Literal translation, or direct translation, is the rendering of text from one language to another "word-for-word" (Latin: "''verbum pro verbo''") rather than conveying the ''sense'' of the original. (This distinction is valid only when a literal translation does not accurately convey the sense, which is not invariably true.)

In translation studies, "literal translation" denotes technical translation of scientific, technical, technological or legal texts.

In translation theory, another term for "literal translation" is "metaphrase"; and for phrasal ("sense") translation — "paraphrase."

When considered a bad practice of conveying word by word (lexeme to lexeme, or morpheme to lexeme) translation of non-technical type literal translations has the meaning of mistranslating idioms, for example, or in the context of translating an analytic language to a synthetic language, it renders even the grammar unintelligible.

Term in translation studies

Usage

The term "literal translation" often appeared in the titles of 19th-century English translations of classical, Bible and other texts.

Cribs

Literal translations ("cribs," "ponies", or "trots") are sometimes prepared for a writer who is translating a work written in a language he does not know. For example, Robert Pinsky is reported to have used a literal translation in preparing his translation of Dante's ''Inferno'' (1994), as he does not know Italian. Similarly, Richard Pevear worked from literal translations provided by his wife, Larissa Volokhonsky, in their translations of several Russian novels.

Poetry to prose

Literal translation can also denote a translation that represents the precise meaning of the original text but does not attempt to convey its style, beauty, or poetry. There is, however, a great deal of difference between a literal translation of a poetic work and a prose translation. A literal translation of poetry may be in prose rather than verse, but also be error free. Charles Singleton's translation of ''The Divine Comedy'' (1975) is regarded as a prose translation.

As a bad practice

"Literal" translation implies that it is probably full of errors, since the translator has made no effort to convey, for example, correct idioms or shades of meaning.

Examples

A literal English translation of the German word "''Kindergarten''" would be "children garden," but in English the expression refers to the school year between pre-school and first grade. Literal translations in which individual components within words or compounds are translated to create new lexical items in the target language (a process also known as “loan translation”) are called calques, e.g., “beer garden” from German “Biergarten.”

Literal translation of the Italian sentence, "''So che questo non va bene''" ("I know that this is not good"), produces "Know(I) that this not goes(it) well," which has English ''words'' and Italian ''grammar''.

Machine translation

Early machine translations (as of 1962 at least) were notorious for this type of translation as they simply employed a database of words and their translations. Later attempts utilized common phrases which resulted in better grammatical structure and capture of idioms but with many words left in the original language. For translating synthetic languages, a morphosyntactic analyzer and synthesizer is required.

The best systems today use a combination of the above technologies and apply algorithms to correct the "natural" sound of the translation. In the end though, professional translation firms that employ machine translation use it as a tool to create a rough translation that is then tweaked by a human, professional translator.

Pidgins

Often, first-generation immigrants create something of a literal translation in how they speak their parents' native language. This results in a mix of the two languages in something of a pidgin. Many such mixes have specific names, e.g. Spanglish or Germish. For example, American children of German immigrants are heard using "rockingstool" from the German word "Schaukelstuhl" instead of "rocking chair".

Mistranslations

Literal translation of idioms is a source of numerous translators' jokes and apocrypha. The following famous example has often been told both in the context of newbie translators and that of machine translation: When the sentence "The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak" (дух бодр, плоть же немощна, an allusion to Mark 14:38) was translated into Russian and then back to English, the result was "The vodka is good, but the meat is rotten" (спирт, конечно, готов, но мясо протухло). This is generally believed to be simply an amusing story, and not a factual reference to an actual machine translation error.

See also

Metaphrase

Translation

Dynamic and formal equivalence

Calque

''Young's Literal Translation'' (of the ''Bible'')

All your base are belong to us

References

What is a literal translation? from LinguaLinks Library

Category:Translation studies Category:Professional humor Category:Error

ar:ترجمة حرفية ko:직역 id:Arti harfiah ja:直訳と意訳 ru:Буквализм simple:Literal translation sv:Direktöversättning zh:直译

}} Zhang Xiaoping (; born April 1, 1982 in Xilinhot, Inner Mongolia) is a Chinese amateur boxer who won a gold medal as a light heavyweight in the 2008 Beijing Olympics.

Career

He won two matches at the world championships 2007 including an upset over Germany's world military champion Gottlieb Weiss but lost to veteran Yerkabulan Shinaliev and fell one win short of direct qualification.

At the qualifier he beat Mehdi Ghorbani and Dinesh Kumar, a loss to Jahon Qurbonov was meaningless.

In the final of the 2008 Beijing Olympics he beat Kenneth Egan of Ireland to win the gold medal. The final match was controversial in that the judges failed to record multiple points for Egan, the NBC announcers concurred on this point. Zhang is expected to fight in a 'rematch' against Kenny Egan on the undercard of Bernard Dunne's next WBA Super-Bantamweight title defence.

Beijing Olympic games results

2008 (as a Light heavyweight)

Defeated Mourad Sahraoui (Tunisia) 3-1

Defeated Artur Beterbiyev (Russia) 8-2

Defeated Abdelhafid Benchabla (Algeria) 12-7

Defeated Yerkebulan Shynaliyev (Kazakhstan) 4-4

Defeated Kenneth Egan (Ireland) 11-7

World amateur championships results

2007 (as a Light heavyweight)

Defeated Jasveer Singh (India) 17-3

Defeated Gottlieb Weiss (Germany) 17-13

Lost to Yerkebulan Shynaliyev (Kazakhstan) 5-14

External links

World 2007

Qualifier

Category:1982 births Category:Living people Category:Boxers at the 2008 Summer Olympics Category:Chinese boxers Category:Light-heavyweight boxers Category:Olympic boxers of China Category:Olympic gold medalists for China Category:People from Inner Mongolia Category:Olympic medalists in boxing

da:Zhang Xiaoping de:Zhang Xiaoping fr:Zhang Xiaoping it:Zhang Xiaoping hu:Csang Hsziao-ping no:Zhang Xiaoping pl:Zhang Xiaoping pt:Zhang Xiaoping sv:Zhang Xiaoping zh:张小平

:''Not to be confused with Rudolf Höss, commandant of Auschwitz concentration camp

Coordinates	55°45′06″N37°37′04″N
name	Rudolf Hess
office	''Stellvertreter des Führers''Deputy Führer
term start	21 April 1933
term end	12 May 1941
lieutenant2	Karl GerlandMartin Bormann
predecessor	''Post created''
successor	Martin Bormann(As Chief of the Parteikanzlei)
birth date	April 26, 1894
birth place	Alexandria, Khedivate of Egypt, Ottoman Empire
death date	August 17, 1987
death place	Spandau, West Berlin West Germany
nationality	German
party	National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP) (Since 1920)
spouse	Ilse Pröhl (22 June 1900 - 7 September 1995) married 20 December 1927
children	Wolf Rüdiger Hess (18 November 1937 - 14 October 2001)
alma mater	University of Munich
profession	''Reichsminister''
signature	Rudolf Hess Signature.svg
footnotes	German spelling is Heß }}

Rudolf Walter Richard Hess (26 April 1894 in Alexandria, Egypt – 17 August 1987 in Berlin, Germany) was a prominent Nazi politician who was Adolf Hitler's deputy in the Nazi Party during the 1930s and early 1940s. On the eve of war with the Soviet Union, he flew solo to Scotland in an attempt to negotiate peace with the United Kingdom, but was arrested and became a prisoner of war. Hess was tried at Nuremberg and sentenced to life imprisonment, which he served at Spandau Prison, Berlin, where he died in 1987. There have been conspiracy theories linked to Hess. After World War II Winston Churchill wrote of Hess, 'He was a medical and not a criminal case, and should be so regarded.'

On 27–28 September 2007, numerous British news services published descriptions of disagreement between his Western and Soviet captors over his treatment and how the Soviet captors were steadfast in denying his release. In July 2011, the remains of Rudolf Hess were exhumed from a grave in Bavaria after it became a focus of a pilgrimage for neo-Nazis.

Early life

Hess was born in Alexandria, Egypt, the eldest of four children, to Fritz H. Hess, a prosperous German Lutheran importer/exporter from Bavaria, and Clara (''née'' Münch). His mother was of Greek descent, of the Georgiadis family of Alexandria. The family lived in luxury on the Egyptian coast, near Alexandria, and visited Germany often during the summers, allowing the Hess children to learn the German language and to absorb German culture. The family moved back to Germany in 1908, where Rudolf was subsequently enrolled in boarding school in Bad Godesberg, at the Evangelical School. Hess showed aptitude in science and mathematics, and expressed interest in becoming an astronomer. However, his father wished him to eventually continue the family business, Hess & Co., and in 1911 convinced Rudolf to study business for one year in Neuchatel, Switzerland, at the Ecole Superieur de Commerce.

World War I

Hess joined the Hamburg trading company Feldt, Stein & Co. as an apprentice in 1912. At the outbreak of World War I he enlisted in the 7th Bavarian Field Artillery Regiment, became an infantryman and was awarded the Iron Cross, second class. He saw heavy action both on the Western Front (at Ypres and Verdun) and in the Carpathian Mountains. After being wounded on several occasions—including a chest wound severe enough to prevent his return to the front as an infantryman—he transferred to the Imperial Air Corps (after being rejected once). He then took aeronautical training and served as a pilot in an operational squadron, Jasta 35b (Bavarian), with the rank of lieutenant from 16 October 1918. He won no victories. The war ended on 11 November 1918.

Marriage, family, early post-war years

On 20 December 1927, Hess married 27-year-old Ilse Pröhl (22 June 1900 – 7 September 1995) from Hannover. They had a son, Wolf Rüdiger Hess (18 November 1937 – 24 October 2001).

After the war, the successful Hess family business collapsed. Hess went to Munich, and took a job at a textile importing firm. He joined the ''Freikorps''. He also joined the Thule Society, a right-wing ''völkisch'' occult-mystical organization. After the end of the war, Bavaria underwent fierce infighting between right-wing groups and left-wing forces, some of which were Soviet-backed.

University

In autumn of 1919, Hess left his job and enrolled in the University of Munich where he studied political science, history, economics, and geopolitics under Professor Karl Haushofer, whom he had first met in the summer of 1919 in a social setting. From their first meeting, Hess became a disciple of Karl Haushofer, the two became close friends, and their families would also become close in the ensuing years, as Hess and Karl's son Albrecht Haushofer also developed a strong friendship.

Hitler

After hearing Adolf Hitler, a powerful orator, speak for the first time in May 1920 at a Munich rally, Hess became completely devoted to him, and spent much of his time and effort for the next several years organizing for Hitler at the local level in Bavaria. Hess joined the fledgling Nazi Party in 1920 as one of its first members. Hess introduced Karl Haushofer to Hitler in the spring of 1921, following a rally at a beerhall. This was a critical and vital development in the eventual Nazi rise to power. Haushofer and Hitler connected immediately on a personal level. Haushofer's geopolitical theories found a strong convert in Hitler, who used this material to form the basis of his own plans for the rebuilding of Germany; Hitler soon began using Haushofer's material in his speeches, which drew ever-larger audiences and attention. Haushofer would become a close adviser to Hitler, and assume prominence in Germany with Hitler's rise.

Hess commanded an SA battalion during the Hitler-led Beer Hall Putsch in 1923, which failed. Hess served seven and a half months in Landsberg Prison; Hitler was sentenced to five years in the same prison, but eventually served just nine months. Acting as Hitler's private secretary in prison, Hess transcribed and partially edited Hitler's book ''Mein Kampf''. While in prison, Hitler and Hess were frequently visited and tutored by Karl Haushofer. Hess also introduced Hitler at early Nazi Party rallies.

Hess retained his interest in flying after the end of his active military career, and competed successfully in several races during the 1920s and 1930s latterly in a BFW M35b monoplane. He also flew the Messerschmitt Bf 108 and Messerschmitt Bf 110 which he learnt to fly under the tutelage of the company chief test pilot Willi Stör.

Writing in ''Mein Kampf'', Hitler said, 'under the old regime there was Prince Eulenburg, under the new there is Rudolf Hess'. Anton Drexler ( known for being Adolf Hitler's mentor during his early days in politics) and his group resented Hess, considering him 'too intellectual'.

Deputy Fuhrer

Eventually, Hess became the third-most powerful man in Germany, behind Hitler and Hermann Göring. Soon after Hitler assumed dictatorial powers, beginning in early 1933, Hess was named "Deputy to the Fuhrer". Hess had a privileged position as Hitler's deputy in the early years of the Nazi movement and in the early years of the Third Reich. For instance, he had the power to take "merciless action" against any defendant who he thought got off too lightly—especially in cases of those found guilty of attacking the party, Hitler or the state. Hess also played a prominent part in the creation of the Nuremberg Laws in 1935. Hitler biographer John Toland described Hess's political insight and abilities as somewhat limited.

Hess had extensive dealings with senior leaders of major European nations during the 1930s. His education, family man image, high office, and calm, forthright manner all served to make him the more respectful and respectable representative of the often otherwise crude and vulgar Nazis. Compared with other Nazi leaders, Hess had a good reputation among foreign leaders.

Within Germany, Hess was somewhat marginalized as the 1930s progressed, as foreign policy took greater prominence. His alienation increased during the early years of the war, as attention and glory were focused on military leaders, along with Hermann Göring, Joseph Goebbels and Heinrich Himmler. Those three Nazi leaders in particular had much higher profiles than Hess. Though Hess worshipped Hitler more than the others, he was not nakedly ambitious and did not crave power in the same manner they did. However, as the Deputy Fuhrer, he was definitely not a figurehead. Hess held as much power as the other Nazi leaders, if not more, under Hitler. He controlled who could get an audience with the Fuhrer, as well as passing and vetoing proposed bills, and managing party activities. Hitler appointed Hess as "Minister Without Portfolio".

On 1 September 1939, the day Germany invaded Poland and launched World War II, Hitler announced that should anything happen to both him and Göring, Hess would be next in the line of succession.

Flight to Scotland

Like Goebbels, Hess was privately distressed by the war with the United Kingdom because he, influenced by his academic advisor, hoped that Britain would accept Germany as an ally. Hess may have hoped to score a diplomatic victory by sealing a peace between the Third Reich and Britain, using the contact his adviser Albrecht Haushofer had made in Nazi Germany, just before the war, with Douglas Douglas-Hamilton, 14th Duke of Hamilton.

On 10 May 1941, at about 6:00pm, Hess took off from Augsburg in a Messerschmitt Bf 110 (radio code VJ+OQ) which he had equipped with drop tanks to increase its range. Hitler ordered the General of the Fighter Arm to stop him but squadron leaders were ordered to scramble only one or two fighters, since Hess's particular aircraft could not be distinguished from others and he was soon out of their range over the North Sea.

Arrival over Scotland

Hess then flew over Northumberland and Scotland at low altitude and high speed where the aircraft was spotted by RAF Station Ouston at 22:08 and named raid 42. Fighter aircraft were scrambled to intercept but the pilots could not locate it. After reaching the west coast he turned east before climbing and parachuting over Renfrewshire.

Capture

Hess crash landed at Floors Farm near Eaglesham at 10:34pm and gave his name as "Alfred Horn", a friend of the Duke of Hamilton; he asked to be taken to the Duke. Hess, however, was taken to hospital for injuries sustained during his descent. Hamilton was informed of the prisoner and visited him whereupon he revealed his true identity. Hamilton immediately contacted Winston Churchill, and informed him of the Deputy Führer's arrival. }}

Hess was first taken by the Home Guard to their H.Q. at Giffnock and later moved to Maryhill Barracks, Glasgow. Hess's capture was reported at the time in the British and international media and farmhand David McLean claimed to have arrested Hess with his pitchfork.

The wreckage of the aircraft was salvaged by 63 Maintenance Unit between 11 and 16 May 1941. The aeroplane was found to be armed with machine guns in the nose but there was no ammunition on board.

Motives for trip

Records released by the UK's National Archives confirm that Hess was on a peace mission. In early 1941 Germany tried to negotiate peace with Britain through diplomatic communications via Sweden. The Duke of Hamilton commenced libel action in 1941/42 and wanted to stand Hess in court as a witness. There is no evidence to implicate the Duke of Hamilton. National Archives files relating to Hess and concerning the nature and range of German peace feelers in early 1941 (C1687G, C1954, C2785G) were formerly closed until 2017, but were released in 2007.

In May 1943, the ''American Mercury'' magazine published a story from an anonymous source that indicated the British Secret Service lured Hess to Scotland to meet with Douglas Douglas-Hamilton, 14th Duke of Hamilton, a member of the Anglo-German Fellowship and that Hess was on a peace mission; this was denied by Hitler.''The Queen's Lost Uncle'', a television programme broadcast in November 2003 and March 2005 on Britain's Channel 4, indicated involvement by Prince George, Duke of Kent. It appears that Hess was tricked into thinking he was in communication with the Duke of Hamilton who Hess was led to believe was an opponent of Winston Churchill.

Hess was quoted by his wife Ilse as saying:

Hitler granted Hess's wife a pension but stripped Hess of all of his party and state offices, and privately ordered him shot on sight if he ever returned to Germany. Martin Bormann succeeded Hess as deputy under a newly created title.

Soviet suspicion

Hess's flight raised suspicions with Soviet leader Joseph Stalin that secret discussions were under way between Britain and Germany to attack the Soviet Union. Later, in a meeting with Stalin, Churchill would address the topic and find Stalin still believed secret agreements were discussed with Hess. "When I make a statement of facts within my knowledge I expect it to be accepted," Churchill responded to Stalin, again denying that the incident resulted in any communications with Nazi Germany. Files at The National Archives dated 1942 include Moscow Embassy correspondence concerning Hess; some pages are subject to non-disclosure under statute.

According to data published in a book about Wilhelm Canaris, a number of contacts between Britain and Germany were kept during the war.

Trial and imprisonment

Prisoner of war

Churchill sent Hess initially to the Tower of London, making Hess the last in the long line of prominent people to be held in the 900 year-old fortress. Churchill gave orders that Hess was to be strictly isolated, but treated with dignity. He remained in the Tower until 20 May 1941. After being held in the Maryhill army barracks, he was transferred to Mytchett Place near Aldershot. He was kept under close guard. Frank Foley and two other MI6 officers were given the job of debriefing Hess — or "Jonathan", as he was now known. Churchill's instructions were that Hess should be strictly isolated, and that every effort should be taken to get any information out of him that might be useful.

During his time as a prisoner of war Hess was confined at Maindiff Court Military Hospital, Abergavenny, Wales for treatment for insanity. He was treated well and enjoyed painting.

Hess's mental state

At the time of his capture, official London sources had claimed Hess was "sane and healthy" and had not brought any peace message. However, the Nazis claimed he had left behind a letter which "showed clearly traces of mental disorder which led to fears that Party Comrade Hess was a victim of hallucinations." In an official report to President Franklin Roosevelt "A Former Naval Person" wrote: "Hess seems in good health and not excited, and no ordinary signs of insanity can be detected."

On 15 October 1941, Hess made his first suicide attempt by throwing himself over the rail of the first floor balcony, but he only broke his leg.

Hess was interviewed by psychiatrist John Rawlings Rees, who had worked at the Tavistock Clinic prior to becoming a Brigadier in the British Army. Rees concluded that he was not insane, but certainly mentally ill and suffering from depression—probably due to the failure of his mission. Hess's diaries from his imprisonment in Britain after 1941 make many references to visits from Rees, whom he did not like and accused of poisoning him and "mesmerizing" him. Rees took part in the Nuremberg Trials of 1945.

Hess was in captivity for almost four years of the war and thus he was absent from most of it, in contrast to the others who stood accused at Nuremberg. British government files released by The National Archives include a note concerning Hess's war crimes trial in which Judge Jackson considered whether Hess should be testified as insane. His case was considered by the Attorney-General.

Nuremberg Trials

Hess became a defendant at the Nuremberg Trials of the International Military Tribunal, on the insistence of the Soviet Union, despite his being in a state of almost complete forgetfulness. He was eventually flown to Nuremberg in October 1945. Hess regained his memory for a short period and was declared fit to stand trial. Partial memory loss returned and he went back into amnesia. He spent his time in court reading, occasionally laughing. In the British view, Hess was of unsound mind. Some of his last words before the tribunal were "I regret nothing".

In 1946, Hess was found guilty on two of four counts: crimes against peace (planning and preparation of aggressive war) and conspiracy with other German leaders to commit crimes. He was found not guilty of war crimes or crimes against humanity. Hess was given a life sentence.

Spandau Prison

Following the release in 1966 of Baldur von Schirach and Albert Speer, Hess was the sole remaining inmate of Spandau Prison, partly at the insistence of the Soviets. Guards reportedly said he degenerated mentally and lost most of his memory. For two decades, his main companion was warden Eugene K. Bird, with whom he formed a close friendship. Bird wrote a 1974 book titled ''The Loneliest Man in the World: The Inside Story of the 30-Year Imprisonment of Rudolf Hess'' about his relationship with Hess. Frank Keller, a former guard at Spandau, said that "Hess would march by himself in the jail courtyard every day".

In the third volume of his book ''The Second World War'' Winston Churchill wrote:

In the early 1970s, the U.S., British and French governments had approached the Soviet government to propose that Hess be released on humanitarian grounds due to his age. The Soviet official response was apparently to reject these attempts and reportedly "refused to consider any reduction in Hess's life sentence." U.S. President Richard Nixon was in favour of releasing Hess and stated that the U.S., Britain and France should continue to entreat the Soviet Union for his release.

In 1977, Britain's chief prosecutor at Nuremberg, Sir Hartley Shawcross, characterised Hess's continued imprisonment as a "scandal". In 1987, the new Soviet leadership agreed that Hess should be set free on humanitarian grounds.

Restrictions and isolation in prison

The restrictions of communication in prison for Hess were harsh. Family visits were restricted to a half-hour visit once a month; he considered this degrading and refused such short visits until 1968. In the 1970s he was visited by members of his family once a month, and later in the 1970s on "humanitarian grounds" visitation rights were extended to one hour per month. Hess was never allowed to discuss anything related to the period of World War II or to the Nazi regime. }}

Hess's letters and all communication were subject to censorship. British government files released by The National Archives detail a disagreement between the western powers and the Soviet Union regarding rights, especially censorship. The Soviet governor argued that uncensored letters to Hess's wife could be used to construct a propagandist essay.

British government files opened on 28 September 2007 by The National Archives from the period 6 May to 6 August 1974 contains a report of an altercation between Hess and a Soviet warder. The western governors raise issues of Soviet policy towards Hess, for example taking away Hess’s glasses before lights out, destroying his notebooks, increasing the strictness of censorship and blocking visits by Hess’s lawyer.

Death and legacy

On 17 August 1987, Hess died while under Four-Power imprisonment at Spandau Prison in West Berlin, at the age of 93. He was found in a summer house in a garden located in a secure area of the prison with an electrical cord wrapped around his neck. His death was ruled a suicide by asphyxiation. He was buried at Wunsiedel in a Hess family grave plot sold to his family by the Vetters of the Sechsämtertropfen bitter liquor company of Wunsiedel. Spandau Prison was subsequently demolished to prevent it from becoming a shrine.

Hess was the last surviving member of Hitler's cabinet.

Neo-nazi pilgrimages and disinternment

Neo-Nazis from Germany and Europe held gatherings in Wunsiedel for a memorial march and similar demonstrations that took place every year around the anniversary of Hess's death. These gatherings were banned from 1991 to 2000 and neo-Nazis tried to assemble in other cities and countries (such as the Netherlands and Denmark). Demonstrations in Wunsiedel were again legalised in 2001. After stricter German legislation regarding demonstrations by neo-Nazis was enacted in March 2005, the demonstrations were banned again.

With the grave's lease due to expire in October 2011, the Hess family applied for a 20-year extension which was denied. "We decided not to extend the lease because of all the unrest and disturbances," said parish council chairman Peter Seisser. After negotiations between the church's chaplin and Hess's granddaughter, the family agreed to remove his remains from the town. Hess's grave was re-opened on the morning of 20 July 2011 and his remains exhumed then cremated. Soon afterwards his ashes were scattered at sea; the gravestone, which bore the epitaph "Ich hab's gewagt" ("I dared"), was destroyed.

Speculation

Occult

Hess ordered a mapping of all the ley lines in the Third Reich. There is speculation that Hess was questioned by the British about Nazi interest in the occult.

Conspiracy theories

There have been conspiracy theories concerning his death, mainly from Wolf Rüdiger Hess.

Wolfgang Spann, who was in charge of the second autopsy, publicly stated that "we can't prove a third hand participated in the death of Rudolf Hess".

In 2008 Abdallah Melaouhi, a Tunisian who acted as Hess's medical caretaker in Spandau prison from 1984 to 1987, was dismissed from his position in his local German district parliament's advisory board for integration after he wrote a book, ''I Looked into the Murderer's Eyes''. He had claimed in the book that his patient was murdered by MI6 (the British Secret Intelligence Service).

According to Hugh Thomas's book ''The Murder of Rudolf Hess'' (1979), the prisoner tried at Nuremberg and incarcerated in Spandau as Rudolf Hess was actually an imposter. Dutch author At Voorhorst contradicts Thomas's allegations with his study in which he compares biometric features of the prisoner in Spandau prison and deputy of Hitler in the Second World War.

In popular culture

Film and television

Rudolf Hess has been portrayed by the following actors in film, television and theater productions:

George Lynn in the 1943 United States short documentary film ''Plan for Destruction''

Victor Varconi in the 1944 American film ''The Hitler Gang''

Carroll O'Connor in "Engineer of Death: The Eichmann Story", a 1960 episode of the American TV series ''Armstrong Circle Theatre''

Predrag Lakovic in the 1971 Yugoslavian television production ''Nirnberski epilog''

Wolfgang Lukschy played "Reinhard Holtz", a former Nazi and the sole prisoner of a Spandau-like prison in the 1975 United States film ''Inside Out''

Maurice Roëves in the 1982 American television production ''Inside the Third Reich''

Laurence Olivier in the 1985 American action film ''Wild Geese II''

Richard Edson in the 1997 American drama ''Snide and Prejudice''

Roc LaFortune in the 2000 Canadian/U.S. TV production ''Nuremberg''

James Babson in the 2003 Canadian/U.S. TV production ''Hitler: The Rise of Evil''

Conor Timmis in the 2004 American documentary ''Hitler's Lost Plan''.

André Hennicke in the 2005 German TV miniseries ''Speer und Er''

Victor Wagner in "Caso Mengele", a 2005 episode of the Brazillian TV series ''Linha Direta''

Ben Cross in the 2006 British/U.S. television production ''Nuremberg: Nazis on Trial''

Attila Harsányi in the 2008 Romanian theatre production ''The Ten Commandements of Rudolf Hess''

Literature

Rudolf Hess has been portrayed in literary works by the following authors:

James Leasor in ''Rudolph Hess: The Uninvited Envoy'', UK 1962, 2011. ISBN 978-1-908291-16-5

Desmond Zwar in ''Talking To Rudolf Hess'', The History Press UK, 2010. ISBN 9780752455228

Eugene K. Bird in ''The Loneliest Man In The World: the inside story of the 30-year imprisonment of Rudolf Hess'', Secker & Warburg, London, 1974. ISBN 978-0436042904. The book was also published in the United States by Viking, and in 10 other countries.

Upton Sinclair in his ''Lanny Budd Series''

Eric Knight in 1942 novel ''Sam Small Flies Again''

James Barwick in the 1978 novel ''Shadow of the Wolf''

Timothy Findley in 1981 novel ''Famous Last Words''

Daniel Carney in 1982 novel ''The Square Circle''

Katherine Kurtz in 1992 novel ''The Lodge of the Lynx''

Peter Lovesey in 1992 novel ''The Secret of Spandau''

Greg Iles in 1993 thriller novel ''Spandau Phoenix''

Christopher Priest in the 2002 novel ''The Separation''

David Edgar in 2000 play ''Albert Speer''

Michael Moorcock in 2001 novel ''The Dreamthief's Daughter''

Peter Ho Davies in 2007 novel ''The Welsh Girl''

Ethan Mordden in 2008 novel ''The Jewcatcher''

Bruce Weiss in his novel ''The Ghost of Rudolph Hess''

In the 2006 alternate-history novel ''Farthing'', by Jo Walton, Hess is not portrayed, but his flight is the story's divergence point with real history: his entreaties have been accepted, and have led to a peace between United Kingdom and Nazi Germany, and to the former withdrawing from World War II.

Gary Manley in 2009 novel ''My Girlfriend is her Sister''

John Douglas-Gray in his thriller 'The Novak Legacy' ISBN 978-0-7552-1321-4

Music

In Joy Division's song "Warsaw", lyrics include reference to Hess's prison number, 31G-350125

British punk rock band Angelic Upstarts released the song "Lonely Man of Spandau", which called for Hess's release

References

Bibliography

Allen, Martin. ''The Hitler / Hess Deception''. (HarperCollins, 2003, ISBN 978-0-00-714119-7)

Allen, Peter. ''The Crown and the Swastika: Hitler, Hess, and the Duke of Windsor''.

Brenton, Howard. ''H.I.D.: Hess Is Dead''.

Churchill, Winston S. ''The Second World War; Volume 3: The Grand Alliance'' (Cassell & Co., 1950)

Cornell University Law Library - "''Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler''" Cornell University lawschool. Readers can download a PDF version of the whole document

Costello, John. ''Ten Days to Destiny: The Secret Story of the Hess Peace Initiative and British Efforts to Strike a Deal With Hitler''. Also published as ''Ten Days That Saved the West''.

Douglas-Hamilton, James. ''Motive for a Mission: The Story Behind Rudolf Hess's Flight to Britain''.

Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas. ''The Occult Roots of Nazism: The Ariosophists of Austria and Germany 1890-1935''. (Wellingborough, England: Aquarian Press, 1985, ISBN 0-85030-402-4)

Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas. ''Black Sun: Aryan Cults, Esoteric Nazism and the Politics of Identity''. (New York University Press, 2002, ISBN 0-8147-3124-4. Paperback 2003, ISBN 0-8147-3155-4)

Ernst Haiger ''Fiction, Facts, and Forgeries: The 'Revelations' of Peter and Martin Allen about the History of the Second World War''. The Journal of Intelligence History, Vol 6 no. 1 (Summer 2006 [published in 2007]), pp. 105–117.

Harris, John. ''Hess:The British Conspiracy''

Hess, Ilse. ''Prisoner of Peace''.

Hess, Rudolf. ''Selected speeches''.

Hess, Wolf Ruidger. ''My Father Rudolf Hess''.

Hutton, Joseph Bernard. ''Hess: The Man and His Mission''.

Irving, David John Cawdell. ''Hess: The Missing Years 1941–1945''.

Le Tissier, Tony. ''Farewell to Spandau''.

Knopp, Guido for ZDF ''Hitlers Helfer - Hess, der Stellvertreter''. (German TV, 1998, ISBN 0-7509-3781-5)

Kilzer, Louis C. ''Churchill's Deception: The Dark Secret That Destroyed Nazi Germany''.

Leasor, James The Uninvited Envoy. UK, 1962, 2011. ISBN 978-1-908291-16-5

Machtan, Lothar. ''The Hidden Hitler''. (2001) ISBN 0-465-04308-9

Manvell, Roger. ''Hess: A Biography''.

Moriarty, David M. ''Rudolf Hess, Deputy Führer: A Psychological Study''.

Nesbit, Roy Conyers, and Georges Van Acker. ''The Flight of Rudolf Hess: Myths and Reality''.

Padfield, Peter. ''Hess: Flight for the Führer''.

Padfield, Peter. ''Hess: The Führer's Disciple''.

Picknett, Lynn, Clive Prince, and Stephen Prior. ''Double Standards The Rudolf Hess Cover-Up''. ISBN 0-7515-3220-7

Pile, G. ''Rudolf Hess: Prisoner of Peace''.

Rees, John R., and Henry Victor Dicks. ''The Case of Rudolf Hess; A Problem in diagnosis and forensic psychiatry''.

Rees, Philip, editor. ''Biographical Dictionary of the Extreme Right Since 1890''. (1991, ISBN 0-13-089301-3)

Royce, William Hobart ''The Behest of Hess'''.

Smith, Alfred. ''Rudolf Hess and Germany's Reluctant War, 1939-41''.

Tuccille, Jerome, and Philip S. Jacobs. ''The Mission''. (Dutton Adult, 1991 novel, ISBN 1-55611-199-1)

Thomas, Hugh. ''The Murder of Rudolf Hess'' (republished as ''Hess: A Tale of Two Murders'').

Schwarzwäller, Wulf. ''Rudolf Hess, the Last Nazi''. (A Zenith edition)

External links

Article about British release of information about Hess's crash-landing outside Glasgow

Rudolf Hess's relationship to Rudolf Steiner's Anthroposophy

Correspondence on Rudolph Hess's incarceration held by the National Archives of the UK

Mail firm issues stamps of Hitler deputy Reuters 22 May 2008

Footage of Rudolf Hess plane after crash in Scotland in 1941

Top Nazi Rudolf Hess exhumed from 'pilgrimage' grave BBC News online 2011-07-21

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