ^ Karel Werner, in Karel Werner, ed., The Yogi and the Mystic. Routledge, 1995, page 67.
- ^ Benedict Ashley, O.P.. The Way toward Wisdom. p. 395. ASIN 0268020280. OCLC 609421317. http://www.amazon.com/Way-toward-Wisdom-Interdisciplinary-Intercultural/dp/0268020280#reader_0268020280.
- ^ N. V. Isaeva (1992). Shankara and Indian Philosophy. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7. OCLC 24953669. http://books.google.com/books?id=hshaWu0m1D4C&lpg=PP1&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q=%22the%20most%20brilliant%20personality%20in%20the%20history%20of%20Indian%20thought%22&f=false.
- ^ "BHAKTI MOVEMENT". karnatakaeducation.org.in. http://rmsa.karnatakaeducation.org.in/sites/rmsa.karnatakaeducation.org.in/files/documents/Bhakti_Movement/Bhakti_Movement_Resource_Material_Subject_Teacher_Forum_September_2011.html.
- ^ Ron Geaves (March 2002). From Totapuri to Maharaji: Reflections on a Lineage (Parampara). 27th Spalding Symposium on Indian Religions, Oxford.
- ^ Anantanand Rambachan, The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas. University of Hawaii Press, 1994, pages 124, 125: [1].
- ^ Iqbal, Muhammad. "Bedil in the Light of Bergson". http://www.allamaiqbal.com/publications/journals/review/oct86/1.htm.
- ^ Vidyasankar, S. "Sankaracarya". Archived from the original on 16 June 2006. http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/sankara.html. Retrieved 2006-07-24.
- ^ Mishra, Godavarisha. "A Journey through Vedantic History -Advaita in the Pre-Sankara, Sankara and Post- Sankara Periods" (PDF). Archived from the original on June 22, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060622102818/http://ochs.org.uk/downloads/classes/gmishra02mmas04.pdf. Retrieved 2006-07-24.
- ^ Subbarayan, K. "Sankara, the Jagadguru". Archived from the original on March 10, 2005. http://web.archive.org/web/20050310110407/http://www.svbf.org/sringeri/journal/vol1no3/sankara.html. Retrieved 2006-07-24.
- ^ Johannes Buitenen (1978). The Mahābhārata (vol. 3). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-84665-1
- ^ Adi Shankaracharya at the Internet Movie Database
- ^ "31st National Film Awards". India International Film Festival, iffi.nic.in. http://iffi.nic.in/Dff2011/Frm31stNFAAward.aspx.
- ^ "31st National Film Awards (PDF)". Directorate of Film Festivals, dff.nic.in. http://dff.nic.in/2011/31st_nff_1984.pdf.
References[link]
- Isayeva, Natalia (1993). Shankara and Indian Philosophy. Albany: State University of New York Press (SUNY).
- Keay, John (2000). India: A History. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-3797-5.
- Mudgal, S.G. (1975). Advaita of Shankara: A Reappraisal. New Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass.
- Swami, Tapasyananda (2002). Sankara-Dig-Vijaya: The Traditional Life of Sri Sankaracharya by Madhava-Vidyaranya. India: Sri Ramakrishna Math. ISBN 978-81-7120-434-2.
- Greaves, Ron (March 2002). From Totapuri to Maharaji: Reflections on a Lineage (Parampara). 27th Spalding Symposium on Indian Religions, Oxford.
- Y Keshava Menon (1976). The Mind of Adi Shankaracharya. India: Jaico. ISBN 978-81-7224-214-5.
- Swami Pradhavananda and Christopher Isherwood (1978). Shankara's Crest-Jewel of Discrimination. USA: Vedanta Press. ISBN 978-0-87481-038-7.
Further reading[link]
- Ingalls, Daniel H. H. (1954). "Sankara's Arguments Against the Buddhists". Philosophy East and West (Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press) 3 (4): 291–306. DOI:10.2307/1397287. JSTOR 1397287. http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/ew27155.htm.
- Mishra, Parameshwar Nath (2003), "Era of Adi Shankaracharya 507 B.C.-475 B.C.", Howrah Samskriti Rakshak Parishad, West Bengal.
- Mishra, Parameshwar Nath, "Amit Kalrekha", 3 vols. (in Hindi), Howrah Samskriti Rakshak Parishad, West Bengal.
- Reigle, David, "Original Sankaracarya", www.easterntradition.org/original%20sankaracarya.pdf
External links[link]
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This table is incomplete. Please help to improve the article, or discuss the issue on the talk page. (February 2012) |
| Preceded by Bhagawan Govinda Bhagavat Pada |
Jagadguru of Sringeri Sharada Peetham ?–820 (videha-mukti) |
Succeeded by Sureshwaracharya |
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| Persondata | |
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| Name | Shankara, Adi |
| Alternative names | ശങ്കരന, ആദി (Malayalam); शङ्कर, आदि (Devanāgarī); Śaṅkara Bhagavatpādācārya; Ādi Śaṅkarācārya |
| Short description | Philosopher |
| Date of birth | 788 |
| Place of birth | Kalady, Kerala, India |
| Date of death | 820 |
| Place of death | Kedarnath, Pala Empire present day Uttarakhand, India |
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Adi Shankara (Sanskrit: आदिशङ्करः Ādi Śaṅkara, pronounced [aːd̪i ɕəŋkəɾə]) (788 CE - 820 CE), also known as Śaṅkara Bhagavatpādācārya and Ādi Śaṅkarācārya was an Indian sage from Kalady in present day Kerala who consolidated the doctrine of advaita vedānta. His teachings are based on the unity of the ātman and brahman— non-dual brahman, in which brahman is viewed as nirguna brahman, brahman without attributes.
Shankara travelled across the Indian subcontinent to propagate his philosophy through discourses and debates with other thinkers. He is reputed to have founded four mathas ("monasteries"), which helped in the historical development, revival and spread of Advaita Vedanta of which he is known as the greatest revivalist. Adi Shankara is believed to be the organizer of the Dashanami monastic order and the founder of the Shanmata tradition of worship.
His works in Sanskrit concern themselves with establishing the doctrine of advaita (nondualism). He also established the importance of monastic life as sanctioned in the Upanishads and Brahma Sutra, in a time when the Mimamsa school established strict ritualism and ridiculed monasticism. Shankara represented his works as elaborating on ideas found in the Upanishads, and he wrote copious commentaries on the Vedic canon (Brahma Sutra, principal upanishads and Bhagavad Gita) in support of his thesis. The main opponent in his work is the Mimamsa school of thought, though he also offers arguments against the views of some other schools like Samkhya and certain schools of Buddhism.
