published: 16 Jun 2010
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![Must See US-Iran Relations Quick Timeline From 1953- [MFV !]](http://web.archive.org./web/20121119043209im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/vj6HFjkRhs0/default.jpg "MFV : [Make Facts Viral !] This video is a basic overview of US imperialism toward Iran that began at the behest of the British Government and big oil interests including British Petroleum also recently known as BP. The United States' own CIA led it's first coup to overthrow a foreign leader against Mohammad Mosaddegh in 1953, The US has suffered")
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Battle of Badr
The Battle of Badr (Arabic: غزوة بدر), fought Saturday, 13 March 624 AD (17 Ramadan, 2 AH in the Islamic calendar) in the Hejaz region of western Arabia (present-day Saudi Arabia), was a key battle in the early days of Islam and a turning point in Muhammad's struggle with his opponents among the Quraish in Mecca. The battle has been passed down in Islamic history as a decisive victory attributable to divine intervention, or by secular sources to the strategic genius of Muhammad. It is one of the few battles specifically mentioned in the Quran. Most contemporary knowledge of the battle at Badr comes from traditional Islamic accounts, both hadiths and biographies of Muhammad, recorded in written form some time after the battle.
Prior to the battle, the Muslims and Meccans had fought several smaller skirmishes in late 623 and early 624, as the Muslim ghazawāt (prophet-led battles) had become more frequent. Badr, however, was the first large-scale engagement between the two forces. Advancing to a strong defensive position, Muhammad's well-disciplined force broke the Meccan lines, killing several important Quraishi leaders including Muhammad's chief antagonist, 'Amr ibn Hishām.[citation needed] For the early Muslims the battle was the first sign that they might eventually defeat their enemies among the Meccans. Mecca at that time was one of the richest and most powerful cities in Arabia, fielding an army three times larger than that of the Muslims.[citation needed] The Muslim victory also signalled other tribes that a new power had arisen in Arabia and strengthened Muhammad’s position as leader of the often fractious community in Medina.[citation needed]
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Black Stone
The Black Stone (Arabic: الحجر الأسود al-Ḥajar al-Aswad) is the eastern cornerstone of the Kaaba, the ancient stone building toward which Muslims pray, in the center of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. It is revered by Muslims as an Islamic relic, which, according to Muslim tradition, dates back to the time of Adam and Eve.
The stone was venerated at the Kaaba in pre-Islamic pagan times. It was set intact into the Kaaba's wall by the Islamic Prophet Muhammad in the year 605 A.D., five years before his first revelation. Since then it has been broken into a number of fragments and is now cemented into a silver frame in the side of the Kaaba. Its physical appearance is that of a fragmented dark rock, polished smooth by the hands of millions of pilgrims. Islamic tradition holds that it fell from Heaven to show Adam and Eve where to build an altar. Although it has often been described as a meteorite, this hypothesis is now uncertain.
Muslim pilgrims circle the Kaaba as part of the Tawaf ritual of the Hajj. Many of them try, if possible, to stop and kiss the Black Stone, emulating the kiss that Islamic tradition records that it received from Muhammad. If they cannot reach it, they point to it on each of their seven circuits around the Kaaba.
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Dome of the Rock
The Dome of the Rock (Arabic: مسجد قبة الصخرة, translit.: Masjid Qubbat As-Sakhrah, Hebrew: כיפת הסלע, translit.: Kipat Hasela) is a shrine located on the Temple Mount in the Old City of Jerusalem. The structure has been refurbished many times since its initial completion in 691 CE at the order of Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik. The site's significance stems from religious traditions regarding the rock, known as the Foundation Stone, at its heart.
The Dome of the Rock is located at the visual center of a platform known as the Temple Mount. It was constructed on the site of the Second Jewish Temple, which was destroyed during the Roman Siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE. In 637 CE, Jerusalem surrendered to the Rashidun Caliphate army during the Muslim conquest of Syria.
The location of the Dome of the Rock was established as the site of the Islamic miracle of the Isra and Miraj by Caliph Omar ibn al Khattab, who was advised by his associate, Ka'ab al-Ahbar, a former Jewish rabbi who had converted to Islam, that Isra and Miraj took place at the site of the former Jewish Temples. The Dome of the Rock was erected between 689 and 691 CE. The names of the two engineers in charge of the project are given as Yazid Ibn Salam from Jerusalem and Raja Ibn Haywah from Baysan. Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan who initiated construction of the Dome, hoped that it would “house the Muslims from cold and heat” and intended the building to serve as a shrine for pilgrims and not as a mosque for public worship.
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Ethiopia
Ethiopia (
/ˌiːθiˈoʊpiə/) (Ge'ez: ኢትዮጵያ ʾĪtyōṗṗyā), officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country located in the Horn of Africa. It is the second-most populous nation in Africa, with over 82 million inhabitants, and the tenth largest by area, occupying 1,100,000 km2. Ethiopia is bordered by Eritrea to the north, Djibouti and Somalia to the east, Sudan and South Sudan to the west, and Kenya to the south. With its capital at Addis Ababa, it is also the most populous landlocked nation in the world.
Ethiopia was a monarchy for most of its history, and the Ethiopian dynasty traces its roots to the 2nd century BC. Ethiopia is also one of the oldest sites of human existence known to scientists today, having yielded some of humanity's oldest traces. It may be the region from which Homo sapiens first set out for the Middle East and points beyond. Alongside Rome, Persia, China and India, the Ethiopian Aksum Empire was considered one of the great world powers of the 3rd century. During the Scramble for Africa, Ethiopia was the only African country beside Liberia that retained its sovereignty as a recognized independent country, and was one of only four African members of the League of Nations. After a brief period of Italian occupation, Ethiopia became a charter member of the United Nations. When other African nations received their independence following World War II, many of them adopted the colors of Ethiopia's flag, and Addis Ababa became the location of several international organizations focused on Africa.
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Hira
Hira (Arabic: حراء Ḥirāʾ) or the Cave of Hira (غار حراء Ġār Ḥirāʾ) is a cave about 2 mi (3.2 km) from Mecca, on the mountain named Jabal Al-Nūr in the Hejaz region of present day Saudi Arabia. The cave itself is about 12 ft (3.7 m) in length and 5 ft 3 in (1.60 m) in width.
It is notable for being the location where Muslims believe Muhammad received his first revelations from God (Allah) through the angel Jibreel, also known as the angel Gabriel to Christians.
Taking 600 steps to reach, the cave is at a height of 270 m (890 ft) and the radius is 263.23 m (863.6 ft) During the Hajj around 5,000 Muslims climb up to the Hira cave daily to see the place where Muhammed received the first revelation of the Qu'ran on the Night of Power.
Coordinates: 21°27′27.2″N 039°51′33.9″E / 21.457556°N 39.859417°E / 21.457556; 39.859417
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Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering approximately 20% of the water on the Earth's surface. It is bounded on the north by the Indian Subcontinent and Arabian Peninsula (or, more generally, by southern and western Asia); on the west by eastern Africa; on the east by Indochina, the Sunda Islands, and Australia; and on the south by the Southern Ocean (or, depending on definition, by Antarctica). The ocean is named after the geographic location of India.
As one component of the interconnected global ocean, the Indian Ocean is delineated from the Atlantic Ocean by the 20° east meridian running south from Cape Agulhas, and from the Pacific by the meridian of 146°55' east. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf. This ocean is nearly 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) wide at the southern tips of Africa and Australia; its area is 73,556,000 square kilometres (28,350,000 sq mi), including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf.
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Iran
Coordinates: 32°N 53°E / 32°N 53°E / 32; 53
Iran (
i/ɪˈrɑːn/ or /aɪˈræn/;Persian: ایران [ʔiˈɾɒn] (
listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ایران Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān), is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran", which in Persian means "Land of the Aryans", has been in use natively since the Sassanian era. It came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia (
/ˈpɜrʒə/ or /ˈpɜrʃə/). Both "Persia" and "Iran" are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, "Iran" is the name used officially in political contexts.
The 18th-largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi), Iran has a population of around 79 million. It is a country of particular geopolitical significance owing to its location in the Middle East and central Eurasia. Iran is bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan. As Iran is a littoral state of the Caspian Sea, which is an inland sea, Kazakhstan and Russia are also Iran's direct neighbors to the north. Iran is bordered on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by Iraq and on the northwest by Turkey. Tehran is the capital, the country's largest city and the political, cultural, commercial and industrial center of the nation. Iran is a regional power, and holds an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Iran has the second largest proven natural gas reserves in the world and the fourth largest proven petroleum reserves.
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Jerusalem
Jerusalem ( /dʒəˈruːsələm/; Hebrew: יְרוּשָׁלַיִם Yerushaláyim ; Arabic: القُدس al-Quds and/or أورشليم Ûrshalîm) is the capital of Israel, though not internationally recognized as such, and one of the oldest cities in the world. It is located in the Judean Mountains, between the Mediterranean Sea and the northern edge of the Dead Sea. If the area and population of East Jerusalem is included, it is Israel's largest city in both population and area, with a population of 801,000 residents over an area of 125.1 km2 (48.3 sq mi). Jerusalem is also a holy city to the three major Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
During its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, and captured and recaptured 44 times. The oldest part of the city was settled in the 4th millennium BCE. In 1538, walls were built around Jerusalem under Suleiman the Magnificent. Today those walls define the Old City, which has been traditionally divided into four quarters—known since the early 19th century as the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Quarters. The Old City became a World Heritage site in 1981, and is on the List of World Heritage in Danger. Modern Jerusalem has grown far beyond its boundaries.
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Kashmir
Kashmir (Balti, Gojri, Poonchi/Chibhali, Dogri: कश्मीर; Kashmiri: कॅशीर, کٔشِیر; Ladakhi: ཀཤམིར; Uyghur: كەشمىر; Shina: کشمیر) is the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term Kashmir geographically denoted only the valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal mountain range. Today Kashmir denotes a larger area that includes the Indian-administered state of Jammu and Kashmir (the Kashmir valley, Jammu and Ladakh), the Pakistani-administered Gilgit–Baltistan and the Azad Kashmir provinces, and the Chinese-administered regions of Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract.
In the first half of the first millennium, the Kashmir region became an important center of Hinduism and later of Buddhism; later still, in the ninth century, Kashmir Shaivism arose. In 1349, Shah Mir became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir and inaugurated the Salatin-i-Kashmir or Swati dynasty. For the next five centuries, Muslim monarchs ruled Kashmir, including the Mughals, who ruled from 1526 until 1751, then the Afghan Durrani Empire that ruled from 1747 until 1820. That year, the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir. In 1846, upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar, the Dogras—under Gulab Singh—became the new rulers. Dogra Rule, under the paramountcy (or tutelage) of the British Crown, lasted until 1947, when the former princely state became a disputed territory, now administered by three countries: India, Pakistan, and the People's Republic of China.
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Khaybar
Khaybar (Arabic,خيبر) is the name of an oasis some 153 km to the north of Medina (ancient Yathrib), Saudi Arabia. It was inhabited by Jews before the rise of Islam, and was conquered by the Islamic prophet Muhammad in 629 AD.
In 567, Khaybar was invaded and vacated of its Jewish inhabitants by the Ghassanid Arab Christian king Al-Harith ibn Jabalah. He later freed to the captives upon his return to the Levant. A brief account of the campaign is given by Ibn Qutaybah , and confirmed by the Harran Inscription. See Irfan Shahid's Byzantium and the Arab in the six century for full details.
In the 7th century, Khaybar was inhabited by Jews, who pioneered the cultivation of the oasis and made their living growing date palm trees, as well as through commerce and craftsmanship, accumulating considerable wealth. Some objects found by the Muslims when they entered Khaybar — a siege-engine, 20 bales of Yemenite cloth, and 500 cloaks — point out to an intense trade carried out by the Jews. In the past some scholars attempted to explain the siege-engine by suggesting that it was used for settling quarrels among the families of the community. Today most academics believe it was stored in a depôt for future sale, in the same way that swords, lances, shields, and other weaponry had been sold by the Jews to Arabs. Equally, the cloth and the cloaks may have been intended for sale, as it was unlikely that such a quantity of luxury goods were kept for the exclusive use of the Jews.[citation needed]
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Kingdom of Aksum
The Kingdom of Aksum or Axum, also known as the Aksumite Empire and Abyssinia, was an important trading nation in northeastern Africa, existing from approximately 100–940 AD. It grew from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period ca. 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD, and was a major player in the commerce between the Roman Empire and Ancient India. The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own currency, the state established its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian peninsula, eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom.
Under Ezana (fl 320–360), Aksum became the first major empire to convert to Christianity, and was named by Mani (216–276) as one of the four great powers of his time along with Persia, Rome, and China. In the 7th century the Muslims, who originated in Mecca, sought refuge from Quraysh persecution by travelling to Aksum (Abyssinia), a journey famous in Islamic history as the First Hijra. Aksum's ancient capital is found in northern Ethiopia. The Kingdom used the name "Ethiopia" as early as the 4th century. It is also the alleged resting place of the Ark of the Covenant and the purported home of the Queen of Sheba.[citation needed].
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Makkah Province
Coordinates: 21°30′N 41°0′E / 21.5°N 41°E / 21.5; 41
The Makkah Province or Mecca Province (Arabic: مكة المكرمة Makka al Mukarrama) is the most populous province of Saudi Arabia. It is located in the western Saudi Arabia and has an extended coastline. It has an area of 164,000 km² and a population of 5,797,971 (2004 census). Its capital is the sacred city of Mecca (also transliterated as Makkah) and its largest city is Jeddah, which is also Saudi Arabia's main port city.
Governors of the Makkah province since the establishment of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia are as follows:
The province is divided into 12 governorates (with 2004 Census populations):
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Mecca
Mecca ( /ˈmɛkə/; Arabic: مكة, Makkah, pronounced [ˈmækːɐ]) is a city in the Hejaz and the capital of Makkah province in Saudi Arabia. The city is located 70 km (43 mi) inland from Jeddah in a narrow valley at a height of 277 m (909 ft) above sea level. Its resident population in 2012 was 2 million, although visitors more than triple this number every year during Hajj period held in the twelfth Muslim lunar month of Dhu al-Hijjah.
As the birthplace of Muhammad and a site of the composition of the Quran, Mecca is regarded as the holiest city in the religion of Islam and a pilgrimage to it known as the Hajj is obligatory upon all able Muslims. The Hijaz was long ruled by Muhammad's descendants, the sharifs, either as independent rulers or as vassals to larger empires. It was absorbed into Saudi Arabia in 1925. In its modern period, Mecca has seen tremendous expansion in size and infrastructure. Because of this Mecca has lost many thousand years old buildings and archaeological sites. Today, more than 15 million Muslims visit Mecca annually, including several million during the few days of the Hajj. As a result, Mecca has become one of the most cosmopolitan and diverse cities in the Muslim world, although non-Muslims remain prohibited from entering the city.
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Medina
Medina (/mɛˈdiːnə/; Arabic: اَلْمَدِينَة اَلْمَنَوَّرَة, al-Madīnah al-Munawwarah, “the radiant city” (officially), or اَلْمَدِينَة al-Madīnah; also transliterated as Madinah, or madinat al-nabi "the city of the prophet") is a city in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia, and serves as the capital of the Al Madinah Province. It is the second holiest city in Islam, and the burial place of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad. Medina is historically significant for being Muhammad's home after the Hijrah. Before the advent of Islam, the city was known as Yathrib, but was personally renamed by Muhammad.
Medina is home to the three oldest mosques in Islam, namely Al-Masjid an-Nabawi (The Prophet's Mosque), Quba Mosque (the first mosque in Islam's history), and Masjid al-Qiblatain (the mosque where the qibla was switched to Mecca).
Because of the Saudi government's religious policy and concern that historic sites could become the focus for idolatry, much of Medina's Islamic physical heritage has been destroyed since the beginning of Saudi rule.[citation needed]
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Mount Arafat
Coordinates: 21°22′0″N 40°0′10″E / 21.366667°N 40.00278°E / 21.366667; 40.00278
Mount Arafat or Mount Arafah (Arabic: جبل عرفات; transliterated Jabal ‘Arafāt) is a granite hill east of Mecca. It is also known as the Mount of Mercy (Jabal ar-Rahmah). The hill is the place Muslims believe the Islamic prophet Muhammad stood and delivered the Farewell Sermon to the Muslims who had accompanied him for the Hajj towards the end of his life. It reaches about 70 m in height.
According to Islamic tradition, it was on Mount Arafah that Adam and Eve, separated for 200 years following their expulsion from the Garden of Eden, met and recognized each other and were reunited[citation needed]. Here too they were forgiven by Allah for their transgression after offering their repentance. A main reason of the ritual of pilgrimage is the renewal of that Prayer of Repentance every year standing on the hill of mercy, the climax of Hajj. The pilgrims will spend the whole day on Arafah supplicating to Allah to forgive their sins and praying for personal strength in the future.
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Nineveh
Coordinates: 36°21′34″N 43°09′10″E / 36.35944°N 43.15278°E / 36.35944; 43.15278
Nineveh (English pronunciation: /ˈnɪn.ɪv.ə/; Akkadian: Ninwe; Classical Syriac: ܢܸܢܘܵܐ; Hebrew: נינוה Nīnewē; Greek: Νινευη Nineuē; Latin: Nineve; Arabic: نينوى Naynuwa; Persian: نینوا Nainavā) was an ancient Assyrian city on the eastern bank of the Tigris River, and capital of the Neo Assyrian Empire. Its ruins are across the river from the modern-day major city of Mosul, in the Ninawa Governorate of Iraq.
The origin of the name Nineveh is obscure. Possibly it meant originally the seat of Ishtar, since Nina was one of the Babylonian names of that goddess. The ideogram means "house or place of fish," and was perhaps due to popular etymology (comp. Aramaic "nuna," denoting "fish").
Ancient Nineveh's mound-ruins of Kouyunjik and Nabī Yūnus are located on a level part of the plain near the junction of the Tigris and the Khosr Rivers within a 7 km² (1732 acres) area circumscribed by a 12-kilometre (7.5 mi) brick rampart. This whole extensive space is now one immense area of ruins overlaid in parts by new suburbs of the city of Mosul.
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Nomad
Nomadic people (Greek: νομάδες, nomádes, "those who let pasture herds"), commonly known as itinerants in modern-day contexts, are communities of people who move from one place to another, rather than settling permanently in one location. There are an estimated 30-40 million nomads in the world.
Many cultures have traditionally been nomadic, but traditional nomadic behavior is increasingly rare in industrialized countries. Nomadic cultures are discussed in three categories according to economic specialization: hunter-gatherers, pastoral nomads, and "peripatetic nomads".
Nomadic hunting and gathering, following seasonally available wild plants and game, is by far the oldest human subsistence method. Pastoralists raise herds, driving them or moving with them, in patterns that normally avoid depleting pastures beyond their ability to recover. Peripatetic nomads, who offer the skills of a craft or trade to those with whom they travel, are most common in industrialized nations.
Many groups of 'nomadic' hunter-gatherers (also known as foragers) moved from campsite to campsite, following game and wild fruits and vegetables. Hunting and gathering was the ancestral subsistence mode of Homo, and all modern humans were hunter-gatherers until around 10,000 years ago.
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Russia
Russiai/ˈrʌʃə/ or /ˈrʊʃə/ (Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijə] ( listen)), also officially known as the Russian Federation (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə] ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, and the US state of Alaska by the Bering Strait. At 17,075,400 square kilometres (6,592,800 sq mi), Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than one eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area. Russia is also the eighth most populous nation with 143 million people. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning nine time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources and is the largest producer of oil and natural gas globally. Russia has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.
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Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia (i/ˌsaʊdi əˈreɪbi.ə/ or i/ˌsɔːdiː əˈreɪbi.ə/; Arabic: السعودية as-Su‘ūdīyah[citation needed] or incorrectly as-Sa‘ūdīyah, officially known as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Arabic: المملكة العربية السعودية al-Mamlakah al-‘Arabīyah as-Su‘ūdīyah Arabic pronunciation (help·info)), is the largest state in Western Asia by land area, constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and the second-largest in the Arab world, after Algeria. It is bordered by Jordan, and Iraq on the north and northeast, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates on the east, Oman on the southeast, and Yemen on the south. The Red Sea lies to its west, and the Persian Gulf lies to the east. Saudi Arabia has an area of approximately 2,250,000 km2 (870,000 sq mi), and it has an estimated population of 27 million, of which 9 million are registered foreign expatriates and an estimated 2 million are illegal immigrants. Saudi nationals comprise an estimated 16 million people.
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded by Abdul-Aziz bin Saud (known for most of his career as Ibn Saud) in 1932, although the conquests which eventually led to the creation of the Kingdom began in 1902 when he captured Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud, referred to in Arabic as the Al Saud. The Saudi Arabian government, which has been an absolute monarchy since its inception, refers to its system of government as being Islamic, though this is contested by many due to its strong basis in Salafism, a minority school of thought in Islam. The kingdom is sometimes called "The Land of the Two Holy Mosques" in reference to Al-Masjid al-Haram (in Mecca), and Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (in Medina), the two holiest places in Islam.
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Sodom and Gomorrah
Sodom and Gomorrah ( /ˈsɒd.əm/; /ɡə.ˈmɔr.ə/) were cities mentioned in the Book of Genesis and throughout the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament and Deuterocanonical sources, as well as the Quran. According to the Torah, the kingdoms of Sodom and Gomorrah were allied with the cities of Admah, Zeboim and Bela. These five cities, also known as the "cities of the plain", were situated on the Jordan river plain in the southern region of the land of Canaan. The Jordan river plain (which corresponds to area just north of the modern day Dead Sea) has been compared to the garden of Eden,[Gen.13:10] being a land well-watered and green, suitable for grazing livestock.
Divine judgment by Yahweh was then passed upon Sodom and Gomorrah along with two other neighboring cities that were completely consumed by fire and brimstone. Neighboring Zoar was the only city to be spared during that day of judgment.[Deut.29:23][Gen.10:19] In Christian and Islamic traditions, Sodom and Gomorrah have become synonymous with impenitent sin, and their fall with a proverbial manifestation of God's wrath.[Jude 1:7] Sodom and Gomorrah have been used as metaphors for vice and homosexuality viewed as a deviation. The story has therefore given rise to words in several languages, including the English word sodomy, used in so-called sodomy laws to describe a sexual "crime against nature" consisting of anal sex, either homosexual or heterosexual.
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Syria
Syria (/ˈsɪriə/ ( listen) SIRR-ee-ə; Arabic: سورية Sūriyya or سوريا Sūryā; Syriac: ܣܘܪܝܐ; Kurdish: Sûrî), officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية al-Jumhūriyyah al-‘Arabīyah as-Sūriyyah Arabic pronunciation (help·info)), is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest.
In English, the name Syria was formerly synonymous with the Levant, known in Arabic as Sham, while the modern state encompasses the sites of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the Eblan civilization of the third millennium BC. In the Islamic era, its capital city, Damascus, the oldest continuously inhabited city in the world, was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate, and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt.
The population of Syria is 74% Sunni, 12% Alawi, 10% Christian, and 3% Druze. Combined, 87% of the Syrian population is Muslim, while the other 10% is Christian, which includes mainly Arab Christians but also Assyrians and Armenians. Major ethnic minorities in Syria include Kurds (9%), Assyrians, Armenians, Turkmens and Circassians. The majority of the population is Arab (90%).
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Tabuk, Saudi Arabia
Tabuk (Arabic: تبوك Tabūk), also spelled Tabouk, is the capital city of the Tabuk province in north western Saudi Arabia. It has a population of 441,351 (2004 census).
Around 500 BC, Tabuk town (then known as Taboo) was, together with Al Ola, the capital of the prosperous Al Ayaneyean.[citation needed]
Around Tabuk, the Battle of Tabouk took place in the time of Islamic prophet Muhammad.
Monuments include the historic mosque, the Tabuk fortress and a railway station of the Hejaz Railway dating back to the Ottoman empire. In the Tabuk region, a number of important archeological sites can be found, including Al Bidaa.
Desertous continental weather with hot summers and mild winters. Temperature in the summers are between 26-46°C while in winter they're between 4-18°C, with wide spread frosts. Freezes are common with temperatures reaching low -6°C in some winters. Rainfall in Tabuk Area falls in the winter months from November to March and precipitation ranges between 50 – 150 mm with some not uncommon snow every 3-4 years.
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Taif
Ta’if (Arabic الطائف aṭ-Ṭā’if) is a city in the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia at an elevation of 1,879 m (6,165 ft) on the slopes of the Sarawat Mountains (Al-Sarawat Mountains). It has a population of 521,273 (2004 census). Each summer the Saudi Government moves from the heat of Riyadh to Ta'if. The city is the centre of an agricultural area known for its grapes, roses and honey.
The inhabitants of Ta'if, are largely made up of the Hanbali and Maliki Sunnis Saudi Arabians. There are also significant foreign populations, primarily from Asia, Turkey, and other Arab countries.
In the 6th century the city of Tā'if was dominated by the Banu Thaqif tribe.
The town is about 100 km (62 mi) southeast of Mecca. The walled city was a religious centre as it housed the idol of the goddess Allāt, who was then known as "the lady of Tā'if." Its climate marked the city out from its dry and barren neighbours closer to the Red Sea. Wheat, vines, and fruit were grown around Tā'if and this is how the city earned its title "the Garden of the Hejaz."
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Topkapı Palace
The Topkapı Palace (Turkish: Topkapı Sarayı or in Ottoman Turkish: طوپقپو سرايى) is a large palace in Istanbul, Turkey, that was the primary residence of the Ottoman Sultans for approximately 400 years (1465-1856) of their 624-year reign.
As well as a royal residence, the palace was a setting for state occasions and royal entertainments. It is now a major tourist attraction and contains important holy relics of the Muslim world including the Prophet Muhammed's cloak and sword. The Topkapı Palace is among the monuments contained within the "Historic Areas of Istanbul", which became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985, and is described in Criterion iv as "the best example[s] of ensembles of palaces [...] of the Ottoman period."
Construction began in 1459, ordered by Sultan Mehmed II, the conqueror of Byzantine Constantinople. The palace complex consists of four main courtyards and many smaller buildings. At its peak, the palace was home to as many as 4,000 people, and covered a large area with a long shoreline. The complex was expanded over the centuries, with major renovations after the 1509 earthquake and the 1665 fire. The palace contained mosques, a hospital, bakeries, and a mint. The name translates as "Cannon gate Palace" from a nearby gate which has since been destroyed.
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Yathrib
Medina (/mɛˈdiːnə/; Arabic: اَلْمَدِينَة اَلْمَنَوَّرَة, al-Madīnah al-Munawwarah, “the radiant city” (officially), or اَلْمَدِينَة al-Madīnah; also transliterated as Madinah, or madinat al-nabi "the city of the prophet") is a city in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia, and serves as the capital of the Al Madinah Province. It is the second holiest city in Islam, and the burial place of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad. Medina is historically significant for being Muhammad's home after the Hijrah. Before the advent of Islam, the city was known as Yathrib, but was personally renamed by Muhammad.
Medina is home to the three oldest mosques in Islam, namely Al-Masjid an-Nabawi (The Prophet's Mosque), Quba Mosque (the first mosque in Islam's history), and Masjid al-Qiblatain (the mosque where the qibla was switched to Mecca).
Because of the Saudi government's religious policy and concern that historic sites could become the focus for idolatry, much of Medina's Islamic physical heritage has been destroyed since the beginning of Saudi rule.[citation needed]
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Yemen
The Republic of Yemen (Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhūrīyah al-Yamanīyah), commonly known as Yemeni/ˈjɛmən/ (Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman), is a country located in Western Asia, occupying the southwestern to southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea to the west, and Oman to the east. Yemen is considered one of the poorest countries in the Arab world. Its capital and largest city is Sana'a. Yemen's territory includes over 200 islands, the largest of which is Socotra, about 415 km (258 mi) to the south of mainland Yemen, off the coast of Somalia. It is the only state in the Arabian Peninsula to have a purely republican form of government. Approximately 53% of Yemenis are Sunnis, while 45% are Zaydi Shias.
One etymology derives Yemen from yamin, meaning "on the right side", as the south is on the right when facing the sunrise. Another derives Yemen from yumn, meaning "felicity", as the region is fertile. The Romans called it Arabia Felix (Happy Arabia) as opposed to Arabia Deserta (Deserted Arabia), which was their term for northern Arabia.
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Aaron
In the Hebrew Bible and the Qur'an, Aaron ( /ˈærən/ or /ˈɛərən/;Hebrew: אַהֲרֹן Ahărōn, Arabic: هارون Hārūn, Greek (Septuagint): Ααρών ), who is often called "'Aaron the Priest"' (אֵהֲרֹן הֵכֹּהֵן) and once Aaron the Levite (אַהֲרֹן הַלֵּוִי) (Exodus 4:14), was the older brother of Moses, (Exodus 6:16-20, 7:7; Qur'an 28:34) and a prophet of God. He represented the priestly functions of his tribe, becoming the first High Priest of the Israelites. While Moses was receiving his education at the Egyptian royal court, and during his exile among the Midianites, Aaron and his sister Miriam remained with their kinsmen in the eastern border-land of Egypt (Goshen). There, Aaron gained a name for eloquent and persuasive speech, so that when the time came for the demand upon the Pharaoh to release Israel from captivity, Aaron became his brother’s nabi, or spokesman, to his own people (Exodus 7:1) and, after their unwillingness to hear, to the Pharaoh himself (Exodus 7:9). Various dates for his life have been proposed, ranging from approximately 1600 to 1200 BC.
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Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy
Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy (Arabic: عبد الله بن أبي بن سلول, died 631), also called ibn Salul in reference to his mother, was a chief of the Arab tribe Banu Khazraj and one of the leading men of Medina (then known as Yathrib). Upon the arrival of Muhammad, Ibn Ubayy became a Muslim, though the sincerity of that conversion is disputed. Because of repeated conflicts with Muhammad, Islamic tradition has labelled him a Munafiq (hypocrite) and "leader of the Munafiqun".
Ibn Ubayy was one of the chiefs of the Khazraj, who at his time were in conflict with the other major Arab tribe of the city, the Banu Aws. During the fidjar, the so-called "sacrilegious war", Ibn Ubayy had led parts of the Khazraj tribe on the first day of fighting, but held aloof on the second day. Neither did he participate in the Battle of Bu'ath, due to a quarrel with another leader over the execution of Jewish hostages. It appears that at one point during this conflict, his life was saved by his Jewish allies from the tribe of Banu Qaynuqa, as he would later exclaim: "300 soldiers armed in mail, and 400 unequipped, -- they defended me on the fields of Hadaick and Boath from every foe."
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Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy
Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy (Arabic: عبد الله بن أبي بن سلول, died 631), also called ibn Salul in reference to his mother, was a chief of the Arab tribe Banu Khazraj and one of the leading men of Medina (then known as Yathrib). Upon the arrival of Muhammad, Ibn Ubayy became a Muslim, though the sincerity of that conversion is disputed. Because of repeated conflicts with Muhammad, Islamic tradition has labelled him a Munafiq (hypocrite) and "leader of the Munafiqun".
Ibn Ubayy was one of the chiefs of the Khazraj, who at his time were in conflict with the other major Arab tribe of the city, the Banu Aws. During the fidjar, the so-called "sacrilegious war", Ibn Ubayy had led parts of the Khazraj tribe on the first day of fighting, but held aloof on the second day. Neither did he participate in the Battle of Bu'ath, due to a quarrel with another leader over the execution of Jewish hostages. It appears that at one point during this conflict, his life was saved by his Jewish allies from the tribe of Banu Qaynuqa, as he would later exclaim: "300 soldiers armed in mail, and 400 unequipped, -- they defended me on the fields of Hadaick and Boath from every foe."
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Abraha
Abraha (also spelled Abreha) (died after AD 553; r. 525—at least 553) also known as 'Abraha al-Ashram (in Arabic أبرهة الأشرم) or Abraha b. as-Saba'h, was an Ethiopian Christian viceroy in southern Arabia for the Kingdom of Aksum, and later became the King of Saba' (Yemen).
Procopius records that Abraha was once the slave of a Roman merchant at Adulis, while al-Tabari says that he was related to the Axumite royal family..
Dhu Nuwas, the Jewish Himyarite ruler of Yemen, in the period c. 523-525 or c. 518-20 launched military operations against the Aksumites Christians and their local Arab Christian allies. The Aksumites in Zafar were killed, their fortresses in the Yemeni highlands destroyed, and Najran (Saudi Arabia) sacked.
Najran fell in 518 or 523 and many members of the Himyarite Christian community were put to death evoking great sympathy throughout the Christian regions of the Orient and prompting an Aksumite military intervention aided by a Byzantine fleet first made in 518/523.
Abraha was either one of the commanders or a member of one of the armies led by King Kaleb of Axum against Dhu Nuwas. In al-Tabari's history, 'Abraha is said to have been the commander of the second army sent by Kaléb after the first failed, led by 'Ariat.
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Abraham
Abraham (Hebrew: אַבְרָהָם (help·info), Modern: Avraham, Tiberian: ʼAḇrāhām, Ashkenazi Avrohom or Avruhom, Arabic: إبراهيم Ibrāhīm, Ge'ez: አብርሃም ʼAbrəham, Greek: Aβραάμ, Russian: Авраам), whose birth name was Abram, is the eponym of the Abrahamic religions, among which are Judaism, Christianity and Islam. According to both the Hebrew Bible and the Qur'an, through his sons Ishmael and Isaac, Abraham is the forefather of many tribes, namely the Ishmaelites, Israelites, Midianites and Edomites. Abraham was a descendant of Noah's son, Shem. Christians believe that Jesus was a descendant of Abraham through Isaac, and Muslims believe that Muhammad was a descendant of Abraham through Ishmael. Abraham is notable for his advocation and promotion of monotheism.
The Book of Genesis narrative that records the life of Abraham presents his role as one that could only be fulfilled through a monotheistic covenant established between him and God. The Qur'an has stories about Abraham and his offspring that are similar to the Bible's. In Islam, Abraham is recognised as a prophet, patriarch and messenger, archetype of the perfect Muslim, and reformer of the Kaaba.
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Abu Bakr
Abu Bakr (Abdullah ibn Abi Quhafa) (Arabic: عبد الله بن أبي قحافة, Transliteration: ʿAbd Allāh ibn Abī Quḥāfah, c. 573 CE - 634 CE) also known as Abū Bakr as-Șiddīq (Arabic: أبو بكر الصديق) was a senior companion (Sahabi) and the father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He ruled over the Rashidun Caliphate from 632–634 CE when he became the first Muslim Caliph following Muhammad's death. As Caliph, Abu Bakr succeeded to the political and administrative functions previously exercised by Muhammad, since the religious function and authority of prophethood ended with Muhammad's death according to Islam. He was called Al-Siddiq (The Truthful) and was known by that title among later generations of Muslims.
As a young man, Abu Bakr became a cloth merchant and he traveled extensively in Arabia and neighboring lands in the Middle East, through which he gained both wealth and experience. He eventually came to be recognized as the chief of his clan. On his return from a business trip to Yemen, he was informed that in his absence Muhammad had openly declared his prophethood. Not long after, Abu Bakr accepted Islam and was the first person outside the family of Muhammad to openly become a Muslim. He was instrumental in the conversion of many people to the Islamic faith and early in 623, Abu Bakr's daughter Aisha was married to Muhammad, strengthening the ties between the two men.
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Abu Jahl
Amr ibn Hishām (died Wednesday, March 17, 624) (Arabic: عمرو بن هشام), better known as Abu Jāhil, was one of the Meccan pagan Qurayshi leaders known for his hostility against and persecution of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the early Muslims in Mecca.
He was known as Abū l-Hakam, translated to English as "Father of Wisdom", meaning he was considered a wise man amongst the Quraysh. Abu Jahl was the bitterest opponent against the budding monotheistic religion and thus his belligerent stance earned him the name Abū Jahil أبو جهل, the Father of Ignorance. He was a member of the Banu Makhzum clan of the Quraysh and one of the leaders in Mecca prior to the city's surrender to Muhammad's army. Abu Jahl had a son, Ikrimah ibn Abi-Jahl, who later converted to Islam. He disliked Muhammad and would at any opportunity rebuke and publicly humiliate him.
‘Amr was among the chieftains that in varying degrees kept a relentless hostility towards the Muslims.
When a Muslim convert was discovered among the hierarchy of a tribe, ‘Amr would reprimand the convert and then ridicule him in front of his fellow tribesmen so that the convert lost their respect.
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Abu Lahab
Abū Lahab (Arabic: أبو لهب, meaning Father of Flame) (died ca. 624 CE) was Muhammed's uncle, from his father's side, and one of the enemies of Islam at Muhammad's time, condemned by name in the Qur'an in sura Al-Masadd. His full name was Abd-al-Uzza, but he was called Abu Lahab because his cheeks were always red or inflamed. His wife was Umm Jamil, who gave him two sons, Utbah ibn Abu Lahab and Utaybah bin Abu Lahab.
When Muhammad claimed he was instructed by God to spread the message of Islam openly, he was told by the Quran to warn his kinsfolk about the punishment of God. In doing so, Muhammad climbed Mount Safa and shouted: Wa sabahah! which means "O calamity of the morning!" This alarm in Arabia was raised by the person who noticed early at dawn an enemy tribe advancing against his tribe. So when Muhammad did this, people asked who was the one who made the call. They were told that it was Muhammad. When all the people assembled, Muhammad addressed the clans by name. "O Bani Hashim, O Bani Abdul Muttalib... etc., If I were to tell you that behind this hill there is an enemy about to attack you, would you believe me?" The people responded that they would, since Muhammad was known to be honest. Muhammad continued and said "Then I warn you that you are heading for a torment." Before anybody could speak, Abu Lahab said: "Woe be on you the rest of the day! Is that what you summoned us for?" Another tradition recalls Abu Lahab picking up a stone to throw at Muhammad.[citation needed]
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Abu Rayhan Biruni
Abū al-Rayḥān Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad al-Bīrūnī (born 5 September 973 in Kath, Khwarezm, died in the year 13 December 1048 in Ghazni), known as Alberonius in Latin and Al-Biruni in English, was a Persian-ChorasmianMuslim scholar and polymath of the 11th century.
Al-Biruni is regarded as one of the greatest scholars of the medieval Islamic era and was well versed in physics, mathematics, astronomy, and natural sciences, and also distinguished himself as a historian, chronologist and linguist. He was conversant in Chorasmian, Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit and Turkic, and also knew Greek, Hebrew and Syriac. He spent a large part of his life in Ghazni in modern-day Afghanistan, capital of the Ghaznavid dynasty which ruled eastern Iranian lands and the northwestern Indian subcontinent. In 1017 he traveled to the Indian subcontinent and became the most important interpreter of Indian science to the Islamic world. He is given the titles the "founder of Indology" and the "first anthropologist". He was an impartial writer on custom and creeds of various nations, and was given the title al-Ustdadh ("The Master") for his remarkable description of early 11th-century India. He also made contributions to Earth sciences, and is regarded as the "father of geodesy" for his important contributions to that field, along with his significant contributions to geography.
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Abu Sufyan
Sakhr ibn Harb (Arabic: صخر بن حرب), more commonly known as Abu Sufyan (1 September 560 - 1 August 650) was a leader of the Quraish tribe of Mecca. He was a staunch opponent of the Islamic prophet Muhammad before accepting Islam later in his life.
Abu Sufyan was the chieftain of the Banu Abd-Shams clan of the Quraish tribe, which made him one of the most powerful in Mecca. Abu Sufyan viewed Muhammad as a threat to Mecca's social order, a man aiming for political power and a blasphemer of the Quraish gods.
Abu Sufyan's brother Musab was among several people who migrated to Abyssinia to escape persecution in Mecca.
After Muhammed and other Muslims had migrated to Medina in 622, the Quraish confiscated the belongings they had left behind. During that period of time, caravans were accompanied by military escorts of varying strength.
Due to the hospitality Muhammad received in Medina, the Meccans feared the growing influence of the Muslims and thus were contriving to safeguard their trade routes by eliminating the religion of Islam. The Muslims of Medina were aware of such activities and began to make preparations for self-defense.
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Abū Lahab
Abū Lahab (Arabic: أبو لهب, meaning Father of Flame) (died ca. 624 CE) was Muhammed's uncle, from his father's side, and one of the enemies of Islam at Muhammad's time, condemned by name in the Qur'an in sura Al-Masadd. His full name was Abd-al-Uzza, but he was called Abu Lahab because his cheeks were always red or inflamed. His wife was Umm Jamil, who gave him two sons, Utbah ibn Abu Lahab and Utaybah bin Abu Lahab.
When Muhammad claimed he was instructed by God to spread the message of Islam openly, he was told by the Quran to warn his kinsfolk about the punishment of God. In doing so, Muhammad climbed Mount Safa and shouted: Wa sabahah! which means "O calamity of the morning!" This alarm in Arabia was raised by the person who noticed early at dawn an enemy tribe advancing against his tribe. So when Muhammad did this, people asked who was the one who made the call. They were told that it was Muhammad. When all the people assembled, Muhammad addressed the clans by name. "O Bani Hashim, O Bani Abdul Muttalib... etc., If I were to tell you that behind this hill there is an enemy about to attack you, would you believe me?" The people responded that they would, since Muhammad was known to be honest. Muhammad continued and said "Then I warn you that you are heading for a torment." Before anybody could speak, Abu Lahab said: "Woe be on you the rest of the day! Is that what you summoned us for?" Another tradition recalls Abu Lahab picking up a stone to throw at Muhammad.[citation needed]
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Adam
Adam (Hebrew: אָדָם, Arabic: آدم, Syriac: ܐܵܕ݂ܵܡ) is a figure in the Book of Genesis, the Qur'an and the Kitáb-i-Íqán. According to the creation myth of Abrahamic religions, he is the first human. In the Genesis creation narratives, he was created by Yahweh-Elohim ("Yahweh-God", the god of Israel), though the term "adam" can refer to both the first individual person, as well as to the general creation of humankind. Christian churches differ on how they view Adam's subsequent behavior (often called the Fall of man), and to the consequences that those actions had on the rest of humanity. Christian and Jewish teachings sometimes hold Adam and Eve (the first woman) to a different level of responsibility for the Fall, though Islamic teaching holds both equally responsible. In addition, Islam holds that Adam was eventually forgiven, while Christianity holds that redemption occurred only later through the sacrifice of God's son, Jesus Christ. Bahá'í Faith, Islam and some Christian denominations consider Adam to be the first Prophet.
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Al-Walid I
Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik (Arabic: الوليد بن عبد الملك) or Al-Walid I (668 - 715) was an Umayyad caliph who ruled from 705 - 715.
He was born to Abdul Malik Ibn Marwan and his wife who was from the central Arabian region Najd. Al walid continued the expansion of the Islamic empire that was sparked by his father, and was an effective ruler. His father Abd al-Malik had taken the oath of allegiance for Walid I during his lifetime.[unreliable source?]. As such the succession of Al-Walid I was not contested. His reign was marked by endless successions of conquests east and west.
Al-Walid I (705-715 AD/86-96 AH), began the Islamic conquests and took the early Islamic empire to its farthest extents. He reconquered parts of Egypt from the Byzantine Empire and moved on into Carthage and across to the west of North Africa. Then, in 711, Muslim armies crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and began to conquer the Iberian Peninsula using North African Berber armies. By 716, the Visigoths of Iberia had been defeated and Iberia was under Muslim control. This would be the farthest extent of Islamic control of Europe (in 736, they were stopped in their expansion into Europe south of Tours, France). In the east, Islamic armies made it as far as the Indus River in 712—under Al-Walid, the caliphate empire stretched from the Iberian Peninsula to India. Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef played a crucial role in the organization and selection of military commanders.
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Albert Hourani
Albert Habib Hourani (Arabic: ألبرت حبيب حوراني; March 31, 1915 – January 17, 1993) was a British-Lebanese historian, specializing in the Middle East.
Hourani was born in Manchester, England, the son of Soumaya Rassi and Fadlo Issa Hourani, immigrants from Marjeyoun in what is now South Lebanon. His brothers were George Hourani and Cecil Hourani. His family had converted from Greek Orthodoxy to Scottish Presbyterianism and his father was an elder of the local church in Manchester. Hourani himself, however, converted to Catholicism in adulthood. One of his family members was here, Selina Issa Hourani.
Fadlo Hourani tried to enroll Albert into a local preparatory school in Manchester but it did not accept him as it did not take 'foreigners', he instead opened an alternative school in which Albert studied in until the age of fourteen. He later studied in London before attending Magdalen College, Oxford, where he studied Philosophy, Politics, Economics and History (with an emphasis on international relations in the politics section of the degree), graduating first in his class in 1936. During World War II, he worked at the Royal Institute of International Affairs and in the office of the British Minister of State in Cairo. After the war's end, he worked at the Arab Office in Jerusalem and London, where he helped prepare the Arab case for the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry.
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Alford T. Welch
Alford T. Welch is a Professor of Religious Studies at Michigan State University. Welch got his Ph.D. degree in Arabic and Islamic Studies from the University of Edinburgh in 1970. He also holds a M.Div. degree on Biblical language, literature and Near Eastern history from Southern Baptist Theological Seminary. Welch's research areas include History of religions, and Arabic and Islamic studies.
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Alfred Guillaume
Alfred Guillaume (1888 – 1966) was an Arabist and Islamic scholar.
Guillaume took up Arabic after studying Theology and Oriental Languages at the University of Oxford. In the First World War he served in France and then in the Arab Bureau in Cairo. He was ordained when he returned to England.
He became Professor of Arabic and the Head of the Department of the Near and Middle East in the School of Oriental and African Studies, in the University of London. He was later Visiting Professor of Arabic at Princeton University, New Jersey.
During the Second World War the British Council invited him to accept a visiting professorship at the American University of Beirut where he greatly enlarged his circle of Muslim friends. The Arab Academy of Damascus and the Royal Academy of Baghdad honored him by electing him to their number, and the University of Istanbul chose him as their first foreign lecturer on Christian and Islamic theology.
He was best known as the author of Islam, published by Penguin Books, and as co-author, with Sir Thomas Arnold, of The Legacy of Islam, which has been translated into several languages. He also translated Ibn Ishaq's "Sirah Rasul Allah", published as The Life of Muhammad. A translation of Ishaq's "Sirat Rasul Allah".
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Ali
Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (Arabic: علي بن أﺑﻲ طالب, Transliteration: ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, [ʕaliː ibn ʔæbiː t̪ˤɑːlib]; 13thRajab, 24 BH–21stRamaḍān, 40 AH; approximately October 23, 598 or 600 or March 17, 599 – January 27, 661). The son of Abu Talib, Ali was also the cousin and son-in-law of Islamic prophet Muhammad, ruling over the Islamic Caliphate from 656 to 661, and was the first male convert to Islam.Sunnis consider Ali the fourth and final of the Rashidun (rightly guided Caliphs), while Shias regard Ali as the first Imam and consider him and his descendants the rightful successors to Muhammad, all of which are members of the Ahl al-Bayt, the household of Muhammad. This disagreement split the Ummah (Muslim community) into the Sunni and Shia branches.
Muslim sources, especially Shia ones, state that since Muhammad's time, Ali was the only person born in the Kaaba sanctuary in Mecca, the holiest place in Islam. His father was Abu Talib and his mother was Fatima bint Asad, but he was raised in the household of Muhammad, who himself was raised by Abu Talib, Muhammad's uncle, and Ali's father. When Muhammad reported receiving a divine revelation, Ali was the first male to accept his message, dedicating his life to the cause of Islam.
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Allameh Tabatabaei
Allameh Seyyed Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei (1892—November 15, 1981) (Persian: علامه سید محمد حسین طباطبائی) was one of the most prominent thinkers of philosophy and contemporary Shia Islam. He is famous for Tafsir al-Mizan, the Qur'anic exegesis.
Born in Tabriz, Azarbaijan, in northwestern Iran, he studied at Najaf, under masters such as Mirza 'Ali Qadi (in gnosis), Mirza Muhammad Husain Na'ini, Shaykh Muhammad Husain Isfahani (in Fiqh and Jurisprudence), Sayyid Abu'l-Qasim Khwansari (in Mathematics), as well as studying the standard texts of Avicenna's Shifa, the Asfar of Sadr al-Din Shirazi, and the Tamhid al-qawa'id of Ibn Turkah. Along with Sayyid Husayn Badkuba'i, he was a student of two of the most famous masters of the time, Sayyid Abu'l-Hasan Jilwah and Aqa 'Ali Mudarris Zunuzi.
In his later years he would often hold study sessions with Henry Corbin and Seyyed Hossein Nasr, in which not only the classical texts of divine wisdom and gnosis were discussed, but also a whole cycle of what Nasr calls comparative gnosis, in which in each session the sacred texts of one of the major religions, containing mystical and gnostic teachings, such as the Tao Te Ching, the Upanishads and the Gospel of John, were discussed and compared with Sufism and Islamic gnostic doctrines in general.
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Aminah bint Wahb
Aminah bint Wahb (Arabic: آمنة بنت وهب ʼĀminah bint Wahb) (died 577) was the mother of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.
The daughter of Wahb ibn 'Abd Manaf ibn Zuhrah ibn Kilab ibn Murrah, Aminah was born in Mecca. She was a member of the Banu Zuhrah clan in the tribe of Quraysh who claimed descent from Ibrahim (Abraham) through his son Ismail (Ishmael). Her ancestor Zuhrah was the elder brother of Qusayy ibn Kilab, who was also an ancestor of 'Abd Allah ibn Abd al Muttalib. Qusayy ibn Kilab became the first Quraysh custodian of the Ka'aba. Abdul Mutallib, father of 'Abd Allah, fixed the marriage of his youngest son 'Abd Allah with Aminah. She was eventually married to 'Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Muttalib. It was said that a light shone out of his forehead and that this light was the promise of a Prophet as offspring. Countless woman of Arabia approached 'Abd Allah, which according to several traditions, was a handsome man; so that they might gain the honour of producing the offspring. However everyone believes that as decided by God, the light was destined to be transferred to Aminah through 'Abd Allah after consummating the marriage.[.
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Amr ibn Hishām
Amr ibn Hishām (died Wednesday, March 17, 624) (Arabic: عمرو بن هشام), better known as Abu Jāhil, was one of the Meccan pagan Qurayshi leaders known for his hostility against and persecution of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and the early Muslims in Mecca.
He was known as Abū l-Hakam, translated to English as "Father of Wisdom", meaning he was considered a wise man amongst the Quraysh. Abu Jahl was the bitterest opponent against the budding monotheistic religion and thus his belligerent stance earned him the name Abū Jahil أبو جهل, the Father of Ignorance. He was a member of the Banu Makhzum clan of the Quraysh and one of the leaders in Mecca prior to the city's surrender to Muhammad's army. Abu Jahl had a son, Ikrimah ibn Abi-Jahl, who later converted to Islam. He disliked Muhammad and would at any opportunity rebuke and publicly humiliate him.
‘Amr was among the chieftains that in varying degrees kept a relentless hostility towards the Muslims.
When a Muslim convert was discovered among the hierarchy of a tribe, ‘Amr would reprimand the convert and then ridicule him in front of his fellow tribesmen so that the convert lost their respect.
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Amram
In the Book of Exodus, Amram (Hebrew: עַמְרָם, Modern Amram Tiberian ʻAmrām ; Friend of the most high/The people are exalted) Arabic عمران Imran, is the father of Aaron, Moses, and Miriam and the husband of Jochebed.
In addition to being married to Jochebed, Amram is also described in the Bible as having been related to Jochebed prior to the marriage, although the exact relationship is uncertain; some Greek and Latin manuscripts of the Septuagint state that Jochebed was Amram's father's cousin, and others state that Amram was Jochebed's cousin, but the Masoretic text states that he was Jochebed's nephew. Amram's name changes to Imram later in the Bible.
Textual scholars attribute the biblical genealogy to the Book of Generations, a document originating from a similar religiopolitical group and date to the priestly source. According to biblical scholars, the Torah's genealogy for Levi's descendants, is actually an aetiological myth reflecting the fact that there were four different groups among the levites – the Gershonites, Kohathites, Merarites, and Aaronids; Aaron – the eponymous ancestor of the Aaronids – couldn't be portrayed as a brother to Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, as the narrative about the birth of Moses (brother of Aaron), which textual scholars attribute to the earlier Elohist source, mentions only that both his parents were Levites (without identifying their names). Biblical scholars suspect that the Elohist account offers both matrilinial and patrilinial descent from Levites in order to magnify the religious credentials of Moses.
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Annemarie Schimmel
Annemarie Schimmel, SI, HI, (April 7, 1922 – January 26, 2003) was a well known and very influential German Orientalist and scholar, who wrote extensively on Islam and Sufism. She was a professor at Harvard University from 1967 to 1992.
Schimmel was born to Protestant and highly cultured middle-class parents in Erfurt, Germany. Her father, Paul, was a postal worker and her mother, Anna belonged to a family with connections to seafaring and international trade. Schimmel remembered her father as "a wonderful playmate full of fun", her mother made her feel she was the child of her dreams and her home as full of poetry and literature, though her family was not an academic one.
She began studying at the University of Berlin in 1939 at the age of 17, during the period of Nazi Germany. She received a doctorate in Islamic languages and civilization at the age of 19. Following this, she was drafted by the German Foreign Office while continuing with her scholarly work in her free time. At the age of 23, she became a professor of Arabic and Islamic studies at the University of Marburg, Germany in 1946, where she earned a second doctorate in the history of religions in 1954.
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Annie Besant
Annie Besant (/ˈbɛsənt/; née Wood, 1 October 1847 – 20 September 1933) was a prominent British Theosophist, women's rights activist, writer and orator and supporter of Irish and Indian self rule.
She was married at 19 to Frank Besant but separated from him over religious differences. She then became a prominent speaker for the National Secular Society (NCS) and writer and a close friend of Charles Bradlaugh. In 1877 they were prosecuted for publishing a book by birth control campaigner Charles Knowlton. The scandal made them famous and Bradlaugh was elected Member of Parliament for Northampton in 1880.
She became involved with Union organisers including the Bloody Sunday demonstration and the London matchgirls strike of 1888 and was a leading speaker for the Fabian Society and the Marxist Social Democratic Federation (SDF). She was elected to the London School Board for Tower Hamlets, topping the poll even though few women were qualified to vote at that time.
In 1890 Besant met Helena Blavatsky and over the next few years her interest in Theosophy grew while her interest in secular matters waned. She became a member of the Society and a highly successful lecturer in Theosophy. As part of her Theosophy-related work, she travelled to India where in 1898 she helped establish the Central Hindu College, and in 1902 she established the first overseas Lodge of the International Order of Co-Freemasonry, Le Droit Humain in England. Over the next few years she established lodges in many parts of the British Empire. In 1907 she became President of the Theosophical Society.
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Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs (Arabic: عرب, ʿarab), are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing an important part of Arab identity.
The word "Arab" has had several different, but overlapping, meanings over the centuries (and sometimes even today). In addition to including all Arabized people of the world (with language tending to be the acid test), it has also at times been used exclusively for bedouin (Arab nomads [although a related word, "`a-RAB," with the Arabic letter "alif" in the second syllable, once was sometimes used when this specific meaning was intended] and their now almost entirely settled descendants). It is sometimes used that way colloquially even today in some places. Townspeople once were sometimes called "sons of the Arabs." As in the case of other ethnicities or nations, people identify themselves (or are identified by others) as "Arabs" to varying degrees. This may not be one's primary identity (it tends to compete with country, religion, sect, etc.), and whether it is emphasized may depend upon one's audience.
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Arab people
Arab people, also known as Arabs (Arabic: عرب, ʿarab), are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing an important part of Arab identity.
The word "Arab" has had several different, but overlapping, meanings over the centuries (and sometimes even today). In addition to including all Arabized people of the world (with language tending to be the acid test), it has also at times been used exclusively for bedouin (Arab nomads [although a related word, "`a-RAB," with the Arabic letter "alif" in the second syllable, once was sometimes used when this specific meaning was intended] and their now almost entirely settled descendants). It is sometimes used that way colloquially even today in some places. Townspeople once were sometimes called "sons of the Arabs." As in the case of other ethnicities or nations, people identify themselves (or are identified by others) as "Arabs" to varying degrees. This may not be one's primary identity (it tends to compete with country, religion, sect, etc.), and whether it is emphasized may depend upon one's audience.
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Asma Barlas
Asma Barlas is an academic educated in Pakistan and the United States. She is the Director of the Center for the Study of Culture, Race, and Ethnicity of the department of politics at Ithaca College, New York. Her specialties include comparative and international politics, Islam and Qur'anic hermeneutics, and women and gender. Barlas was named to the prestigious Spinoza Chair at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands for "her prominent contributions to discussions about women and Islam".
Barlas rejects the designation of her views and interpretations of Islam as "Islamic feminism," unless that term is defined as "a discourse of gender equality and social justice that derives its understanding and mandate from the Qur’an and seeks the practice of rights and justice for all human beings in the totality of their existence across the public-private continuum."
Born in Pakistan in 1950, Barlas was one of the first women to be inducted into the foreign service. Her diplomatic career was ended, when General Zia ul Haq dismissed her from the Foreign Service on two charges; for calling him a "buffoon" in her personal diary (leaked by her former in-laws) and for having said (at a private dinner at the home of Pakistan's ambassador to the Philippines) "that the judiciary in Pakistan was neither free nor fair". She joined the paper, The Muslim, as assistant editor, but eventually had to leave Pakistan for reasons of personal safety in 1983 and later received political asylum in the U.S.
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Aṣḥama ibn Abjar
According to Arabic sources, Aṣḥama ibn Abjar was Emperor or al-Najashi (Arabic: النجاشي al-Najāshī) of Aksum at the time of Muhammad, and gave refuge to several Muslims in the Kingdom of Aksum. The term "al-Najashi" has the variant al-Negashi; it corresponds to the ancient Aksumite title Negus, with the variant Negash. The name "Ashama" seems to correspond to the original Ge'ez name Ella-Seham, variant Sahama. This is an Aksumite king known from coinage. According to other authors, Ashama may have been the same person as king Armah, or his father or son. Taddesse Tamrat records that the inhabitants of Wiqro, where he is known as Ashamat al-Negashi claim his tomb is located in their village.
Due to persecution from the current Arab leadership in Mecca, a number of Muslims emigrated to Abyssinia. In response, the Arab leaders sent Amr ibn al-Aas to bring them back. Amr was a friend of al-Najashi, and at the same time also had good relations with Abu Sufyan, the then leader of Quraish.
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Bahira
Bahira (Classical Syriac: ܒܚܝܪܐ), or "Sergius the Monk" to the Latin West, was a Syriac or BahraniNestorian (or Arian) monk who, according to tradition, foretold to the adolescent Muhammad his future prophetic career.
The story of Muhammad's encounter with Bahira is found in the works of the early Muslim historians Ibn Hisham, Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi, and Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, whose versions differ in some details. When Muhammad was either nine or twelve years old, he met Bahira in the town of Bosra in Syria during his travel with a Meccan caravan, accompanying his uncle Abu Talib ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib. When the caravan was passing by his cell, the monk invited the merchants to a feast. They accepted the invitation, leaving the boy to guard the camel. Bahira, however, insisted that everyone in the caravan should come to him. Then a miraculous occurrence indicated to the monk that Muhammad was to become a prophet.
It was a miraculous movement of a cloud that kept shadowing Muhammad regardless of the time of the day. The monk revealed his visions of Muhammad's future to the boy's uncle (Abu Talib), warning him to preserve the child from the Jews (in Ibn Sa'd's version) or from the Byzantines (in al-Tabari's version). Both Ibn Sa'd and al-Tabari write that Bahira found the announcement of the coming of Muhammad in the original, unadulterated gospels, which he possessed; the standard Islamic view is that Christians corrupted the gospels, in part by erasing any references to Muhammad.
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Balaam
Balaam (Hebrew: בִּלְעָם, Standard Bilʻam Tiberian Bilʻām) is a diviner in the Torah, his story occurring towards the end of the Book of Numbers (Hebrew: במדבר). The etymology of his name is uncertain, and discussed below. Every ancient reference to Balaam considers him a non-Israelite, a prophet, and the son of Beor, though Beor is not so clearly identified. Though other sources describe the apparently positive blessings he delivers upon the Israelites, he is reviled as a "wicked man" in the major story concerning him. Balaam attempted to curse God's people. He failed all three tries, each time producing blessings, not curses (Numbers 22-24). Balaam's error and the source of his wickedness came not from the curses he never delivered on, but from sabotaging the Israelites as they entered the Promised Land. According to Numbers 31:16 and St. John (Revelation 2:14), Balaam returned to King Balak and informed the king on how to get the Israelites to curse themselves by enticing them with prostitutes and unclean food sacrificed to idols. The Israelites fell into transgression due to these traps and YHWH sent a deadly plague to them as a result (Numbers 31:16).
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Banu Hashim
Banū Hāshim (Arabic: بنو هاشم) was a clan in the Quraysh tribe. Muhammad, was a member of this clan; his great-grandfather was Hashim, for whom the clan is named. Members of this clan are referred to by the Anglicised version of their name as Hashemites, Hussaini or Hasani. Descendants of Muhammad usually carry the titles Sayyid or Sharif.
Amongst pre-Islamic Arabs people classified themselves according to their Confederation, their tribe, their clan, and then their house/family. There were two Tribal Confederations; the Adnani (originating from "Adnan", the traditional ancestor of the Arabs of northern, central and western Arabia), and the Qahtani (originating from "Qahtan", the traditional ancestor of the Arabs of southern and south eastern Arabia). Banu Hashim is one of the clans of the Quraysh tribe, of the Adnani confederation. It derives its name from Hashim, the great-grandfather of Muhammad, and along with the Banu Abd Shams, Banu Al-Muttalib, and Banu Nawfal clans comprises the Banu Abd al-Manaf section of the Quraysh.
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Bernard Lewis
Bernard Lewis, FBA (born May 31, 1916) is a British-American historian, scholar in Oriental studies, and political commentator. He is the Cleveland E. Dodge Professor Emeritus of Near Eastern Studies at Princeton University. He specializes in the history of Islam and the interaction between Islam and the West, and is especially famous in academic circles for his works on the history of the Ottoman Empire.
Lewis served in the British Army in the Royal Armoured Corps and Intelligence Corps during the Second World War before being seconded to the Foreign Office. After the war, he returned to the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London and was appointed to the new chair in Near and Middle Eastern History.
Lewis is a widely read expert on the Middle East, and is regarded as one of the West’s leading scholars of that region. His advice has been frequently sought by policymakers, including the George W. Bush administration. In the Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing Martin Kramer, whose Ph.D. thesis was directed by Lewis, considered that, over a 60-year career, he has emerged as "the most influential postwar historian of Islam and the Middle East." Lewis is known for his Armenian genocide denial. He is also famous for his public debates with the late Edward Said concerning the latter's book Orientalism (1978), which criticized Lewis.
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Bilal ibn Ribah
Bilal ibn Rabah (Arabic: بلال بن رباح) or Bilal al-Habashi (580-640 CE) was an African of Ethiopian heritagecompanion of Islamic prophet Muhammad, born in Mecca who is considered as the first muezzin chosen by the prophet himself.
He was among the emancipated slaves freed by Abu Bakr (see Muhammad's views on slavery) and was known for his beautiful voice with which he called people to their prayers. His name can also be known as, "Bilal ibn Riyah" or "ibn Rabah" and he is sometimes known as "Bilal al-Habashi" or "Bilal the one from Habesha (today's Ethiopia)". He died sometime between 638 to 642, when he was just over sixty years old.
Bilal Ibn Rabah, was an emancipated slave of key importance in Islam. He is said to have been one of the most trusted and loyal Sahabah (companion) of Muhammad. His respected stature during the birth of Islam is often cited by Muslims as evidence of the importance of pluralism and racial equality in the foundations of the religion.
According to Ibn Ishaq, Abdullah Ibn Zaid Ibn Abd Rabbihi went to Muhammad with his story that he saw Adhan in his dream, Muhammad, approving the method for calling to prayers, told him to ask an Ethiopian named Bilal, who had a marvelous voice, to call the Muslims to prayer (the Adhan). As Ibn Ishaq told the story (in Albert Guillaume's translation):
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Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy indigenous to the Indian subcontinent and encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs, and practices largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, who is commonly known as the Buddha (meaning "the awakened one" in Sanskrit and Pāli). The Buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. He is recognized by Buddhists as an awakened or enlightened teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end ignorance (avidyā), craving (taṇhā), and suffering (dukkha), by recognizing dependent origination and sunyata, and attain Nirvana.
Two major branches of Buddhism are recognized: Theravada ("The School of the Elders") and Mahayana ("The Great Vehicle"). Theravada has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana is found throughout East Asia and includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Shingon, Tiantai (Tendai) and Shinnyo-en. In some classifications, Vajrayana—practiced mainly in Tibet and Mongolia, and adjacent parts of China and Russia—is recognized as a third branch, while others classify it as a part of Mahayana. There are other categorisations of these three Vehicles or Yanas.
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Caesar E. Farah
Caesar E. Farah was a professor of history at the University of Minnesota.
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Caleb
Caleb ([pronunciation?]; כָּלֵב, Kalev; Tiberian vocalization: Kālēḇ; Hebrew Academy: Kalev) is a male given name. A character called Caleb is named in the Bible. A reference to him may also be found in the Quran, although his name is not mentioned.
When the Hebrews came to the outskirts of Canaan, the land that had been promised to them by God, after having fled slavery in Egypt, Moses (the Hebrew leader) sent twelve spies (Hebrew: מרגלים, meraglim) into Canaan to report on what was there—one spy representing each of the Twelve Tribes. Ten of the spies returned to say that the land would be impossible to claim, and that giants lived there who would crush the Hebrew army. Only two, Joshua (from the tribe of Ephraim) and Caleb (representing Judah), returned and said that God would be able to deliver Canaan into the hands of the Hebrew nation.
The Bible records that, because of the testimony of ten of the spies, the Hebrews chose not to enter Canaan. For this disobedience, God caused them to wander in the desert for forty years before being allowed to enter Canaan and conquer it as their home. The only adult Israelites allowed to survive these forty years and enter Canaan were Joshua and Caleb (son of Jephunneh), as a reward for their faith in God. This is recorded in the Book of Numbers. Caleb is called "my servant" by God in Numbers 14:24, a position of the highest honor heretofore used only for Moses. Caleb, son of Jephunneh,first mentioned in the above account (Numbers 13:6) is not to be confused with another Caleb, great-grandson of Judah through Tamar( 1 Chronicles 2:3-9). This other Caleb was the son of Hezron, and his wife was Azubah (I Chronicles 2:18,19).
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Daniel C. Peterson
Daniel C. Peterson is a professor of Islamic Studies and Arabic in the Department of Asian and Near Eastern Languages at Brigham Young University and currently serves as editor-in-chief of BYU's Middle Eastern Texts Initiative. He is a member of the executive council of the Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship at Brigham Young University.
A native of southern California, Daniel C. Peterson received a bachelor’s degree in Greek and philosophy from Brigham Young University (BYU) and, after several years of study in Jerusalem and Cairo, earned his Ph.D. in Near Eastern Languages and Cultures from the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA).
Dr. Peterson is a professor of Islamic Studies and Arabic at BYU, where he teaches Arabic language and literature at all levels, Islamic philosophy, Islamic culture and civilization, Islamic religion, the Qur’an, the introductory and senior “capstone” courses for Middle Eastern Studies majors, and various other occasional, specialized classes. He is the editor of the twice-annual FARMS Review, the author of several books and numerous articles on Islamic and Latter-day Saint topics–including a biography entitled Muhammad: Prophet of God (Eerdmans, 2007)–and has lectured across the United States, in Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, and at various Islamic universities in the Near East and Asia.
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Dante Alighieri
Durante degli Alighieri, mononymously referred to as Dante (UK /ˈdænti/, US /ˈdɑːnteɪ/; Italian: [ˈdante]; c1265–1321), was an Italian poet, prose writer, literary theorist, moral philosopher, and political thinker. He is best known for the monumental epic poem Commedia, later named La divina commedia (Divine Comedy), considered the greatest literary work composed in the Italian language and a masterpiece of world literature.
In Italy he is known as il Sommo Poeta ("the Supreme Poet") or just il Poeta. Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio are also known as "the three fountains" or "the three crowns". Dante is also called the "Father of the Italian language".
Dante was born in Florence, Italy. The exact date of Dante's birth is unknown, although it is generally believed to be around 1265. This can be deduced from autobiographic allusions in La Divina Commedia, "the Inferno" (Halfway through the journey we are living, implying that Dante was around 35 years old, as the average lifespan according to the Bible (Psalms 89:10, Vulgate) is 70 years; and as the imaginary travel took place in 1300, Dante must have been born around 1265). Some verses of the Paradiso section of the Divine Comedy also provide a possible clue that he was born under the sign of Gemini: "As I revolved with the eternal twins, I saw revealed from hills to river outlets, the threshing-floor that makes us so ferocious" (XXII 151-154). In 1265 the Sun was in Gemini approximately during the period of May 11 to June 11.
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David
David (Hebrew: דָּוִד, דָּוִיד, Modern David Tiberian Dāwîḏ; ISO 259-3 Dawid; Strong's Daveed; beloved; Arabic: داوود or داود Dāwūd) was, according to the Hebrew Bible, the second king of the United Kingdom of Israel and, according to the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke, an ancestor of Jesus. David is seen as a major Prophet in Islamic traditions. His life is conventionally dated to c. 1040–970 BC, his reign over Judah c. 1010–1003 BC,[citation needed] and his reign over the United Kingdom of Israel c. 1003–970 BC.[citation needed] The Books of Samuel, 1 Kings, and 1 Chronicles are the only sources of information on David, although the Tel Dan stele records "House of David", which some take as confirmation of the existence in the mid-9th century BC of a Judean royal dynasty called the "House of David".
David is very important to Jewish, Christian and Islamic doctrine and culture. In Judaism, David, or David HaMelekh, is the King of Israel, and the Jewish people. Jewish tradition maintains that a direct descendant of David will be the Messiah. In Islam, he is known as Dawud, considered to be a prophet and the king of a nation. He is depicted as a righteous king, though not without faults, as well as an acclaimed warrior, musician, and poet, traditionally credited for composing many of the psalms contained in the Book of Psalms.
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Denise Spellberg
Denise A. Spellberg is an American scholar of Islamic history. She is an associate professor of history and Middle Eastern Studies at the University of Texas at Austin. Spellberg holds a BA from Smith College (1980) and a PhD (1989) from Columbia University.
Spellberg’s work on the portrayal of Aisha in Islamic tradition is widely cited. In particular, Spellberg shows how later commentators reinterpreted Aisha’s role at the Battle of Camel (656,) where she rode her camel into battle against Ali but stayed inside the litter with the curtains closed, as an argument that women should never participate in public affairs.
Spellberg became part of a burgeoning controversy when an email she sent to Random House regarding The Jewel of Medina, a to-be-published historical novel about Aisha by American journalist Sherry Jones, was leaked to the press. Spellberg reportedly informed Random House that publication would expose Random House employees to Islamic terrorism and that Muslims would react with the kind of violence seen in past controversies over The Satanic Verses and the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons. No actual threats were received by Random House. Random House indefinitely postponed publication of the novel for "fear of a possible terrorist threat from extremist Muslims" and concern for "the safety and security of the Random House building and employees."
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Edward Gibbon
Edward Gibbon (27 April 1737 – 16 January 1794) was an English historian and Member of Parliament. His most important work, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, was published in six volumes between 1776 and 1788. The Decline and Fall is known for the quality and irony of its prose, its use of primary sources, and its open criticism of organized religion.
Edward Gibbon was born in 1737, the son of Edward and Judith Gibbon at Lime Grove, in the town of Putney, Surrey. He had six siblings: five brothers and one sister, all of whom died in infancy. His grandfather, also named Edward, had lost all of his assets as a result of the South Sea Bubble stock market collapse in 1720, but eventually regained much of his wealth, so that Gibbon's father was able to inherit a substantial estate.
As a youth, his health was under constant threat. He described himself as "a puny child, neglected by my Mother, starved by my nurse." At age nine, Gibbon was sent to Dr. Woddeson's school at Kingston upon Thames (now Kingston Grammar School), shortly after which his mother died. He then took up residence in the Westminster School boarding house, owned by his adored "Aunt Kitty," Catherine Porten. Soon after she died in 1786, he remembered her as rescuing him from his mother's disdain, and imparting "the first rudiments of knowledge, the first exercise of reason, and a taste for books which is still the pleasure and glory of my life." By 1751, Gibbon's reading was already extensive and certainly pointed toward his future pursuits: Laurence Echard's Roman History (1713), William Howel(l)'s An Institution of General History (1680–85), and several of the 65 volumes of the acclaimed Universal History from the Earliest Account of Time (1747–1768).
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Edward Said
Edward Wadie Saïd (Arabic pronunciation: [wædiːʕ sæʕiːd] Arabic: إدوارد وديع سعيد, Idwārd Wadīʿ Saʿīd; 1 November 1935 – 25 September 2003) was a Palestinian literary theorist and advocate for Palestinian rights. Said was a Palestinian born in Jerusalem (then in the British Mandate of Palestine) and held an American passport. He was University Professor of English and Comparative Literature at Columbia University and a founding figure in postcolonialism.Robert Fisk described him as the Palestinians' "most powerful political voice."
Said was an influentialcultural critic and author, known best for his book Orientalism (1978). The book presented his influential ideas on Orientalism, the Western study of Eastern cultures. Said contended that Orientalist scholarship was and continues to be inextricably tied to the imperialist societies that produced it, making much of the work inherently politicized, servile to power, and therefore suspect. Grounding much of this thesis in his intimate knowledge of colonial literature such as the fiction of Conrad, and in the post-structuralist theory of Foucault, Derrida and others, Said's Orientalism and following works proved influential in literary theory and criticism, and continue to influence several other fields in the humanities. Orientalism affected Middle Eastern studies in particular, transforming the way practitioners of the discipline describe and examine the Middle East. Said came to discuss and vigorously debate the issue of Orientalism with scholars in the fields of history and area studies, many of whom disagreed with his thesis, including most famously Bernard Lewis.
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Elijah
Elijah ( /ɨˈlaɪdʒə/; also Elias /ɨˈlaɪ.əs/; Hebrew: אֱלִיָּהוּ, Eliyahu, meaning "Yahweh is my God";Arabic:إلياس, Ilyās), was a prophet in the northern kingdom of Israel during the reign of Ahab (9th century BC), according to the Books of Kings.
According to the Books of Kings, Elijah defended the worship of Yahweh over that of the Phoenician god Baal; he raised the dead, brought fire down from the sky, and was taken up in a whirlwind (either accompanied by a chariot and horses of flame or riding in it). In the Book of Malachi, Elijah's return is prophesied "before the coming of the great and terrible day of the Lord," making him a harbinger of the Messiah and the eschaton in various faiths that revere the Hebrew Bible. Derivative references to Elijah appear in the Talmud, Mishnah, the New Testament, and the Qur'an.
In Judaism, Elijah's name is invoked at the weekly Havdalah ritual that marks the end of Shabbat, and Elijah is invoked in other Jewish customs, among them the Passover seder and the Brit milah (ritual circumcision). He appears in numerous stories and references in the Haggadah and rabbinic literature, including the Babylonian Talmud.
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Elisha
Elisha ( /ɨˈlaɪʃə/;Hebrew: אֱלִישָׁע, Modern Elisha Tiberian ʼĔlîšāʻ ; "My God is salvation", Greek: Ἐλισσαῖος, Elissaîos or Ἐλισαιέ, Elisaié, Arabic: الْيَسَع Elyasaʻ) is a prophet mentioned in the Hebrew Bible and the Qur'an. His name is commonly transliterated into English as Elisha via Hebrew, Eliseus via Greek and Latin, or Alyasa via Arabic.
Elisha was a prophet of the Northern Kingdom of Israel who was active during the reign of Joram, Jehu, Jehoahaz, and Jehoash (Joash).
Elisha was the son of Shaphat of Abel-meholah; he became the attendant and disciple of Elijah (1 Kings 19:16–19), and after Elijah was taken up into the whirlwind, he was accepted as the leader of the sons of the prophets, and became noted in Israel. He possessed, according to his own request, "a double portion" of Elijah's spirit (2 Kings 2:9); and for sixty years (892–832 BC) held the office of "prophet in Israel" (2 Kings 5:8).
His name first occurs in the command given to Elijah to anoint him as his successor (1 Kings 19:16). After learning, in the cave on Mount Horeb, that Elisha, the son of Shaphat, had been selected by God as his successor in the prophetic office, Elijah set out to make known the Divine will. On his way from Sinai to Damascus, Elijah found Elisha "one of them that were ploughing with twelve yoke of oxen". Elisha delayed only long enough to kill the yoke of oxen, whose flesh he boiled with the very wood of his plough. He went over to him, threw his mantle over Elisha's shoulders, and at once adopted him as a son, investing him with the prophetic office. Elisha accepted this call about four years before the death of Israel's King Ahab. For the next seven or eight years Elisha became Elijah's close attendant until Elijah was taken up into heaven. During all these years we hear nothing of Elisha except in connection with the closing scenes of Elijah's life.
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Eve
Eve (Hebrew: חַוָּה, Ḥawwāh in Classical Hebrew, Khavah in Modern Israeli Hebrew, Arabic: حواء, Syriac: ܚܘܐ ) was, according to the creation myth of Abrahamic religions, the first woman created by God, in the Genesis creation narrative.
In the Bible, Eve (Hebrew: חַוָּה, Ḥawwāh; Arabic: حواء, Hawwa'; Ge'ez: ሕይዋን Hiywan; "living one" or "source of life", related to ḥāyâ, "to live"; ultimately from the Semitic root ḥyw; Greek: Εὕα, heúā) is Adam's wife. Her name occurs only four times; the first being Genesis 3:20: "And Adam called his wife's name Ḥawwāh; because she was the mother of all living" (a title previously held by the Babylonian creatrix Tiamat). In Vulgate she appears as "Hava" in the Old Testament, but "Eva" in the New Testament. The name may actually be derived from that of the Hurrian Goddess Kheba, who was shown in the Amarna Letters to be worshipped in Jerusalem during the Late Bronze Age. It has been suggested that the name Kheba may derive from Kubau, a woman who reigned as the first king of the Third Dynasty of Kish Another name of Asherah in the first millennium BCE was Chawat, Hawwah in Aramaic, (Eve in English).
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Ezekiel
Ezekiel ( /ɨˈziːki.əl/; Hebrew: יְחֶזְקֵאל, Y'ḥez'qel, Hebrew pronunciation: [jəħezˈqel]), Arabic:حزقيال Hazqiyal, 'God will strengthen' (from חזק, ḥazaq, [ħaˈzaq], literally 'to fasten upon,' figuratively 'strong,' and אל, el, [ʔel], literally 'God', and so figuratively 'The Almighty') is the central protagonist of the Book of Ezekiel in the Hebrew Bible.
In Judaism, Christianity and Islam, Ezekiel is acknowledged as a Hebrew prophet. In Judaism and Christianity, he is also viewed as the author of the Book of Ezekiel that reveals prophecies regarding the destruction of Jerusalem and the Millennia Temple visions, or the Third Temple.
The author of the Book of Ezekiel shows himself as Ezekiel, the son of Buzi,[Ezekiel 1:3] born into a priesthood (Kohen) lineage of the patrilineal line of Ithamar, and resident of Anathoth. The author dates ages, prophecies and visions by making references to the lengths of time King Jehoiachin of Judah was in exile. Under the direction of Nebuchadnezzar II, Babylonian armies exiled three thousand Jews from Judah, deposing King Jehoiachin in 597 BCE. In reference to Ezekiel being in his "thirtieth year... during the fifth year of King Jehoiachin’s exile",[Ezekiel 1:1, 2] it could be determined that he was born c. 622 BCE.
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F. E. Peters
Francis Edward Peters (born June 23, 1927, New York City), who generally publishes as F.E. Peters, is Professor Emeritus of Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies and History at New York University.
Peters studied at St. Louis University (BA 1950, MA Latin & Greek 1952), Fordham University (Russian language, 1956), and Princeton University (PhD Islamic Studies 1961) and was a professor at New York University from 1961.
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Fatimah
Fatimah (Arabic: فاطمة; fāṭimah; pronounced /ˈfɑːtˤɪma/; born c. 605 or 615 – d. 633) was a daughter of Muhammad and Khadijah, wife of Ali and mother of Hasan and Husain, and one of the five members of Ahl al-Bayt. She became the object of great veneration by all Muslims, because she lived closest to her father and supported him in his difficulties and because of historical importance of her husband and her two sons, and that she is the only member of Muhammad's family that gave him descendants, numerously spread through the Islamic world.
She was involved in three significant political actions, each recorded in almost all sources. First, after the conquest of Mecca, she refused her protection to Abu Sufian; Second, after Muhammad's death, she courageously defended Ali’s cause, fiercely opposed the election of Abu Bakr, and had violent disputes with him and particularly with Umar; Third, she laid claim to the property rights of her father and challenged Abu Bakr’s categorical refusal to cede them, particularly Fadak and a share in the produce of Khaybar.
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Fazlur Rahman
Fazlur Rahman Malik (Urdu: فضل الرحمان ملک) (September 21, 1919 – July 26, 1988) was a well-known scholar of Islam.
Rahman was born in the Hazara area of British India (now Pakistan). His father, Maulana Shihab al-Din, was a well-known scholar of the time who had studied at Deoband and had achieved the rank of alim, through his studies of Islamic law (fiqh, hadith, Qur'anic tafsir, logic, philosophy and other subjects).
Rahman studied Arabic at Punjab University, and went on to Oxford University where he wrote a dissertation on Ibn Sina. Afterwards, he began a teaching career, first at Durham University where he taught Persian and Islamic philosophy, and then at McGill University where he taught Islamic studies until 1961.
In that year, he returned to Pakistan to head up the Central Institute of Islamic Research which was set up by the Pakistani government in order to implement Islam into the daily dealings of the nation. However, due to the political situation in Pakistan, Rahman was hindered from making any progress in this endeavour, and he resigned from the post. He then returned to teaching, moving to the United States and teaching at UCLA as a visiting professor for a few years. He moved to the University of Chicago in 1969 and established himself there becoming the Harold H. Swift Distinguished Service Professor of Islamic Thought. At Chicago he was instrumental for building a strong Near Eastern Studies program that continues to be among the best in the world. Rahman also became a proponent for a reform of the Islamic polity and was an advisor to the State Department. He died in 1988.
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Fred M. Donner
Fred McGraw Donner (born 1945) is a scholar of Islam and Professor of Near Eastern History at the University of Chicago.
Donner was born in Washington, D.C. and grew up in Basking Ridge, New Jersey, where he attended public schools.[citation needed] In 1968 he completed his Bachelor of Arts degree in Oriental Studies at Princeton University, having interrupted his studies from 1966 to 1967 to pursue the study of Arabic at the Middle East Centre for Arab Studies (MECAS) in the village of Shimlan, Lebanon.[citation needed] From 1968 to 1970 he served with the U. S. Army, seeing duty with U. S. Army Security Agency in Herzogenaurach, Germany in 1969-1970. He then studied oriental philology for a year (1970-1971) at the Friedrich-Alexander Universität in Erlangen, Germany, before returning to Princeton for doctoral work.[citation needed] Donner received his PhD in Near Eastern Studies from Princeton in 1975.[citation needed] He taught Middle Eastern history in the History Department at Yale University from 1975-1982 before taking his position at the University of Chicago in 1982 (The Oriental Institute and Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations). He served as chairman of his Department (1997–2002) and as Director of the University's Center for Middle Eastern Studies (2009–present).[citation needed]
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Gog and Magog
Gog and Magog (Hebrew: גּוֹג וּמָגוֹג Gog u-Magog; Arabic: يَأْجُوج وَمَأْجُوج Yaʾjūj wa-Maʾjūj) are names that appear primarily in various Jewish, Christian and Muslim scriptures, as well as numerous subsequent references in other works. Their context can be either genealogical (as Magog in Genesis 10:2) or eschatological and apocalyptic, as in Ezekiel and Revelation. They are sometimes individuals, sometimes peoples, and sometimes geographic regions. The passages from Ezekiel and Revelation in particular have attracted attention due to their prophetic descriptions of conflicts said to occur near the "End times".
The etymology of both the names Gog and Magog remains uncertain. The ma- at the beginning of Magog may indicate a land, or it may mean "from", so that Magog means "of the land of Gog" or "from Gog". Gog may originate as the Hebrew version of the name of Gyges of Lydia, who made his kingdom a great power in the early 7th century BC, but this explanation, although common, is not universally accepted. A different theory is that "Magog" might be a reference to Babylon, by turning BBL ("Babylon" in Hebrew script, which originally had no vowel-signs) into MGG (Magog), but this account, like the others, has problems.
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Goliath
Goliath (Hebrew: גָּלְיָת, Modern Golyat Tiberian Golyāṯ; Arabic: جالوت, Ǧālūt (Qur'anic term), جليات Ǧulyāt (Christian term)) or Goliath of Gath (one of five city states of the Philistines) is a figure in the Hebrew Bible (Christian Old Testament). Described as a giant Philistine warrior, he is famous for his combat with the young David, the future king of Israel. The fight between them is described in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament and, more briefly, in the Qur'an.
The purpose of the original story was to show David's identity as the true king of Israel. Post-Classical Jewish traditions stressed Goliath's status as the representative of paganism, in contrast to David, the champion of the God of Israel. Christian tradition gave him a distinctively Christian twist, seeing in David's battle with Goliath the victory of God's King over the enemies of God's helpless people as a prefiguring of Jesus' victory over sin on the Cross and the Church's ongoing struggle against Satan.
The account of the battle between David and Goliath is given in 1 Samuel, chapter 17.Saul and the Israelites are facing the Philistines at the Valley of Elah. Twice a day for 40 days, Goliath, the champion of the Philistines, comes out between the lines and challenges the Israelites to send out a champion of their own to decide the outcome in single combat, but Saul and all the Israelites are afraid. David, bringing food for his elder brothers, hears that Saul has promised to reward any man who defeats Goliath, and accepts the challenge. Saul reluctantly agrees and offers his armor, which David declines, taking only his sling and five stones from a brook.
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Gottfried Leibniz
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (sometimes von Leibniz) (German pronunciation: [ˈɡɔtfʁiːt ˈvɪlhɛlm fɔn ˈlaɪbnɪts] or [ˈlaɪpnɪts]) (July 1, 1646 – November 14, 1716) was a German mathematician and philosopher. He wrote in several languages, but primarily in Latin (~40%), French (~30%) and German (~15%).
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Gustav Weil
Gustav Weil (April 25, 1808, Sulzburg, Baden - August 29, 1889, Freiburg-im-Breisgau) was a German orientalist.
Being destined for the rabbinate, he was taught Hebrew, as well as German and French; and he received instruction in Latin from the minister of his native town. At the age of twelve he went to Metz, where his grandfather was rabbi, to study the Talmud. For this, however, he developed very little taste, and he abandoned his original intention of entering upon a theological career. In 1828 he entered the University of Heidelberg, devoting himself to the study of philology and history; at the same time he studied Arabic under Umbreit. Though without means, he nevertheless went to study under De Sacy in Paris in 1830, and thence followed the French military expedition to Algiers, acting as correspondent at Algiers for the Augsburger "Allgemeine Zeitung". This position he resigned in January, 1831, and journeyed to Cairo, where he was appointed instructor of French at the Egyptian Medical School of Abu-Zabel. He utilized the opportunity to study with the Arabic philologists Mohammed Ayyad al-Tantawi and Aḥmad al-Tunsi. Here also he acquired Neo-Persian and Turkish, and, save for a short interruption occasioned by a visit to Europe, he remained in Egypt till March, 1835.
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Hafsa bint Umar
Ḥafsah bint ‘Umar (Arabic: حفصة بنت عمر; literally: Daughter of a Lion; born c. 609[citation needed] - AH 45 (665/666) was the daughter of Umar (Umar ibn al-Khattab) and wife of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and therefore a Mother of the Believers.
She was married to Khunais ibn Hudhaifa, but became a widow when she was eighteen and according to Islamic tradition her father offered her hand to Abu Bakr and Uthman Ibn Affan. They both refused to marry her because Muhammad had told them that he was interested in her, which they failed to mention to Umar. When her father, Umar, went to Prophet Muhammad to complain about their behavior, Muhammad replied, "Hafsa will marry one better than Uthman and Uthman will marry one better than Hafsa."
Muhammad married her after the battle of Badr in 2 AH. At the time of the marriage, Hafsa was around twenty years old and Muhammad fifty-six. With this marriage, Muhammad strengthened his ties to Umar, who now became his father-in-law.
According to Islamic tradition, Hafsa had memorized the Qur'an. The copy of Zayd ibn Thabit which was recorded by the instructions of Abu Bakr was given to Hafsa. Uthman Ibn Affan, when he became Caliph, used Hafsa's copy when he authorized a single text of the Qur'an to be designated.
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Hans Köchler
Hans Köchler (born October 18, 1948 in Schwaz, Tyrol, Austria) is a professor of philosophy at the University of Innsbruck, Austria, and president of the International Progress Organization, a non-governmental organization in consultative status with the United Nations. In his general philosophical outlook he is influenced by Husserl and Heidegger, his legal thinking has been shaped by the approach of Kelsen. Köchler has made major contributions to phenomenology and philosophical anthropology and has developed a hermeneutics of trans-cultural understanding that has influenced the discourse on the dialogue of civilizations (a term which he used for the first time in 1972), particularly as regards the relations between Islam and the West. His research in political and legal philosophy—combined with his involvement with the UN—has resulted in a fundamental critique of the state-centered international system and in specific proposals for the democratization of the United Nations Organization and for a viable system of international criminal justice.
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Harald Motzki
Harald Motzki is a scholar of Islam who writes on the transmission of hadith.
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Heraclius
Heraclius (Latin: Flavius Heraclius Augustus, Greek: Φλάβιος Ἡράκλειος, c. 575 – February 11, 641) was Byzantine Emperor from 610 to 641.
He was responsible for introducing Greek as the Eastern Empire's official language. His rise to power began in 608, when he and his father, Heraclius the Elder, the exarch of Africa, successfully led a revolt against the unpopular usurper Phocas.
Heraclius' reign was marked by several military campaigns. The year Heraclius came to power, the empire was threatened on multiple frontiers. Heraclius immediately took charge of the ongoing war against the Sassanids. The first battles of the campaign ended in defeat for the Byzantines; the Persian army fought their way to the Bosphorus. However, because Constantinople was protected by impenetrable walls and a strong navy, Heraclius was able to avoid total defeat. Soon after, he initiated reforms to rebuild and strengthen the military. Heraclius drove the Persians out of Asia Minor and pushed deep into their territory, defeating them decisively in 627 at the Battle of Nineveh. The Persian king Khosrau II was assassinated soon after and peace was restored to the two deeply strained empires.
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Hud (prophet)
Hud (Arabic: هود) is the name of a prophet of ancient Arabia, who is mentioned in the Qur'an. The eleventh chapter of the Qur'an, Hud, is named after him, though the narrative of Hud comprises only a small portion of the chapter.
Although the Quran makes no reference to the previous locality of the people of ʿĀd, it is believed that they lived in Arabia, now eastern Yemen and western Oman. In the 1980s there was the discovery of what is thought to be Ubar, mentioned in the Qur'an as Iram, which is believed to have been the capital of ʿĀd. The town's ancestor, ʿĀd, is said to have been fourth in generation from Noah, his father being Uz, who was the son of Aram, who was the son of Shem, who was the son of Noah.
Although Hud, at times, is identified with Eber of the Old Testament, his true Biblical identity remains uncertain. Hud is believed to have lived in Arabia before even the coming of Ishmael and Hagar. It is said that, at this time in Arabia, the tribes present were ʿĀd, Thamud, Jurhum, Tasam, Jadis, Amim, Midian, Amalek Imlaq, Jasim, Qahtan, Banu Yaqtan and others.
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Hâfiz Osman
This article is about a 17th century calligrapher. For the Singaporean footballer, see Hafiz Osman.
Hâfiz Osman (Ottoman Turkish: حافظ عثمان Modern Turkish: Hâfız Osman) (1642 – 1698) was an Ottoman calligrapher.
Hâfiz Osman was a Dervish; he was born in Istanbul. He was tutor to the sultans Ahmed II, Mustafa II and Ahmed III, and was esteemed by the sultan Mustafa II who held his inkwell as he wrote.
Hâfiz Osman is credited with establishing the hilye. A hilye is a calligraphic panel containing a hadith-based text describing the Prophet's physical appearance and attributes. Hâfiz Osman incorporated such texts, which had been popular for some time, in a formal design that soon became standard for this art form. Hilyeler came to be used as wall decorations or surface adornments, fulfilling much the same function as figurative paintings in other religious traditions. While containing a concrete and artistically appealing description of Muhammad's appearance, they complied with the strictures against figurative depictions of the Prophet, leaving his appearance to the viewer's imagination.
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Ibn Ishaq
Muḥammad ibn Isḥāq ibn Yasār ibn Khiyār (according to some sources, ibn Khabbār, or Kūmān, or Kūtān,Arabic: محمد بن إسحاق بن يسار بن خيار, or simply ibn Isḥaq ابن إسحاق, meaning "the son of Isaac") (died 767, or 761) was an Arab Muslim historian and hagiographer. Under the aegis of the 'Abbasid caliph Al-Mansur, Ibn Ishaq collected oral traditions that formed the basis of the most important biography of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.
Born in Medina, ibn Isḥaq was the grandson of a Christian man, Yasār, who had been captured in one of Khalid ibn al-Walid's campaigns and taken to Medina as a slave. His grandfather became the slave of Qays ibn Makhrama ibn al-Muṭṭalib ibn ʿAbd Manāf ibn Quṣayy and, having accepted Islam, was manumitted and became his mawlā, thus acquiring the nisbat al-Muṭṭalibī. Yasār's three sons, Mūsā, ʿAbd al-Raḥmān, and Isḥāq, were all known as transmitters of akhbār, who collected and recounted tales of the past. Isḥāq married the daughter of another mawlā and from this marriage ibn Isḥāq was born.
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Ibn Kathir
Ismail ibn Kathir (Arabic: ابن كثير) (1301–1373) was a Muslim muhaddith, faqīh, mufassir, historian, and commentator.
His full name was Abu Al-Fida, 'Imad Ad-Din, Isma'il bin 'Umar bin Kathir, Al-Qurashi, Al-Busrawi. He was born in 1301 in Busra, Syria (hence Al-Busrawi) and was taught by Ibn Taymiyya, Al-Mizzi, Ibn Al Firkah,‘Isa bin Al-Mutim, Ahmed bin Abi-Talib, Ibn Al-Hajjar, Baha Ad-Din Al-Qasim bin Muzaffar bin ‘Asakir, Ibn Ash-Shirazi, Ishaq bin Yahya Al-Ammuddi, Zahriyyah Shaykh, and Muhammad bin Zarrad.
Upon completion of his studies he obtained his first official appointment in 1341, when he joined an inquisitorial commission formed to determine certain questions of heresy. Thereafter he received various semi-official appointments, culminating in June/July 1366 with a professorial position at the Great Mosque of Damascus.
Ibn Kathir wrote a famous commentary on the Qur'an named Tafsir al-Qur'an al-'Adhim which linked certain Hadith, or sayings of Muhammad, and sayings of the sahaba to verses of the Qur'an, in explanation. Tafsir ibn Kathir is famous all over the Muslim world, and among Muslims in the Western world is one of the most widely used explanations of the Qu'ran today.
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Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi
Muhammad ibn Sa'd ibn Mani' al-Baghdadi or Ibn Sa'd (Arabic: ابن سعد), often called Katib ul-Waqidi, the scribe of Waqidi.
Ibn Sa'd was born in the year 168AH/784CE) and died in 230AH/845CE. He was a Sunni Muslim scholar of Islam and an Arabian biographer, received his training in the tradition from Al-Waqidi and other celebrated teachers. He lived for the most part in Baghdad, and had the reputation of being both trustworthy and accurate in his writings, which, in consequence, were much used by later writers.
Ibn Sa`d was from Basra, Iraq, then lived in Baghdad in the 9th century. He is said to have died at the age of 62 in Baghdad. and was buried in the cemetery of the Syrian gate.
The book of The Major Classes (Arabic: Kitab Tabaqat Al-Kubra) was is a compendium of biographical information about famous Islamic personalities. It is eight volumes long. This work contains the lives of Mohammed, his Companions and Helpers, including those who fought at the Battle of Badr as a special class, and of the following generation, the Followers, who received their traditions from the Companions. Ibn Saad's authorship of this work is attested in a postscript to the book added by a later writer. In this notice he is described as a "client of al-Husayn ibn `Abdullah of the `Abbasid family".
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Ibrahim ibn Muhammad
Ibrahim ibn Muhammad (Arabic script إبرهيم بن محمد) was the male child of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his wife Maria al-Qibtiyya. He was born in the last month of the year 8 AH. The child was named after Abraham, the common ancestor of both Arabs and Jews. The child was placed in the care of a wet nurse called Umm Sayf, wife of Abu Sayf, the blacksmith, in the tradition of the Arabs of the time, to whom Muhammad gave some goats to complement her milk supply.
Ibrahim fell seriously ill sometime after the Battle of Tabuk at which time he was reported as being either sixteen or eighteen months old. He was moved to a date orchard near the residence of his mother, under her care and her sister Sirin. When it was clear that he would not likely survive Muhammad was informed.
His reaction to the news is reported as:
Muhammad is also reported as having informed Mariyah and Sirin that Ibrahim would have his own nurse in Paradise. Different accounts relate that the ghusl for Ibrahim was performed by either Umm Burdah, or al-Fadl ibn `Abbas, in preparation for burial. Thereafter, he was carried to the cemetery upon a little bed among others by the Prophet, his uncle al-`Abbas. Here, after a funeral prayer led by Muhammad, he was interred. Muhammad then filled the grave with sand, sprinkled some water upon it, and placed a landmark on it, whereupon he is reported as saying that "Tombstones do neither good nor ill, but they help appease the living. Anything that man does, God wishes him to do well."
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Imam Tirmidhi
Tirmidhī (Persian: ترمذی), also transliterated as Tirmizi, full name Abū ‛Īsá Muḥammad ibn ‛Īsá ibn Sawrah ibn Mūsá ibn al Ḍaḥḥāk al-Sulamī al-Sulamī al-Tirmidhī (824–892, i.e. 209 AH – 13 Rajab 279 AH) or 8 October 892 CE was a Persian collector of hadith (sayings of the Prophet Muhammad)
He wrote al-Jāmi‛ al-ṣaḥīḥ, popularly called Sunan al-Tirmidhi, one of the six canonical hadith compilations used in Sunni Islam, as well as Shamā'il Muḥammadiyyah, known popularly as "Shamaail Tirmidhi", a collection of ahadith on [[Muhammad] SAAW].
Tirmidhi was born and died in Bâgh (Persian meaning 'Garden'), a suburb of Termez, Greater Khorasan (now in Uzbekistan), to a family of the widespread Banū Sulaym tribe. Starting at the age of twenty, he travelled widely, to Kufa, Basra and the Hijaz, seeking out knowledge from, among others, Qutaybah ibn Sa‛id, Muhammad al-Bukhari, Muslim Nishapuri and Abu Dawud.
Tirmidhī was blind in the last two years of his life, said to have been the consequence of his weeping over the death of Bukhārī. Tirmidhi is buried in Sherobod, 60 kilometers north of Termez. He is locally known as Isa Termezi or Termez Baba "Father of Termez".
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Isaac
Isaac ( /ˈaɪzək/;Hebrew: יִצְחָק, Modern Yitsẖak Tiberian Yiṣḥāq, ISO 259-3 Yiçḥaq, "he will laugh"; Yiddish: יצחק, Yitskhok; Ancient Greek: Ἰσαάκ, Isaak; Latin: Isaac; Arabic: إسحاق or Arabic: إسحٰقʼIsḥāq) as described in the Hebrew Bible, was the only son Abraham had with his wife Sarah, and was the father of Jacob and Esau. Isaac was one of the three patriarchs of the Israelites. According to the Book of Genesis, Abraham was 100 years old when Isaac was born, and Sarah was beyond childbearing years.
Isaac was the only biblical patriarch whose name was not changed, and the only one who did not leave Canaan. Compared to those of Abraham and Jacob, Isaac's story relates fewer incidents of his life. He died when he was 180 years old, making him the longest-lived patriarch.
The anglicized name Isaac is a transliteration of the Hebrew term Yiṣḥāq which literally means "He laughs/will laugh."Ugaritic texts dating from the 13th century BCE refer to the benevolent smile of the Canaanite deity El. Genesis, however, ascribes the laughter to Isaac's parents, Abraham and Sarah, rather than El. According to the biblical narrative, Abraham fell on his face and laughed when Elohim imparted the news of their son's eventual birth. He laughed because Sarah was past the age of childbearing; both she and Abraham were advanced in age. Later, when Sarah overheard three messengers of the Lord renew the promise, she laughed inwardly for the same reason. Sarah denied laughing when Elohim questioned Abraham about it.
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Ishmael
Ishmael (Hebrew: יִשְׁמָעֵאל, Modern Yishma'el Tiberian Yišmāʻēl ISO 259-3 Yišmaˁel; Greek: Ισμαήλ Ismaēl; Latin: Ismael; Arabic: إسماعيل ʾIsmāʿīl) is a figure in the Hebrew Bible and the Qur'an, and was Abraham's first son according to Jews, Christians and Muslims. Ishmael was born of Abraham's marriage to Sarah's handmaiden Hagar (Genesis 16:3). According to the Genesis account, he died at the age of 137 (Genesis 25:17).
Cognates of Hebrew Yishma'el existed in various ancient Semitic cultures, including early Babylonian and Minæan. It is translated literally as "God has hearkened", suggesting that "a child so named was regarded as the fulfillment of a divine promise".
This is the account of Ishmael from Genesis Chapters 16, 17, 21, 25
In Genesis 16, the birth of Ishmael was planned by the Patriarch Abraham’s first wife, who at that time was known as Sarai. She and her husband Abram (Abraham), sought a way to have children in order to fulfill the Abrahamic covenant that was established in Genesis 15. Since Sarai had yet to bear Abram a child, her idea was to offer her Egyptian handmaiden Hagar to Abram, so that they could have a child by her. Abram consented to a marital arrangement taking Hagar as his second wife when he was in his late 85th year of age. Customs of that time dictated that, although Hagar was the birth mother, any child conceived would belong to Sarai and Abram (Sarah and Abraham).
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Islamic view of Lot
Lot (Arabic: لوط, Lut) is an apostle and prophet of God in the Quran. He also appears in the Bible, but the Biblical stories of Lot are not entirely accepted within Islam. According to Islamic tradition, Lot lived in Ur and was the son of Haran and nephew of Abraham. He migrated with Abraham to Canaan in Palestine. He was commissioned as a prophet to the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. His story is used as a reference by Muslims to demonstrate Islam's disapproval of homosexuality. He was commanded by God to go to the land of Sodom and Gomorrah to preach to his people on monotheism and to stop them from their lustful and violent acts. According to both the Qur'an and the Hebrew Bible, Lot's messages were ignored by the inhabitants and Sodom and Gomorrah were subsequently destroyed. They cannot be exactly located, but it may be supposed that they were somewhere in the plain cast of the Dead Sea. The story of their destruction is told in the 19th chapter of Genesis. Two angels in the shape of handsome young men came to Lot in the evening and became his guests by night. The inhabitants of Sodom in their lust for unnatural crime invaded Lut's house but were repulsed. In the morning, the angels warned Lut to escape with his family. "Then the Lord rained upon Sodom and upon Gomorrah brimstone and fire from the Lord out of heaven; and He overthrew those cities, and all the plain, and all the inhabitants of the cities, and that which grew upon the ground. But his wife looked back from behind him, and she became a pillar of salt." (Gen. 19:24–26). Note that Lut's people are the people to whom he is sent on a mission. He was not one of their own brethren, as was Salih or Shu'aib. But he looked upon his people as his brethren (50:13), as a man of God always does."</ref> is that the Biblical version includes the story of Lot being induced to incestuous relations with his own daughters. The Qur'an says that Lot is a prophet, and holds that all prophets were examples of moral and spiritual rectitude. Though it is not altogether clear in the Bible story that Lot consented to his action, in Islam these stories of incest are considered to be false.
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Islamic view of Noah
Noah, (نوح Nūḥ), is a prophet and messenger in the Qur'an. He is a highly important figure in Islamic history, as he is counted amongst the earliest prophets sent by God to mankind. According to Islam, Noah's mission was to a wicked world, plunged in depravity and sin. Although he preached the Message of God with immense zeal, his people refused to mend their ways, leading to his building of the Ark and the famous event of the Deluge, the Great Flood in which all the evil people of his time perished.
Noah's mission had a double character: he had to warn his people, asking them to call for repentance and, at the same time, he had to preach about God's mercy and forgiveness, promising them the glad tidings God would provide if they led righteous lives. References to Noah are scattered throughout the Qur'an, and there is even an entire chapter carrying his name, Noah.
Little is known of Noah's personal history before his call to prophecy. However, tradition records him to have been the son of Lamech, one of the patriarchs from the Generations of Adam. Noah was neither the leader of the tribe nor a very rich man but, even before being called to prophecy, he worshiped God faithfully and was, in the words of the Qur'an, "a devotee most grateful".
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Israelites
The Israelites (בני ישראל, Standard: Bnai Yisraʾel; Tiberian: Bnai Yiśrāʾēl; ISO 259-3: Bnai Yiśraˀel) were a Hebrew-speaking people of the Ancient Near East, who inhabited the Land of Canaan during the tribal and monarchic periods (15th to 6th centuries BCE), later evolving into Jews and Samaritans of the classic period, inhabiting Judea and Samaria respectively. In Modern Hebrew usage, an Israelite is, broadly speaking, a lay member of the Jewish ethnoreligious community, as opposed to the priestly orders of Kohanim and Levites.
The word "Israelite" derives from the Biblical Hebrew word "Israel". Although most literary references to Israelites are located in the Hebrew Bible, there is also abundant non-biblical archaeological and historical evidence of ancient Israel and Judah. The ethnonym is attested as early as the 13th century BCE in an Egyptian inscription. The Hebrew Bible etymologizes the name as from yisra "to prevail over" or "to struggle/wrestle with", and el, "God, the divine". The eponymous biblical patriarch of the Israelites is Jacob, who wrestled with God who gave him a blessing and renamed him "Israel" because he had "striven with God and with men, and have prevailed." (Genesis 32:24-32) According to the Hebrew Bible, Israelites were the "chosen people" of God. The name Hebrews is sometimes used synonymously with "Israelites". The Qurʾānic term is for Israelites is Banī Israʾīl (children of Israel).
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Jacob
Jacob ( /ˈdʒeɪkəb/; Hebrew: יַעֲקֹב Standard Yaʿakov, Tiberian Yaʿăqōḇ (help·info); Septuagint Greek: Ἰακώβ Iakōb; Arabic: يَعْقُوب Yaʿqūb; "heel" or "leg-puller"), also later known as Israel (Hebrew: יִשְׂרָאֵל, Standard Yisraʾel, Tiberian Yiśrāʾēl; Septuagint Greek: Ἰσραήλ Israēl; Arabic: إِسْرَائِيل Isrāʾīl; "persevere with God"), as described in the Hebrew Bible, the Talmud, the New Testament and the Qur'an was the third patriarch of the Hebrew people with whom God made a covenant, and ancestor of the tribes of Israel, which were named after his descendants.
In the Hebrew Bible, he is the son of Isaac and Rebekah, the grandson of Abraham and Sarah and of Bethuel, and the younger twin brother of Esau. Jacob had twelve sons and at least one daughter, by his two wives, Leah and Rachel, and by their female slaves Bilhah and Zilpah. The children named in Genesis were Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Issachar, Zebulun, daughter Dinah, Joseph, and Benjamin.
Before the birth of Benjamin, Jacob is renamed "Israel" by an angel (Genesis 32:28-29 and 35:10). The name "Israel" can be translated as "God contended", but other meanings have also been suggested. Some commentators say the name comes from the verb śœarar ("to rule, be strong, have authority over"), thereby making the name mean "God rules" or "God judges". Other possible meanings include "the prince of God" (from the King James Version) or "El fights/struggles".
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Jesus
Jesus ( /ˈdʒiːzəs/; Greek: Ἰησοῦς; 7–2 BC/BCE to 30–36 AD/CE), also referred to as Jesus Christ or simply Christ, is the central figure of Christianity and most Christian denominations venerate him as God the Son incarnated. In Islam, Jesus (in Arabic: عيسى in Islamic usage, commonly transliterated as Isa) is considered one of God's important prophets.
Most modern historians agree that Jesus existed and was a Jewish teacher from Galilee in Roman Judaea, who was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified in Jerusalem on the orders of the Roman Prefect, Pontius Pilate. Scholars have offered competing descriptions and portraits of Jesus, which at times share a number of overlapping attributes, such as a rabbi, a charismatic healer, the leader of an apocalyptic movement, a self-described Messiah, a sage and philosopher, or a social reformer who preached of the "Kingdom of God" as a means for personal and egalitarian social transformation. Scholars have correlated the New Testament accounts with non-Christian historical records to arrive at an estimated chronology of Jesus' life.
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Jethro
Jethro can refer to:
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Jew
The Jews (Hebrew: יְהוּדִים ISO 259-3 Yhudim Israeli pronunciation [jehuˈdim]), also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and an ethnoreligious group, originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation.Converts to Judaism, whose status as Jews within the Jewish ethnos is equal to those born into it, have been absorbed into the Jewish people throughout the millennia.
In Jewish tradition, Jewish ancestry is traced to the Biblical patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the second millennium BCE. The modern State of Israel defines itself as a Jewish state in its Basic Laws, and Israel's Law of Return states: "Every Jew has the right to come to this country as an oleh." Israel is the only country where Jews are a majority of the population. Jews achieved political autonomy twice before in ancient history. The first of these periods lasted from 1350 to 586 BCE, and encompassed the periods of the Judges, the United Monarchy, and the Divided Monarchy of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah, ending with the destruction of the First Temple. The second was the period of the Hasmonean Kingdom spanning from 140 to 37 BCE. Since the destruction of the First Temple, most Jews have lived in diaspora. A minority in every country in which they live (except Israel), they have frequently experienced persecution throughout history, resulting in a population that has fluctuated both in numbers and distribution over the centuries.
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Jews
The Jews (Hebrew: יְהוּדִים ISO 259-3 Yhudim Israeli pronunciation [jehuˈdim]), also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and an ethnoreligious group, originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation.Converts to Judaism, whose status as Jews within the Jewish ethnos is equal to those born into it, have been absorbed into the Jewish people throughout the millennia.
In Jewish tradition, Jewish ancestry is traced to the Biblical patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the second millennium BCE. The modern State of Israel defines itself as a Jewish state in its Basic Laws, and Israel's Law of Return states: "Every Jew has the right to come to this country as an oleh." Israel is the only country where Jews are a majority of the population. Jews achieved political autonomy twice before in ancient history. The first of these periods lasted from 1350 to 586 BCE, and encompassed the periods of the Judges, the United Monarchy, and the Divided Monarchy of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah, ending with the destruction of the First Temple. The second was the period of the Hasmonean Kingdom spanning from 140 to 37 BCE. Since the destruction of the First Temple, most Jews have lived in diaspora. A minority in every country in which they live (except Israel), they have frequently experienced persecution throughout history, resulting in a population that has fluctuated both in numbers and distribution over the centuries.
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Jochebed
According to the Torah, Jochebed ( /ˈjɒkɨbɛd/; Hebrew: יוֹכֶבֶד / יוֹכָבֶד, Modern Yoḫéved / Yoḫáved Tiberian Yôḵéḇeḏ / Yôḵāḇeḏ ; "Yahweh is glory") was a daughter of Levi and mother of Aaron, Miriam and Moses. She was the wife of Amram, as well as his aunt. No details are given concerning her life. According to Jewish legend, Jochebed is buried in the Tomb of the Matriarchs, in Tiberias.
The story of Jochebed is found in the second book of the Torah (Exodus 2:1–10). She lived in Egypt, where the descendants of Israel were being oppressed. The Pharaoh had decreed that all their baby boys were to be thrown into the Nile, because he feared that they might become too powerful. When Moses, her youngest child, was born, Jochebed therefore hid him for three months until she could hide him no longer. To save her son's life, she made a wooded chest of bulrushes, made it watertight with slime and pitch and put the child in it. She then let the chest float in the Nile while Miriam, her daughter, kept watch over it from a distance. It was found by the Pharaoh's daughter, who had come to bathe in the river. Moved with compassion when she discovered the child, she decided to adopt him. Miriam, who had come forward, suggested to find her a Hebrew woman to nurse the child. The Pharaoh's daughter agreed and so Miriam called her mother, who was appointed to take care of him. Thus Jochebed nursed her son until he was old enough and brought him to the Pharaoh's daughter, who adopted him as her son. The story continues with Moses, who grew up to become the leader of the Exodus, leading his people out of the land of Egypt.
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John Bagot Glubb
Lieutenant-General Sir John Bagot Glubb KCB, CMG, DSO, OBE, MC better known as Glubb Pasha (born 16 April 1897, Preston, Lancashire – died 17 March 1986, Mayfield, Sussex), was a British soldier, scholar and author, best known for leading and training Transjordan's Arab Legion 1939-1956 as its commanding general. During the First World War, he served in France.
Educated at Cheltenham College, he was commissioned into the Royal Engineers in 1915. He was seriously wounded on the Western front, his jaw being shattered. In later years this would lead to the Arab nickname of abu Hunaik, meaning "of the little jaw". He was then transferred to Iraq in 1920, which was governed by Britain according to the League of Nations Mandate. He became an officer of the Arab Legion in 1930. The next year he formed the Desert Patrol — a force consisting exclusively of Bedouin — to curb the raiding problem that plagued the southern part of the country. Within a few years he had persuaded the Bedouin to abandon their habit of raiding neighbouring tribes.
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John bar Penkaye
John bar Penkaye; Syriac: ܝܘܚܢܢ ܒܪ ܦܢܟܝ̈ܐ Yōḥannān bar Penkāyē, was a East Syriac Nestorian Christian writer of the late 7th century. He lived at the time of fifth caliph of the Umayyad dynasty Abd al-Malik.
His surname indicates that his parents came from Feneq, on the Tigris (east of Tur Abdin). He was a monk at the monastery of Mar John of Kamul, and later at the monastery of Mar Bassima. Later writers confuse him with John Saba (John of Dalyatha).
John Bar Penkaye's writings provides an eye-witness account of the Arab conquests of his time but make no mention of an Arab sacred book in existence by the end of the 7th century.
A number of his works are still in existence. Most of them have never been published and are extant only in manuscripts.
This is in 15 books.
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John Esposito
John Louis Esposito (born 19 May 1940, Brooklyn, New York City) is a professor of International Affairs and Islamic Studies at Georgetown University. He is also the director of the Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding at Georgetown University.
Esposito was raised a Roman Catholic in an Italian neighborhood in Brooklyn, New York City, and spent a decade in a Catholic monastery. After taking his first degree he worked as a management consultant and high-school teacher.[citation needed] He then studied and received a masters in theology at St. John's University. He earned a PhD at Temple University, Pennsylvania in 1974, studying Islam and held postdoctoral appointments at Harvard and Oxford. He is well known as a promoter of strong ties between Muslims and Christians and has challenged the Vatican to make greater efforts to encourage such ties [citation needed]
For nearly twenty years after completing his PhD, Esposito had taught religious studies (including Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam) at the College of the Holy Cross, a Jesuit college in Massachusetts. At Holy Cross, Esposito held the Loyola Professor of Middle East Studies position, was the chair of the Department of Religious Studies, and the director of college's Center for International Studies. At Georgetown University, Esposito holds the position of University Professor and teaches as both Professor of Religion and International Affairs and Professor of Islamic Studies. Esposito also works as a Senior Scientist at the Gallup Center for Muslim Studies, where he co-authored Who Speaks for Islam? What a Billion Muslims Really Think, which was published in March 2008.
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John the Baptist
John the Baptist (Hebrew: יוחנן המטביל, Yoḥanan ha-mmaṭbil, Arabic: يحيى بن زكريا Yahya ibn Zakariya, Aramaic: ܝܘܚܢܢ Yoḥanan, Greek: Ὁ Ἅγιος/Τίμιος Ἐνδοξος Προφήτης, Πρόδρομος καὶ Βαπτιστής Ἰωάννης Ho Hágios/Tímios Endoxos, Profḗtēs, Pródromos, kaì Baptistḗs Ioánnes) (c. 6 BC – c. AD 30-36) was an itinerant preacher and a major religious figure mentioned in the Canonical gospels and the Qur'an. He is described in the Gospel of Luke as a relative of Jesus who led a movement of baptism at the Jordan River. Some scholars maintain that he was influenced by the Essenes, who were semi-ascetic, expected an apocalypse, and practiced rituals corresponding strongly with baptism, although there is no direct evidence to substantiate this. John is regarded as a prophet in Christianity, Islam, the Bahá'í Faith, and Mandaeism.
Most biblical scholars agree that John baptized Jesus at "Bethany beyond the Jordan," by wading into the water with Jesus from the eastern bank. John the Baptist is also mentioned by Jewish historian Josephus, in Aramaic Matthew, in Pseudo-Clementine, and in the Qur'an. Accounts of John in the New Testament appear compatible with the account in Josephus. There are no other historical accounts of John the Baptist from around the period of his lifetime.
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Jonah
Jonah (Hebrew: יוֹנָה, Modern Yona Tiberian Yônā ; dove; Arabic: يونس, Yūnus or يونان, Yūnān; Greek/Latin: Ionas) is the name given in the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh/Old Testament) to a prophet of the northern kingdom of Israel in about the 8th century BC, the eponymous central character in the Book of Jonah, famous for being swallowed by a fish or a whale, depending on translation. The Biblical story of Jonah is also repeated, with minor changes, in the Qur'an.
Jonah son of Amittai appears in 2 Kings as a prophet from Gath-Hepher (a few miles north of Nazareth) active during the reign of Jeroboam II (c.786-746 BC), where he predicts that Jeroboam will recover certain lost territories.
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Joshua
Joshua (Hebrew: יְהוֹשֻׁעַ Yĕhôshúa‘; Greek: Ἰησοῦς, Arabic: يوشع بن نون Yūshaʿ ibn Nūn), is a figure in the Torah, being one of the spies for Israel (Num 13-14) and in few passages as Moses's assistant. He is the central character in the Hebrew Bible's Book of Joshua. According to the books Exodus, Numbers and Joshua, he became the leader of the Israelite tribes after the death of Moses; his name was Hoshe'a the son of Nun, of the tribe of Ephraim, but Moses called him Yehoshu'a (Joshua) (Numbers 13:16) the name by which he is commonly known; and he was born in Egypt prior to the Exodus, and was probably the same age as Caleb, with whom he is occasionally associated.
He was one of the twelve spies of Israel sent by Moses to explore the land of Canaan. (Numbers 13:1-16) After the death of Moses, he led the Israelite tribes in the conquest of Canaan, and allocated the land to the tribes. According to Biblical chronology, Joshua lived between 1500–1390 BCE, or sometime in the late Bronze Age. According to Joshua 24:29, Joshua died at the age of 110.
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Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf
Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf (Arabic: كعب بن الاشرف) (died 624) was a poet from the Tayy tribe who critisized and mocked the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf was born to a Jewish-Arab mother from the Nadir tribe, Aqilah bint Abi'l-Huqayq, and an Arab father from the Tayy tribe, and he followed his mother's religion. He was a wealthy man known for his handsomeness, and a poet living in luxury in his fort south east of Medina at the rear of Banu Nadir’s habitations.
According to several ahadith in Sahih al-Bukhari, he wrote poems satirizing Muhammad, eulogizing Quraish and enticing them against the Muslims. He then rode to Mecca where he started to trigger the fire of war and kindle rancour against the Muslims in Medina. When Abu Sufyan asked him which religion he was more inclined to, the religion of the Meccans or that of Muhammad and his companions, he replied that the pagans were better guided..
Ka'b was infuriated at the victory of the Muslims in the Battle of Badr, in March 624, and at the executions of a number of Meccan notables of the Quraysh tribe who had been captured after that battle. The traditional biography of Muhammad reports Ka'b as saying "...if Muhammad has indeed struck down those people, then it were better to be buried in the earth than to walk upon it!"
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Karen Armstrong
Karen Armstrong FRSL (born 14 November 1944), is a British author and commentator who is the author of twelve books on comparative religion. A former Roman Catholic nun, she went from a conservative to a more liberal and mystical faith. Armstrong first rose to prominence in 1993 with her book, A History of God: The 4,000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, an international best seller that is now required reading in many theology courses. Her work focuses on commonalities of the major religions, such as the importance, in many, of compassion or "The Golden Rule".
Armstrong received the $100,000 TED Prize in February 2008. She used that occasion to call for the creation of a Charter for Compassion, which was unveiled the following year.
Armstrong was born at Wildmoor, Worcestershire, into a family of Irish extraction who, after her birth, moved to Bromsgrove and later to Birmingham. In 1962, while still in her teens, she became a nun in the Society of the Holy Child Jesus, a teaching order, in which she remained for seven years. Once she had advanced from postulant and novice to professed nun, she enrolled in St Anne's College, Oxford, to study English. Armstrong left her order in 1969 while still a student at Oxford. After graduating with a Congratulatory First, she embarked on a DPhil on the poet Tennyson. According to Armstrong, she wrote her dissertation on a topic that had been approved by the university committee. Nevertheless it was failed by her external examiner on the grounds that the topic had been unsuitable. Armstrong did not formally protest this verdict, nor did she embark upon a new topic but instead abandoned hope of an academic career. She reports that this period in her life was marked by ill-health stemming from her life-long but, at that time, still undiagnosed temporal epilepsy.
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Khidr
Khidr "the Green One", also transcribed as Khidar, Khizr, Khyzer, Khizar, Kezr) is a revered figure in Islam, whom the Qur'an describes as a righteous servant of God, who possessed great wisdom or mystic knowledge, represented iconically by a fish. He is most often said to be a contemporary of Moses, but in other variations of his story, he lived at the same time as Abraham, the mythical Persian king Afridun, Alexander the Great, and Nashiya bin Amus . The 18th sura ("The Cave") presents a narrative where Khidr accompanies Moses and tests him about his oath to not ask any questions.
In medieval Islamic tradition, Khidr is variously described as a messenger or a prophet.
In chapter 18, verses 65–82, Moses meets the Servant of God, referred in the Quran as "one from among Our friend whom We had granted mercy from Us and whom We had taught knowledge from Ourselves", at the junction of the two seas and asks for permission to accompany him so Moses can learn "right knowledge of what [he has] been taught". The Servant of God informs him in a stern manner that their knowledge is of different nature and that "Surely you [Moses] cannot have patience with me. And how canst thou have patience about things about which thy understanding is not complete?" Moses promises to be patient and obey him unquestioningly, and they set out together. After they board a ship, the Servant of God damages the vessel. Forgetting his oath, Moses says, "Have you made a hole in it to drown its inmates? Certainly you have done a grievous thing." The Servant of God reminds Moses of his warning, "Did I not say that you will not be able to have patience with me?" and Moses pleads not to be rebuked.
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Khosrau II
Khosrau II (Khosrow II, Chosroes II, or Xosrov II in classical sources, sometimes called Parvez, "the Ever Victorious" – (in Persian: خسرو پرویز), was the twenty-second Sassanid King of Persia, reigning from 590 to 628. He was the son of Hormizd IV (reigned 579–590) and the grandson of Khosrau I (reigned 531–579).
Historian Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari describes him as:
Excelling most of the other Persian kings in bravery, wisdom and forethought, and none matching him in military might and triumph, hoarding of treasures and good fortunes, hence the epithet Parviz, meaning victorious.
According to legend, Khosrau had a shabestan in which over 3,000 concubines resided.
Khosrau II was raised to the throne by the same magnates who had rebelled against his father Hormizd IV. Soon after being crowned, Khosrau had his father blinded, then executed. However, at the same time, General Bahram Chobin had proclaimed himself King Bahram VI (590–591), exemplifying Khosrau's difficulty in maintaining control of his kingdom.
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Louis Jacobs
Rabbi Dr. Louis Jacobs (17 July 1920, Manchester – 1 July 2006, 5 Tammuz 5766 in the Hebrew calendar, London) was a Masorti rabbi, the first leader of Masorti Judaism (also known as Conservative Judaism) in the United Kingdom, and a leading writer and thinker on Judaism. He also became known as the focus of events in the early 1960s sometimes referred to as "The Jacobs Affair".
Jacobs studied at Manchester Yeshivah, and later at the kolel in Gateshead. His teachers included Rabbi Eliyahu Dessler, an Orthodox expositor of Jewish moral and theological teachings. Jacobs was ordained as an Orthodox rabbi at Manchester Yeshivah. Later in his career he studied at University College London where he gained his PhD, on the topic of The Business Life of the Jews in Babylon, 200-500 BCE. Jacobs was appointed rabbi at Manchester Central Synagogue in 1948. In 1954 he was appointed to the New West End Synagogue in London.
He became Moral Tutor at Jews' College, London, where he taught Talmud and homiletics during the last years of Rabbi Isidore Epstein's tenure as principal. By this time Jacobs had drifted away from the very rigid traditional approach to Jewish theology that had marked his formative years. Instead he struggled to find a synthesis that would accommodate Orthodox Jewish theology and modern day higher biblical criticism. Jacobs was especially concerned with how to reconcile modern day Orthodox Jewish faith with the documentary hypothesis. His ideas about the subject were published in a book entitled We Have Reason to Believe, published in 1957. The book was originally written to record the essence of discussions held on its title's subject at weekly classes given by Jacobs at the New West End Synagogue and was the subject at the time of some mild criticism, but not of any major censure.
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Loyal Rue
Loyal Rue is an American philosopher and writer whose research focuses on naturalistic theories of religion. He is Professor Emeritus in the philosophy and religion departments at Luther College in Decorah, Iowa.
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Mahatma Gandhi
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (pronounced: [ˈmoːɦənd̪aːs ˈkərəmtʃənd̪ ˈɡaːnd̪ʱi]; 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948), commonly known as Mahatma Gandhi, was the preeminent leader of Indian nationalism in British-ruled India. Employing non-violent civil disobedience, Gandhi led India to independence and inspired movements for non-violence, civil rights and freedom across the world.
Son of a senior government official, Gandhi was born and raised in a Hindu Bania community in coastal Gujarat, and trained in law in London. Gandhi became famous by fighting for the civil rights of Muslim and Hindu Indians in South Africa, using the new techniques of non-violent civil disobedience that he developed. Returning to India in 1915, he set about organising peasants to protest excessive land-taxes. A lifelong opponent of "communalism" (i.e. basing politics on religion) he reached out widely to all religious groups. He became a leader of Muslims protesting the declining status of the Caliphate. Assuming leadership of the Indian National Congress in 1921, Gandhi led nationwide campaigns for easing poverty, expanding women's rights, building religious and ethnic amity, ending untouchability, increasing economic self-reliance, and above all for achieving Swaraj—the independence of India from British domination.
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Mahound
Mahound or Mahoun is a variant form of the name Muhammad, often found in Medieval and later European literature. This version of the name, or variants of it, came to be strongly associated with anti-Muslim attitudes in Western Christendom. It was especially connected to the Christian belief that Muhammad was a god worshipped by Pagans, or that he was a demon who inspired a false religion.
The perception that Muslims worshipped Muhammad was common in Medieval Europe. According to Bernard Lewis, the "development of the concept of Mahound started with considering Muhammad as a kind of demon or false god worshipped with Apollyon and Termangant in an unholy trinity [in the song of Roland]. Finally after reformation, Muhammad was conceived as a cunning and self-seeking imposter.".
A similar belief was the claim that the Knights Templar worshipped a god called Baphomet, also widely interpreted as a variant of the name "Mahommet".
The name appears in various medieval mystery plays, in which Mahound is sometimes portrayed as a generic "pagan" god worshipped by villains such as Herod and the Pharaoh of the Exodus. One play depicts both Herod the Great and his son Herod Antipas as worshipping Mahound, while in another play Pharaoh encourages the Egyptians to pursue the Israelites into the Red Sea with the words: Heave up you hearts ay to Mahound.
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Malik ibn Anas
Mālik ibn Anas ibn Mālik ibn Abī 'Āmir al-Asbahī (Arabic مالك بن أنس) (c. 711 – 795) (93 AH – 179 AH ) is known as "Imam Malik," the "Sheikh of Islam", the "Proof of the Community," and "Imam of the Abode of Emigration." He was one of the most highly respected scholars of fiqh in Sunni Islam. Imam Shafi`i, who was one of Malik's students for nine years and a scholarly giant in his own right, stated, "when scholars are mentioned, Malik is the star." The Maliki Madhab, named after Malik, is one of the four schools of jurisprudence that are followed by Sunni Muslims to this day.
His full name was Abu Abdullah Mālik ibn Anas ibn Mālik Ibn Abī 'Āmir Ibn 'Amr Ibnul-Hārith Ibn Ghaimān Ibn Khuthail Ibn 'Amr Ibnul-Haarith.
Malik was born the son of Anas ibn Malik (not the Sahabi) and Aaliyah bint Shurayk al-Azdiyya in Medina circa 711. His family was originally from the al-Asbahi tribe of Yemen, but his great grandfather Abu 'Amir relocated the family to Medina after converting to Islam in the second year after hijra (623). According to Al-Muwatta, he was tall, heavyset, imposing of stature, very fair, with white hair and beard but bald, with a huge beard and blue eyes.
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Malise Ruthven
Malise Ruthven (born 1942) is an Anglo-Irish academic and writer.
Born in Dublin in 1942, he earned an MA in English Literature at Cambridge University, before working as a scriptwriter with the BBC Arabic and World Service, and a consultant on Middle Eastern affairs. He earned his Ph.D in Social and Political Sciences from Cambridge University. Having pursued a career as a writer, journalist and teacher, he focuses his work on religion, fundamentalism, and especially Islamic affairs.
As a writer, he wrote:
Ruthven contributed an afterword to the most recent edition of Albert Hourani's History of the Arab Peoples, bringing that work up to date following Hourani's death. Dr Ruthven is internationally recognized for his work on Muslim thought and theology, fundamentalism, Mormonism, the social impact of religion and migration and the nexus between contemporary politics and belief.[citation needed]
Malise Ruthven's book reviews have appeared in The Sunday Times, The Guardian, The Observer, The Times Literary Supplement, Prospect Magazine and The New York Review of Books (NYR). His blog for the NYR, Revolution by Latrine, won an award from the Overseas Press Club of America in April 2011.
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Maria al-Qibtiyya
Maria al-Qibtiyya (Arabic: مارية القبطية) (alternatively, "Maria Qupthiya"), or Maria the Copt, (died 637) was an Egyptian Coptic Christian slave who was sent as a gift from Muqawqis, a Byzantine official, to the Islamic prophet Muhammad in 628. . Many sources, including Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya claim that she was only a concubine. She is also not mentioned in Ibn-Hisham's notes on Ibn-Ishaq's biography where he lists the wives of Muhammad. She was the mother of Muhammad's son Ibrahim, who died in infancy. Her sister, Sirin, was also sent to Muhammad. Muhammad gave her to his follower Hassan ibn Thabit. Maria never remarried after Muhammad's death in 632, and died five years later. Her birthdate is unknown. No primary source mentions her age.
In the Islamic year 6 AH (627 – 628 CE), Muhammad is said to have had letters written to the great rulers of the Middle East, proclaiming the new faith and inviting the rulers to join. What purports to be texts of some of the letters are found in Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari's History of the Prophets and Kings, which was written some 250 years after the events it chronicled. Tabari writes that a deputation was sent to an Egyptian governor named as al-Muqawqis.
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Mark R. Cohen
Mark R. Cohen (born 1943) is a professor of Near Eastern studies at Princeton University specializing in Jews in the Muslim world. He is a leading scholar of the history of Jews in the Middle Ages under Islam. His research relies greatly on documents from the Cairo Geniza. He also heads the Geniza Project at Princeton University, which aims to place an extensive number of medieval documents on an online search engine (as of March 2007, the database contained about 4000 documents). The project is headquartered at the S.D. Goitein Geniza Research Lab, where many of Goitein's personal books and notes are stored.
Cohen earned his undergraduate degree at Brandeis University, his master's degree at Columbia University, and his doctorate at the Jewish Theological Seminary. He currently lives in New York City.
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Maxime Rodinson
Maxime Rodinson (26 January 1915 – 23 May 2004) was a French Marxist historian, sociologist and orientalist. He was the son of a Russian-Polish clothing trader and his wife who both died in the Auschwitz concentration camp. After studying oriental languages, he became a professor of Ethiopian (Amharic) at EPHE (École Pratique des Hautes Études, France). He was the author of a rich body of work, including the book Muhammad, a biography of the prophet of Islam.
Rodinson joined the French Communist Party in 1937 for "moral reasons", but later turned away after the party's Stalinist drift. He was expelled from the party in 1958. He became well known in France when he expressed sharp criticism of Israel, particularly opposing the settlement policies of the Jewish state. Some credit him with coining the term "Islamic fascism" (le fascisme islamique) in 1979, which he used to describe the Iranian revolution.
The parents of Maxime Rodinson were Russian-Polish ethnically Jewish immigrants who were members of the Communist Party. They arrived in France at the end of the 19th century as refugees from pogroms in the Russian Empire. His father was a clothing trader who set up a business making waterproof clothing in the Yiddish-speaking part of Paris, called the Pletzl, in the district of the Marais. They became port-of-call for other Russian exiles, most of them revolutionaries hostile to the Tsarist regime. His father tried to unionize and organize educational and other services for his working-class immigrant group. In 1892, he helped to establish a community library, containing hundreds of works in Yiddish, Russian and French.
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Michael (archangel)
Michael (Hebrew: מִיכָאֵל (pronounced [ˌmixäˈʔel]), Micha'el or Mîkhā'ēl; Greek: Μιχαήλ, Mikhaḗl; Latin: Michael or Míchaël; Arabic: ميخائيل, Mīkhā'īl) is an archangel in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic teachings. Roman Catholics, the Eastern Orthodox, Anglicans, and Lutherans refer to him as Saint Michael the Archangel and also simply as Saint Michael. Orthodox Christians refer to him as the Taxiarch Archangel Michael or simply Archangel Michael.
In Hebrew, Michael means "who is like God" (mi-who, ke-as or like, El-deity), which is traditionally interpreted as a rhetorical question: "Who is like God?" (which expects an answer in the negative) to imply that no one is like God. In this way, Michael is reinterpreted as a symbol of humility before God.
In the Hebrew Bible Michael is mentioned three times in the Book of Daniel, once as a "great prince who stands up for the children of your people". The idea that Michael was the advocate of the Jews became so prevalent that in spite of the rabbinical prohibition against appealing to angels as intermediaries between God and his people, Michael came to occupy a certain place in the Jewish liturgy.
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Michael H. Hart
Michael H. Hart (born April 28, 1932 in New York City) is an astrophysicist who has also written three books on history and controversial articles on a variety of subjects. Hart describes himself as a Jeffersonian liberal, while his critics call him a conservative and a racial separatist.
Hart, a graduate of the Bronx High School of Science who enlisted in the U.S. Army during the Korean War, received his undergraduate degree at Cornell University in mathematics and later earned a Ph.D. in astrophysics at Princeton University. He also holds graduate degrees in physics, astronomy, and computer science, as well as a law degree. He was a research scientist at NASA before leaving to be a professor of physics at Trinity University in San Antonio, Texas. He has also taught both astronomy and history of science at Anne Arundel Community College in Arnold, Maryland. His published work in peer-reviewed scientific journals includes several detailed computer simulations of atmospheric evolution.
Among Hart's articles was one, published in 1975, that gave scientific support for the conclusion that the only intelligent life in the Milky Way Galaxy resides on the planet Earth.
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Miriam
Miriam (Hebrew: מִרְיָם, Modern Miryam Tiberian Miryām ; Arabic: مريم (Maryam); see Miriam (given name)) was the sister of Moses and Aaron, and the daughter of Amram and Jochebed. She appears first in the Book of Exodus in the Hebrew Bible.
At her mother Jochebed's request, Miriam hid her baby brother Moses by the side of a river to evade the Pharaoh’s order that newborn Hebrew boys be killed. She watched as the Pharaoh’s daughter discovered the infant and decided to adopt him. Miriam then suggested that the princess take on a nurse for the child, and suggested Jochebed; as a result, Moses was raised to be familiar with his background as a Hebrew. (Exodus 2:1-10)
Miriam is called a prophetess, and is traditionally believed to have sung a brief victory song after Pharaoh’s army was drowned in the Red Sea (Exodus 15:20-21).
“Sing to the Lord, for he has triumphed gloriously;
Horse and rider he has thrown into the sea.”
It is considered by many that this poetic couplet is one of the oldest parts of the Biblical account.
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Mirza Ghulam Ahmad
Mīrzā Ghulām Aḥmad (Arabic: ميرزا غلام أحمد; Urdu: مرزا غلام احمد; 13 February 1835 – 26 May 1908 CE, or Shawal 14, 1250 – Rabi' al-thani 24, 1326 AH) was a religious figure from India and the founder of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community.
He claimed to be the Mujaddid of the fourteenth Islamic century, the Promised Messiah (Second Coming of Christ), and the Mahdi awaited by the Muslims in the end days. He declared that Jesus (Isa) had in fact survived the crucifixion and later died a natural death after having migrated towards Kashmir, and that he had appeared in the spirit and power of Jesus.
He travelled extensively across the subcontinent of India preaching his religious ideas and ideals and won substantial following within his lifetime. He is known to have engaged in numerous debates and dialogues with the Muslim, Christian and Hindu priesthood and leadership. Ghulam Ahmad founded the Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam on 23 March 1889. The mission of the movement, according to him, was the propagation of Islam in its pristine form.
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Moses
Moses (Hebrew: מֹשֶׁה, Modern Moshe Tiberian Mōšéh ISO 259-3 Moše; Greek: Mωϋσῆς Mōüsēs; Arabic: موسىٰ Mūsa) was, according to the Hebrew Bible and Qur'an, a religious leader, lawgiver and prophet, to whom the authorship of the Torah is traditionally attributed. Also called Moshe Rabbenu in Hebrew (מֹשֶׁה רַבֵּנוּ, Lit. "Moses our Teacher/Rabbi"), he is the most important prophet in Judaism, and is also considered an important prophet in Christianity and Islam, as well as a number of other faiths.
The existence of Moses as well as the veracity of the Exodus story is disputed amongst archaeologists and Egyptologists, with experts in the field of biblical criticism citing logical inconsistencies, new archaeological evidence, historical evidence, and related origin myths in Canaanite culture. Other historians maintain that the biographical details, and Egyptian background, attributed to Moses imply the existence of a historical political and religious leader who was involved in the consolidation of the Hebrew tribes in Canaan towards the end of the Bronze Age.
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Muhammad
Muhammad (c. 26 April 570 – 8 June 632; also transliterated as Mohammad, Mohammed, or Muhammed; Arabic: محمد), full name: Muhammad Ibn `Abd Allāh Ibn `Abd al-Muttalib (Arabic: محمد بن عبدالله بن عبد المطلب ) was a leader from Mecca who unified the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity under Islam. He is believed by Muslims and Bahá'ís to be a messenger and prophet of God. Muslims believe that Islam was not his own invention but was revealed by God, and most consider him to be the last prophet of God Muslims thus consider him the restorer of an uncorrupted original monotheistic faith (islām) of Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and other prophets.
Born in 570 CE in the Arabian city of Mecca, he was orphaned at an early age and brought up under the care of his uncle Abu Talib. He later worked mostly as a merchant, as well as a shepherd, and was first married by age 25. Being in the habit of periodically retreating to a cave in the surrounding mountains for several nights of meditation and prayer, he later reported that it was there, at age 40, that he received his first revelation from God. Three years after this event Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly, proclaiming that "God is One", that complete "surrender" to Him (lit. islām) is the only way (dīn) acceptable to God, and that he himself was a prophet and messenger of God, in the same vein as other Islamic prophets.
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Muhammad Hamidullah
Muhammad Hamidullah (Urdu: محمد حمیداللہ), (February 9, 1908 – December 17, 2002) D. Phil., D. Litt., HI, was a Muhaddith, Faqih, scholar of Islamic law and an academic author (over 450 books cited in WorldCat.org - world's largest bibliographic database). Born in Hyderabad Deccan (now Hyderabad, India).
He hails from a family of scholars, jurists, writers and administrators. He is known for contributions to the research of Hadith history, translations of the Qur'an into multiple languages and in particular into French language (first by a Muslim scholar) and for the monumental biography of the Prophet Muhammad in French. Hamidullah was the last remaining citizen of the erstwhile state of Hyderabad (now capital of Andhra Pradesh, India) and never obtain the citizenship of any other nation and was classed as a Refugee of Hyderabad by the French Government who allowed him to stay in Paris, exiled from his homeland after its annexation by the Indian Government in 1948.
A prolific writer, his extensive works on Islamic science, history and culture number more than 450 and many thousands of articles in learned journals in seven languages.
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Muhammad Mohar Ali
Muhammad Mohar Ali (Arabic: محمد مهر علي) (1932–2007) was a scholar of Islam and history of Muslims in Bengal and India.
Mohar Ali was born in 1932 in Khulna in Bengal. Studying at Dhaka University, he obtained a degree in History in 1952 and Masters in 1953. In 1963 he obtained a PhD from SOAS, University of London, and in 1964 studied law at Lincolns Inn, London.
Between 1954 and 1976 he worked as a university lecturer in Bengal, becoming a professor, and moved in 1976 to Saudi Arabia to teach Islamic history at Imam Muhammad ibn Saud Islamic University in Riyadh for 12 years, followed by 7 years of teaching at the Islamic University of Madinah. He worked then as a researcher at King Fahd Complex for the Printing of the Holy Qur'an in years 1415-16 AH. He also worked at Dhaka University in 1965-69, at the official Historical Document Centre in 1966-71, and the chief editor for the Historical Society magazine. His university teaching career lasted for more than 40 years. Mohar Ali died in London on April 11, 2007.
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Noah
Noah ( /ˈnoʊ.ə/; or Noé, Noach; Hebrew: נֹחַ, נוֹחַ, Modern Noaẖ Tiberian Nōăḥ; Arabic: نُوح Nūḥ; Ancient Greek: Νῶε) was the tenth and last of the antediluvian Patriarchs. The story of Noah and the ark is told in chapters 6–9 of the book of Genesis, which is followed by the story of the Curse of Ham. Outside Genesis his name is mentioned in Ezekiel, Isaiah and Chronicles. He was the subject of much elaboration in later Abrahamic traditions, including the Qur'an.
Noah was the tenth of the pre-Flood Patriarchs. His father Lamech named him nûaḥ (the final ḥ is a more gutteral sound than the English h), saying, "This same shall comfort us in our work and in the toil of our hands, which cometh from the ground which the LORD hath cursed." This connects the future patriarch's name with nāḥam, "comfort", but it seems better related to the word nûaḥ, meaning "rest", and is more a play on words than a true etymology.
In his five hundredth year Noah had three sons, Shem, Ham and Japheth. In his six hundredth year God, saddened at the wickedness of mankind, sent a great deluge to destroy all life, but because Noah was "righteous in his generation" God instructed him to build an ark and save a remnant of life. After the Flood Noah offered a sacrifice (the word nihoah, describing the "pleasant" odour of the sacrifice, is yet another pun on Noah's name) and entered into a covenant with God regulating the shedding of blood (i.e., mankind's permnission to kill under regulated circumstances). After this he became "the first tiller of the soil", planted a vineyard, and drank the wine, and fell asleep naked; Noah's son Ham saw his father naked and told his brothers, and Noah cursed Ham's son Canaan.
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Norman Stillman
Norman Arthur Stillman, also Noam (נועם, in Hebrew), b. 1945, is the Schusterman-Josey Professor and Chair of Judaic History at the University of Oklahoma. He specializes in the intersection of Jewish and Islamic culture and history, and in Oriental and Sephardi Jewry, with special interest in the Jewish communities in North Africa. His major publications are The Jews of Arab Lands: a History And Source Book and Sephardi Religious Responses to Modernity. In the last few years, Stillman has been the executive editor of the Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World, a project that includes over 2000 entries in 5 volumes. It will be published by Brill in 2010.[citation needed]
Stillman studied at the University of Pennsylvania, receiving the B.A. (magna cum laude) in 1967 and Ph.D. in Oriental Studies in 1970, Shelomo Dov Goitein being his thesis advisor. He was a post-doctoral fellow at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. He has received numerous academic honors, among them the Phi Beta Kappa, the SUNY Chancellor's Award for Excellence in Teaching and the SUNY-Binghamton award for Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching. He delivered the Momigliano Lectures for the University of Chicago's Committee on Social Thought and the Sherman Lectures for the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London. He was Lady Davis Fellow at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem in 1994-1995 and visiting fellow at the Moshe Dayan Center for Middle Eastern and African Studies at Tel-Aviv University. He received the Ohio State University Melton Center's Distinguished Humanist award in 2000 and was a visiting scholar at l'Institut National des Langues et Civilisation Orientales in Paris in 2001-2002. Stillman also appears in the 2005 film, The Hebrew Project.
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Omid Safi
Omid Safi is Professor of Islamic Studies at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill where he specializes on Islamic mysticism (Sufism), contemporary Islamic thought and medieval Islamic history. He has served on the board of the Pluralism project at Harvard University and is the co-chair of the steering committee for the Study of Islam at the American Academy of Religion.
Professor Safi is recognized as a leader of the progressive Muslim debate. Professor Safi's book Progressive Muslims (2003) contains a diverse collection of essays by and about "progressive" Muslims. Professor Safi was one of the co-founders of the Progressive Muslim Union (PMU-NA). He resigned from PMU in 2005, but he continues to support progressive interpretations of Islam outside of PMU.
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Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire or Turkish Empire or Sublime Ottoman State or sometimes also referred to as Turkey (Ottoman Turkish: دَوْلَتِ عَلِيّهٔ عُثمَانِیّه Devlet-i ʿAliyye-yi ʿOsmâniyye (also عثمانلى دولتى Osmanlı Devleti),Modern Turkish: Osmanlı Devleti or Osmanlı İmparatorluğu) was a Turkish empire which lasted from 27 July 1299 to 1 November 1922, when the Sultanate was abolished.
The Ottoman Empire was one of the largest and longest lasting empires in history; such that the Ottoman State, its politics, conflicts, and cultural heritage in a vast geography provide one of the longest continuous narratives. During the 16th and 17th centuries, in particular at the height of its power under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the empire was one of the most powerful states in the world – a multinational, multilingual empire that stretched from the southern borders of the Holy Roman Empire to the outskirts of Vienna, Royal Hungary (modern Slovakia) and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the north to Yemen and Eritrea in the south; from Algeria in the west to Azerbaijan in the east; controlling much of southeast Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. At the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states, some of which were later absorbed into the empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries.
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People of Ya-Sin
People of Ya-Sin is the phrase used by Muslims to refer to an ancient community who are mentioned in the Qur'an as the People of the City or the Companions of the City. The location and people of this city has been the subject of much scholarly debate in Islam.
According to the Qur'an, God sent two prophets to this particular community (Quran 36:13). When the people of the city refused to hear their words, God sent a third prophet to strengthen them. The prophets told the people: "Truly we have been sent on a mission to you" (Quran 36:14). The community mocked the message of the prophets and said" "You are only men like ourselves; and (the Lord) Most Gracious sends no sort of revelation. You do nothing but lie!" (Quran 36:15). The prophets, in reply, rebuked the community, saying: "Our Lord knows that we have been sent on a mission to you. And our duty is only to proclaim the clear Message." (Quran 36:16–17)
The Qur'an goes onto say that the prophets were threatened with stoning and torture (Quran 36:18), but they refused to give in and continued to warn the people to end their sinful ways. Then, from the farthest part of the city, there came running a man who exhorted the people to believe the message and told them: "O my people! Follow those who have been sent! Follow those who ask of you no fee, and who are rightly guided." (Quran 36:20–21) The following verses, which describe the man's entrance in to "the garden", assumed to mean Heaven, has been interpreted by some scholars to mean that the believing man was martyred for his faith.
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Potiphar
Potiphar or Potifar /ˈpɒtɨfər/ is a person in the Book of Genesis's account of Joseph. Potiphar is said to be the captain of the palace guard and is referred to without name in the Quran. Joseph, sold into slavery by his brothers, is taken to Egypt where he is sold to Potiphar as a household slave. Potiphar makes Joseph the head of his household, but Potiphar's wife, furious at Joseph for resisting her attempts to seduce him into sleeping with her, accuses him falsely of attempting to rape her. Potiphar casts Joseph into prison, where he comes to the notice of Pharaoh through his ability to interpret the dreams of other prisoners.
Potiphar's wife is named in neither the Bible nor the Quran. The mediaeval Sefer HaYashar, a commentary on the Torah, gives it as Zuleikha, as do many Islamic traditions and thus the Persian poem called Yusuf and Zulaikha (from Jami's Haft Awrang ("Seven thrones")). Because of the Egyptian location wherein the scene is staged, it is not impossible to scope in this biblical tale also a more recent echo of the very old Egyptian fable of the two brothers Bata and Anpu.
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Qasim ibn Muhammad
Qasim ibn Muhammad (Arabic: قاسم بن محمد) was the son of Muhammad and Khadijah bint Khuwaylid. He died in 605 CE, before his second birthday and is buried in Jannatul Mualla cemetery, Makkah, Saudi Arabia.
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Queen of Sheba
The Queen of Sheba (Hebrew: מלכת שבא, Malkaṯ Šəḇâ in Biblical Hebrew; Malkat Sh'va in Modern Hebrew; Ge'ez: ንግሥተ ሳባ, Nigiste Saba (Nəgəstä Saba); Arabic: ملكة سبأ, Malikat Sabaʾ) was a monarch of the ancient kingdom of Sheba and is referred to in Ethiopian history, the Bible, the Qur'an, Yoruba customary tradition, and Josephus. She is widely assumed to have been a queen regnant, although there is no historical proof of this; in fact, she may have been a queen consort. The location of her kingdom is believed to have been in Ethiopia and Yemen.
The queen of Sheba has been called a variety of names by different peoples in different times. To King Solomon of Israel she was the Queen of Sheba. In Islamic tradition she was called Bilqis or Balqis by the Arabs, who say she came from the city of Sheba, also called Mareb, in Yemen or Arabia Felix. The Roman historian Josephus calls her Nicaule. The Ethiopian people claim her as Makeda or Maqueda. She is thought to have been born sometime in the 10th century BC. Her lineage was part of the Ethiopian dynasty established in 1370 BCE by Za Besi Angabo, which lasted 350 years; Makeda's grandfather and father were the last two rulers of this dynasty. Makeda's mother was known as Queen Ismenie. In 1005 BCE, Makeda's father appointed her as his successor from his deathbed.
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Rashidun
The Rightly Guided Caliphs or The Righteous Caliphs (الخلفاء الراشدون al-Khulafā’u r-Rāshidūn) is a term used in Sunni Islam to refer to the first four Caliphs who established the Rashidun Caliphate. The concept of "Rightly Guided Caliphs" originated with the Abbasid Dynasty. It is a reference to the Sunni tradition, "Hold firmly to my example (sunnah) and that of the Rightly Guided Caliphs" (Ibn Majah, Abu Dawood).
The first four Caliphs who ruled after the death of Muhammad are often quoted as the Khulafah Rashidun.
The Rashidun were either elected by a council (see The election of Uthman and Islamic democracy) or chosen based on the wishes of their predecessor. In the order of succession, the rashidun were:
Hasan ibn Ali was appointed as Caliph in 661 following the death of Ali and is also regarded as a righteous ruler by Sunni Muslims, although he was recognized by only half of the Islamic state and his rule was challenged and eventually ended by the Governor of Syria, Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan.
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Rashidun Caliphate
The Rashidun Caliphate (Arabic: الخلافة الراشدية al-khilāfat ar-Rāshidīyah), (c. 632-661) comprising the first four caliphs in Islam's history, was founded after Muhammad's death in 632 (Year 10 A.H. in the Islamic calendar). At its height, the Caliphate extended from the Arabian Peninsula, to the Levant, Caucasus and North Africa in the west, to the Iranian highlands and Central Asia in the east. At its greatest extent it was one of the largest empires in history. It is also known as the Patriarchal Caliphate.
After Muhammad's death in 632, the Medinan Ansar debated which of them should succeed him in running the affairs of the Muslims while Muhammad's household was busy with his burial. Umar (a Quraish) and Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah pledged their loyalty to Abu Bakr, with the Ansar and the Quraish soon following suit. Abu Bakr thus became the first Khalifa Rasul Allah (Successor of the Messenger of God), and embarked on campaigns to propagate Islam. First, though, he would have to subdue the Arabian tribes which had gone back on their oaths of allegiance to Islam and the Islamic community. As a Khalifa or Caliph he was not a monarch and never claimed such a title nor did his three successors do so.
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Rashidun empire
The Rashidun Caliphate (Arabic: الخلافة الراشدية al-khilāfat ar-Rāshidīyah), (c. 632-661) comprising the first four caliphs in Islam's history, was founded after Muhammad's death in 632 (Year 10 A.H. in the Islamic calendar). At its height, the Caliphate extended from the Arabian Peninsula, to the Levant, Caucasus and North Africa in the west, to the Iranian highlands and Central Asia in the east. At its greatest extent it was one of the largest empires in history. It is also known as the Patriarchal Caliphate.
After Muhammad's death in 632, the Medinan Ansar debated which of them should succeed him in running the affairs of the Muslims while Muhammad's household was busy with his burial. Umar (a Quraish) and Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah pledged their loyalty to Abu Bakr, with the Ansar and the Quraish soon following suit. Abu Bakr thus became the first Khalifa Rasul Allah (Successor of the Messenger of God), and embarked on campaigns to propagate Islam. First, though, he would have to subdue the Arabian tribes which had gone back on their oaths of allegiance to Islam and the Islamic community. As a Khalifa or Caliph he was not a monarch and never claimed such a title nor did his three successors do so.
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Rayhana
Rayhāna bint Zayd ibn ʿAmr (Arabic: ريحانة بنت زيد بن عمرو) was a Jewish woman from the Banu Qurayza tribe. Her relationship with Muhammad is disputed[citation needed].
Rayhana was originally a member of the Banu Nadir tribe who married a man from the Banu Qurayza. After the Banu Qurayza were defeated by the armies of Muhammad in the Siege of the Banu Qurayza neighborhood, Rayhana was among those enslaved, while others were killed.
According to Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad took her as a maiden slave and offered her the status of becoming his wife if she accepted Islam, but she refused. According to his account, even though Rayhana is said to have later converted to Islam, she died as a slave. According to Marco Schöller, Rayhana either became the Prophet's concubine or, was married to him and later divorced.
Ibn Sa'd writes and quotes Waqidi that she was manumitted but later married by Muhammad. According to Al-Halabi, Muhammad married and appointed dowry for her. It is further narrated that, upon marriage, she refused to wear the hijab, causing a rift between her and Muhammad. The couple later reconciled. She died young, shortly after Muhammad's hajj and was buried in Jannat al-Baqi cemetery. Ibn Hajar quotes a description of the house that Muhammad gave to Rayhana after their marriage from Muhammad Ibn al-Hassam's History of Medina.
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Rayhana bint Zayd
Rayhāna bint Zayd ibn ʿAmr (Arabic: ريحانة بنت زيد بن عمرو) was a Jewish woman from the Banu Qurayza tribe. Her relationship with Muhammad is disputed[citation needed].
Rayhana was originally a member of the Banu Nadir tribe who married a man from the Banu Qurayza. After the Banu Qurayza were defeated by the armies of Muhammad in the Siege of the Banu Qurayza neighborhood, Rayhana was among those enslaved, while others were killed.
According to Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad took her as a maiden slave and offered her the status of becoming his wife if she accepted Islam, but she refused. According to his account, even though Rayhana is said to have later converted to Islam, she died as a slave. According to Marco Schöller, Rayhana either became the Prophet's concubine or, was married to him and later divorced.
Ibn Sa'd writes and quotes Waqidi that she was manumitted but later married by Muhammad. According to Al-Halabi, Muhammad married and appointed dowry for her. It is further narrated that, upon marriage, she refused to wear the hijab, causing a rift between her and Muhammad. The couple later reconciled. She died young, shortly after Muhammad's hajj and was buried in Jannat al-Baqi cemetery. Ibn Hajar quotes a description of the house that Muhammad gave to Rayhana after their marriage from Muhammad Ibn al-Hassam's History of Medina.
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Sa'd ibn Mu'adh
Sa’d ibn Mu'adh was a chief of the Banu Aus tribe in Medina and later converted to Islam. Sa'd was one of the chief of the Banu Aus, one of the two clans (non jewish) settled in Medina.
Sa'd adopted Islam in 622 (1 AH), when Muhammad arrived in Medina, then known as Yathrib. He was among the leading figures among the Ansar, as Muhammad had dubbed the people of Aws and Khazraj from Medina who converted to Islam.
Sa'd was an intimate friend with Umayah ibn Khalaf . When Sa'd was in Mecca, he used to stay with Umayah, and when Umayah was in Medina, he used to stay with Sa'd.
Prior to the Battle of Badr, Sa’d had visited Mecca once to perform his Umra with his non-Muslim friend Umayah ibn Khalaf, when they came across Abu Jahl. They had an argument, and as it became heated, Sa'd threatened Abu Jahl with stopping the Meccan trade route to Syria and informed Umayah that his life was threatened by Muhammad .
After the Battle of the Trench in 627 (5 AH), when Medina was unsuccessfully besieged by a Meccan army, the Muslims accused the Jewish Banu Qurayza of treacherous dealings with the enemy. They laid siege to their stronghold and the Banu Qurayza surrendered unconditionally after several weeks of siege..
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Safiyya bint Huyayy
Safiyya bint Huyayy (Arabic: صفية بنت حيي) (c. 610 – c. 670) was a Jewish woman captured from the Banu Nadir tribe at age 17, who became Muhammad's wife. She was, along with all other wives of Muhammad, titled Umm-ul-Mo'mineen or the "Mother of Believers".
After Muhammad's death, she became involved in the power politics of the early Muslim community, and acquired substantial influence by the time of her death.
Safiyya was born in Medina to Huyayy ibn Akhtab, the chief of the Jewish tribe Banu Nadir. Her mother, Barra bint Samawal, was from the Banu Qurayza tribe. According to a source, she was married off to Sallam ibn Mishkam, who later divorced her.
When the Banu Nadir were expelled from Medina in 625, her family settled in Khaybar, an oasis near Medina. Her father and brother went from Khaybar to join the Meccan and Bedouin forces besieging Muhammad in Medina during the Battle of the Trench. When the Meccans withdrew Muhammad besieged the Banu Qurayza.
In 627 or early in 628, Safiyya married Kenana ibn al-Rabi, treasurer of the Banu Nadir; she was about 17 years old at that time. Safiyya is said to have informed Kenana of a dream she had in which the moon had fallen from the heavens into her lap. Kenana interpreted it as a desire to marry Muhammad and struck her in the face, leaving a mark which was still visible when she first had contact with Muhammad.
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Saint Anne
Saint Anne (also Ann or Anna, from Hebrew Hannah חַנָּה, meaning "favor" or "grace") of David's house and line, was the mother of the Virgin Mary and grandmother of Jesus Christ according to Christian and Islamic tradition. English Anne is derived from Greek rendering of her Hebrew name Hannah. Mary's mother is not named in the canonical gospels or the Qur'an, and her name and that of her husband Joachim come only from New Testament apocrypha, of which the Protoevangelium of James, written perhaps around 150, seems to be the earliest that mentions them.
The story bears a similarity to that of the birth of Samuel, whose mother Hannah had also been childless. Although Hanna receives little attention in the Western church prior to the late 12th century, dedications to Hanna in the Eastern church occur as early as the 6th century. In the Eastern Orthodox Churches and Eastern Catholic Churches, she is revered as Hanna. In the Eastern Orthodox tradition, Hanna, is ascribed the title Forbear of God, and both the Birth of Mary and the Dedication of Mary to the Temple are celebrated as two of the Twelve Great Feasts. The Dormition of Hanna is also a minor feast in the Eastern Church. In Protestant tradition it is held that Martin Luther chose to enter religious life as a monk after receiving heavenly aid from St. Anne.
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Saleh
Saleh or Șāliḥ (Arabic: صالح; meaning Pious) was an Arabic prophet of ancient Arabia mentioned in the Qur'an, who prophesied to the tribe of Thamud. He is mentioned nine times throughout the Qur'an and his people are frequently referenced as a wicked community who, because of their sins, were ultimately destroyed. Saleh is sometimes equated with the Shelah of the Hebrew Bible, however there is almost nothing in common between the Qur'anic narrative of Saleh and the Biblical narrative of Shelah. The preaching and prophecy of Saleh is linked to the famous Islamic story of the She-Camel, which was the gift given by God to the people of Thamud when they desired a miracle to confirm the truth of the message Saleh was preaching. Chronologically, scholars believe Saleh's prophesying to have been post-Antediluvian[clarification needed] but pre-Abrahamic.
Thamud people are believed to have been the successors to the ancient tribe of ʿĀd. Their ancestral descendant may have been Eber, the great-grandson of Noah and their location is likely to have been in the Northwest corner of Arabia, between Madinah and Syria. In later Islamic history, when Muhammad led his expedition to Tabuk against the Romans, on a reported Roman invasion from Syria, the prophet - and his companions - came across the remains of Thamud. With the advance of material civilization, the people of Thamud became materialistic and arrogant as well as godless. Thus, God sent the prophet and seer Saleh, to warn them about the impending doom they would face if they did not mend their sinful ways.
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Salman the Persian
Salman the Persian or Salmān al-Fārsī (Arabic: سلمان الفارسي Salman al-Farsi; in Persian: روزبه Rouzbeh) was one of Muhammad's companions.
During some of his later meetings with the other Sahabah, he was referred to as Abu Abdullah ("Father of Abdullah").
Salman the Persian was born either in the city of Kazerun in Fars Province, or Isfahan in Isfahan Province, Iran.
It was Salman who came up with the idea of digging a great trench around the city of Medina to defend the city and its people from the army of 10,000 non-Muslims of Arabia. Muhammad and his companions agreed and accepted Salman's plan because it was safer and there would be a better chance that the non-Muslim army of Arabia would have a larger number of casualties. Salman came up with the idea from remembering the same thing happening in Persia; when the Persians learned that their enemies planned to invade their territory, they dug a trench around them to be safe. The attack that the Muslims had expected, is known as the Battle of the Trench.
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Samuel
Samuel ( /ˈsæm.juː.əl/;Hebrew: שְׁמוּאֶל, Modern Shmu'el Tiberian Šəmûʼēl; Greek: Σαμουήλ Samouēl; Latin: Samvel; صموئيل, Ṣamu’īl; Strong's: Shemuwel) is a leader of ancient Israel in the Books of Samuel in the Hebrew Bible. He is also known as a prophet and is mentioned in the Qur'an.
His status, as viewed by rabbinical literature, is that he was the last of the Hebrew Judges and the first of the major prophets who began to prophesy inside the Land of Israel. He was thus at the cusp between two eras. According to the text of the Books of Samuel, he also anointed the first two kings of the Kingdom of Israel: Saul and David.
Samuel's mother was Hannah and his father was Elkanah. Hannah, at the beginning of the narrative, is barren and childless, like Abraham's wife Sarah. Hannah prays to God for a child. Eli who is sitting at the foot of the doorpost in the sanctuary at Shiloh, sees her apparently mumbling and thinks Hannah is drunk, but is soon assured of her motivation and sobriety. Eli was, according to the Books of Samuel, the name of a priest of Shiloh, and one of the last Israelite Judges before the rule of kings in ancient Israel. He blesses her after she promises the child to God. Subsequently Hannah becomes pregnant; her child is Samuel. After he is weaned, she leaves him in Eli's care.
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Saul
Saul (Hebrew: שָׁאוּל, Šāʼûl ; "asked for, prayed for"; Arabic: طالوت, Ṭālūt; Greek: Σαούλ Saoul; Latin: Saul) (circa 1079 BC – 1007 BC) was the first king of the united Kingdom of Israel. He was anointed by the prophet Samuel and reigned from Gibeah. He fell on his sword to avoid capture in the battle against the Philistines at Mount Gilboa, during which three of his sons were also killed. The succession to his throne was contested by Ish-bosheth, his only surviving son, and his son-in-law David, who eventually prevailed. The main account of Saul's life and reign is found in the Books of Samuel.
According to the Tanakh, Saul was the son of Kish, of the family of the Matrites, and a member of the tribe of Benjamin, one of the twelve Tribes of Israel. (1 Samuel 9:1-2; 10:21; 14:51; Acts 13:21) It appears that he came from Gibeah.
Saul married Ahinoam, daughter of Ahimaaz. They had four sons and two daughters. The sons were Jonathan, Abinadab, Malchishua and Ish-bosheth. Their daughters were named Merab and Michal.
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Sawda bint Zama
Sawda bint Zamʿa ibn Qayyis ibn ʿAbd Shams (Arabic: سودة بنت زمعة) was a wife of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and considered by Muslims to be a Mother of the Believers.
She was of the Quraysh tribe on her father's side.
Sawda bint Zam'a was the first woman to immigrate to Abyssinia with her first husband As-Sakran bin Amr, after being persecuted by the polytheists of Mecca. Her husband died either on the way back to Mecca or after arriving.[who?] Sakran left Abyssinia by sea with Waqqas to preach.
Sawda had a son by Sakran named Sakran ibn Amr ibn Abd Shams who fell a martyr fighting in the Battle of Jalula in 637 AD.
Muhammad gave permission to Khawla to speak to Sayyiduna Abu Bakr and to Sawda on the subject of their marriage. Muhammad married her in Shawwal, in the tenth year of His Prophethood, a few days after the death of Khadijah. She was older than Muhammad.
After Muhammad's death, Sawda received a gift of money, which she spent on charity. Muawiyah I, the first caliph of the Umayyad dynasty bought her house in Medina for 180,000 dirhams. She died in Medina in October 674.
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Sawda bint Zamʿa
Sawda bint Zamʿa ibn Qayyis ibn ʿAbd Shams (Arabic: سودة بنت زمعة) was a wife of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and considered by Muslims to be a Mother of the Believers.
She was of the Quraysh tribe on her father's side.
Sawda bint Zam'a was the first woman to immigrate to Abyssinia with her first husband As-Sakran bin Amr, after being persecuted by the polytheists of Mecca. Her husband died either on the way back to Mecca or after arriving.[who?] Sakran left Abyssinia by sea with Waqqas to preach.
Sawda had a son by Sakran named Sakran ibn Amr ibn Abd Shams who fell a martyr fighting in the Battle of Jalula in 637 AD.
Muhammad gave permission to Khawla to speak to Sayyiduna Abu Bakr and to Sawda on the subject of their marriage. Muhammad married her in Shawwal, in the tenth year of His Prophethood, a few days after the death of Khadijah. She was older than Muhammad.
After Muhammad's death, Sawda received a gift of money, which she spent on charity. Muawiyah I, the first caliph of the Umayyad dynasty bought her house in Medina for 180,000 dirhams. She died in Medina in October 674.
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Seven Sleepers
The Seven Sleepers, commonly called the "Seven Sleepers of Ephesus", refers to a group of Christian youths who hid inside a cave outside the city of Ephesus around 250 AD, to escape a persecution of Christians being conducted during the reign of the Roman emperor Decius. Having fallen asleep inside the cave, they purportedly awoke approximately 150-200 years later during the reign of Theodosius II, following which they were reportedly seen by the people of the now-Christian city before dying. An outline of this tale appears in Gregory of Tours (b. 538, d. 594), and in Paul the Deacon's (b. 720, d. 799) History of the Lombards. The best-known Western version of the story appears in Jacobus de Voragine's Golden Legend.
The story has its highest prominence, however, in the Muslim world; it is told in the Qur'an (Surah 18, verse 9-26). While not giving the number of youths involved, the Quranic rendering of the Seven Sleepers story largely parallels the Christian account. Unlike the Christian story, the Islamic version includes a dog who allegedly accompanied the youths into the cave, and kept watch at the entrance for the entire time[citation needed] (see Islamic interpretation). In Islam, these youths are referred to as "The People of the Cave". It represents one of the trials of Muhammad by the Jewish elders of Madina while he was in Makkah; by explaining this mystery to his followers, Muhammad would confirm his being a Prophet of God.
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Sharif
Sharīf (Arabic: شريف šarīf) or Chérif is a traditional Arab tribal title given to those who serve as the protector of the tribe and all tribal assets, such as property, wells, and land. In origin, the word is an adjective meaning "noble", "highborn". The feminine singular is sharifa(h) (Arabic: شريفة šarīfah). The masculine plural is Ashraf (Arabic: اشراف ʾašrāf).
Primarily Sunnis in the Arab world reserve the term sharif for descendants of Hasan ibn Ali, while sayyid is used for descendants of Husayn ibn Ali. Both Hasan and Husayn are grandchildren of Prophet Muhammad, through the marriage of his cousin Ali and his daughter Fatima. However ever since the post-Hashemite era began, the term sayyid has been used to denote descendants from both Hasan and Husayn. Arab Shiites use the terms sayyid and habib to denote descendants from both Hasan and Husayn; see also ashraf.
From 1201 until the Hejaz was conquered by Ibn Saud in 1925, this family held the office of the Sharīf of Mecca, often also carrying the title and office of King of Hejaz. Descendants now rule the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, the name being taken from the Banu Hashim, the sub-tribe of Banu Quraish, to which Prophet Muhammad belonged.
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Sheba
Sheba Ge'ez: ሳባ, Saba,(Arabic: سبأ, Sabāʾ, South Arabian
, Hebrew: שבא, Sh'va, also referred to as the people of Tubba) was a kingdom mentioned in the Jewish scriptures (Old Testament) and the Qur'an. Sheba features in Ethiopian, Jewish and Qur'anic traditions. Among other things it was the home of the Biblical "Queen of Sheba" (named Makeda in Ethiopian tradition and Bilqis in Islamic tradition).
The actual location of the historical kingdom is disputed. Owing to the connection with the Queen of Sheba, the location has become closely linked with national prestige, as various royal houses have claimed descent from the Queen of Sheba and Solomon. In the medieval Ethiopian cultural work called the Kebra Nagast, Sheba was located in Ethiopia. Ruins in many other countries, including Yemen, Somalia, Sudan, Egypt, Ethiopia and Iran have been credited as being Sheba, but with only minimal evidence.
Modern archaeological evidence increasingly supports Sheba being located in modern Yemen at or near the site of the famous Marib Dam, which was first built more than 2500 years ago. They may have expanded at some point from Arabia into Africa to found trading posts in the lands currently called Eritrea and Somalia. Some scholars suggest a link to the Sabaeans of southern Arabia.
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Simon Ockley
Simon Ockley (1678 – 9 August 1720) was a British Orientalist.
Ockley was born at Exeter. He was educated at Queens' College, Cambridge, and graduated B.A. in 1697, MA. in 1701, and B.D. in 1710. He became fellow of Jesus College and vicar of Swavesey, and in 1711 was chosen Adams Professor of Arabic in the university. He had a large family, and his latter days were embittered by pecuniary embarrassments, which form the subject of a chapter in Isaac D'Israeli's Calamities of Authors.
The preface to the second volume of his History of the Saracens is dated from Cambridge Castle, where he lay a prisoner for debt.
Ockley maintained that a knowledge of Oriental literature was essential to the proper study of theology, and in the preface to his first book, the Introductio ad linguas orientates (1706), he urges the importance of the study.
He died at Swavesey.
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Solomon
Solomon (Hebrew: שְׁלֹמֹה, Modern Shlomo Tiberian Šəlōmō ISO 259-3 Šlomo; Arabic: سليمان Sulaymān, also colloquially: Silimān; Greek: Σολομών Solomōn), according to the Book of Kings and the Book of Chronicles, a King of Israel and according to the Talmud one of the 48 prophets, is identified as the son of David, also called Jedidiah (Hebrew יְדִידְיָהּ) in 2 Samuel 12:25, and is described as the third king of the United Monarchy, and the final king before the northern Kingdom of Israel and the southern Kingdom of Judah split; following the split his patrilineal descendants ruled over Judah alone. In the Qur'an, he is considered as a major Prophet, known as Sulaiman, son of David.
The Hebrew Bible credits Solomon as the builder of the First Temple in Jerusalem, and portrays him as great in wisdom, wealth, and power, but ultimately as a king whose sin, including idolatry and turning away from Yahweh, leads to the kingdom being torn in two during the reign of his son Rehoboam. Solomon is the subject of many other later references and legends.
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Terah
Terah or Térach (Hebrew: תֶּרַח / תָּרַח, Modern Téraḥ / Táraḥ Tiberian Téraḥ / Tāraḥ ; "Ibex, wild goat", or "Wanderer; loiterer") is a biblical figure in the book of Genesis, son of Nahor, son of Serug and father of the Patriarch Abraham, all descendants of Shem's son Arpachshad. Terah is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible and in the New Testament.
Most of what is told about Terah is recorded in Genesis 11:26-28. Terah's father was Nahor, son of Serug, descendants of Shem.[v.10] They and many of their ancestors were polytheistic. Regarding his children, Terah had three sons: Abram, Haran, and Nahor II.[v.26] He also had a daughter Sarai, wife of Abram. The entire family, including grandchildren, lived in Ur of the Chaldees.[v.31] One of his grandchildren was Lot, whose father Haran, Terah's son, died while living in Ur.[v.28]
Terah's son, Abram, had an encounter with God who directed him to take the entire family and leave Haran to the land of Canaan. Terah coordinated the journey intending to go to this new land, however, he ended up staying in Haran (biblical place),[v.31] a city that was along the way. He died in Haran at 205 years of age.[v.32]
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The 100
The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History is a 1978 book by Michael H. Hart, reprinted in 1992 with revisions. It is a ranking of the 100 people who, according to Hart, most influenced human history.
The first person on Hart's list is the Prophet of Islam Muhammad. Hart asserted that Muhammad was "supremely successful" in both the religious and secular realms. He also believed that Muhammad's role in the development of Islam was far more influential than Jesus' collaboration in the development of Christianity. He attributes the development of Christianity to St. Paul, who played a pivotal role in its dissemination."
The 1992 revisions included the demotion of figures associated with Communism, such as Vladimir Lenin and Mao Zedong, and the introduction of Mikhail Gorbachev. Hart took sides in the Shakespearean authorship issue and substituted Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford for William Shakespeare. Hart also substituted Niels Bohr and Henri Becquerel with Ernest Rutherford, thus correcting an error in the first edition. Henry Ford was also promoted from the "Honorary Mentions" list, replacing Pablo Picasso. Finally, some of the rankings were re-ordered, although no one listed in the top ten changed position.
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Thomas Carlyle
Thomas Carlyle (4 December 1795 – 5 February 1881) was a Scottish satirical writer, essayist, historian and teacher during the Victorian era. He called economics "the dismal science", wrote articles for the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, and became a controversial social commentator.
Coming from a strict Calvinist family, Carlyle was expected to become a preacher by his parents, but while at the University of Edinburgh he lost his Christian faith. Calvinist values, however, remained with him throughout his life. His combination of a religious temperament with loss of faith in traditional Christianity, made Carlyle's work appealing to many Victorians who were grappling with scientific and political changes that threatened the traditional social order. He brought a trenchant style to his social and political criticism and a complex literary style to works such as The French Revolution: A History (1837). Dickens used Carlyle's work as a primary source for the events of the French Revolution in his novel A Tale of Two Cities.
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Tor Andrae
Tor Julius Efraim Andræ (9 July 1885, Vena – 24 February 1947) was a Swedish scholar of comparative religion and bishop of Linköping from 1936.
Coming from a clerical family, Tor Andræ studied Theology at Uppsala University, where he completed his Ph.D. in 1917. He became professor of the History of Religions at the University College of Stockholm in 1927, and in Uppsala two years later. He was appointed bishop of Linköping in 1936 and was the same year briefly Minister for Ecclesiastical Affairs (an archaic title which in reality meant Minister of Education) in the short-lived cabinet of Axel Pehrsson-Bramstorp.
Andræ was a student of Nathan Söderblom, whom he succeeded as member of the Swedish Academy in 1932. As a historian of religion, his particular interest lay in the early history of Islam, particularly its Jewish and Christian origins, and in the psychology of religion, but he also combined these interests in the study of early Islamic mysticism.
In 1985, Annemarie Schimmel remarked that until then only one study had "tried specifically to depict Muhammad's role in Islamic piety. Even today Tor Andrae's Die person Muhammeds in lehre und glaube seiner Gemeinde (1918) remains the standard work in this area, unsuperseded by any other major study, though complemented by random remarks in numerous modern work on Sufism. It is, however, unfortunately too little known even among Islamicists."
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Umar
Umar (Arabic: عمر ابن الخطاب, Transliteration: `Umar ibn Al-Khattāb, Umar Son of Al-Khittab, c. 586–590 CE– 7 November 644), also known as Omar, Farooq the Great was the most powerful of the four Rashidun Caliphs and one of the most powerful and influential Muslim rulers in history. He was a sahabi (companion) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He succeeded Caliph Abu Bakr (632–634) as the second Caliph of Rashidun Caliphate on 23 August 634. He was an expert jurist and is best known for his justice, that earned him the title Al-Farooq (The one who distinguishes between right and wrong). Under Umar the Islamic empire expanded at an unprecedented rate ruling the whole Sassanid Persian Empire and more than two thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire. His brilliantly coordinated multi-prong attacks against the Sassanid Persian Empire resulted in the conquest of the Persian empire in less than two years. His legislative abilities and firm political and administrative control over a rapidly expanding empire marked his reputation as a great political and military leader. It was Umar, who for the first time in 500 years since their expulsion from the Holy Land, allowed Jews to practice their religion freely and live inside Jerusalem.[citation needed]
wn.com/Umar -
Umar ibn al-Khattab
Umar (Arabic: عمر ابن الخطاب, Transliteration: `Umar ibn Al-Khattāb, Umar Son of Al-Khittab, c. 586–590 CE– 7 November 644), also known as Omar, Farooq the Great was the most powerful of the four Rashidun Caliphs and one of the most powerful and influential Muslim rulers in history. He was a sahabi (companion) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He succeeded Caliph Abu Bakr (632–634) as the second Caliph of Rashidun Caliphate on 23 August 634. He was an expert jurist and is best known for his justice, that earned him the title Al-Farooq (The one who distinguishes between right and wrong). Under Umar the Islamic empire expanded at an unprecedented rate ruling the whole Sassanid Persian Empire and more than two thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire. His brilliantly coordinated multi-prong attacks against the Sassanid Persian Empire resulted in the conquest of the Persian empire in less than two years. His legislative abilities and firm political and administrative control over a rapidly expanding empire marked his reputation as a great political and military leader. It was Umar, who for the first time in 500 years since their expulsion from the Holy Land, allowed Jews to practice their religion freely and live inside Jerusalem.[citation needed]
wn.com/Umar_ibn_al-Khattab -
Umayyah ibn Khalaf
Umayyah ibn Khalaf ibn Safwan was a Meccan Arab, a leading member of the Quraish and head of the of Bani Jumah. He was an opponent of the Muslims led by Muhammad and is best known as the master of Bilal ibn Ribah, a slave he tortured for converting to Islam.
Other transliterations of the name in include Umayya, Umaiiya and Umaiya.
Kuniyat: Abu Safwan
Nisbah: ‘Umaiyah ibn Khalaf ibn Habib ibn Wahb ibn Hudhafah ibn Jumah
His son, Safwan ibn Umayah, became a Muslim after the conquest of Mecca, another one, named 'Ali, was killed at Badr.
Brothers: Wahb and Ubayy
Grandson: Abdullah ibn Safwan.
Umayyah was involved in the pagan religious ceremonies of Mecca, where he distributed perfume in the square of the Kaaba.
After Muhammad began to preach against idolatry, Umayyah became a staunch opponent of the new teaching.
His most notable action in this regard was that he subjected his slave Bilal ibn Ribah to torture for having adopted Islam. Bilal was made to lie down on hot burning desert sand and had a heavy stone put on his chest which made breathing difficult for him. Since he still refused to denounce Islam, a heavy person was to jump on the stone. Bilal used to repeat "Ahad! Ahad! (One God! One God!) .
wn.com/Umayyah_ibn_Khalaf -
Umm Jamil
Umm Jamil bint Harb (Arabic: أم جميل بنت حرب) was the wife of Abu Lahab, an enemy of Muhammad and the sister of Abu Sufyan. According to some, her full name was "'Arwaa' bint Harb bin Ummayyah". She is mentioned in Sura 111 of the Quran. It is said that one day she went to the Ka'aba where Abu Bakr and Muhammad were praying. She did not see Muhammad and addressed Abu Bakr saying:
wn.com/Umm_Jamil -
Uri Rubin
Uri Rubin (Hebrew: אורי רובין) is a Professor in the Department of Arabic and Islamic Studies at Tel Aviv University in Israel. His areas of research are early Islam (with special emphasis on the Qur'an), Qur'an exegesis (tafsir), and early Islamic tradition (sira and hadith). He has authored a number of books on the subjects, and also contributed entries to the Encyclopaedia of Islam and other works.
Rubin has also served on the Advisory Board for the Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an.
wn.com/Uri_Rubin -
Vern L. Bullough
Vern Leroy Bullough (July 24, 1928 – June 21, 2006) was an American historian and sexologist.
He was a distinguished professor emeritus at the State University of New York (SUNY), an Outstanding Professor in the California State University, a past president of the Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality, past Dean of natural and social sciences at the Buffalo State College in Buffalo, New York, one of the founders of the American Association for the History of Nursing, and a member of the editorial board of Paidika: The Journal of Paedophilia.
Born in Salt Lake City, Utah, Bullough earned his B.A. at University of Utah in 1951. He then attended University of Chicago, earning an M.A. in 1951 and a Ph.D in 1954. In 1981 he received a B.S.N. from California State University, Long Beach.
According to the university:
In 1992 Bullough received a Distinguished Humanist Service Award from the International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU), and served as co-Chairman of the IHEU (1995-1996). Today Bullough is remembered mainly as an eminent sexologist and medical historian, and a pioneer in the scientific study of alternative sexual behaviors. He was married first to Bonnie Bullough and has four children. After the death of Bonnie Bullough in 1996 he married Gwen Brewer.
wn.com/Vern_L._Bullough -
Wilferd Madelung
Wilferd Ferdinand Madelung (born 26 December 1930) is a scholar of Islam. He was born in Stuttgart, Germany, where he completed his early education at Eberhard-Ludwigs-Gymnasium.
His family moved to the United States in (or after?) 1947, and he studied at Georgetown University. In 1952, he went to Egypt and stayed there for a year. During his stay the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, initiated by the Free Officers, occurred. He also met Ihsan Abbas, the famous scholar of Islamic History, there.
On leaving Egypt he went back to Germany and completed his Ph.D in 1957, working with Spuler. In 1958 he was sent to Iraq by the German government to work at its embassy there. Shortly after his arrival in Baghdad, Brigadier Abd al-Karim Qasim overthrew the regime in the bloody military coup known as the 14 July Revolution. Madelung stayed in Iraq two more years. Subsequently, he taught at the University of Chicago.
Madelung was Laudian Professor of Arabic at the University of Oxford from 1978 to 1998. He has written extensively on the early history of Islam, as well as on Islamic sects such as the Shi'a and the Ismailis. He has served on the editorial boards of several academic journals including the Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies. He is currently a Senior research fellow at the Institute for Ismaili Studies in London
wn.com/Wilferd_Madelung -
Zayd ibn Harithah
Zayd ibn Harithah (Arabic: زيد بن حارثة) or Zayd mawla Muhammad (c. 588-629 CE) was a prominent figure in the early Islamic community and the only one of sahaba whose name appears in the Qur'an (33:37). As he was the adopted son of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, before Islam abolished adoption in exchange of Kafala. He was an early convert to Islam and later, a military leader. He died c. 629 CE at the Battle of Mu'tah.
Zayd bin Harith was the son of Harith, of the Makhdhoom tribe that lived to the north of Mecca. During a raid, raiders had captured the boy, Zayd. He was taken as a slave and sold at the great fair of Ukaz. At the festival of Ukaz, Zayd along with a few other slaves were purchased by Hakim bin Hizam and taken back to Mecca. Hakim bin Hizam then offered to Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, the wife of Muhammad, to choose any slave for herself. She chose Zayd, who was then taken to her household. On the occasion of her marriage to Muhammad, Muhammad had set free his slave Baraka. Baraka was a slave woman who was owned by the late father of Muhammad, Abdullah bin Abdul Muttalib. After the passing away of his father, this slave Baraka, had come into the custody of Muhammad. He had set her free on the occasion of marriage to Khadijah bint Khuwaylid. He often referred to (Baraka) her as his ummi (mother) in later days. Also on the occasion of marriage, Khadijah had given Zayd as a gift to her new husband.
wn.com/Zayd_ibn_Harithah -
Zaynab bint Jahsh
Zaynab bint Jahsh (Arabic: زينب بنت جحش, born c. 593) was a wife of Muhammad and therefore a Mother of the Believers. Prior to this, she was briefly married to Muhammad's adopted son, Zayd ibn Harithah. She was also Muhammad's first cousin, Muhammad's father Abd Allah ibn Abd al Muttalib was brother of Zaynab's mother Umaimah bint Abd al-Muttalib.
Her brother, Ubayd-Allah ibn Jahsh, went on the migration to Abyssinia and there left Islam for Christianity. His wife, Ramlah bint Abi Sufyan, later married Muhammad.
She had a sister named Hammanah bint Jahsh.
After her migration to Medina, she became part of the newly founded Muslim community. There, Muhammad proposed to Zaynab's family the marriage of his freed slave and adopted son, Zayd ibn Harithah. While Zayd was a former slave. Zayd was son of Harithah ibn Shurahbil, a person of the Kalb tribe, and his mother, Su'da bint Tha'labah, was from the Bani Ma'n, a branch of the Tay tribe. When he was eight years old, she took him along to her parents. There the people of Bani Qain bin Jasr raided their camp, plundered their goods and took some men as captives, which Zayd was included. Then they sold Zayd at the fair of 'Ukaz near Ta'if. His buyer was Hakim ibn Hizam, a nephew of Khadija. Hakim brought him to Makkah and presented him to his paternal aunt. When Muhammad married Khadija he found Zayd in her service and was so impressed by his good manners and conduct that he asked him of her.
wn.com/Zaynab_bint_Jahsh -
Zechariah (priest)
In the Bible, Zechariah (Ζαχαρίας in Greek, Zacharias in KJV, Zachary in the Douay-Rheims Bible), is the father of John the Baptist, a priest of the sons of Aaron, a prophet in Luke 1:67–79, and the husband of Elisabeth who is the cousin of Mary the mother of Jesus.
In the Qur'an, Zechariah (Arabic: زكريا; Zakariya) plays a similar role as the father of John the Baptist and ranks him as a prophet alongside John and Jesus and his role as one of the men of God is frequently referenced in verses of the Qur'an.
According to the Gospel of Luke, during the reign of king Herod, there was "a certain priest named Zacharias, of the course of Abia", whose wife Elisabeth was also of the priestly family of Aaron. The evangelist states that both the parents were righteous before God, since they were "blameless" in observing the commandments and ordinances of the Lord. When the events related in Luke began, their marriage was still childless, because Elisabeth was barren and they were both very old (Luke 1:5–7).
wn.com/Zechariah_(priest) -
Zipporah
Zipporah or Tzipora ( /ˈzɪpərə/ or /zɨˈpɔərə/; Hebrew: צִפוֹרָה, Modern Tsippora Tiberian Ṣippôrā; Greek: Σεπφώρα Sepphōra/Sephora; Arabic: صِفُّورَةَ, صوانة Ṣaffūrah or Safrawa; "bird") is mentioned in the Book of Exodus as the wife of Moses, and the daughter of Reuel/Jethro, the priest or prince of Midian. In the Book of Chronicles, two of her grandsons are mentioned: Shebuel, son of Gershom, and Rehabiah, son of Eliezer.
Zipporah was one of the seven daughters of Reuel, the Midianite priest or prince, who is also called Jethro (Exodus 3:1, 4:18, 18:1-2 ff.) and Hobab (Judges 4:11). While the Israelites/Hebrews were captives in Egypt, Moses killed an Egyptian who was striking a Hebrew, for which offense Pharaoh sought to kill Moses. Moses therefore fled from Egypt and arrived in Midian. One day while he sat by a well, Reuel's daughters came to water their father's flocks. Other shepherds arrived and drove the girls away so they could water their own flocks first. Moses helped the girls and watered their flock.
wn.com/Zipporah -
Zulaikha
Zuleika is the name given to the wife of Potiphar in Jewish legend and Muslim scripture.
The most famous tale about Zuleika is told in a Jewish legend and in the Muslim Qur'an.
Zuleika was mocked by other aristocratic Egyptian ladies, her circle of friends, for being infatuated with a Hebrew slave boy. Inviting her friends to her home, Zuleika gave them all oranges and knives to peel them with. While they engaged in this task, Zuleika had Joseph walk through the room. Distracted by his handsomeness, all the ladies cut themselves with the knives, drawing blood. Zuleika then reminded her friends that she had to see Joseph every day. Following this incident, her contemporaries no longer mocked her.
Jewish, Christian and Muslim scriptural commentators have regarded Zuleika as a sinner and villainess. Notable exceptions are the great Sufi Persian mystic poets Rumi and Hafiz. For Rumi, Zuleika's obsession with Joseph is a symptom and manifestation of the soul's great deep longing for God. This, he insists, is true of any person's deep love for another.
wn.com/Zulaikha
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History of US Intervention in Iran - 1953 Until Present
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:48
- Updated: 17 Nov 2012
This video is a basic overview of US imperialism toward Iran that began at the behest of the British Government and big oil interests including British Petroleum also recently known as BP. The United States' own CIA led it's first coup to overthrow a foreign leader against Mohammad Mosaddegh in 1953, The US has suffered "Blowback: ever since, all the while the supposed leaders in Washington continue to demonize Iran's leaders on flimsy grounds as more pretense to continued Middle East war and occupation by the US Study those who actually vote against getting the US into wars based on false pretense, at places like ThePresident.Com Peace, Greg Chamberlain Editor - ThePresident.Com
http://wn.com/History_of_US_Intervention_in_Iran_1953_Until_Present
Mohammad Mossadegh & 1953 Coup in Iran
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:15
- Updated: 16 Oct 2012
Our presentation for Political Science 380 - Middle Eastern Politics - at University of Alberta.
http://wn.com/Mohammad_Mossadegh_1953_Coup_in_Iran
The overthrow of Mossadegh in Iran, 1953 - British Pathé video
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:02
- Updated: 25 Dec 2011
Footage showing the prime minister of Iran, being overthrown in a violent, British backed coup in 1953. The royal shah is installed as head of state despite Mosaddegh, who had previously nationalised Iran's oil fields, enjoying widespread support.
http://wn.com/The_overthrow_of_Mossadegh_in_Iran,_1953_British_Pathé_video
میهن پرست - Mohamad Mosadegh Father Of Democracy In IRAN
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:08
- Updated: 14 Jul 2012
nationalinterest.org www.youtube.com Dr Mohammad Mossaddegh FATHER OF DEMOCRACY IN MIDDLE EAST
http://wn.com/میهن_پرست_Mohamad_Mosadegh_Father_Of_Democracy_In_IRAN
Mohammad Mossadegh
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:08
- Updated: 18 Oct 2012
Iran's first democraticly elected Prime Minister
http://wn.com/Mohammad_Mossadegh
Mosaddegh and 28th of Mordad کودتای۲۸مردادومصدق
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 12:18
- Updated: 15 May 2012
Mohammad Mosaddegh (Persian: محمد مصدّق, also Mossadegh, Mosaddeq, Mossadeq, Mosadeck, or Musaddiq) (19 May 1882 -- 5 March 1967) was the democratically elected Prime Minister of Iran from 1951 to 1953 when he was overthrown in a coup d'état backed by the United States Central Intelligence Agency. Dr. Goudarz Eghtedari, a human rights activist is analyzing the event for Iran-E-Man (My Iran) TV on Portland Oregon. The segment was aired on 8-21-2010 from Portland Community Media TV. From an aristocratic background, Mosaddegh was an author, administrator, lawyer, prominent parliamentarian, and politician, famous for his passionate opposition to foreign intervention in Iran. During his time as prime minister, a wide range of progressive social reforms were carried out. Unemployment compensation was introduced, factory owners were ordered to pay benefits to sick and injured workers, and peasants were freed from forced labor in their landlords' estates. Twenty percent of the money landlords received in rent was placed in a fund to pay for development projects such as public baths, rural housing, and pest control. He is most famous as the architect of the nationalization of the Iranian oil industry, which had been under British control since 1913 through the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC) (later British Petroleum or BP). The Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. was controlled by the British government.[6] Mosaddegh was removed from power in a coup on 19 August 1953, organized and carried out ...
http://wn.com/Mosaddegh_and_28th_of_Mordad_کودتای۲۸مردادومصدق
Iran Ahmad Abad Dr Mohammad Mosaddegh House
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:00
- Updated: 02 Oct 2012
5 March is Dr Mohammad mosaddegh's death annivesary خانه دكتر محمد مصدق در احمدآباد آهنگ: طهمورث پورناظري صدا: فرشاد جمالي
http://wn.com/Iran_Ahmad_Abad_Dr_Mohammad_Mosaddegh_House
Dr. Mohammad Mosaddegh or Mosaddeq Persian: دکتر محمد مصدّق
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 22:04
- Updated: 04 Mar 2012
«یک اصل ثابت و تغیر ناپذیر برای حکومتی که به افکار عمومی تکیه دارد، این است که هر وقت با مشکلی روبرو میشود به منبع قدرت و سرچشمه لایزال نیروی ملت متوجه میگردد، ملت ما اکنون زبانزد شهامت و مردانگی شده است و در سراسر گیتی از او به عنوان مشعلدار مبارزات ملی یاد میکنند.» (پیام رادیویی دکتر محمد مصدق به ملت، اطلاعات ۱۶ دی ۱۳۳۱) قبل از آخر مستندی به همت حزب ملت درباره مجاهد نستوه و آزاده دکتر محمد مصدق
http://wn.com/Dr_Mohammad_Mosaddegh_or_Mosaddeq_Persian_دکتر_محمد_مصدّق
Iran 20th Century History: Shah Pahlavi to Mossadegh, Khomeini, Khatami and Ahmadinejad
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:02
- Updated: 18 Nov 2012
In this video, www.WatchMojo.com traces the history of Iran from the end of the Persian Empire to the Pahlavi Dynasty, the last Shah and Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's regime in the twenty-first century.
http://wn.com/Iran_20th_Century_History_Shah_Pahlavi_to_Mossadegh,_Khomeini,_Khatami_and_Ahmadinejad
Mosaddegh Mossadegh Mosaddeq Mossadeq Musaddiq
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:39
- Updated: 06 Oct 2012
Dr. Mohammad Mosaddegh
http://wn.com/Mosaddegh_Mossadegh_Mosaddeq_Mossadeq_Musaddiq
Hamid Dabashi Speaks on Mosaddegh
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:07
- Updated: 06 Jun 2011
Amongst other issues, Professor Hamid Dabashi discusses the CIA-backed military coup that overthrew Mohammad Mosaddegh in 1953. The segment is from The Stan van Houcke Audioblog (available on podcast)
http://wn.com/Hamid_Dabashi_Speaks_on_Mosaddegh
Must See US-Iran Relations Quick Timeline From 1953- [MFV !]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:49
- Updated: 08 Oct 2012
MFV : [Make Facts Viral !] This video is a basic overview of US imperialism toward Iran that began at the behest of the British Government and big oil interests including British Petroleum also recently known as BP. The United States' own CIA led it's first coup to overthrow a foreign leader against Mohammad Mosaddegh in 1953, The US has suffered "Blowback: ever since, all the while the supposed leaders in Washington continue to demonize Iran's leaders on flimsy grounds as more pretense to continued Middle East war and occupation by the US
http://wn.com/Must_See_US-Iran_Relations_Quick_Timeline_From_1953_MFV_!_
DN! History of BPBritish Petroleum and Its Role in the 1953 Iran Coup
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:22
- Updated: 05 Oct 2012
Stephen Kinzer on the History of BP/British Petroleum and Its Role in the 1953 Iran Coup Stephen Kinzer, author of All the Shah's Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror, looks at the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company's role in the 1953 CIA coup against Iran's popular progressive prime minister, Mohammad Mosaddegh.
http://wn.com/DN!_History_of_BPBritish_Petroleum_and_Its_Role_in_the_1953_Iran_Coup
MR.MOJAZZA RIPS MOSSADEGH AND NATIONAL FRONT OF IRAN 06-17-2012
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 56:43
- Updated: 30 Jun 2012
MR.MOJAZZA RIPS MOSSADEGH AND NATIONAL FRONT OF IRAN 06-17-2012 FOR THEIR WRONG DOINGS AND BETRAYING IRAN.
http://wn.com/MRMOJAZZA_RIPS_MOSSADEGH_AND_NATIONAL_FRONT_OF_IRAN_06-17-2012
A Tribute to Dr. Mohammad Mossadegh * 10 Nov 2012 * Mardom TV
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 147:00
- Updated: 11 Nov 2012
http;//MardomReport.COM
http://wn.com/A_Tribute_to_Dr_Mohammad_Mossadegh_*_10_Nov_2012_*_Mardom_TV
Mossadegh's Biography
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:54
- Updated: 05 Nov 2012
Excerpt from the biography of Dr.Mohammad Mossadegh(1880-1967); The Iranian statesman who lead his nation through its fight against the British Empire.
http://wn.com/Mossadegh's_Biography
Major Nourhaghighi; Shah & IRAN; Khomeini & Islam v USA Crimes 9/11; Iranian Music Shajarian-4
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:54
- Updated: 09 Nov 2012
سُرگرد خلبان نُورحقیقی: اشعار حافظ و صدای شجریان را با مسائل سیاسی منطبق کردم تا چندین کتاب حاوی اسناد،مدارک و شهادتها را در ده دقیقه ثبت کرده باشم Major Nourhaghighi has interpreted the poem of Hafez as against malicious & oppressive political policies of the US Presidents since Harry S. Truman [during Second World War] to the present whereas Obama still playing games, instead of asking apology from IRAN & Iranians and plying our damages; Obama is Lawyer & know that Americans are liable. This Video shows a part of documentary related to the Conspiracy of CIA in 1953 against Iranian Lawful Prime Minister Late Mohammad Mosaddegh محمد مصدق, also Video shows CIA conspiracy against a large numbers of Ministers & officers ending that all of them be executed in 1979; and part of Iraq's war against Iran & the great freedom of Khorramshahr from Arabs, 911 attack that reads with Hafez poem that God will reply to the oppressive. Also part of Iranian classic film of Ghysar with Behrouz Vossoughi, Poru Banai & Jamshid Mashayekhi The English translation of the poemin song is starting from photos and hope in poem addressed to make friendship with Iran.
http://wn.com/Major_Nourhaghighi;_Shah_IRAN;_Khomeini_Islam_v_USA_Crimes_9_11;_Iranian_Music_Shajarian-4
Mossadegh Official Trailer
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:13
- Updated: 28 Oct 2012
Official Trailer for Mossadegh www.mossadeghfilm.com http Iran. 1959. It is six years after the CIA orchestrated coup d'état that overthrew democratic Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh from power. Now living under house arrest and suffering from a life-threatening condition, Mossadegh must decide whether or not to trust a brilliant American physician that is sent to treat him. mossadeghfilm@gmail.com
http://wn.com/Mossadegh_Official_Trailer
George Galloway on the overthrow of Mossadegh and the Shah
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:10
- Updated: 04 Nov 2012
George Galloway discusses the overthrow of democratically elected Prime Minister of Iran, Mohammed Mossadegh, in 1953, by a CIA agent, the rise to power of the Shah, and how that radicalized the Islamic world. From Talksport radio show, October 27th, 2007.
http://wn.com/George_Galloway_on_the_overthrow_of_Mossadegh_and_the_Shah
Dr. Mohammad Mossadeq: Standing Up for Democracy in the Middle East
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:33
- Updated: 17 Sep 2012
National History Day 2006 Senior Documentary by Filip Maksimovic. Second place winner at a regional NHD 2006 competition.
http://wn.com/Dr_Mohammad_Mossadeq_Standing_Up_for_Democracy_in_the_Middle_East
Scene from "Mossadegh"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:52
- Updated: 21 Mar 2012
A popular stage play detailing three chapters of Mohammad Mossadegh's life is captured on video for the first time. The first act shows Dr. Mossadegh (Nasser Rahmaninejad) as prime minister traveling to The Hague to defend his country's oil nationalization at the World Court. The second act shows Mossadegh's heated and at times comical debates with the inept military prosecutor General Azmoodeh (Hooman Azarkolah) at his trial. The third act depicts Dr. Mossadegh's final days under house arrest at his family home in Ahmad Abad. www.firouzanfilms.com
http://wn.com/Scene_from_Mossadegh
Mossadegh - Stephen Kinzer - Iranian Democracy
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:20
- Updated: 15 Nov 2012
This is a short flick about the CIA engineered coup that toppled PM Mossadegh in 1953. Go to my blog where I have a reproduced article from the August 15th 1953 story that ran in the New York Times about Mossadegh.....two days before he was overthrown
http://wn.com/Mossadegh_Stephen_Kinzer_Iranian_Democracy
Mohammed Mossadegh Vlog
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:25
- Updated: 07 Nov 2012
We made this video about Mohammed Mossadegh for our Modern Asian Perspectives class. It's supposed to be funny. Hope you enjoy! Link to script: docs.google.com
http://wn.com/Mohammed_Mossadegh_Vlog
Photo: AP / Hatem Moussa
18 Nov 2012
Israeli air strikes killed 16 Palestinians in Gaza on Saturday, prompting the Arab League to announce a visit to the battered enclave and a review of its Middle East peace policy. Egypt’s President...
Photo: WN / Ahmed Deeb
18 Nov 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling Israel's ongoing uprooting of hundreds of Palestinian olive trees in the West Bank, including possibly sabotaging Palestine's recent bid for state...
Photo: UN / UN
17 Nov 2012
GAZA CITY, Gaza Strip (AP) — Israel's new offensive against the Gaza Strip has turned into a political bonanza for the territory's Hamas rulers, while sidelining Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas,...
Photo: AP / Eyad Baba
17 Nov 2012
Israel's defence minister Ehud Barak more than doubled his call-up of army reservists last night (Friday night) as its cabinet and military chiefs convened to discuss a ground invasion of Gaza. With...
Photo: AP / Vahid Salemi
17 Nov 2012
Iran is set to double its uranium enrichment after completing a second underground facility, according to UN report. The move is likely to increase concern from Western nations over Iranian nuclear...
The Washington Times
Thomas Mullen Ask me a question. Follow @ThomasMullen Related Columns TAMPA, November 19, 2012 — An Iraqi diplomat has called upon other Arab oil producers to “use oil as a weapon” against the United States. Fox News reports this as if it should come as a surprise....(size: 10.0Kb)
Jakarta Post
Paper Edition | Page: 2 A businessman was stabbed to death in a fight outside the Kafe 999 nightclub in Kemang, South Jakarta, early on Sunday. Mampang Police Precinct detective chief Adj. Comr. Sujarwo said that Ahmad Zaedani Noor, 38, from Aceh, was leaving the club with his wife, Sara, and...(size: 3.0Kb)
Colour of bike helps cops nab snatchers
19 Nov 2012
The Times of India
KOLKATA: Motorbikes, which had so far helped snatchers disappear from the crime scene in a jiffy, turned into a curse for two criminals on Saturday. The yellow Bajaj Pulsar 200CC, which Mohammad Samsher and Mohammad Akbar of Ekbalpore used to snatch a woman's gold chain in Alipore, helped cops zero...(size: 2.7Kb)
Yahoo Daily News
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| Mohammad Mosaddegh | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| 60th and 62nd Prime Minister of Iran | |
| In office 28 April 1951 – 16 July 1952 |
|
| Monarch | Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi |
| Deputy | Hossein Fatemi |
| Preceded by | Hossein Ala' |
| Succeeded by | Ahmad Qavam |
| In office 21 July 1952 – 19 August 1953 |
|
| Monarch | Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi |
| Deputy | Ahmad Zirakzadeh |
| Preceded by | Ahmad Qavam |
| Succeeded by | Fazlollah Zahedi |
| Leader of National Front | |
| In office 1 January 1949 – 5 March 1967 |
|
| Deputy | Karim Sanjabi |
| Preceded by | Party created |
| Succeeded by | Karim Sanjabi |
| Member of Parliament of Iran | |
| In office 1 May 1920 – 1 May 1948 |
|
| Constituency | Tehran |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1882-06-16)16 June 1882 Tehran, Iran |
| Died | 5 March 1967(1967-03-05) (aged 84) Ahmadabad-e Mosaddeq, Iran |
| Political party | National Front |
| Spouse(s) | Zia od-Saltane (1901-1965) |
| Children | 5 |
| Religion | Shi'a Islam |
| Signature |  |
Mohammad Mosaddegh or Mosaddeq (Persian: محمد مصدق, IPA: [mohæmˈmæd(-e) mosædˈdeɣ] ( listen)*), also spelled Mossadegh, Mossadeq, Mosadeck, or Musaddiq (16 June 1882 – 5 March 1967), was the Prime Minister of Iran from 1951 until being overthrown in a coup d'état in 1953.
His administration introduced a wide range of social and political reforms but is most notable for its nationalization of the Iranian oil industry, which had been under British control since 1913 through the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC/AIOC) (later British Petroleum or BP).[1]
Mosaddegh was removed from power in a coup on 19 August 1953, organised and carried out by the United States CIA at the request of the British MI6 which chose Iranian General Fazlollah Zahedi to succeed Mosaddegh.[2]
The coup is sometimes known as the TPAJAX Project[3] after its CIA cryptonym, however, in Iran it is referred to as the 28 Mordad 1332 coup, after its date on the Iranian calendar.[4], which is incorrect as the Operation's proper name was TPAjax (TP standing for Tudeh Party of Iran the Russian backed communist party of Iran} Mosaddegh was imprisoned for three years, then put under house arrest until his death.
Contents |
Early life[link]
Mossadegh was born to a prominent family in Tehran in 1882; his father, Mirza Hideyatu'llah Khan, a Bakhtiari tribesman, was a financial administrator in Khorasan province under the Qajar dynasty and his mother, Shahzadi Malika Taj Khanum, was the granddaughter of the reformist Qajar prince Abbas Mirza, and a great granddaughter of Fat′h-Ali Shah Qajar.[5][6][7] When Mosaddegh's father died in 1892, his uncle was appointed the tax collector of the Khorasan province and was bestowed with the title of Mosaddegh-os-Saltaneh by Nasser al-Din Shah.[8] Mosaddegh himself later bore the same title, by which he was still known to some long after titles were abolished.[9]
In 1901, Mosaddegh married Zahra Khanum (1879–1965), a granddaughter of Nasser al-Din Shah through her mother. The couple had five children, two sons (Ahmad and Ghulam Hussein) and three daughters (Mansura, Zia Ashraf and Khadija).
Education[link]
Mosaddegh received his Licence en Droit as well as his Doctor of law from the University of Neuchâtel in Switzerland.
Mosaddegh also taught at the University of Tehran at the start of World War I before beginning his long political career.[10]
Early political career[link]
Mosaddegh started his political career with the Iranian Constitutional Revolution of 1905/07. At the age of 24, he was elected from Isfahan to the newly inaugurated Persian Parliament, the Majlis of Iran. During this period he also served as deputy leader of the Humanitarian Society, Jameeyate Ensaniat, under Mostowfi ol-Mamalek.[11] In protest of the Anglo-Persian Treaty of 1919, he relocated to Switzerland, from where he returned the following year after being invited by the new Iranian Prime Minister, Hassan Pirnia (Moshir-ed-Dowleh), to become his Minister of Justice. While en-route to Tehran, he was asked by the people of Shiraz to become the Governor of the Fars Province. He was later appointed Finance Minister, in the government of Ahmad Qavam (Qavam os-Saltaneh) in 1921, and then Foreign Minister in the government of Moshir-ed-Dowleh in June 1923. He then became Governor of the Azerbaijan Province. In 1923, he was re-elected to the Majlis.
In 1925, the supporters of Reza Khan in the Majlis, proposed legislation to dissolve the Qajar dynasty and appoint Reza Khan the new Shah. Mossadegh voted against such a move, arguing that such an act was a subversion of the 1906 Iranian constitution. He gave a speech in the Majlis, praising Reza Khan's achievements as a statesman, while encouraging him to respect the constitution and become the Prime Minister, not the Shah. On December 12, 1925, the Majlis deposed the young Shah Ahmad Shah Qajar, and declared Reza Shah the new monarch of the Imperial State of Persia, and the first Shah of the Pahlavi dynasty.[12]
In 1941 Reza Shah Pahlavi was forced to abdicate in favor of his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi by the British. In 1944, Mosaddegh was once again elected to parliament. This time he took the lead of Jebhe Melli (National Front of Iran), an organisation he had founded with nineteen others such as Hossein Fatemi, Ahmad Zirakzadeh, Ali Shayegan and Karim Sanjabi, aiming to establish democracy and end the foreign presence in Iranian politics, especially by nationalising the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company's (AIOC) operations in Iran.
Prime minister[link]
Support for oil nationalization[link]
File:Mosaddegh & Kashani.jpg
Mosaddegh and Abol-Ghasem Kashani
Most of Iran's oil reserves were in the Persian Gulf area and had been developed by the British Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC) for export to Britain. For a number of reasons — a growing consciousness of how little Iran was getting from the AIOC for its oil; refusal of the AIOC to offer of a ‘50–50% profit sharing deal' to Iran as Aramco had to Saudi Arabia; anger over Iran's defeat and occupation by the Allied powers — nationalization of oil was an important and popular issue with "a broad cross-section of the Iranian people."[13]
General Haj-Ali Razmara, the Shah's choice, was approved as prime minister June 1950. On 3 March 1951 he appeared before the Majlis (parliament) in an attempt to persuade the deputies against "full nationalization on the grounds that Iran could not override its international obligations and lacked the capacity to run the oil industry on its own." He was assassinated four days later while praying in the mosque by Khalil Tahmasebi, a member of the militant fundamentalist group Fadayan-e Islam.[14] This order of events, while appearing in many mainstream historical accounts, confronts countervailing evidence. Firstly, "[US]embassy staffers early on speculated that Razmara might either be assassinated or become involved in a power struggle with the Shah."[15] These two concerns appear to converge according to Stephen Kinzer, who notes that:
“[e]vidence emerged to suggest that the fatal shot had been fired not by Tahmasibi but by a soldier acting on behalf of the Shah or members of his inner circle, and that Asadollah Alam had knowingly driven him to his fatal rendezvous. Years later a retired Iranian colonel wrote in his memoir that the fatal shot had come from a Colt revolver, available only to soldiers. “An army sergeant, in civilian clothes, was chosen for the deed”, he asserted. “He had been told to shoot and kill Razmara with a Colt, the moment Tahmasibi began to shoot… Those who had examined the wounds in Razmara’s body were in no doubt that he had been killed by a Colt bullet, not by the bullet of a weak gun.”[16][17]
While this account is corroborated by several other studies,[18] it remains a point of contention among historians. After negotiations for higher oil royalties failed, on 15 March and 20 March 1951, the Iranian Majlis and Senate voted to nationalize the British-owned and operated AIOC, taking control of Iran's oil industry.
Another force for nationalization was the Tudeh or Communist party. In early April 1951 the party organised nationwide strikes and riots in protest against delays in nationalization of the oil industry along with low wages and bad housing in the oil industry. This display of strength, along with public celebration at the assassination of General Razmara made an impact on the deputies of the Majlis.[19]
Election as prime minister[link]
On 28 April 1951, the Majlis (Parliament of Iran) named Mosaddegh as new prime minister by a vote of 79–12. Aware of Mosaddegh's rising popularity and political power, the young Shah appointed Mosaddegh to the Premiership.
The new administration introduced a wide range of social reforms: Unemployment compensation was introduced, factory owners were ordered to pay benefits to sick and injured workers, and peasants were freed from forced labor in their landlords' estates. Twenty percent of the money landlords received in rent was placed in a fund to pay for development projects such as public baths, rural housing, and pest control.[20]
On 1 May, Mosaddegh nationalized the AIOC, cancelling its oil concession due to expire in 1993 and expropriating its assets. The next month a committee of five majlis deputies was sent to Khuzistan to enforce the nationalization.[21][22] Mosaddegh explained his nationalisation policy in a 21 June 1951 speech:
| “ | Our long years of negotiations with foreign countries… have yielded no results thus far. With the oil revenues we could meet our entire budget and combat poverty, disease, and backwardness among our people. Another important consideration is that by the elimination of the power of the British company, we would also eliminate corruption and intrigue, by means of which the internal affairs of our country have been influenced. Once this tutelage has ceased, Iran will have achieved its economic and political independence. The Iranian state prefers to take over the production of petroleum itself. The company should do nothing else but return its property to the rightful owners. The nationalization law provide that 25% of the net profits on oil be set aside to meet all the legitimate claims of the company for compensation… It has been asserted abroad that Iran intends to expel the foreign oil experts from the country and then shut down oil installations. Not only is this allegation absurd; it is utter invention…”[23] |
” |
The confrontation between Iran and Britain escalated as Mosaddegh's government refused to allow the British any involvement in Iran's oil industry, and Britain made sure Iran could sell no oil. In July, Mosaddegh broke off negotiations with AIOC after it threatened "to pull out its employees", and told owners of oil tanker ships that "receipts from the Iranian government would not be accepted on the world market." Two months later the AIOC evacuated its technicians and closed down the oil installations. Under nationalized management many refineries lacked the trained technicians that were needed to continue production. The British government announced a de facto blockade, reinforced its naval force in the Persian Gulf and lodged complaints against Iran before the United Nations Security Council.[21]
The British government also threatened legal action against purchasers of oil produced in the formerly British-controlled refineries and obtained an agreement with its sister international oil companies not to fill in where the AIOC was boycotting Iran. The entire Iranian oil industry came to a virtual standstill, oil production dropping from 241,400,000 barrels (38,380,000 m3) in 1950 to 10,600,000 barrels (1,690,000 m3) in 1952. This Abadan Crisis reduced Iran's oil income to almost nil, putting a severe strain on the implementation of Mosaddegh's promised domestic reforms. At the same time BP and Aramco doubled their production in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Iraq, to make up for lost production in Iran so that no hardship was felt in Britain.
Still enormously popular in late 1951, Mosaddegh called elections. His base of support was in urban areas and not in the provinces.[24] This fact was reflected in the rejection of Mosaddegh's bill for electoral reform (which no longer disqualified illiterates from electoral participation) by the conservative bloc, on the grounds that it would "unjustly discriminate patriots who had been voting for the last forty years".[25]
According to Ervand Abrahamian: "Realizing that the opposition would take the vast majority of the provincial seats, Mosaddegh stopped the voting as soon as 79 deputies – just enough to form a parliamentary quorum — had been elected."[26] An alternative account is offered by Stephen Kinzer. Beginning in the early 1950s under the guidance of C.M. Woodhouse, chief of the British intelligence station in Tehran, Britain's covert operations network had funneled roughly £10,000 per month to the Rashidian brothers (two of Iran's most influential royalists) in the hope of buying off, according to CIA estimates, "the armed forces, the Majlis (Iranian parliament), religious leaders, the press, street gangs, politicians and other influential figures".[27] Thus, in his statement asserting electoral manipulation by "foreign agents", Mosaddegh suspended the elections. His National Front party had made up 30 of the 79 deputies elected. Yet none of those present vetoed the statement, and the elections were postponed indefinitely. The 17th Majlis convened on February 1952.
Tension soon began to escalate in the Majlis. Conservative opponents refused to grant Mosaddegh special powers to deal with the economic crisis caused by the sharp drop in revenue and voiced regional grievances against the capital Tehran, while the National Front waged "a propaganda war against the landed upper class".[24]
Resignation and uprising[link]
On 16 July 1952, during the royal approval of his new cabinet, Mosaddegh insisted on the constitutional prerogative of the prime minister to name a Minister of War and the Chief of Staff, something the Shah had done hitherto. The Shah refused, and Mosaddegh announced his resignation appealing directly to the public for support, pronouncing that "in the present situation, the struggle started by the Iranian people cannot be brought to a victorious conclusion".[28]
Veteran politician Ahmad Qavam (also known as Ghavam os-Saltaneh) was appointed as Iran's new prime minister. On the day of his appointment, he announced his intention to resume negotiations with the British to end the oil dispute, a reversal of Mosaddegh's policy. The National Front — along with various Nationalist, Islamist, and socialist parties and groups[29] — including Tudeh — responded by calling for protests, strikes and mass demonstrations in favor of Mosaddegh. Major strikes broke out in all of Iran's major towns, with the Bazaar closing down in Tehran. Over 250 demonstrators in Tehran, Hamadan, Ahvaz, Isfahan, and Kermanshah were killed or suffered serious injuries.[30]
After five days of mass demonstrations on Siyeh-i Tir (the 30th of Tir on the Iranian calendar), military commanders ordered their troops back to barracks, fearful of overstraining the enlisted men's loyalty and left Tehran in the hands of the protesters.[31] Frightened by the unrest, Shah dismissed Qavam and re-appointed Mosaddegh, granting him the full control of the military he had previously demanded.
Reinstatement and emergency powers[link]
More popular than ever, a greatly strengthened Mosaddegh convinced parliament to grant him emergency powers for six months "to decree any law he felt necessary for obtaining not only financial solvency, but also electoral, judicial, and educational reforms".[32] Mosaddegh appointed Ayatollah Abol-Ghasem Kashani as house speaker. Kashani's Islamic scholars, as well as the Tudeh Party, proved to be two of Mosaddegh's key political allies, although relations with both were often strained.
With his emergency powers, Mosaddegh tried to strengthen the democratic political institutions by limiting the monarchy's unconstitutional powers,[33] cutting Shah's personal budget, forbidding him to communicate directly with foreign diplomats, transferring royal lands back to the state and expelling his politically active sister Ashraf Pahlavi.[31]
In January 1953 Mosaddegh successfully pressed Parliament to extend "emergency powers for another 12 months". With these powers, he decreed a land reform law that established village councils and increased the peasants' share of production.[32] This weakened the landed aristocracy, abolishing Iran's centuries-old feudal agriculture sector, replacing it with a system of collective farming and government land ownership. Mosaddegh saw these reforms as a means of checking the power of the Tudeh Party, which had been agitating for general land reform among the peasants.
However, during this time Iranians were "becoming poorer and unhappier by the day" thanks to the British boycott. Mosaddegh's political coalition began to fray, his enemies increased in number.[34]
Partly through the efforts of Iranians working as British agents, several former members of Mosaddegh's coalition turned against him. They included Mozzafar Baghai, head of the worker-based Toilers party; Hussein Makki, who had helped lead the takeover of the Abadan refinery and was at one point considered Mosadegh's heir apparent; and most outspokenly Ayatollah Kashani, who damned Mosaddegh with the "vitriol he had once reserved for the British".[35]
Overthrow of Mosaddegh[link]
Main article: 1953 Iranian coup d'état
Plot to depose Mosaddegh[link]
The British government had grown increasingly distressed over Mosaddegh's policies and were especially bitter over the loss of their control of the Iranian oil industry. Repeated attempts to reach a settlement had failed and in October 1952, Mosaddegh declared Britain an enemy, and cut all diplomatic relations.[36]
Engulfed in a whole range of problems following World War II, Britain was unable to resolve the issue single-handedly and looked towards the United States to settle the issue. Initially America had opposed British policies. After U.S. mediation had failed several times to bring about a settlement, American Secretary of State Dean Acheson concluded that the British were "destructive and determined on a rule or ruin policy in Iran."[37]
The American position shifted in late 1952, when Dwight D. Eisenhower had been elected U.S. President. In November and December, British intelligence officials suggested to American intelligence that the prime minister should be ousted. British prime minister Winston Churchill suggested to the incoming Eisenhower administration that Mossadegh, despite his open disgust with socialism, was, or would become, dependent on the pro-Soviet Tudeh Party,[38] resulting in Iran "increasingly turning towards communism" and towards the Soviet sphere at a time of high Cold War fears.[39][40][41][42] After the Eisenhower administration had entered office in early 1953, the United States and the United Kingdom agreed to work together toward Mosaddegh's removal and began to publicly denounce Mosaddegh's policies for Iran as harmful to the country. In the meantime the already precarious alliance between Mosaddegh and Kashani was severed in January 1953, when Kashani opposed Mosaddegh's demand that his increased powers be extended for a period of one year.
Operation Ajax[link]
In March 1953, Secretary of State John Foster Dulles directed the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), which was headed by his younger brother Allen Dulles, to draft plans to overthrow Mosaddegh.[43] On 4 April 1953, Allen Dulles approved US$1 million to be used "in any way that would bring about the fall of Mosaddegh". Soon the CIA's Tehran station started to launch a propaganda campaign against Mosaddegh. Finally, according to The New York Times, in early June, American and British intelligence officials met again, this time in Beirut, and put the finishing touches on the strategy. Soon afterward, according to his later published accounts, the chief of the CIA's Near East and Africa division, Kermit Roosevelt, Jr. the grandson of U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt, arrived in Tehran to direct it.[44] In 2000, The New York Times made partial publication of a leaked CIA document titled, Clandestine Service History – Overthrow of Premier Mosaddegh of Iran – November 1952-August 1953. This document describes the point-by-point planning of the coup by agent Donald Wilbur, and execution conducted by the American and British governments. The New York Times published this critical document with the names omitted. The New York Times also limited its publication to scanned image (bitmap) format, rather than machine-readable text. This document was eventually published properly – in text form, and fully unexpurgated. The complete CIA document is now web published. The word ‘blowback' appeared for the very first time in this document.
The plot, known as Operation Ajax, centered on convincing Iran's monarch to issue a decree to dismiss Mosaddegh from office, as he had attempted some months earlier. But the Shah was terrified to attempt such a dangerously unpopular move, and it would take much persuasion and many U.S. funded meetings, which included bribing his sister Ashraf to successfully change his mind.[45]
Mosaddegh became aware of the plots against him and grew increasingly wary of conspirators acting within his government.[46] According to Dr. Donald N. Wilber, who was involved in the plot to remove Mossadegh from power, in early August, Iranian CIA operatives pretending to be socialists and nationalists threatened Muslim leaders with "savage punishment if they opposed Mossadegh," thereby giving the impression that Mossadegh was cracking down on dissent, and stirring anti-Mossadegh sentiments within the religious community. A referendum to dissolve parliament and give the prime minister power to make law was submitted to voters, and it passed with 99 percent approval, 2,043,300 votes to 1300 votes against.[47] According to Mark J. Gasiorowski, "There were separate polling stations for yes and no votes, producing sharp criticism of Mosaddeq" and that the "controversial referendum...gave the CIA's precoup propaganda campaign an easy target". On or around Aug. 16, Parliament was suspended indefinitely, and Mosaddeq's emergency powers were extended.
Overthrow[link]
In August 1953, the Shah finally agreed to Mossadegh's overthrow, after Roosevelt told that the U.S. would proceed with him or without him[48] and formally dismissed the Prime Minister in a written decree, an act explicitly permitted under the constitution.[49] As a precautionary measure, he flew to Baghdad and from there hid safely in Rome. He actually signed two decrees, one dismissing Mosaddegh and the other nominating the CIA's choice, General Fazlollah Zahedi, as Prime Minister. These decrees, called Farmāns, were specifically written as dictated by Donald Wilbur the CIA architect of the plan, which were designed as a major part of Wilbur's strategy to give the impression of legitimacy to the secret coup, as can be read in the declassified plan itself which bears his name. Wilbur was later given a letter of commendation by Alan Dulles, CIA head, for his work. It too is now declassified, and appears in Wilbur's autobiography.[citation needed]
Soon, massive protests, engineered by Roosevelt's team, took place across the city and elsewhere with tribesmen paid to be at the ready to assist the coup. Anti- and pro-monarchy protesters, both paid by Roosevelt,[48] violently clashed in the streets, looting and burning mosques and newspapers, leaving almost 300 dead. The pro-monarchy leadership, chosen, hidden and finally unleashed at the right moment by the CIA team, led by retired army General and former Minister of Interior in Mosaddegh's cabinet, Fazlollah Zahedi joined with underground figures such as the Rashidian brothers and local strongman Shaban Jafari,[50] to gain the upper hand on 19 August 1953 (28 Mordad). The military joined on cue: pro-Shah tank regiments stormed the capital and bombarded the prime minister's official residence, on Roosevelt's cue, according to his book. Mosaddegh managed to flee from the mob that set in to ransack his house, and, the following day, surrendered to General Zahedi, who was meanwhile set up by the CIA with makeshift headquarters at the Officers' Club. Mosaddegh was arrested at the Officers' Club and transferred to a military jail shortly after.[51] On 22 August, the Shah returned from exile.
Zahedi's new government soon reached an agreement with foreign oil companies to form a consortium and "restore the flow of Iranian oil to world markets in substantial quantities", giving the U.S. and Great Britain the lion's share of Iran's oil. In return, the U.S. massively funded the Shah's resulting government, including his army and secret police force, SAVAK, until the Shah's overthrow in 1979.[52] Mosaddegh's supporters were rounded up, tortured or executed. The minister of Foreign Affairs and the closest associate of Mosaddegh, Hossein Fatemi, was executed by order of the Shah's military court. The order was carried out by firing squad on October 29, 1953.[53]
Trial and final years[link]
File:Mohammad Mosaddeq, Ahmadabad, ca 1965 - 2nd.jpg
Mossadegh under house arrest in Ahmadabad
Shortly after the Shah's return, Mosaddegh was tried and convicted of treason by the Shah's military court. On December 21, 1953, he was sentenced to death but his sentence was later commuted to three years' solitary confinement in a military prison. Afterwards, he was kept under house arrest at his Ahmadabad residence, where he died on 5 March 1967.[54][55][56][57]
Legacy[link]
Iran[link]
File:Mosaddegh in Court.jpg
Mosaddegh in imperial court in 1955
The secret U.S. overthrow of Mosaddegh served as a rallying point in anti-US protests during the 1979 Iranian Revolution and to this day he is said to be one of the most popular figures in Iranian history.[58] Despite this, he is generally ignored by the government of the Islamic Republic because of his secularism and western manners.[59]
The withdrawal of support for Mosaddegh by the powerful Shia clergy has been regarded as having been motivated by their fear of the chaos of a communist takeover.[60] Some argue that while many elements of Mosaddegh's coalition abandoned him it was the loss of support from Ayatollah Abol-Ghasem Kashani and other clergy that was fatal to his cause, reflective of the dominance of the Ulema in Iranian society and a portent of the Islamic Revolution to come. The loss of the political clerics effectively cut Mosaddegh's connections with the lower middle classes and the Iranian masses which are crucial to any popular movement in Iran.[61]
U.S. and other countries[link]
The US role in Mosaddegh's overthrow was not formally acknowledged for many years, although the Eisenhower administration vehemently opposed Mossadegh's policies. President Eisenhower wrote angrily about Mosaddegh in his memoirs, describing him as impractical and naive. However, Eisenhower did not admit any involvement with the coup.
Eventually the CIA's involvement with the coup was exposed. This caused controversy within the organization and the CIA congressional hearings of the 1970s. CIA supporters maintained that the coup was strategically necessary, and praised the efficiency of the agents responsible. Critics say the scheme was paranoid, colonial, illegal, and immoral—and truly caused the "blowback" suggested in the pre-coup analysis. The extent of this "blowback," over time, was not completely clear to the CIA, as they had an inaccurate picture of the stability of the Shah's regime. The Iranian Revolution of 1979 caught the CIA and the US very much off guard (as CIA reporting a mere month earlier predicted no imminent insurrectionary turbulence whatsoever for the Shah's regime), and resulted in the overthrow of the Shah (himself a non-democratic ruler) by a fundamentalist, non-democratic faction opposed to the US, headed by Ayatollah Khomeini. In retrospect, not only did the CIA and the US underestimate the extent of popular discontent for the Shah, but much of that discontent historically stemmed from the removal of Mosaddegh and the subsequent clientelism of the Shah. The US-backed coup, in effect, had ended Iran's last fully democratic government, and there would be no return of democracy even after the Shah's removal.
In March 2000, Secretary of State Madeleine Albright stated her regret that Mosaddegh was ousted: "The Eisenhower administration believed its actions were justified for strategic reasons. But the coup was clearly a setback for Iran's political development and it is easy to see now why many Iranians continue to resent this intervention by America." In the same year, The New York Times published a detailed report about the coup based on declassified CIA documents.[2]
Due to his worldwide popularity, defiance of Britain, and fight for democracy, Mosaddegh was named as Time Magazine's 1951 Man of the Year. Others considered for that year's title included Dean Acheson, General (and future President) Dwight D. Eisenhower and General Douglas MacArthur.[62]
In early 2004, the Egyptian government changed a street name in Cairo from Pahlavi to Mosaddegh to improve relations with Iran.
Mosaddegh in the media[link]
The figure of Mohammad Mosaddegh is an important element in the 2003 French TV production Soraya,[63] which deals with the life of the Shah's second wife and former Queen of Iran, Princess Soraya Esfandiary Bakhtiari. Mosaddegh's role is played by the French actor Claude Brasseur.
An independent video game called The Cat and the Coup was released in 2011. It features the player playing as Mosaddegh's cat reversing Mossaddegh's life to the beginning.
During the debates with the 2012 Presidential candidates, Texas congressman Ron Paul stated the reason why Iran has resorted to becoming a theocratic dictatorship was because of the CIA backed Coup in 1953 overthrowing Mohammad Mosaddegh which led up to the 1979 Iranian Revolution causing many problems over the last 30 years [64]
See also[link]
- 1953 Iranian coup d'état
- Anglo Iranian Oil Company
- Operation Ajax
- Abolhassan Diba
- Hossein Fatemi
- Dariush Forouhar
- List of Iranian intellectuals
- Abadan Crisis timeline
References[link]
- In pronouncing his name, Mohammad Mosaddegh, (Persian: محمد مصدّق, IPA: [mohæmˈmæd(-e) mosædˈdeɣ] ( listen) the -[e] is the Izāfa, which is a grammatical marker linking two words together. It is not indicated in writing, and is not part of the name itself, but is used when a first and last name are used together.
- ^ Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money & Power (ISBN 9781439110126).
- ^ a b James Risen (2000-04-16). "Secrets of History: The C.I.A. in Iran". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/041600iran-cia-index.html. Retrieved 2006-11-03.
- ^ Dan De Luce (2003-09-20). "The Spectre of Operation Ajax". London: Guardian Unlimited. http://www.guardian.co.uk/iran/story/0,12858,1022065,00.html. Retrieved 2006-11-03.
- ^ Mark Gasiorowski; Malcolm Byrne (2004-06-22). "Mohammad Mosaddegh and the 1953 Coup in Iran". National Security Archive. http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB126/index.htm. Retrieved 2006-11-03.
- ^ Mohammad Mossadegh: political biography By Farhad Dība, p4
- ^ The Cold War, 1945-1991: Leaders and other important figures in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, China, and the Third World by Benjamin Frankel
- ^ Afkhami, Gholam Reza (2009). The life and times of the Shah. University of California Press. p. 110. ISBN 0-520-25328-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=pTVSPmyvtkAC&pg=PA110.
- ^ Key figures, London: telegaph.co.uk, 4 June 2003, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/campaigns/iran/irankey.xml, retrieved 2007-11-07
- ^ Peter Avery, Modern Iran (Praeger, 1965), p. 273: "Older people still speak of Dr. Musaddiq as Musaddiqu's-Saltanah."
- ^ IFVC, The Political Life and Legacy of Mosaddegh, Bahman Maghsoudlou, Iranian Film Directors, New Productions
- ^ Baktiar, Salar (24 November 2004). "THE LIFE OF MIRZA HASSAN KHAN, MOSTOFI AL MAMALEK". http://www.iransociety.org/docs/journal_2005.pdf. Retrieved 31 July 2011.
- ^ Mohammad Mossadegh: political biography By Farhad Dība, p41
- ^ Saikal, Amin The Rise and Fall of the Shah, Princeton University Press, 1980, p. 38.
- ^ Saikal, 1980, p. 38–9.
- ^ Linda Wills Qaimmaqami (1995), "The Catalyst of Nationalization: Max Thornburg and the Failure of Private Sector Developmentalism in Iran, 1947 - 1951", Diplomatic History, vol.19, no.1, pp.1-31
- ^ Stephen Kinzer (2003), All the Shah's Men, Wiley, ISBN 0-471-26517-9 pp.78-9
- ^ HarperCollins, 2003, ISBN 0-06-055973-X, Page 88
- ^ See, for example, Homa Katouzian (1981), Political Economy of Modern Iran, p.160; Mostafa Elm (1992), Oil, Power, and Principle, p. 80;
- ^ Abrahamian, Ervand. Iran Between Two Revolutions, Princeton University Press, 1982, p. 266.
- ^ http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/FI15Ak03.html.
- ^ a b Abrahamian (1982) p. 268.
- ^ Alan W. Ford, The Anglo-Iranian Oil Dispute of 1951-1952. University of california Press, Berkeley 1954, p. 268.
- ^ M. Fateh, Panjah Sal-e Naft-e Iran, p. 525.
- ^ a b Abrahamian (1982), p. 268–70.
- ^ Abrahamian (1982), p. 268–9.
- ^ Abrahamian (1982), p. 269.
- ^ Kinzer, All the Shah's Men, (2003) p. 150-1.
- ^ Abrahamian (1982), p. 270–1.
- ^ Mosaddegh: The Years of Struggle and Opposition by Col. Gholamreza Nejati, p. 761.
- ^ Abrahamian (1982), p. 271.
- ^ a b Abrahamian (1982), p. 272.
- ^ a b Abrahamian (1982), p. 273.
- ^ Zabih, Sepehr. The Mosaddegh Era: Roots of the Iranian Revolution, p. 65.
- ^ Kinzer, All the Shah's Men (2003) p.135-6
- ^ Kinzer, All the Shah's Men (2003) p.159
- ^ No traction for proposal to name street after Mosaddegh. Tehran Times. April 10, 2009
- ^ Saikal, Amin, The Rise and Fall of the Shah, Princeton University Press, 1980, p. 42.
- ^ Review of All the Shah's Men by Jonathan Schanzer
- ^ Mark J. Gasiorowski and Malcolm Byrne Mohammad Mosaddegh and the 1953 Coup in Iran, Syracuse University Press, May 2004. ISBN 0-8156-3018-2, p. 125.
- ^ James S. Lay, Jr. (20 November 1952) (pdf), United States policy regarding the current situation in Iran, George Washington University, http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB126/iran521120.pdf, retrieved 2007-11-07 Statement of policy proposed by the National Security Council
- ^ Walter B. Smith, Undersecretary (20 March 1953) (pdf), First Progress Report on Paragraph 5-1 of NSC 136/1, "U.S. Policy Regarding the Current Situation in Iran", George Washington University, http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB126/iran530320.pdf, retrieved 2007-11-07
- ^ (pdf) Measures which the United States Government Might Take in Support of a Successor Government to Mosaddegh, George Washington University, March 1953, http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB126/iran530300.pdf, retrieved 2007-11-07
- ^ Malcolm Byrne, ed. (2 November 2000), The Secret CIA History of the Iran Coup, 1953, George Washington University, quoting National security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 28, http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB28/, retrieved 2007-11-07
- ^ Halberstam, David (1993). The Fifties. New York: Ballentine Books. pp. 366–367. ISBN 0-449-90933-6.
- ^ Kinzer, Stephen (2003). All The Shah's Men. New Jersey: John Wiley &Sons. p. 7. ISBN 0-471-26517-9.
- ^ Trying to Persuade a Reluctant Shah, New York Times Dec. 7, 2009.
- ^ Abrahamian, Iran between 2 Revolutions, 1982, (p.274)
- ^ a b Kermit Roosevelt Jr. Countercoup: The Struggle for the Control of Iran (McGraw-Hill, 1979) ISBN 0-07-053590-6.
- ^ Iranian Constitution of 1906, Section 4, Article 46, 5 August 1906, http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Iran_const_1906.doc, retrieved 2009-06-20
- ^ Pahlavani: Misinformation, Misconceptions and Misrepresentations
- ^ C.I.A. and Moscow Are Both Surprised, New York Times Dec. 7, 2009.
- ^ Associated Press (6 August 1954), Statements on Iran Oil Accord, The New York Times, http://www.nytimes.com/library/world/mideast/080654iran-statements.html, retrieved 2007-11-07
- ^ Persian Oil: A Study in Power Politics by L.P. Elwell-Sutton. 1955. Lawrence and Wishart Ltd. London. p. 315.
- ^ Abrahamian, Ervand, Iran Between Two Revolutions by Ervand Abrahamian, (Princeton University Press, 1982), p.280
- ^ Mossadegh – A Medical Biography by Ebrahim Norouzi
- ^ Persian Oil: A Study in Power Politics by L.P. Elwell-Sutton. 1955. Lawrence and Wishart Ltd. London
- ^ Eccentric Nationalist Begets Strange History, New York Times Dec. 7, 2009.
- ^ Noreena Hertz, The Silent Takeover: Global Capitalism and the Death of Democracy, HarperCollins, 2003, ISBN 0-06-055973-X, Page 88
- ^ Abrahamian, Khomeinism (c. 1993).
- ^ Nasr, Vali, The Shia Revival, Norton (2006), p. 124.
- ^ Mackay, Sandra, The Iranians, Plume (1997), p. 203, 4.
- ^ "Mohammad Mosaddegh, Man of the Year". Time magazine. 1951-01-07. http://www.time.com/time/subscriber/personoftheyear/archive/stories/1951.html. Retrieved 2006-11-19.
- ^ Soraya (2003) (TV), Internet Movie Database, http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0348076/, retrieved 2007-11-07
- ^ , http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PVZTSqI18cc&list=FLhXmElErzCqZcjPIof7TznQ&index=9&feature=plpp_video
Further reading[link]
- Abrahamian, Ervand, Khomeinism: essays on the Islamic Republic. Berkeley: University of California Press, c 1993. 0-520-08173-0
- Abrahamian, Ervand, Iran Between Two Revolutions, By Ervand Abrahamian, Princeton University Press, 1982
- Amir Taheri, The Persian Night: Iran under the Khomeinist Revolution. Encounter Books, 2009, ISBN 978-1-59403-240-0
- Farhad Diba, Dr. Mohammad Mossadegh; A Political Biography. London: Croom Helm, 1986, ISBN 0-7099-4517-5
- Mostafa Elm, Oil, Power, and Principle: Iran's Oil Nationalization and Its Aftermath. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1994, ISBN 0-8156-2642-8
- Mark Gasiorowski, U.S. Foreign Policy and the Shah: Building a Client State in Iran, Cornell University Press, 1991, ISBN 0-8014-2412-7
- Mary Ann Heiss, Empire and Nationhood: The United States, Great Britain, and Iranian Oil, 1950–1954, Columbia University Press,1997, ISBN 0-231-10819-2
- Sattareh Farman Farmaian & Dona Munker, Daughter of Persia: A Woman's Journey from Her Father's Harem through the Islamic Revolution. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2006. ISBN 0-307-33974-2
- Stephen Kinzer, All The Shah's Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror, John Wiley & Sons, 2003, ISBN 0-471-26517-9
- Stephen Kinzer, Overthrow: America's Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq, Times Books, 2006, ISBN 0-8050-7861-4
- Nikki R. Keddie, Modern Iran: Roots and Results of Revolution, Yale University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-300-09856-1
- Homa Katouzian, Musaddiq and the Struggle for Power in Iran, I B Tauris & Co, 1991, ISBN 1-85043-210-4
- Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran, edited by Mark J. Gasiorowski and Malcolm Byrne. Translated into Persian as Mosaddegh va Coup de Etat by Ali Morshedizad, Ghasidehsara Pub. Co.
- Mark J. Gasiorowski, The 1953 Coup D'État in Iran, International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 19, No. 3, p. 261–86 (1987). JSTOR
- Tom Gabbay, "The Tehran Conviction" William Morrow, (2009), ISBN 978-0-06-118860-2
- Mehdi Shamshiri: Zendegi Nameh Mohammad Mossadegh. (farsi) 2 ed. lulu.com. ISBN 978-0-578-08305-6.
- Christopher de Bellaigue, "Patriot of Persia". ISBN 978-1-84792-108-6.
External links[link]
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Mohammad Mosaddegh |
 |
Wikisource has original text related to this article: |
- Dr Mosasdegh's genealogy (Qajar website)
- (Persian) Ardeshir Zahedi website contains number of articles related to Mosaddegh
- James Risen: Secrets of History: The C.I.A. in Iran — A special report; How a Plot Convulsed Iran in '53 (and in '79). The New York Times, 16 April 2000.
- New York Times Archive containing declassified US intelligence Documents on the Coup of 1953
- In Memory of 19 August 1953 by Sasan Fayazmanesh, 18 August 2003.
- Mosaddegh's photo album
- Mohammad Mosaddegh and the 1953 Coup in Iran Book and declassified documents from the National Security Archive, 22 June 2004
- The Secret CIA History of the Iran Coup – U.S. National Security Archive
- An alternative view by Ardeshir Zahedi
- "50 Years After the CIA's First Overthrow of a Democratically Elected Foreign Government"
- How to Overthrow A Government: The 1953 U.S. Coup in Iran
- A short account of 1953 Coup in Iran
- The Sunday Herald, Over A Barrel
- Fariba Amini, Don't call me "Sir" – Mosaddegh: Humanity and integrity in government, The Iranian, 9 May 2001.
- Dr Mohammad Mossadeqs Lebenswerk und Kampf
- (Persian) A video of Dr. Mosaddegh's house in Ahmadabad
| Political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Hossein Ala' |
Prime Minister of Iran 1951 – 1952 |
Succeeded by Ahmad Qavam |
| Preceded by Ahmad Qavam |
Prime Minister of Iran 1952 – 1953 |
Succeeded by Fazlollah Zahedi |
| Party political offices | ||
| Preceded by None |
Leader of National Front 1949-1967 |
Succeeded by Karim Sanjabi |
|
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.svg){kind=small}
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||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Mosaddegh, Mohammad |
| Alternative names | مصدق, محمد |
| Short description | Prime Minister of Iran |
| Date of birth | 16-6-1882 |
| Place of birth | Tehran |
| Date of death | 05-03-1967 |
| Place of death | Tehran, Iran |
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohammad_Mosaddegh
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is about the Islamic prophet. For other persons named Muhammad, see Muhammad (name). For other uses, see Muhammad (disambiguation).
| Prophet Muhammad Prophet, Messenger, Apostle, Witness, Bearer of Good Tidings, Warner, Reminder, Caller, Announcer. |
|||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Common calligraphic representation of Muhammad's name |
|||||
| Born | Muḥammad ibn `Abd Allāh c. (570-04-26)26 April 570 Mecca (Makkah), Arabia (now Saudi Arabia) |
||||
| Died | 8 June 632(632-06-08) (aged 62) Yathrib, Arabia (present-day Medina, Hejaz, Saudi Arabia) |
||||
| Cause of death | Illness (high fever) | ||||
| Resting place | Tomb under the Green Dome of Al-Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina, Hejaz, Saudi Arabia | ||||
| Other names | See Names of Muhammad | ||||
| Ethnicity | Arab | ||||
| Religion | Islam | ||||
| Spouse | Wives: Khadijah bint Khuwaylid (595-619) Sawda bint Zamʿa (619-632) Aisha bint Abi Bakr (619-632) Hafsa bint Umar (624-632) Zaynab bint Khuzayma (625-627) Hind bint Abi Umayya (629-632) Zaynab bint Jahsh (627-632) Juwayriya bint al-Harith (628-632) Ramlah bint Abi Sufyan (628-632) Rayhana bint Zayd (629-631) Safiyya bint Huyayy (629-632) Maymuna bint al-Harith (630-632) Maria al-Qibtiyya (630-632) |
||||
| Children | Sons: al-Qasim, `Abd-Allah, Ibrahim Daughters: Zainab, Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthoom, Fatimah Zahra |
||||
| Parents | Father: `Abd Allah ibn `Abd al-Muttalib Mother: Aminah bint Wahb |
||||
| Relatives | Ahl al-Bayt | ||||
|
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Muhammad (c. 26 April 570 – 8 June 632;[1] also transliterated as Mohammad, Mohammed, or Muhammed; Arabic: محمد), full name: Muhammad Ibn `Abd Allāh Ibn `Abd al-Muttalib (Arabic: محمد بن عبدالله بن عبد المطلب ) was a leader from Mecca who unified the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity under Islam. He is believed by Muslims and Bahá'ís to be a messenger and prophet of God. Muslims believe that Islam was not his own invention but was revealed by God,[2][3] and most consider him to be the last prophet of God[4][n 1] Muslims thus consider him the restorer of an uncorrupted original monotheistic faith (islām) of Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and other prophets.[5][6][7]
Born in 570 CE in the Arabian city of Mecca,[8][9] he was orphaned at an early age and brought up under the care of his uncle Abu Talib. He later worked mostly as a merchant, as well as a shepherd, and was first married by age 25.[10] Being in the habit of periodically retreating to a cave in the surrounding mountains for several nights of meditation and prayer, he later reported that it was there, at age 40,[8][11] that he received his first revelation from God. Three years after this event Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly, proclaiming that "God is One", that complete "surrender" to Him (lit. islām) is the only way (dīn)[n 2] acceptable to God, and that he himself was a prophet and messenger of God, in the same vein as other Islamic prophets.[7][12][13]
Muhammad gained few followers early on,[14] and was met with hostility from some Meccan tribes; he and his followers were treated harshly. To escape persecution, Muhammad sent some of his followers to Abyssinia[15] before he and his remaining followers in Mecca migrated to Medina (then known as Yathrib) in the year 622.[16] This event, the Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, which is also known as the Hijri Calendar. In Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina,.[16] After eight years of fighting with the Meccan tribes, his followers, who by then had grown to 10,000, conquered Mecca. Muhammad destroyed the symbols of paganism in Mecca[17] and then sent his followers out to destroy all of the remaining pagan temples throughout Eastern Arabia.[18][19]
In 632, a few months after returning to Medina from The Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and died. By the time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam, and he had united the tribes of Arabia into a single Muslim religious polity.[20][21]
The revelations (or Ayah, lit. "Signs [of God]")—which Muhammad reported receiving until his death—form the verses of the Quran, regarded by Muslims as the “Word of God” and around which the religion is based. Besides the Quran, Muhammad’s life (sira) and traditions (sunnah) are also upheld by Muslims. They discuss Muhammad and other prophets of Islam with reverence, adding the phrase peace be upon him whenever their names are mentioned.[22] While conceptions of Muhammad in medieval Christendom and premodern times were largely negative, appraisals in modern history have been far less so.[13][23]
Contents
|
Names and appellations in the Quran[link]
The name Muhammad means "Praiseworthy" and occurs four times in the Quran.[24] The Quran addresses Muhammad in the second person not by his name but by the appellations prophet, messenger, servant of God ('abd), announcer (bashir)[Quran 2:119], witness (shahid),[Quran 33:45] bearer of good tidings (mubashshir), warner (nathir),[Quran 11:2] reminder (mudhakkir),[Quran 88:21] one who calls [unto God] (dā‘ī),[Quran 12:108] light personified (noor)[Quran 05:15], and the light-giving lamp (siraj munir)[Quran 73:1]. Muhammad is sometimes addressed by designations deriving from his state at the time of the address: thus he is referred to as the enwrapped (al-muzzammil) in Quran 73:1 and the shrouded (al-muddaththir) in Quran 74:1.[25] In the Quran, believers are not to distinguish between the messengers of God and are to believe in all of them (Sura Al-Baqara 2:285). God has caused some messengers to excel above others 2:253 and in Sura Al-Ahzab 33:40 He singles out Muhammad as the "Seal of the Prophets".[26] The Quran also refers to Muhammad as Aḥmad "more praiseworthy" (Arabic: أحمد, Sura As-Saff 61:6).
Sources for Muhammad's life[link]
Main articles: Historiography of early Islam and Historicity of Muhammad
Quran[link]
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The Quran is the central religious text of Islam and Muslims believe that it represents the words of God revealed to Muhammad through the archangel Gabriel.[27][28][29] Although it mentions Muhammad directly only four times,[30] there are verses which can be interpreted as allusions to Muhammad's life.[13][n 3] The Quran however provides little assistance for a chronological biography of Muhammad, and many of the utterances recorded in it lack historical context.[31][32]
Early biographies[link]
Main article: Prophetic biography
Next in importance are historical works by writers of the 3rd and 4th centuries of the Muslim era.[33] These include the traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad (the sira literature), which provide further information on Muhammad's life.[34]
The earliest surviving written sira (biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) is Ibn Ishaq's Life of God's Messenger written ca. 767 (150 AH). The work is lost, but was used verbatim at great length by Ibn Hisham and Al-Tabari.[35][36] Another early source is the history of Muhammad's campaigns by al-Waqidi (death 207 of Muslim era), and the work of his secretary Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi (death 230 of Muslim era).[33]
Many scholars accept the accuracy of the earliest biographies, though their accuracy is unascertainable.[35] Recent studies have led scholars to distinguish between the traditions touching legal matters and the purely historical ones. In the former sphere, traditions could have been subject to invention while in the latter sphere, aside from exceptional cases, the material may have been only subject to "tendential shaping".[37]
Hadith[link]
Main article: Hadith
In addition, the hadith collections are accounts of the verbal and physical traditions of Muhammad that date from several generations after his death.[38]
Western academics view the hadith collections with caution as accurate historical sources.[38] Scholars such as Madelung do not reject the narrations which have been compiled in later periods, but judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures.[39]
Non-Arabic sources[link]
The earliest documented Christian knowledge of Muhammad stems from Byzantine sources. They indicate that both Jews and Christians saw Muhammad as a "false prophet". In the Doctrina Jacobi nuper baptizati of 634, Muhammad is portrayed as being "deceiving[,] for do prophets come with sword and chariot?, [...] you will discover nothing true from the said prophet except human bloodshed."[40] Another Greek source for Muhammad is the 9th-century writer Theophanes. The earliest Syriac source is the 7th-century writer John bar Penkaye.[41]
Pre-Islamic Arabia[link]
The Arabian Peninsula was largely arid and volcanic, making agriculture difficult except near oases or springs. The landscape was thus dotted with towns and cities, two prominent ones being Mecca and Medina. Medina was a large flourishing agricultural settlement, while Mecca was an important financial center for many surrounding tribes.[42] Communal life was essential for survival in the desert conditions, as people needed support against the harsh environment and lifestyle. Tribal grouping was encouraged by the need to act as a unit, this unity being based on the bond of kinship by blood.[43] Indigenous Arabs were either nomadic or sedentary, the former constantly travelling from one place to another seeking water and pasture for their flocks, while the latter settled and focused on trade and agriculture. Nomadic survival was also dependent on raiding caravans or oases, the nomads not viewing this as a crime.[44][45]
In pre-Islamic Arabia, gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of individual tribes, their spirits being associated with sacred trees, stones, springs and wells. As well as being the site of an annual pilgrimage, the Kaaba shrine in Mecca housed 360 idol statues of tribal patron deities. Aside from these gods, the Arabs shared a common belief in a supreme deity called Allah[citation needed] (literally "the god"), who was remote from their everyday concerns and thus not the object of cult or ritual.[citation needed] Three goddesses were associated with Allah as his daughters: Allāt, Manāt and al-‘Uzzá. Monotheistic communities existed in Arabia, including Christians and Jews.[46] Hanifs – native pre-Islamic Arab monotheists – are also sometimes listed alongside Jews and Christians in pre-Islamic Arabia, although their historicity is disputed amongst scholars.[47][48] According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad himself was a Hanif and one of the descendants of Ishmael, son of Abraham.[49]
Life[link]
Life in Mecca[link]
| Timeline of Muhammad in Mecca | |
|---|---|
| Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad in Mecca | |
| c. 569 | Death of his father, Abdullah |
| c. 570 | Possible date of birth, April 26th: Mecca |
| 576 | Death of his mother, Aminah |
| 578 | Death of his grandfather |
| c. 583 | Takes trading journeys to Syria |
| c. 595 | Meets and marries Khadijah |
| 610 | First reports of Qur'anic revelation |
| c. 613 | Begins spreading message of Islam publicly to all Meccans |
| c. 614 | Begins to gather followers in Mecca |
| c. 615 | Emigration of Muslims to Ethiopia |
| 616 | Banu Hashim clan boycott begins |
| c. 618 | Medinan War |
| 619 | Banu Hashim clan boycott ends |
| 619 | The year of sorrows: khadija (his wife) and Abu Talib (his uncle) die |
| c. 620 | Isra and Mi'raj (the ascention to heaven to meet God) |
| 622 | Emigrates to Medina (was called Yathrib) (Hijra) |
Main article: Muhammad in Mecca
Muhammad was born and lived in Mecca for the first 52 years of his life (570–622). This period is generally divided into two phases, before and after declaring the prophecy.
Childhood and early life[link]
See also: Mawlid and Family tree of Muhammad
Muhammad was born in the month of Rabi' al-awwal in 570. He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan, one of the prominent families of Mecca, although it seems not to have been prosperous during Muhammad's early lifetime.[13][50] The Banu Hashim clan was part of the Quraysh tribe. Tradition places the year of Muhammad's birth as corresponding with the Year of the Elephant, which is named after the failed destruction of Mecca that year by the Aksumite king Abraha who had in his army a number of elephants. 20th-century scholarship has suggested alternative dates for this event, such as 568 or 569.[51]
His father, Abdullah, died almost six months before Muhammad was born.[53] According to Islamic tradition, soon after Muhammad's birth he was sent to live with a Bedouin family in the desert, as the desert life was considered healthier for infants. Muhammad stayed with his foster-mother, Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb, and her husband until he was two years old.[10] Some western scholars of Islam have rejected the historicity of this tradition.[54][not in citation given] At the age of six, Muhammad lost his biological mother Amina to illness and he became fully orphaned.[10][55] For the next two years, he was under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim clan, but when Muhammad was eight, his grandfather also died. He then came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of Banu Hashim.[10][51] According to William Montgomery Watt, because of the general disregard of the guardians in taking care of weak members of the tribes in Mecca in the 6th century, "Muhammad's guardians saw that he did not starve to death, but it was hard for them to do more for him, especially as the fortunes of the clan of Hashim seem to have been declining at that time."[56]
While still in his teens, Muhammad accompanied his uncle on trading journeys to Syria gaining experience in commercial trade, the only career open to Muhammad as an orphan.[10][56] Islamic tradition states that when Muhammad was either nine or twelve while accompanying the Meccans' caravan to Syria, he met a Christian monk or hermit named Bahira who is said to have foreseen Muhammed's career as a prophet of God.[57]
Little is known of Muhammad during his later youth, and from the fragmentary information that is available, it is difficult to separate history from legend.[10][56] It is known that he became a merchant and "was involved in trade between the Indian ocean and the Mediterranean Sea."[58] Due to his upright character he acquired the nickname "al-Amin" (Arabic: الامين), meaning "faithful, trustworthy" and "al-Sadiq" meaning "truthful"[59] and was sought out as an impartial arbitrator.[9][13][60] His reputation attracted a proposal in 595 from Khadijah, a 40-year-old widow who was 15 years older than he. Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one.[10][58]
Several years later, according to a narration collected by Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad was involved with a well-known story about setting the Black Stone in place in the wall of the Kaaba in 605 C.E. The Black Stone, a sacred object, had been removed to facilitate renovations to the Kaaba. The leaders of Mecca could not agree on which clan should have the honour of setting the Black Stone back in its place. They agreed to wait for the next man to come through the gate and ask him to choose. That man was the 35-year-old Muhammad, five years before his first revelation. He asked for a cloth and put the Black Stone in its centre. The clan leaders held the corners of the cloth and together carried the Black Stone to the right spot, then Muhammad set the stone in place, satisfying the honour of all.[61]
Beginnings of the Quran[link]
Muhammad adopted the practice of meditating alone for several weeks every year in a cave on Mount Hira near Mecca.[62][63] Islamic tradition holds that during one of his visits to Mount Hira, the angel Gabriel appeared to him in the year 610 and commanded Muhammad to recite the following verses:[64]
Proclaim! (or read!) in the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created-
Created man, out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood:
Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful,-
He Who taught (the use of) the pen,-
Taught man that which he knew not.
After returning home, Muhammad was consoled and reassured by Khadijah and her Christian cousin, Waraqah ibn Nawfal. Upon receiving his first revelations, he was deeply distressed and resolved to commit suicide.[45] He also feared that others would dismiss his claims as being possessed.[45] Shi'a tradition maintains that Muhammad was neither surprised nor frightened at the appearance of Gabriel but rather welcomed him as if he had been expecting him.[66] The initial revelation was followed by a pause of three years during which Muhammad further gave himself to prayers and spiritual practices. When the revelations resumed he was reassured and commanded to begin preaching: "Thy Guardian-Lord hath not forsaken thee, nor is He displeased."[67][68][69]
Sahih Bukhari narrates Muhammad describing the revelations as, "Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell" and Aisha reported, "I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)".[70] According to Welch these revelations were accompanied by mysterious seizures, and the reports are unlikely to have been forged by later Muslims.[13] Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages.[71] According to the Quran, one of the main roles of Muhammad is to warn the unbelievers of their eschatological punishment (Quran 38:70, Quran 6:19). Sometimes the Quran does not explicitly refer to the Judgment day but provides examples from the history of some extinct communities and warns Muhammad's contemporaries of similar calamities (Quran 41:13–16).[25] Muhammad is not only a warner to those who reject God's revelation, but also a bearer of good news for those who abandon evil, listen to the divine word and serve God.[72] Muhammad's mission also involves preaching monotheism: The Quran commands Muhammad to proclaim and praise the name of his Lord and instructs him not to worship idols or associate other deities with God.[15][25]
The key themes of the early Quranic verses included the responsibility of man towards his creator; the resurrection of dead, God's final judgment followed by vivid descriptions of the tortures in hell and pleasures in Paradise; and the signs of God in all aspects of life. Religious duties required of the believers at this time were few: belief in God, asking for forgiveness of sins, offering frequent prayers, assisting others particularly those in need, rejecting cheating and the love of wealth (considered to be significant in the commercial life of Mecca), being chaste and not to kill newborn girls.[13]
Opposition[link]
See also: Persecution of Muslims by the Meccans and Migration to Abyssinia
According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad's wife Khadija was the first to believe he was a prophet.[73] She was soon followed by Muhammad's ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, close friend Abu Bakr, and adopted son Zaid.[11][73] Around 613, Muhammad began his public preaching (Quran 26:214).[74] Most Meccans ignored him and mocked him,[15] while a few others became his followers. There were three main groups of early converts to Islam: younger brothers and sons of great merchants; people who had fallen out of the first rank in their tribe or failed to attain it; and the weak, mostly unprotected foreigners.[75]
According to Ibn Sad, the opposition in Mecca started when Muhammad delivered verses that condemned idol worship and the Meccan forefathers who engaged in polytheism.[15][76] However, the Quranic exegesis maintains that it began as soon as Muhammad started public preaching.[77] As the number of followers increased, he became a threat to the local tribes and the rulers of the city, whose wealth rested upon the Kaaba, the focal point of Meccan religious life, which Muhammad threatened to overthrow. Muhammad’s denunciation of the Meccan traditional religion was especially offensive to his own tribe, the Quraysh, as they were the guardians of the Ka'aba.[75] The powerful merchants tried to convince Muhammad to abandon his preaching by offering him admission into the inner circle of merchants, and establishing his position therein by an advantageous marriage. However, he refused.[75]
Tradition records at great length the persecution and ill-treatment of Muhammad and his followers.[13][15] Sumayyah bint Khabbab, a slave of a prominent Meccan leader Abu Jahl, is famous as the first martyr of Islam, having been killed with a spear by her master when she refused to give up her faith. Bilal, another Muslim slave, was tortured by Umayyah ibn Khalaf who placed a heavy rock on his chest to force his conversion.[78][79] Apart from insults, Muhammad was protected from physical harm as he belonged to the Banu Hashim clan.[15][80][81]
In 615, some of Muhammad's followers emigrated to the Ethiopian Aksumite Empire and founded a small colony there under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian emperor Aṣḥama ibn Abjar.[13][15]
Muhammad desperately hoping for an accommodation with his tribe, either from fear or in the hope of succeeding more readily in this way, pronounced a verse acknowledging the existence of three Meccan goddesses considered to be the daughters of Allah, and appealing for their intercession. Muhammad later retracted the verses at the behest of Gabriel, claiming that the verses were whispered by the devil himself.[15][82][n 4] This episode known as "The Story of the Cranes" (translation: قصة الغرانيق, transliteration: Qissat al Gharaneeq) is also known as "Satanic Verses". Some scholars argued against its historicity on various grounds.[83] While this incident got widespread acceptance by early Muslims, strong objections to it were raised starting from the tenth century, on theological grounds. The objections continued to be raised to the point where the rejection of the historicity of the incident eventually became the only acceptable orthodox Muslim position.[84]
In 617, the leaders of Makhzum and Banu Abd-Shams, two important Quraysh clans, declared a public boycott against Banu Hashim, their commercial rival, to pressure it into withdrawing its protection of Muhammad. The boycott lasted three years but eventually collapsed as it failed in its objective.[85][86] During this, Muhammad was only able to preach during the holy pilgrimage months in which all hostilities between Arabs were suspended.[87]
Isra and Mi'raj[link]
Main article: Isra and Mi'raj
Islamic tradition relates that in 620, Muhammad experienced the Isra and Mi'raj, a miraculous journey said to have occurred with the angel Gabriel in one night. In the first part of the journey, the Isra, he is said to have travelled from Mecca on a winged steed (Buraq) to "the farthest mosque" (in Arabic: masjid al-aqsa), which Muslims usually identify with the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. In the second part, the Mi'raj, Muhammad is said to have toured heaven and hell, and spoken with earlier prophets, such as Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.[87][89] Ibn Ishaq, author of the first biography of Muhammad, presents this event as a spiritual experience whereas later historians like Al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir present it as a physical journey.[89]
Some western scholars of Islam hold that the oldest Muslim tradition identified the journey as one traveled through the heavens from the sacred enclosure at Mecca to the celestial al-Baytu l-Maʿmur (heavenly prototype of the Kaaba); but later tradition identified Muhammad's journey as having been from Mecca to Jerusalem.[91]
Last years in Mecca before Hijra[link]
Muhammad's wife Khadijah and his uncle Abu Talib both died in 619, the year thus being known as the "year of sorrow". With the death of Abu Talib, the leadership of the Banu Hashim clan was passed to Abu Lahab, an inveterate enemy of Muhammad. Soon afterwards, Abu Lahab withdrew the clan's protection from Muhammad. This placed Muhammad in danger of death since the withdrawal of clan protection implied that the blood revenge for his killing would not be exacted. Muhammad then visited Ta'if, another important city in Arabia, and tried to find a protector for himself there, but his effort failed and further brought him into physical danger.[13][86][87] Muhammad was forced to return to Mecca. A Meccan man named Mut'im b. Adi (and the protection of the tribe of Banu Nawfal) made it possible for him safely to re-enter his native city.[13][86][87]
Many people were visiting Mecca on business or as pilgrims to the Kaaba. Muhammad took this opportunity to look for a new home for himself and his followers. After several unsuccessful negotiations, he found hope with some men from Yathrib (later called Medina).[13] The Arab population of Yathrib were familiar with monotheism and prepared for the appearance of a prophet because a Jewish community existed there.[13][16] They also hoped by the means of Muhammad and the new faith to gain supremacy over Mecca, as they were jealous of its importance as the place of pilgrimage.[16] Converts to Islam came from nearly all Arab tribes in Medina, such that by June of the subsequent year there were seventy-five Muslims coming to Mecca for pilgrimage and to meet Muhammad. Meeting him secretly by night, the group made what was known as the "Second Pledge of al-`Aqaba", or the "Pledge of War"[16][92] Following the pledges at Aqabah, Muhammad encouraged his followers to emigrate to Yathrib. As with the migration to Abyssinia, the Quraysh attempted to stop the emigration. However, almost all Muslims managed to leave.[93]
Hijra[link]
| Timeline of Muhammad in Medina | |
|---|---|
| c. 622 | Emigrates to Medina (Hijra) |
| 623 | Caravan Raids begin |
| 623 | Al Kudr Invasion |
| 624 | Battle of Badr: Muslims defeat Meccans |
| 624 | Battle of Sawiq, Abu Sufyan escapes capture |
| 624 | Expulsion of Banu Qaynuqa |
| 624 | Invasion of Thi Amr, Muhammed raids Ghatafan tribes |
| 624 | Assassination of Khaled b. Sufyan & Abu Rafi |
| 625 | Battle of Uhud: Meccans defeat Muslims |
| 625 | Tragedy of Bir Maona and Al Raji |
| 625 | Invasion of Hamra al-Asad, successfully terrifies enemy to cause retreat |
| 625 | Banu Nadir expelled after Invasion |
| 625 | Invasion of Nejd, Badr and Dumatul Jandal |
| 627 | Battle of the Trench |
| 627 | Invasion of Banu Qurayza, successful siege |
| 628 | Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, gains access to Kaaba |
| 628 | Conquest of the Khaybar oasis |
| 629 | First hajj pilgrimage |
| 629 | Attack on Byzantine Empire fails: Battle of Mu'tah |
| 630 | Bloodless conquest of Mecca |
| 630 | Battle of Hunayn |
| 630 | Siege of Ta'if |
| 631 | Rules most of the Arabian peninsula |
| 632 | Attacks the Ghassanids: Tabuk |
| 632 | Farewell hajj pilgrimage |
| 632 | Wasal (June 8): Medina |
Main article: Hijra (Islam)
The Hijra is the migration of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE. In September 622, warned of a plot to assassinate him, Muhammad secretly slipped out of Mecca, moving with his followers to Medina,[16] 320 kilometres (200 mi) north of Mecca. The Hijra is celebrated annually on the first day of the Muslim year.
Migration to Medina[link]
Main article: Muhammad in Medina
A delegation consisting of the representatives of the twelve important clans of Medina, invited Muhammad as a neutral outsider to Medina to serve as chief arbitrator for the entire community.[94][95] There was fighting in Yathrib mainly involving its Arab and Jewish inhabitants for around a hundred years before 620.[94] The recurring slaughters and disagreements over the resulting claims, especially after the Battle of Bu'ath in which all clans were involved, made it obvious to them that the tribal conceptions of blood-feud and an eye for an eye were no longer workable unless there was one man with authority to adjudicate in disputed cases.[94] The delegation from Medina pledged themselves and their fellow-citizens to accept Muhammad into their community and physically protect him as one of themselves.[13]
Muhammad instructed his followers to emigrate to Medina until virtually all his followers left Mecca. Being alarmed at the departure of Muslims, according to the tradition, the Meccans plotted to assassinate Muhammad. With the help of Ali, Muhammad fooled the Meccans who were watching him, and secretly slipped away from the town with Abu Bakr.[16][96] By 622, Muhammad emigrated to Medina, a large agricultural oasis. Those who migrated from Mecca along with Muhammad became known as muhajirun (emigrants).[13]
Establishment of a new polity[link]
|
Wikisource has original text related to this article: |
Main article: Constitution of Medina
<poem>
God! There is no god but He, the Living, the Everlasting. Slumber seizes Him not, neither sleep; to Him belongs all that is in the heavens and the earth. Who is there that shall intercede with Him save by His leave? He knows what lies before them and what is after them, and they comprehend not anything of His knowledge save such as He wills. His Throne comprises the heavens and earth; the preserving of them oppresses Him not; He is the All-high, the All-glorious.
</poem>Among the first things Muhammad did to settle down the longstanding grievances among the tribes of Medina was drafting a document known as the Constitution of Medina, "establishing a kind of alliance or federation" among the eight Medinan tribes and Muslim emigrants from Mecca, which specified the rights and duties of all citizens and the relationship of the different communities in Medina (including that of the Muslim community to other communities, specifically the Jews and other "Peoples of the Book").[94][95] The community defined in the Constitution of Medina, Ummah, had a religious outlook but was also shaped by practical considerations and substantially preserved the legal forms of the old Arab tribes.[13] It effectively established the first Islamic state.
Several ordinances were proclaimed to win over the numerous and wealthy Jewish population. But these were soon rescinded as the Jews insisted on preserving the entire Mosaic law, and did not recognize him as a prophet because he was not of the race of David.[16]
The first group of pagan converts to Islam in Medina were the clans who had not produced great leaders for themselves but had suffered from warlike leaders from other clans. This was followed by the general acceptance of Islam by the pagan population of Medina, apart from some exceptions. According to Ibn Ishaq, this was influenced by the conversion of Sa'd ibn Mu'adh (a prominent Medinan leader) to Islam.[98] Those Medinans who converted to Islam and helped the Muslim emigrants find shelter became known as the ansar (supporters).[13] Then Muhammad instituted brotherhood between the emigrants and the supporters and he chose Ali as his own brother.[99]
Beginning of armed conflict[link]
Following the emigration, the Meccans seized the properties of the Muslim emigrants in Mecca.[100] Economically uprooted and with no available profession, the Muslim migrants turned to raiding Meccan caravans, initiating armed conflict with Mecca.[101][102][103] Muhammad delivered Quranic verses permitting the Muslims to fight the Meccans (see sura Al-Hajj, Quran 22:39–40).[104] These attacks allowed the migrants to acquire wealth, power and prestige while working towards their ultimate goal of conquering Mecca.[105][106]
On 11 February 624 according to the traditional account, while praying in the Masjid al-Qiblatain in Medina, Muhammad received a revelation from God that he should be facing Mecca rather than Jerusalem during prayer. As he adjusted himself, so did his companions praying with him, beginning the tradition of facing Mecca during prayer.[107] According to Watt, the change may have been less sudden and definite than the story suggests – the related Quranic verses (2:136–2:147) appear to have been revealed at different times – and correlates with changes in Muhammad's political support base, symbolizing his turning away from Jews and adopting a more Arabian outlook.[107]
In March 624, Muhammad led some three hundred warriors in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Muslims set an ambush for them at Badr.[108] Aware of the plan, the Meccan caravan eluded the Muslims.[103] Meanwhile, a force from Mecca was sent to protect the caravan, continuing forward to confront the Muslims upon hearing that the caravan was safe. The Battle of Badr began in March 624.[109] Though outnumbered more than three to one, the Muslims won the battle, killing at least forty-five Meccans with only fourteen Muslims dead. They also succeeded in killing many Meccan leaders, including Abu Jahl.[110] Seventy prisoners had been acquired, many of whom were soon ransomed in return for wealth or freed.[101][103][111][112] Muhammad and his followers saw in the victory a confirmation of their faith[13] as Muhammad ascribed the victory to the assistance of an invisible host of angels.[113] The Quranic verses of this period, unlike the Meccan ones, dealt with practical problems of government and issues like the distribution of spoils.[114][115]
The victory strengthened Muhammad's position in Medina and dispelled earlier doubts among his followers.[116] As a result the opposition to him became less vocal. Pagans who had not yet converted were very bitter about the advance of Islam. Two pagans, Asma bint Marwan and Abu 'Afak, had composed verses taunting and insulting the Muslims. They were killed by people belonging to their own or related clans, and no blood-feud followed.[117]
Muhammad expelled from Medina the Banu Qaynuqa, one of three main Jewish tribes.[13] Although Muhammad wanted them executed, Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy chief of the Khazraj tribe did not agree and they were expelled to Syria but without their property.[115] Following the Battle of Badr, Muhammad also made mutual-aid alliances with a number of Bedouin tribes to protect his community from attacks from the northern part of Hijaz.[13]
Conflict with Mecca[link]
Main article: Battle of Uhud
The Meccans were now anxious to avenge their defeat. To maintain their economic prosperity, the Meccans needed to restore their prestige, which had been lost at Badr.[119] In the ensuing months, the Meccans sent ambush parties on Medina while Muhammad led expeditions on tribes allied with Mecca and sent out a raid on a Meccan caravan.[120] Abu Sufyan subsequently gathered an army of three thousand men and set out for an attack on Medina.[115][121]
A scout alerted Muhammad of the Meccan army's presence and numbers a day later. The next morning, at the Muslim conference of war, there was dispute over how best to repel the Meccans. Muhammad and many senior figures suggested that it would be safer to fight within Medina and take advantage of its heavily fortified strongholds. Younger Muslims argued that the Meccans were destroying their crops, and that huddling in the strongholds would destroy Muslim prestige. Muhammad eventually conceded to the wishes of the latter, and readied the Muslim force for battle.[115] Thus, Muhammad led his force outside to the mountain of Uhud (where the Meccans had camped) and fought the Battle of Uhud on March 23.[122][123] Although the Muslim army had the best of the early encounters, indiscipline on the part of strategically placed archers led to a Muslim defeat, with 75 Muslims killed including Hamza, Muhammad's uncle and one of the best known martyrs in the Muslim tradition. The Meccans did not pursue the Muslims further, but marched back to Mecca declaring victory. This is probably because Muhammad was wounded and thought to be dead. When they knew this on their way back, they did not return back because of false information about new forces coming to his aid.[115] They were not entirely successful, however, as they had failed to achieve their aim of completely destroying the Muslims.[124][125] The Muslims buried the dead, and returned to Medina that evening. Questions accumulated as to the reasons for the loss, and Muhammad subsequently delivered Quranic verses 3:152 which indicated that their defeat was partly a punishment for disobedience and partly a test for steadfastness.[126]
Abu Sufyan now directed his efforts towards another attack on Medina. He attracted the support of nomadic tribes to the north and east of Medina, using propaganda about Muhammad's weakness, promises of booty, memories of the prestige of the Quraysh and use of bribes.[127] Muhammad's policy was now to prevent alliances against him as much as he could. Whenever alliances of tribesmen against Medina were formed, he sent out an expedition to break them up.[127] When Muhammad heard of men massing with hostile intentions against Medina, he reacted with severity.[128] One example is the assassination of Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf, a chieftain of the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir who had gone to Mecca and written poems that helped rouse the Meccans' grief, anger and desire for revenge after the Battle of Badr.[129][130] Around a year later, Muhammad expelled the Banu Nadir from Medina[131] to Syria allowing them to take some of their possessions because he was unable to subdue them in their strongholds. The rest of their property was claimed by Muhammad in the name of God because it was not gained with bloodshed. Muhammad surprised various Arab tribes, one by one, with overwhelming force which caused his enemies to unite to annihilate him.[132] Muhammad's attempts to prevent formation of a confederation against him were unsuccessful, though he was able to increase his own forces and stop many potential tribes from joining his enemies.[133]
Siege of Medina[link]
Main article: Battle of the Trench
<poem>
Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The Parable of His Light is as if there were a Niche and within it a Lamp: the Lamp enclosed in Glass: the glass as it were a brilliant star: Lit from a blessed Tree, an Olive, neither of the east nor of the west, whose oil is well-nigh luminous, though fire scarce touched it: Light upon Light! Allah doth guide whom He will to His Light: Allah doth set forth Parables for men:
and Allah doth know all things. </poem>With the help of the exiled Banu Nadir, the Quraysh military leader Abu Sufyan had mustered a force of 10,000 men. Muhammad prepared a force of about 3,000 men and adopted a new form of defense unknown in Arabia at that time: the Muslims dug a trench[132] wherever Medina lay open to cavalry attack. The idea is credited to a Persian convert to Islam, Salman the Persian. The siege of Medina began on March 31 627[132] and lasted for two weeks.[134] Abu Sufyan's troops were unprepared for the fortifications they were confronted with, and after an ineffectual siege lasting several weeks, the coalition decided to go home.[132][135] The Quran discusses this battle in sura Al-Ahzab, ayat (verses) 9-27, 33:9–27.[77] During the battle, the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza, located at the south of Medina, had entered into negotiations with Meccan forces to revolt against Muhammad. Although they were swayed by suggestions that Muhammad was sure to be overwhelmed, they desired reassurance in case the confederacy was unable to destroy him. No agreement was reached after the prolonged negotiations, in part due to sabotage attempts by Muhammad's scouts.[136] After the coalition's retreat, the Muslims accused the Banu Qurayza of treachery and besieged them in their forts for 25 days. The Banu Qurayza eventually surrendered; according to Ibn Ishaq, all the men apart from a few who converted to Islam were beheaded, while the women and children were enslaved.[132][137][138] Walid N. Arafat and Barakat Ahmad have disputed the accuracy of Ibn Ishaq"s narrative, however.[139] Arafat believes that Ibn Ishaq's Jewish sources, speaking over 100 years after the event, conflated their account with memories of earlier massacres in Jewish history; he notes that Ibn Ishaq was considered an unreliable historian by his contemporary Malik ibn Anas, and a transmitter of "odd tales" by the later Ibn Hajar.[140] Ahmad argues that only some of the tribe were killed, while some of the fighters were merely enslaved.[141][142] Watt finds Arafat's arguments "not entirely convincing", while Meir J. Kister has contradicted[clarification needed] the arguments of Arafat and Ahmad.[143]
In the siege of Medina, the Meccans exerted their utmost strength towards the destruction of the Muslim community. Their failure resulted in a significant loss of prestige; their trade with Syria was gone.[144] Following the Battle of the Trench, he made two expeditions to the north which ended without any fighting.[13][132] While returning from one of these (or some years earlier according to other early accounts), an accusation of adultery was made against Aisha, Muhammad's wife. Aisha was exonerated from the accusations when Muhammad announced that he had received a revelation confirming Aisha's innocence and directing that charges of adultery be supported by four eyewitnesses (sura 24, An-Nur).[145]
Truce of Hudaybiyyah[link]
Main article: Treaty of Hudaybiyyah
Although Muhammad had already delivered Quranic verses commanding the Hajj,[146] the Muslims had not performed it due to the enmity of the Quraysh. In the month of Shawwal 628,[132] Muhammad ordered his followers to obtain sacrificial animals and to make preparations for a pilgrimage (umrah) to Mecca, saying that God had promised him the fulfillment of this goal in a vision where he was shaving his head after the completion of the Hajj.[147] Upon hearing of the approaching 1,400 Muslims, the Quraysh sent out a force of 200 cavalry to halt them. Muhammad evaded them by taking a more difficult route, thereby reaching al-Hudaybiyya, just outside of Mecca.[148] According to Watt, although Muhammad's decision to make the pilgrimage was based on his dream, he was at the same time demonstrating to the pagan Meccans that Islam does not threaten the prestige of their sanctuary, and that Islam was an Arabian religion.[148]
File:نقش مهر.jpg
Imprint of Muhammad's seal, used in letters sent to other heads of state.
Negotiations commenced with emissaries going to and from Mecca. While these continued, rumors spread that one of the Muslim negotiators, Uthman bin al-Affan, had been killed by the Quraysh. Muhammad responded by calling upon the pilgrims to make a pledge not to flee (or to stick with Muhammad, whatever decision he made) if the situation descended into war with Mecca. This pledge became known as the "Pledge of Acceptance" (Arabic: بيعة الرضوان , bay'at al-ridhwān) or the "Pledge under the Tree". News of Uthman's safety, however, allowed for negotiations to continue, and a treaty scheduled to last ten years was eventually signed between the Muslims and Quraysh.[148][149] The main points of the treaty included the cessation of hostilities; the deferral of Muhammad's pilgrimage to the following year;[150] and an agreement to send back any Meccan who had gone to Medina without the permission of their protector.[148]
Many Muslims were not satisfied with the terms of the treaty. However, the Quranic sura "Al-Fath" (The Victory) (Quran 48:1–29) assured the Muslims that the expedition from which they were now returning must be considered a victorious one.[151] It was only later that Muhammad's followers would realise the benefit behind this treaty. These benefits included the inducing of the Meccans to recognise Muhammad as an equal;[150] a cessation of military activity posing well for the future; and gaining the admiration of Meccans who were impressed by the incorporation of the pilgrimage rituals.[13]
After signing the truce, Muhammad made an expedition against the Jewish oasis of Khaybar,[150] known as the Battle of Khaybar. This was possibly due to it housing the Banu Nadir, who were inciting hostilities against Muhammad, or to regain some prestige to deflect from what appeared to some Muslims as the inconclusive result of the truce of Hudaybiyya.[121][152] According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad also sent letters to many rulers of the world, asking them to convert to Islam (the exact date is given variously in the sources).[13][153][154][155] Hence he sent messengers (with letters) to Heraclius of the Byzantine Empire (the eastern Roman Empire), Khosrau of Persia, the chief of Yemen and to some others.[153][154][155] In the years following the truce of Hudaybiyya, Muhammad sent his forces against the Arabs on Transjordanian Byzantine soil in the Battle of Mu'tah, in which the Muslims were defeated.[155][156]
Final years[link]
Conquest of Mecca[link]
Main articles: Conquest of Mecca and Muhammad after the conquest of Mecca
The truce of Hudaybiyyah had been enforced for two years.[157][158] The tribe of Banu Khuza'a had good relations with Muhammad, whereas their enemies, the Banu Bakr, had an alliance with the Meccans.[157][158] A clan of the Bakr made a night raid against the Khuza'a, killing a few of them.[157][158] The Meccans helped the Banu Bakr with weapons and, according to some sources, a few Meccans also took part in the fighting.[155][157] After this event, Muhammad sent a message to Mecca with three conditions, asking them to accept one of them. These were that either the Meccans paid blood money for those slain among the Khuza'ah tribe; or, that they should disavow themselves of the Banu Bakr; or, that they should declare the truce of Hudaybiyyah null.[159]
The Meccans replied that they would accept only the last condition.[159] However, soon they realized their mistake and sent Abu Sufyan to renew the Hudaybiyyah treaty, but now his request was declined by Muhammad.[155]
Muhammad began to prepare for a campaign.[160] In 630, Muhammad marched on Mecca with an enormous force, said to number more than ten thousand men. With minimal casualties, Muhammad took control of Mecca.[161][162] He declared an amnesty for past offences, except for ten men and women who were "guilty of murder or other offences or had sparked off the war and disrupted the peace".[163] Some of these were later pardoned.[162][164] Most Meccans converted to Islam and Muhammad subsequently had destroyed all the statues of Arabian gods in and around the Kaaba.[162][165][166] According to reports collected by Ibn Ishaq and al-Azraqi, Muhammad personally spared paintings or frescos of Mary and Jesus, but other traditions suggest that all pictures were erased.[167] The Quran discusses the conquest of Mecca.[77][168]
Conquest of Arabia[link]
Main articles: Battle of Hunayn and Battle of Tabouk
Soon after the conquest of Mecca, Muhammad was alarmed by a military threat from the confederate tribes of Hawazin who were collecting an army twice the size of Muhammad's. The Banu Hawazin were old enemies of the Meccans. They were joined by the Banu Thaqif (inhabiting the city of Ta'if) who adopted an anti-Meccan policy due to the decline of the prestige of Meccans.[169] Muhammad defeated the Hawazin and Thaqif tribes in the Battle of Hunayn.[13][170]
In the same year, Muhammad made the expedition of Tabuk against northern Arabia because of their previous defeat at the Battle of Mu'tah as well as reports of the hostile attitude adopted against Muslims. With the greatest difficulty he collected thirty thousand men, half of whom, however, on the second day after their departure from Mecca, returned with Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy, untroubled by the damning verses which Muhammad hurled at them.[171] Although Muhammad did not make contact with hostile forces at Tabuk, he received the submission of some local chiefs of the region.[13][172]
He also ordered the destruction of remaining pagan idols in Eastern Arabia. The last city to hold out against the Muslims in Eastern Arabia was Taif. Muhammad refused to accept the surrender of the city until they agreed to convert to Islam and let his men destroy their statue of their goddess Allat.[173][174][175]
A year after the Battle of Tabuk, the Banu Thaqif sent emissaries to Medina to surrender to Muhammad and adopt Islam. Many bedouins submitted to Muhammad to be safe against his attacks and to benefit from the booties of the wars.[13][171] However, the bedouins were alien to the system of Islam and wanted to maintain their independence, their established code of virtue and their ancestral traditions. Muhammad thus required of them a military and political agreement according to which they "acknowledge the suzerainty of Medina, to refrain from attack on the Muslims and their allies, and to pay the Zakat, the Muslim religious levy."[171][176]
Farewell pilgrimage[link]
Main article: The Farewell Pilgrimage
In 632, at the end of the tenth year after the migration to Medina, Muhammad carried through his first truly Islamic pilgrimage, thereby teaching his followers the rites of the annual Great Pilgrimage (Hajj).[13] After completing the pilgrimage, Muhammad delivered a famous speech known as The Farewell Sermon, at Mount Arafat east of Mecca. In this sermon, Muhammad advised his followers not to follow certain pre-Islamic customs. He declared that an Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab nor a non-Arab has any superiority over an Arab; also a white has no superiority over black nor a black has any superiority over white except by piety and good action.[177] He abolished all old blood feuds and disputes based on the former tribal system and asked for all old pledges to be returned as implications of the creation of the new Islamic community. Commenting on the vulnerability of women in his society, Muhammed asked his male followers to “Be good to women; for they are powerless captives (awan) in your households. You took them in God’s trust, and legitimated your sexual relations with the Word of God, so come to your senses people, and hear my words ...” He told them that they were entitled to discipline their wives but should do so with kindness. He addressed the issue of inheritance by forbidding false claims of paternity or of a client relationship to the deceased, and forbade his followers to leave their wealth to a testamentary heir. He also upheld the sacredness of four lunar months in each year.[178][179][180] According to Sunni tafsir, the following Quranic verse was delivered during this event: “Today I have perfected your religion, and completed my favours for you and chosen Islam as a religion for you.”(Quran 5:3)[13][181] According to Shia tafsir, it refers to the appointment of Ali ibn Abi Talib at the pond of Khumm as Muhammad's successor, this occurring a few days later when Muslims were returning from Mecca to Medina.[182]
Death and tomb[link]
A few months after the farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and suffered for several days with a fever, head pain, and weakness.[181] He died on Monday, June 8, 632, in Medina, at the age of 63, in the house of his wife Aisha.[183] With his head resting on Aisha's lap, he asked her to dispose of his last worldly goods (seven coins), then murmured his final words:
Rather, God on High and paradise.[183]—Muhammad
He was buried where he died, in Aisha's house.[13][184][185][186] During the reign of the Umayyad caliph al-Walid I, the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) was expanded to include the site of Muhammad's tomb.[187] The Green Dome above the tomb was built by the Mamluk sultan Al Mansur Qalawun in the 13th century, although the green color was added in the 16th century, under the reign of Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.[188] Among tombs adjacent to Muhammad's are those of his companions (Sahabah)—the first two Muslim Caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar—, and an empty one that Muslims believe awaits Jesus.[185][189][190]
When bin Saud took Medina in 1805, Muhammad's tomb was stripped of its gold and jewel ornaments.[191] Adherents to Wahhabism, bin Sauds' followers destroyed nearly every tomb dome in Medina in order to prevent their veneration,[191] and the one of Muhammad is said to have narrowly escaped.[192] Similar events took place in 1925 when the Saudi militias retook—and this time managed to keep—the city.[193][194][195] In the Wahhabi interpretation of Islam, burial is to take place in unmarked graves.[192] Although frowned upon by the Saudis, many pilgrims continue to practice a ziyarat—a ritual visit—to the tomb.[196][197]
Aftermath[link]
Muhammad united the tribes of Arabia into a single Arab Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life. With Muhammad's death, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community.[21] Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, Muhammad's friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph.[186] This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated the successor by Muhammad at Ghadir Khumm. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to make an expedition against the Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces because of the previous defeat, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode referred to by later Muslim historians as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".[198]
The pre-Islamic Middle East was dominated by the Byzantine and Sassanian empires. The Roman-Persian Wars between the two had devastated the region, making the empires unpopular amongst local tribes. Furthermore, in the lands that would be conquered by Muslims many Christians (Nestorians, Monophysites, Jacobites and Copts) were disaffected from the Christian Orthodoxy which deemed them heretics. Within only a decade, Muslims conquered Mesopotamia and Persia, Byzantine Syria and Byzantine Egypt.[199] and established the Rashidun empire.
Early reforms under Islam[link]
Main article: Early reforms under Islam
According to William Montgomery Watt, for Muhammad, religion was not a private and individual matter but rather “the total response of his personality to the total situation in which he found himself. He was responding [not only]… to the religious and intellectual aspects of the situation but also to the economic, social, and political pressures to which contemporary Mecca was subject."[200] Bernard Lewis says that there are two important political traditions in Islam – one that views Muhammad as a statesman in Medina, and another that views him as a rebel in Mecca. He sees Islam itself as a type of revolution that greatly changed the societies into which the new religion was brought.[201]
Historians generally agree that Islamic social reforms in areas such as social security, family structure, slavery and the rights of women and children improved on the status quo of Arab society.[201][202] For example, according to Lewis, Islam "from the first denounced aristocratic privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of the career open to the talents".[201] Muhammad's message transformed the society and moral order of life in the Arabian Peninsula through reorientation of society as regards to identity, world view, and the hierarchy of values.[203] Economic reforms addressed the plight of the poor, which was becoming an issue in pre-Islamic Mecca.[204] The Quran requires payment of an alms tax (zakat) for the benefit of the poor, and as Muhammad's position grew in power he demanded that those tribes who wanted to ally with him implement the zakat in particular.[205][206]
Appearance[link]
Ali gave the following description of Muhammad's physical appearance:[207]
Muhammad was middle-sized, did not have lank or crisp hair, was not fat, had a white circular face, wide black eyes, and long eye-lashes. When he walked, he walked as though he went down a declivity. He had the "seal of prophecy" between his shoulder blades ... He was bulky. His face shone like the moon. He was taller than middling stature but shorter than conspicuous tallness. He had thick, curly hair. The plaits of his hair were parted. His hair reached beyond the lobe of his ear. His complexion was azhar [bright, luminous]. Muhammad had a wide forehead, and fine, long, arched eyebrows which did not meet. Between his eyebrows there was a vein which distended when he was angry. The upper part of his nose was hooked; he was thick bearded, had smooth cheeks, a strong mouth, and his teeth were set apart. He had thin hair on his chest. His neck was like the neck of an ivory statue, with the purity of silver. Muhammad was proportionate, stout, firm-gripped, even of belly and chest, broad-chested and broad-shouldered.
The "seal of prophecy" between the Prophet's shoulders is generally described as having been a type of raised mole the size of a pigeon's egg.[208] Another description of Muhammad was provided by Umm Ma'bad, a woman he met on his journey to Medina:[209]
I saw a man, pure and clean, with a handsome face and a fine figure. He was not marred by a skinny body, nor was he overly small in the head and neck. He was graceful and elegant, with intensely black eyes and thick eyelashes. There was a huskiness in his voice, and his neck was long. His beard was thick, and his eyebrows were finely arched and joined together.
When silent, he was grave and dignified, and when he spoke, glory rose up and overcame him. He was from afar the most beautiful of men and the most glorious, and close up he was the sweetest and the loveliest. He was sweet of speech and articulate, but not petty or trifling. His speech was a string of cascading pearls, measured so that none despaired of its length, and no eye challenged him because of brevity.
Descriptions like these were often reproduced in calligraphic panels (hilya or, in Turkish, hilye), which in the 17th century developed into an art form of their own in the Ottoman Empire.[209]
Household[link]
Main articles: Muhammad's wives and Ahl al-Bayt
Muhammad's life is traditionally defined into two periods: pre-hijra (emigration) in Mecca (from 570 to 622), and post-hijra in Medina (from 622 until 632). Muhammad is said to have had thirteen wives or concubines. (There are differing accounts on the status of some of them as wife or concubine.[210])[211] All but two of his marriages were contracted after the migration to Medina.
At the age of 25, Muhammad married the wealthy Khadijah bint Khuwaylid who was 40 years old at that time.[212] The marriage lasted for 25 years and was a happy one.[213] Muhammad relied upon Khadija in many ways and did not enter into marriage with another woman during this marriage.[214][215] After the death of Khadija, it was suggested to Muhammad by Khawla bint Hakim that he should marry Sawda bint Zama, a Muslim widow, or Aisha, daughter of Um Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca. Muhammad is said to have asked her to arrange for him to marry both.[145]
Traditional sources dictate that Aisha was six or seven years old when betrothed to Muhammad,[145][216][217] with the marriage being consummated when she was nine or ten years old.[145][216][218][219][220] While the majority of traditional sources indicate Aisha was 9 (and therefore a virgin) at the time of marriage, a small number of more recent writers have variously estimated her age at 15 to 24.[221][222][223][224][225]
After migration to Medina, Muhammad (who was now in his fifties) married several women. These marriages were contracted mostly for political or humanitarian reasons. The women were either widows of Muslims who had been killed in battle and had been left without a protector, or belonging to important families or clans whom it was necessary to honor and strengthen alliances with.[226]
Muhammad did his own household chores and helped with housework, such as preparing food, sewing clothes and repairing shoes. He is also said to have had accustomed his wives to dialogue; he listened to their advice, and the wives debated and even argued with him.[227][228][229]
Khadijah is said to have had four daughters with Muhammad—(Ruqayyah bint Muhammad, Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad, Zainab bint Muhammad, Fatimah Zahra)—and two sons—(Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad and Qasim ibn Muhammad)—who both died in childhood. All except two of his daughters, Fatimah and Zainab, died before him.[230] Some Shi'a scholars contend that Fatimah was Muhammad's only daughter.[231] Maria al-Qibtiyya bore him a son named Ibrahim ibn Muhammad, but the child died when he was two years old.[230]
Nine of Muhammad's wives survived him.[211] Aisha, who became known as Muhammad's favourite wife in Sunni tradition, survived him by many decades and was instrumental in helping bring together the scattered sayings of Muhammad that would form the Hadith literature for the Sunni branch of Islam.[145]
Muhammad's descendants through Fatimah are known as sharifs, syeds or sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayed or sayyid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi'a, though the Shi'a place much more emphasis and value on their distinction.[232]
Zayd ibn Harith was a slave that Muhammad bought, freed, and then adopted as his son. He also had a wetnurse.[233] Muhammad owned other slaves as well, whom he bought usually to free.[234]
Legacy[link]
Muslim views[link]
Main article: Islamic views of Muhammad
Following the attestation to the oneness of God, the belief in Muhammad's prophethood is the main aspect of the Islamic faith. Every Muslim proclaims in the Shahadah that "I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God, and I testify that Muhammad is a Messenger of God". The Shahadah is the basic creed or tenet of Islam. Ideally, it is the first words a newborn will hear, and children are taught as soon as they are able to understand it and it will be recited when they die. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in the call to prayer (adhan) and the prayer itself. Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.[235]
According to the Quran, Muhammad is only the last of a series of Prophets sent by God for the benefit of mankind, and commands Muslims to make no distinction between them. Quran 10:37 states that "...it (the Quran) is a confirmation of (revelations) that went before it, and a fuller explanation of the Book - wherein there is no doubt - from The Lord of the Worlds.". Similarly Quran 46:12 states "...And before this was the book of Moses, as a guide and a mercy. And this Book confirms (it)...", while 2:136 commands the believers of Islam to "Say: we believe in God and that which is revealed unto us, and that which was revealed unto Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and that which Moses and Jesus received, and which the prophets received from their Lord. We make no distinction between any of them, and unto Him we have surrendered."
Historian Denis Gril believes that the Quran does not overtly describe Muhammad performing miracles, and the supreme miracle of Muhammad is finally identified with the Quran itself.[236] However, Muslim tradition credits Muhammad with several miracles or supernatural events.[237] For example, many Muslim commentators and some Western scholars have interpreted the Surah 54:1–2 as referring to Muhammad splitting the Moon in view of the Quraysh when they began persecuting his followers.[236][238]
The Sunnah represents the actions and sayings of Muhammad (preserved in reports known as Hadith), and covers a broad array of activities and beliefs ranging from religious rituals, personal hygiene, burial of the dead to the mystical questions involving the love between humans and God. The Sunnah is considered a model of emulation for pious Muslims and has to a great degree influenced the Muslim culture. The greeting that Muhammad taught Muslims to offer each other, “may peace be upon you” (Arabic: as-salamu `alaykum) is used by Muslims throughout the world. Many details of major Islamic rituals such as daily prayers, the fasting and the annual pilgrimage are only found in the Sunnah and not the Quran.[239]
The Sunnah also played a major role in the development of the Islamic sciences. It contributed much to the development of Islamic law, particularly from the end of the first Islamic century.[240] Muslim mystics, known as sufis, who were seeking for the inner meaning of the Quran and the inner nature of Muhammad, viewed the prophet of Islam not only as a prophet but also as a perfect saint. Sufi orders trace their chain of spiritual descent back to Muhammad.[241]
Muslims have traditionally expressed love and veneration for Muhammad. Stories of Muhammad's life, his intercession and of his miracles (particularly "Splitting of the moon") have permeated popular Muslim thought and poetry. Among Arabic odes to Muhammad, the Qaṣīda al-Burda ("Poem of the Mantle") by the Egyptian Sufi al-Busiri (1211–1294) is particularly well known, and widely held to possess a healing, spiritual power.[243] The Quran refers to Muhammad as "a mercy (rahmat) to the worlds" (Quran 21:107).[13] The association of rain with mercy in Oriental countries has led to imagining Muhammad as a rain cloud dispensing blessings and stretching over lands, reviving the dead hearts, just as rain revives the seemingly dead earth (see, for example, the Sindhi poem of Shah ʿAbd al-Latif).[13] Muhammad's birthday is celebrated as a major feast throughout the Islamic world, excluding Wahhabi-dominated Saudi Arabia where these public celebrations are discouraged.[244] When Muslims say or write the name of Muhammad or any other prophet in Islam, they usually follow it with Peace be upon him (Arabic: sallAllahu `alayhi wa sallam).[22] In casual writing, this is sometimes abbreviated as PBUH or SAW; in printed matter, a small calligraphic rendition is commonly used instead of printing the entire phrase.
Islamic depictions of Muhammad[link]
Main article: Depictions of Muhammad
In line with the hadith prohibition against creating images of sentient living beings, which is particularly strictly observed with respect to God and the Prophet, Islamic religious art is focused on the word.[245][246] Muslims generally avoid depictions of Muhammad, and mosques are decorated with calligraphy and Quranic inscriptions or geometrical designs, not images or sculptures.[245][247] Today, the interdiction against images of Muhammad – designed to prevent worship of Muhammad, rather than God – is much more strictly observed in Sunni Islam (85%–90% of Muslims) than among Shias (10%–15%).[248] While both Sunnis and Shiites have created images of Muhammad in the past,[249] Islamic depictions of Muhammad are rare.[245] They have, until recently[when?], mostly been limited to the private and elite medium of the miniature, and since about 1500 most depictions show Muhammad with his face veiled, or symbolically represent him as a flame.[247][250]
No depictions of the Prophet dating from his lifetime survive. The earliest depictions come from 13th-century Anatolian Seljuk and Ilkhanid Persian miniatures, typically in literary genres describing the life and deeds of Muhammad.[250][251] During the Ilkhanid period, when Persia's Mongol rulers converted to Islam, competing Sunni and Shi'a groups used visual imagery, including images of Muhammad, to promote their particular interpretation of Islam's key events.[252] Influenced by the Buddhist tradition of representational religious art predating the Mongol elite's conversion, this innovation was unprecedented in the Islamic world, and accompanied by a "broader shift in Islamic artistic culture away from abstraction toward representation" in "mosques, on tapestries, silks, ceramics, and in glass and metalwork" besides books.[253] In the Persian lands, this tradition of realistic depictions lasted through the Timurid dynasty until the Safavids took power in the early sixteenth century.[252] The Safavaids, who made Shi'i Islam the state religion, initiated a departure from the traditional Ilkhanid and Timurid artistic style by covering Muhammad's face with a veil to obscure his features and at the same time represent his luminous essence.[254] Concomitantly, some of the unveiled images from earlier periods were defaced.[252][255][256] Later images were produced in Ottoman Turkey and elsewhere, but mosques were never decorated with images of Muhammad.[249] Illustrated accounts of the night journey (mi'raj) were particularly popular from the Ilkhanid period through the Safavid era.[257] During the 19th century, Iran saw a boom of printed and illustrated mi'raj books, with Muhammad's face veiled, aimed in particular at illiterates and children in the manner of graphic novels; reproduced through lithography these were essentially "printed manuscripts".[257] Today, millions of historical reproductions and modern images are available in some Muslim countries, especially Turkey and Iran, on posters, postcards, and even in coffee-table books, but are unknown in most other parts of the Islamic world, and when encountered by Muslims from other countries they can cause considerable consternation and offense.[249][250]
Other views[link]
Non-Muslim views regarding Muhammad have ranged across a large spectrum of responses and beliefs, many of which have changed over time.[258][259]
Non-Western views[link]
Mahatma Gandhi stated:[260]
I wanted to know the best of the life of one who holds today an undisputed sway over the hearts of millions of mankind.... I became more than ever convinced that it was not the sword that won a place for Islam in those days in the scheme of life. It was the rigid simplicity, the utter self-effacement of the Prophet, the scrupulous regard for pledges, his intense devotion to his friends and followers, his intrepidity, his fearlessness, his absolute trust in God and in his own mission. These and not the sword carried everything before them and surmounted every obstacle. When I closed the second volume (of the Prophet's biography), I was sorry there was not more for me to read of that great life.
European and Western views[link]
See also: Medieval Christian views on Muhammad
According to Hossein Nasr, earliest European literature often refers to Muhammad unfavorably. He has been maligned in various European sources for over a millennium.[261] A few learned circles of Middle Ages Europe—primarily Latin-literate scholars—had access to fairly extensive biographical material about Muhammad. They interpreted that information through a Christian religious filter that viewed Muhammad as a charlatan driven by ambition and eagerness for power, and who seduced the Saracens into his submission under a religious guise.[13] Popular European literature of the time portrayed Muhammad as though he were worshipped by Muslims in the manner of an idol or a heathen god.[13] Some medieval Christians believed he died in 666, alluding to the number of the beast, instead of his actual death date in 632;[262] others changed his name from Muhammad to Mahound, the "devil incarnate".[263] Bernard Lewis writes "The development of the concept of Mahound started with considering Muhammad as a kind of demon or false god worshipped with Apollyon and Termagant in an unholy trinity."[264] A later medieval work, Livre dou Tresor represents Muhammad as a former monk and cardinal.[13] Dante's Divine Comedy (Canto XXVIII), puts Muhammad, together with Ali, in Hell "among the sowers of discord and the schismatics, being lacerated by devils again and again."[13] Cultural critic and author Edward Said wrote in Orientalism regarding Dante's depiction of Muhammad:
Empirical data about the Orient...count for very little; ... What ... Dante tried to do in the Inferno, is ... to characterize the Orient as alien and to incorporate it schematically on a theatrical stage whose audience, manager, and actors are ... only for Europe. Hence the vacillation between the familiar and the alien; Mohammed is always the imposter (familiar, because he pretends to be like the Jesus we know) and always the Oriental (alien, because although he is in some ways "like" Jesus, he is after all not like him).[265]
After the reformation, Muhammad was often portrayed as a cunning and ambitious impostor.[13][264] Guillaume Postel was among the first to present a more positive view of Muhammad.[13] Boulainvilliers described Muhammad as a gifted political leader and a just lawmaker.[13] Gottfried Leibniz praised Muhammad because "he did not deviate from the natural religion".[13] Thomas Carlyle in his book Heroes and Hero Worship and the Heroic in History (1840) defines Muhammed as "A silent great soul, one of that who cannot but be earnest".[266] Edward Gibbon in his book The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire observes that "the good sense of Mohammad despised the pomp of royalty." Friedrich Martin von Bodenstedt (1851) described Muhammad as "an ominous destroyer and a prophet of murder."[13]
Simon Ockley wrote in his book The History of the Saracen Empires (1718);
The greatest success of Mohammad’s life was effected by sheer moral force...It is not the propagation but the permanency of his religion that deserves our wonder, the same pure and perfect impression which he engraved at Mecca and Medina is preserved, after the revolutions of twelve centuries by the Indian, the African and the Turkish proselytes of the Koran. . . The Mahometans have uniformly withstood the temptation of reducing the object of their faith and devotion to a level with the senses and imagination of man. 'I believe in One God and Mahomet the Apostle of God' is the simple and invariable profession of Islam. The intellectual image of the Deity has never been degraded by any visible idol; the honours of the prophet have never transgressed the measure of human virtue, and his living precepts have restrained the gratitude of his disciples within the bounds of reason and religion.[267]
Reverend Benjamin Bosworth Smith in his book Muhammad and Muhammadanism (1874) commented that;
...if ever any man had the right to say that he ruled by the right divine, it was Mohammed, for he had all the power without its instruments and without its supports. He cared not for the dressings of power. The simplicity of his private life was in keeping with his public life...In Mohammadanism every thing is different here. Instead of the shadowy and the mysterious, we have history....We know of the external history of Muhammad....while for his internal history after his mission had been proclaimed, we have a book absolutely unique in its origin, in its preservation....on the Substantial authority of which no one has ever been able to cast a serious doubt.[268]
Alphonse de Lamartine quoted in Histoire de la Turquie (1854) on Muhammad;
If greatness of purpose, smallness of means and outstanding results are the three criteria of human genius, who could dare compare any great man in modern history with Muhammad.[269]
Never has a man proposed for himself, voluntarily or involuntarily, a goal more sublime, since this goal was beyond measure: undermine the superstitions placed between the creature and the Creator, give back God to man and man to God, reinstate the rational and saintly idea of divinity in the midst of this prevailing chaos of material and disfigured gods of idolatry.... The most famous have only moved weapons, laws, empires; they founded, when they founded anything, only material powers, often crumbling before them. This one not only moved armies, legislations, empires, peoples, dynasties, millions of men over a third of the inhabited globe; but he also moved ideas, beliefs, souls. He founded upon a book, of which each letter has become a law, a spiritual nationality embracing people of all languages and races; and made an indelible imprint upon this Muslim world, for the hatred of false gods and the passion for the God, One and Immaterial....Philosopher, orator, apostle, legislator, warrior, conqueror of ideas, restorer of a rational dogma for a cult without imagery, founder of twenty earthly empires and of a spiritual empire, this is Muhammad.[270]
Annie Besant in The Life and Teachings of Muhammad (1932) wrote
It is impossible for anyone who studies the life and character of the great Prophet of Arabia, who knows how he taught and how he lived, to feel anything but reverence for that mighty Prophet, one of the great messengers of the Supreme...[271]
According to William Montgomery Watt and Richard Bell, recent writers have generally dismissed the idea that Muhammad deliberately deceived his followers, arguing that Muhammad "was absolutely sincere and acted in complete good faith"[272] and that Muhammad’s readiness to endure hardship for his cause when there seemed to be no rational basis for hope shows his sincerity.[273] Watt says that sincerity does not directly imply correctness: In contemporary terms, Muhammad might have mistaken his own subconscious for divine revelation.[274] Watt and Bernard Lewis argue that viewing Muhammad as a self-seeking impostor makes it impossible to understand the development of Islam.[275][276] Alford T. Welch holds that Muhammad was able to be so influential and successful because of his firm belief in his vocation.[13] Michael H. Hart in his first book The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History (1978), a ranking of the 100 people who most influenced human history,[277] chose Muhammad as the first person on his list,[278] attributing this to the fact that Muhammad was "supremely successful" in both the religious and secular realms. He also credits the authorship of the Quran to Muhammad, making his role in the development of Islam an unparalleled combination of secular and religious influence which entitles Muhammad to be considered the most influential single figure in human history.
Other religious traditions[link]
See also: Judaism's views on Muhammad
- Bahá'ís venerate Muhammad as one of a number of prophets or "Manifestations of God", but consider his teachings to have been superseded by those of Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahai faith.[279]
- Muhammad is regarded as one of the Saints of Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica.
- The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints neither regards Muhammad as a prophet nor accepts the Quran as a book of scripture. However, it does respect Muhammad as one who taught moral truths which can enlighten nations and bring a higher level of understanding to individuals.[280]
Criticism[link]
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This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability. |
Main article: Criticism of Muhammad
Criticism of Muhammad has existed since the 7th century, when he was attacked by his non-Muslim Arab contemporaries for preaching monotheism, his marriages, and military expeditions. During the Middle Ages he was frequently demonized in European and other non-Muslim polemics. In modern times, his sincerity in claiming to be a prophet has been questioned, and the laws he established, such as those concerning slavery have been criticised.
See also[link]
- Achtiname of Muhammad
- Arabian tribes that interacted with Muhammad
- Depictions of Muhammad
- Diplomatic career of Muhammad
- Glossary of Islam
- List of founders of religious traditions
- List of films about Muhammad
- Military career of Muhammad
- Mohammad, Messenger of God (aka The Message)
- Muhammad: Legacy of a Prophet (documentary)
- Muhammad in Islam
- Paraclete in Islam
- Relics of Muhammad
- Early social changes under Islam
- Prophets in Islam
- Islamic philosophy
- Sharia
- Islamic economics in the world
Notes[link]
- ^ Not all Muslims believe Muhammad was the last prophet. For example, the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community considers Mirza Ghulam Ahmad to be a prophet as well. ("Finality of Prophethood | Hadhrat Muhammad (PUBH) the Last Prophet". Ahmadiyya Muslim Community. http://www.alislam.org/books/truth/finality.html. )
- ^ 'Islam' is always referred to in the Quran as a dīn, a word that means "way" or "path" in Arabic, but is usually translated in English as "religion" for the sake of convenience
- ^ S. A. Nigosian(2004), p. 6 The Encyclopaedia of Islam says that the Quran responds "constantly and often candidly to Muhammad's changing historical circumstances and contains a wealth of hidden data."
- ^ The aforementioned Islamic histories recount that as Muhammad was reciting Sūra Al-Najm (Q.53), as revealed to him by the Archangel Gabriel, Satan tempted him to utter the following lines after verses 19 and 20: "Have you thought of Allāt and al-'Uzzā and Manāt the third, the other; These are the exalted Gharaniq, whose intercession is hoped for." (Allāt, al-'Uzzā and Manāt were three goddesses worshiped by the Meccans). cf Ibn Ishaq, A. Guillaume p. 166.
References[link]
- ^ Elizabeth Goldman (1995), p. 63
- ^ Peters, F.E. (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. pp. 9. ISBN 0-691-11553-2.
- ^ Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 12. ISBN 978-0-19-511234-4.
- ^ Quran 33:40
- ^ Esposito (1998), p. 12.
- ^ Esposito (2002b), pp. 4–5.
- ^ a b F. E. Peters (2003), p. 9.
- ^ a b Conrad, Lawrence I. (1987). "Abraha and Muhammad: some observations apropos of chronology and literary topoi in the early Arabic historical tradition1". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 50 (2): 225–240. DOI:10.1017/S0041977X00049016. http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=3863868&fulltextType=RA&fileId=S0041977X00049016.
- ^ a b Encyclopedia of World History (1998), p. 452
- ^ a b c d e f g An Introduction to the Quran (1895), p. 182
- ^ a b An Introduction to the Quran (1895), p. 184
- ^ Esposito (1998), p. 12; (1999) p. 25; (2002) pp. 4–5
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao Alford Welch, Muhammad, Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ An Introduction to the Quran (1895), p.184–185
- ^ a b c d e f g h An Introduction to the Quran (1895), p. 185
- ^ a b c d e f g h An Introduction to the Quran (1895), p. 187
- ^ Sahih-Bukhari, Book 43, #658
- ^ Sahih Bukhari Book 59, #641
- ^ Hisham Ibn Al-Kalbi - The Book of Idols. Translated by Nabih Amin Faris. Princeton University Press, pg. 21-22
- ^ "Muhammad," Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim world
- ^ a b See:
- Holt (1977a), p.57
- Lapidus (2002), pp 0.31 and 32
- ^ a b Ann Goldman, Richard Hain, Stephen Liben (2006), p. 212
- ^ Watt (1974) p. 231
- ^ Jean-Louis Déclais, Names of the Prophet, Encyclopedia of the Quran
- ^ a b c Uri Rubin, Muhammad, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
- ^ Ernst (2004), p. 80
- ^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Qurʾān". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-68890/Quran. Retrieved 2007-11-04.
- ^ Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths, Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, page 338, I.B. Tauris Publishers.
- ^ Quran 17:106
- ^ Rippin, Andrew (2005). Muslims: their religious beliefs and practices. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-415-34888-1. http://books.google.com/?id=4TQ5yvnpwBAC&pg=PA324&dq=quran+muhammad+biography#v=onepage&q=four%20times&f=false. Retrieved 15 June 2011.
- ^ Clinton Bennett (1998). In search of Muhammad. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-0-304-70401-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=-VTIkkcUFHQC&pg=PA18.
- ^ Francis E. Peters (1994). Muhammad and the origins of Islam. SUNY Press. p. 261. ISBN 978-0-7914-1876-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jrq6boXdJOAC&pg=PA261.
- ^ a b Watt (1953), p.xi
- ^ Reeves (2003), pp. 6–7
- ^ a b S. A. Nigosian(2004), p. 6
- ^ Donner (1998), p. 132
- ^ Watt (1953), p.xv
- ^ a b Lewis (1993), pp. 33–34
- ^ Madelung (1997), pp.xi, 19 and 20
- ^ Walter Emil Kaegi, Jr., "Initial Byzantine Reactions to the Arab Conquest", Church History, Vol. 38, No. 2 (Jun., 1969), p. 139-149, p. 139-142, quoting from Doctrina Jacobi nuper baptizati 86-87
- ^ Philip K. Hitti, History of the Arabs, 10th edition (1970), p.112.
- ^ Watt (1953), pp.1–2
- ^ Watt (1953), pp. 16–18
- ^ Loyal Rue, Religion Is Not about God: How Spiritual Traditions Nurture Our Biological,2005, p.224
- ^ a b c John Esposito, Islam, Expanded edition, Oxford University Press, p.4–5
- ^ See:
- Esposito, Islam, Extended Edition, Oxford University Press, pp.5–7
- Quran 3:95
- ^ Kochler (1982), p.29
- ^ cf. Uri Rubin, Hanif, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
- ^ See:
- Louis Jacobs(1995), p.272
- Turner (2005), p.16
- ^ See also Quran 43:31 cited in EoI; Muhammad
- ^ a b Watt (1974), p. 7.
- ^ Ali, Wijdan (1999),p. 3
- ^ Josef W. Meri (2005), p. 525
- ^ Watt, Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb, Encyclopaedia of Islam
- ^ Watt, Amina, Encyclopaedia of Islam
- ^ a b c Watt (1974), p. 8.
- ^ Armand Abel, Bahira, Encyclopaedia of Islam
- ^ a b Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History (2005), v.3, p. 1025
- ^ Khan, Majid Ali (1998). Muhammad the final messenger (1998 ed.). India: Islamic Book Service. p. 332. ISBN 81-85738-25-4.
- ^ Esposito (1998), p. 6
- ^ Dairesi, Hırka-i Saadet; Aydın, Hilmi (2004). The sacred trusts: Pavilion of the Sacred Relics, Topkapı Palace Museum, Istanbul. Tughra Books. ISBN 978-1-932099-72-0.
- ^ Emory C. Bogle (1998), p.6
- ^ John Henry Haaren, Addison B. Poland (1904), p.83
- ^ Brown (2003), pp. 72–73
- ^ Quran 96:1–5
- ^ See:
- Emory C. Bogle (1998), p.7
- Razwy (1996), ch. 9
- Rodinson (2002), p. 71.
- ^ Quran 93:3
- ^ Brown (2003), pp. 73–74
- ^ Uri Rubin, Muhammad, Encyclopedia of the Quran
- ^ "Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement". Cmje.org. http://www.cmje.org/religious-texts/hadith/bukhari/001-sbt.php. Retrieved 2012-01-26.
- ^ Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), p. 31.
- ^ Daniel C. Peterson, Good News, Encyclopedia of the Quran
- ^ a b Watt (1953), p. 86
- ^ Ramadan (2007), p. 37–9
- ^ a b c Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), p. 36.
- ^ F. E. Peters (1994), p.169
- ^ a b c Uri Rubin, Quraysh, Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an
- ^ Jonathan E. Brockopp, Slaves and Slavery, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
- ^ W. Arafat, Bilal b. Rabah, Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ Watt (1964) p. 76.
- ^ Peters (1999) p. 172.
- ^ The Cambridge companion to Muhammad (2010), p.35
- ^ Kuran, Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd Edition, Vol. 5 (1986), p. 404
- ^ Shahab Ahmed, Satanic Verses, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
- ^ F. E. Peters (2003b), p. 96
- ^ a b c Moojan Momen (1985), p. 4
- ^ a b c d An Introduction to the Quran (1895), p.186
- ^ Oleg Grabar (1 October 2006). The Dome of the Rock. Harvard University Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-674-02313-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=OeIOowshe6EC&pg=PA14. Retrieved 26 December 2011.
- ^ a b Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p. 482
- ^ Jonathan M. Bloom; Sheila Blair (2009). The Grove encyclopedia of Islamic art and architecture. Oxford University Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-19-530991-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=PA76. Retrieved 26 December 2011.
- ^ Sells, Michael. Ascension, Encyclopedia of the Quran.
- ^ Watt (1974) p. 83
- ^ Peterson (2006), pg. 86-9
- ^ a b c d Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 39
- ^ a b Esposito (1998), p. 17.
- ^ Moojan Momen (1985), p. 5
- ^ Arthur John Arberry (1998). The Koran: interpreted. Oxford University Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-19-283501-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=6beh0aCEznkC. Retrieved 27 December 2011.
- ^ Watt (1956), p. 175, p. 177.
- ^ "Ali ibn Abitalib". Encyclopedia Iranica. http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v1f8/v1f8a043.html. Retrieved 2007-10-25.
- ^ Fazlur Rahman (1979), p. 21
- ^ a b Lewis (2002), p. 41.
- ^ Watt (1961), p. 105.
- ^ a b c An Introduction to the Quran (1895), p.188
- ^ John Kelsay (1993), p. 21
- ^ Watt(1961) p. 105, p. 107
- ^ Lewis (1993), p. 41.
- ^ a b William Montgomery Watt (7 February 1974). Muhammad: prophet and statesman. Oxford University Press. pp. 112–114. ISBN 978-0-19-881078-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=zLN2hNidLw4C&pg=PA113. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
- ^ Rodinson (2002), p. 164.
- ^ Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 45
- ^ Glubb (2002), pp. 179–186.
- ^ Watt (1961), p. 123.
- ^ Rodinson (2002), pp. 168–9.
- ^ An Introduction to the Quran (1895), p.188 - 189
- ^ Lewis(2002), p. 44
- ^ a b c d e An Introduction to the Quran (1895), p.189
- ^ Russ Rodgers, The Generalship of Muhammad: Battles and Campaigns of the Prophet of Allah (University Press of Florida; 2012) ch 1
- ^ Watt (1956), p. 179.
- ^ F. E. Peters (25 July 2005). The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition, Volume I: The Peoples of God. Princeton University Press. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-691-12372-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=RsafPfUjC6EC&pg=PA88. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
- ^ Watt (1961), p. 132.
- ^ Watt (1961), p. 134
- ^ a b Lewis (1960), p. 45.
- ^ C.F. Robinson, Uhud, Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ Watt (1964) p. 137
- ^ Watt (1974) p. 137
- ^ David Cook(2007), p.24
- ^ See:
- Watt (1981) p. 432;
- Watt (1964) p. 144.
- ^ a b Watt (1956), p. 30.
- ^ Watt (1956), p. 34
- ^ Watt (1956), p. 18
- ^ Rubin, Uri (1990). "The Assassination of Kaʿb b. al-Ashraf". Oriens 32 (1): 65–71. DOI:10.2307/1580625. JSTOR 1580625.
- ^ Watt (1956), pp. 220–221
- ^ a b c d e f g An Introduction to the Quran (1895), p.190
- ^ Watt (1956), p. 35
- ^ Watt (1956), p. 36, 37
- ^ See:
- Rodinson (2002), pp. 209–211;
- Watt (1964) p. 169
- ^ Watt (1964) pp. 170–172
- ^ Peterson(2007), p. 126
- ^ Ramadan (2007), p. 141
- ^ Meri, Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, p. 754.
- ^ Arafat, "New Light on the Story of Banu Qurayza and the Jews of Medina", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1976, p. 100–107.
- ^ Ahmad, p. 85-94.
- ^ Nemoy, "Barakat Ahmad's "Muhammad and the Jews"", p. 325. Nemoy is sourcing Ahmad's Muhammad and the Jews.
- ^ Kister, "The Massacre of the Banu Quraiza".
- ^ Watt (1956), p. 39
- ^ a b c d e Watt, Aisha, Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ Quran 2:196–210
- ^ Lings (1987), p. 249
- ^ a b c d Watt, al- Hudaybiya or al-Hudaybiyya Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ Lewis (2002), p. 42.
- ^ a b c An Introduction to the Quran (1895), p.191
- ^ Lings (1987), p. 255
- ^ Vaglieri, Khaybar, Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ a b Lings (1987), p. 260
- ^ a b Khan (1998), pp. 250–251
- ^ a b c d e An Introduction to the Quran II (1895), p.273
- ^ F. Buhl, Muta, Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ a b c d Khan (1998), p. 274
- ^ a b c Lings (1987), p. 291
- ^ a b Khan (1998), pp. 274–5.
- ^ Lings (1987), p. 292
- ^ Watt (1956), p. 66.
- ^ a b c An Introduction to the Quran II (1895), p.274
- ^ The Message by Ayatullah Ja'far Subhani, chapter 48 referencing Sirah by Ibn Hisham, vol. II, page 409.
- ^ Rodinson (2002), p. 261.
- ^ Harold Wayne Ballard, Donald N. Penny, W. Glenn Jonas (2002), p.163
- ^ F. E. Peters (2003), p.240
- ^ Guillaume, Alfred (1955). The Life of Muhammad. A translation of Ishaq's "Sirat Rasul Allah".. Oxford University Press. p. 552. ISBN 978-0-19-636033-1. http://www.archive.org/details/IbnIshaq-SiratRasulAllah-translatorA.Guillaume. Retrieved 2011-12-08. "Quraysh had put pictures in the Ka'ba including two of Jesus son of Mary and Mary (on both of whom be peace!). ... The apostle ordered that the pictures should be erased except those of Jesus and Mary."
- ^ Quran 110:1
- ^ Watt (1974), p.207
- ^ An Introduction to the Quran II (1895), p.275
- ^ a b c An Introduction to the Quran II (1895), p.276
- ^ M.A. al-Bakhit, Tabuk, Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ Ibn Ishaq (translated by Guillaume, A. 1955) The Life of Muhammad. Oxford University Press, Oxford. pg. pg. 916-918
- ^ Haykal, M.H. (1933) The Life of Muhammad, translated by Isma'il Razi A. al-Faruqi. The Supreme Council of Islamic Affairs, Cairo, Egypt & the University of Chicago.
- ^ Husayn, M.J. - Biography Of Imam `Ali Ibn Abi-Talib, Translation of Sirat Amir Al-Mu'minin, Translated By: Sayyid Tahir Bilgrami, Ansariyan Publications, Qum, Islamic Republic of Iran
- ^ Lewis (1993), pp.43–44
- ^ Sultan, Sohaib (March 2011). The Koran For Dummies. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-7645-5581-2.
- ^ Devin J. Stewart, Farewell Pilgrimage, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
- ^ Al-Hibri (2003), p.17
- ^ An Introduction to the Quran II (1895), p.278
- ^ a b An Introduction to the Quran II (1895), p.279
- ^ See:
- ^ a b The Last Prophet, page 3. By Lewis Lord of U.S. News & World Report. April 7, 2008.
- ^ Leila Ahmed (1986), 665–91 (686)
- ^ a b F. E. Peters(2003), p. 90
- ^ a b An Introduction to the Quran II (1895), p. 281
- ^ Ariffin, Syed Ahmad Iskandar Syed (2005). Architectural Conservation in Islam : Case Study of the Prophet's Mosque. Penerbit UTM. p. 88. ISBN 978-983-52-0373-2.
- ^ "Prophet's Mosque". Archnet.org. 2005-05-02. http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=10061. Retrieved 2012-01-26.
- ^ "Isa", Encyclopedia of Islam
- ^ Shaykh Adil Al-Haqqani; Shaykh Hisham Kabbani (2002). The Path to Spiritual Excellence. ISCA. pp. 65–66. ISBN 978-1-930409-18-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=mzpV0QnOVxsC&pg=PA65.
- ^ a b Mark Weston (2008). Prophets and princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the present. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 102–103. ISBN 978-0-470-18257-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=EEEFsVYLko4C&pg=PA102.
- ^ a b Doris Behrens-Abouseif; Stephen Vernoit (2006). Islamic art in the 19th century: tradition, innovation, and eclecticism. BRILL. p. 22. ISBN 978-90-04-14442-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=A4q58Af5zAoC&pg=PA22.
- ^ Mark Weston (2008). Prophets and princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the present. John Wiley and Sons. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-470-18257-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=EEEFsVYLko4C&pg=PA136.
- ^ Vincent J. Cornell (2007). Voices of Islam: Voices of the spirit. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-275-98734-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=8dNKFLJVvNkC&pg=PA84.
- ^ Carl W. Ernst (2004). Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World. Univ of North Carolina Press. pp. 173–174. ISBN 978-0-8078-5577-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=DOWn22EkJsQC&pg=PA1173.
- ^ Clinton Bennett (1998). In search of Muhammad. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 182–183. ISBN 978-0-304-70401-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=-VTIkkcUFHQC&pg=PA182.
- ^ Malcolm Clark (2011). Islam For Dummies. John Wiley & Sons. p. 165. ISBN 978-1-118-05396-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=zPXu561ZpvgC&pg=PT165.
- ^ See:
- Holt (1977a), p.57
- Hourani (2003), p.22
- Lapidus (2002), p.32
- Esposito(1998), p.36
- Madelung (1996), p.43
- ^ Esposito (1998), p.35–36
- ^ Cambridge History of Islam (1970), p. 30.
- ^ a b c Lewis (1998)
- ^
- Watt (1974), p. 234
- Robinson (2004) p. 21
- Esposito (1998), p. 98
- R. Walzer, Ak̲h̲lāḳ, Encyclopaedia of Islam Online
- ^ Islamic ethics, Encyclopedia of Ethics
- ^ Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 34
- ^ Esposito (1998), p. 30
- ^ Watt, The Cambridge History of Islam, p. 52
- ^ Ali Sultaan Asani; Kamal Abdel-Malek; Annemarie Schimmel (October 1995). Celebrating Muḥammad: images of the prophet in popular Muslim poetry. University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-57003-050-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=_10OAAAAYAAJ. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ Annemarie Schimmel (1985). And Muhammad is his messenger: the veneration of the Prophet in Islamic piety. University of North Carolina Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-8078-1639-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=jlYOAAAAYAAJ. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ a b Omid Safi (17 November 2009). Memories of Muhammad: why the Prophet matters. HarperCollins. pp. 273–274. ISBN 978-0-06-123134-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=Gs2oDbagvfIC&pg=PA273. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ See for example Marco Schöller, Banu Qurayza, Encyclopedia of the Quran mentioning the differing accounts of the status of Rayhana
- ^ a b Barbara Freyer Stowasser, Wives of the Prophet, Encyclopedia of the Quran
- ^ Subhani, Jafar. "Chapter 9". The Message. Ansariyan Publications, Qom. http://www.al-islam.org/message.
- ^ Esposito (1998), p. 18
- ^ Bullough (1998), p. 119
- ^ Reeves (2003), p. 46
- ^ a b D. A. Spellberg, Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: the Legacy of A'isha bint Abi Bakr, Columbia University Press, 1994, p. 40
- ^ Karen Armstrong, Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet, Harper San Francisco, 1992, p. 145.
- ^ Barlas (2002), p.125-126
- ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:58:234, Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:58:236, Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:62:64, Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:62:65, Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:62:88, Sahih Muslim, 8:3309, 8:3310, 8:3311, 41:4915, Sunnan Abu Dawud, 41:4917
- ^ Tabari, Volume 9, Page 131; Tabari, Volume 7, Page 7
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- ^ "The Concept of Polygamy and the Prophet’s Marriages (Chapter: The Other Wives)". http://www.al-islam.org/polygamy-marriages-prophet.
- ^ Ayatollah Qazvini. "Ayesha married the Prophet when she was young? (In Persian and Arabic)". http://www.valiasr-aj.com/fa/page.php?bank=question&id=699.
- ^ Was Ayesha A Six-Year-Old Bride?, http://www.ilaam.net/Articles/Ayesha.html
- ^ Momen (1985), p.9
- ^ Tariq Ramadan (2007), p. 168–9
- ^ Asma Barlas (2002), p. 125
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- ^ Ordoni (1990) pp. 32, 42–44.
- ^ "Ali". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
- ^ Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya recorded the list of some names of Muhammad's female-slaves in Zad al-Ma'ad, Part I, p. 116
- ^ 'Human Rights in Islam'. Published by The Islamic Foundation (1976) - Leicester, U.K
- ^ Farah (1994), p.135
- ^ a b Denis Gril, Miracles, Encyclopedia of the Qur'an
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- ^ a b c Safi, Omid (2011-05-05). "Why Islam does (not) ban images of the Prophet". Washington Post. http://newsweek.washingtonpost.com/onfaith/guestvoices/2010/05/why_islam_does_not_ban_images_of_the_prophet.html. Retrieved 2011-12-27.
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- Wijdan, Ali (August 23–28, 1999). "From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th century Ottoman Art". Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Turkish Art (Utrecht, The Netherlands eds. M. Kiel, N. Landman, and H. Theunissen.) (7): 1–24. http://www2.let.uu.nl/Solis/anpt/ejos/pdf4/07Ali.pdf. [dead link]
- Armstrong, Karen (1992). Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet. Harpercollins. ISBN 0-06-250886-5.
- Awde, Nicholas (2000). Women in Islam: An Anthology from the Quran and Hadith. Routledge. ISBN 0-7007-1012-4.
- Ballard, Harold Wayne; Donald N. Penny, W. Glenn Jonas (2002). A Journey of Faith: An Introduction to Christianity. Mercer University Press. ISBN 0-86554-746-7.
- Barlas, Asma (2002). Believing Women in Islam. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70904-8.
- Bogle, Emory C. (1998). Islam: Origin and Belief. Texas University Press. ISBN 0-292-70862-9.
- Brown, Daniel (2003). A New Introduction to Islam. Blackwell Publishing Professional. ISBN 978-0-631-21604-9.
- Bullough, Vern L; Brenda Shelton, Sarah Slavin (1998). The Subordinated Sex: A History of Attitudes Toward Women. University of Georgia Press. ISBN 978-0-8203-2369-5.
- Cohen, Mark R. (1995). Under Crescent and Cross (Reissue ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01082-3.
- Dakake, Maria Massi (2008). The Charismatic Community: Shi'ite Identity in Early Islam. SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-7033-4.
- Donner, Fred (1998). Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writing. Darwin Press. ISBN 0-87850-127-4.
- Endress, Gerhard (2003). Islam. New Age Books. ISBN 978-81-7822-156-4.
- Ernst, Carl (2004). Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-5577-4.
- Esposito, John (1998). Islam: The Straight Path. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511233-4.
- Esposito, John (1999). The Islamic Threat: Myth Or Reality?. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513076-6.
- Esposito, John (2002). What Everyone Needs to Know About Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515713-3.
- Farah, Caesar (1994). Islam: Beliefs and Observances (5th ed.). Barron's Educational Series. ISBN 978-0-8120-1853-0.
- Glubb, John Bagot (1970 (reprint 2002)). The Life and Times of Muhammad. Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 0-8154-1176-6.
- Goldman, Elizabeth (1995). Believers: spiritual leaders of the world. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-508240-0.
- Goldman, Ann; Richard Hain, Stephen Liben (2006). Oxford Textbook of Palliative Care for Children. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-852653-9.
- Haaren, John Henry; Addison B. Poland (1904). Famous Men of the Middle Ages. University Publishing Company. ISBN 1-882514-05-X.
- Al-Hibri, Azizah Y. (2003). "An Islamic Perspective on Domestic Violence". 27 Fordham International Law Journal 195.
- Holt, P. M.; Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam (Paperback). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29135-4.
- Hourani, Albert; Ruthven, Malise (2003). A History of the Arab Peoples. Belknap Press; Revised edition. ISBN 978-0-674-01017-8.
- ibn Isa, Muhammad (Imam Tirmidhi) (2011) (in Arabic with Malay translation) (Hardcover). Syama'il Muhammadiyah: KeanggunanMu Ya Rasulullah. Malaysia: PTS Islamika Sdn. Bhd.. p. 388. ISBN 978-967-3-66064-3.
- Ishaq, Ibn; Guillaume, Alfred, ed. (2002). The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-636033-1.
- Jacobs, Louis (1995). The Jewish Religion: A Companion. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-826463-1.
- Kelsay, John (1993). Islam and War: A Study in Comparative Ethics. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-25302-4.
- Khan, Majid Ali (1998). Muhammad The Final Messenger. Islamic Book Service, New Delhi, 110002 (India). ISBN 81-85738-25-4.
- Kochler, Hans (1982). Concept of Monotheism in Islam & Christianity. I.P.O.. ISBN 3-7003-0339-4.
- Lapidus, Ira (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77933-3.
- Larsson, Göran (2003). Ibn Garcia's Shu'Ubiyya Letter: Ethnic and Theological Tensions in Medieval Al-Andalus. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-12740-2.
- Lewis, Bernard (1993, 2002). The Arabs in History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280310-7.
- Lewis, Bernard (1992). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry (Reprint ed.). Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-505326-5.
- Lewis, Bernard (January 21, 1998). "Islamic Revolution". The New York Review of Books. http://www.nybooks.com/articles/4557.
- Lings, Martin (1987). Muhammad: His Life Based on Earliest Sources. Inner Traditions International, Limited .. ISBN 0-89281-170-6.
- Madelung, Wilferd (1997). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64696-0.
- Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-03531-4.
- Neusner, Jacob (2003). God's Rule: The Politics of World Religions. Georgetown University Press. ISBN 0-87840-910-6.
- Nigosian, S. A. (2004). Islam:Its History, Teaching, and Practices. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-21627-3.
- Ordoni, Abu Muhammad; Muhammad Kazim Qazwini (1992). Fatima the Gracious. Ansariyan Publications. ISBN B000BWQ7N6.
- Peters, Francis Edward (2003). Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11553-2.
- Peters, Francis Edward (2003b). The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11461-7. ASIN: B0012385Z6.
- Peters, Francis Edward (1994). Muhammad and the Origins of Islam. SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-1876-6.
- Peters, F. E. (1991). "The Quest of the Historical Muhammad". International Journal of Middle East Studies 23 (3): 291–315. DOI:10.1017/S0020743800056312.
- Peterson, Daniel (2007). Muhammad, Prophet of God. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 0-8028-0754-2.
- Rahman, Fazlur (1979). Islam. University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-70281-2.
- Ramadan, Tariq (2007). In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-530880-8.
- Razwi, Ali Asgher (1997). A Restatement of the History of Islam and Muslims. World Federation of K S I Muslim Communities Islamic Centre. ISBN 0-9509879-1-3.
- Reeves, Minou (2003). Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-7564-6.
- Robinson, David (2004). Muslim Societies in African History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-82627-6.
- Rodinson, Maxime (2002). Muhammad: Prophet of Islam. Tauris Parke Paperbacks. ISBN 1-86064-827-4.
- Rue, Loyal (2005). Religion Is Not about God: How Spiritual Traditions Nurture Our Biological. Rutgers. ISBN 0-8135-3955-2.
- Serin, Muhittin (1998). Hattat Aziz Efendi. Istanbul. ISBN 975-7663-03-4, OCLC 51718704.
- Sikand, Yoginder (2004). Muslims in India since 1947: Islamic perspectives on inter-faith relations. London: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0-415-31486-0.
- Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn. AL-MIZAN:AN EXEGESIS OF THE QUR'AN, translation by S. Saeed Rizvi. WOFIS. ISBN 964-6521-14-2.
- Teed, Peter (1992). A Dictionary of Twentieth Century History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-211676-2.
- Turner, Colin (2005). Islam: The Basics. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-34106-X.
- Watt, W. Montgomery (1961). Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-881078-4. (New edition 1974)
- Watt, W. Montgomery (1956). Muhammad at Medina. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-577307-1.
- Watt, W. Montgomery (1953). Muhammad at Mecca. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-577277-6. ASIN: B000IUA52A.
- Weil, Gustav; Sanders, Frank K.; Dunning, Harry W. (1895). "An Introduction to the Quran". The Biblical World (The University of Chicago Press) 5 (3): 181–191. DOI:10.1086/471621. JSTOR 3135387.
- Brockopp, Jonathan E., ed. (2010). The Cambridge companion to Muhammad. Cambridge Companions to Religion. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-71372-6. http://www.cambridge.org/9780521713726.
- Weil, Gustav (1895). "An Introduction to the Quran II". The Biblical World (The University of Chicago Press) 5 (4): 273–286. DOI:10.1086/471639. JSTOR 3135160.
Encyclopedias[link]
- William H. McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian, ed. (2005). Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History. Berkshire Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-9743091-0-1.
- Richard C. Martin, Said Amir Arjomand, Marcia Hermansen, Abdulkader Tayob, Rochelle Davis, John Obert Voll, ed. (2003). Encyclopedia of Islam & the Muslim World. MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0-02-865603-8.
- P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs, ed. Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.
- Lindsay Jones, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Religion (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference Books. ISBN 978-0-02-865733-2.
- Jane Dammen McAuliffe, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of the Qur'an. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-12356-4.
- Encyclopedia of World History. Oxford University Press. 1998. ISBN 0-19-860223-5.
- The New Encyclopædia Britannica (Rev ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated. 2005. ISBN 978-1-59339-236-9.
Further reading[link]
- Andrae, Tor (2000). Mohammed: The Man and His Faith. Dover. ISBN 0-486-41136-2.
- Berg, Herbert (ed) (2003). Method and Theory in the Study of Islamic Origins. E. J. Brill. ISBN 90-04-12602-3.
- Cook, Michael (1983). Muhammad. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-287605-8 (reissue 1996).
- Hamidullah, Muhammad (1998). The Life and Work of the Prophet of Islam. (s.n.)(Islamabad: Islamic Research Institute). ISBN 969-8413-00-6.
- Motzki, Harald, ed. (2000). The Biography of Muhammad: The Issue of the Sources (Islamic History and Civilization: Studies and Texts, Vol. 32). Brill. ISBN 90-04-11513-7.
- Musa, A. Y. Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on The Authority Of Prophetic Traditions in Islam, New York: Palgrave, 2008
- Rubin, Uri (1995). The Eye of the Beholder: The Life of Muhammad as Viewed by the Early Muslims (A Textual Analysis). Darwin Press. ISBN 0-87850-110-X.
- Schimmel, Annemarie (1985). And Muhammad is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety. The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-4128-5.
- Stillman, Norman (1975). The Jews of Arab Lands: a History and Source Book. Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0-8276-0198-0.
- Spencer, Robert (2006). The Truth About Muhammad. Regnery Publishing, USA. ISBN 978-1-59698-028-0.
External links[link]
| Find more about Muhammad on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
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Textbooks from Wikibooks |
- Works by or about Muhammad in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- What Non-Muslims Say About Prophet Muhammad (Mohammed)
Non-Muslim biographies[link]
- Muhammad, article on Encyclopædia Britannica Online
- Muhammad: Legacy of a Prophet — PBS Site
- Muhammad: Legacy of a Prophet — UPF (Producer's Site)
Muslim biographies[link]
- Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum
- The Life of Muhammad by Muhammad Husayn Haykal
- About the Prophet Muhammad (MSA West)
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Muhammad |
| Alternative names | محمد (Arabic) |
| Short description | Prophet of Islam |
| Date of birth | ca. 570 |
| Place of birth | Mecca |
| Date of death | June 8, 632 |
| Place of death | Madina |
http://wn.com/Muhammad
Related pages:
http://de.wn.com/Mohammed
http://fr.wn.com/Mahomet
http://es.wn.com/Mahoma
http://ru.wn.com/Мухаммед
http://cs.wn.com/Mohamed
http://pt.wn.com/Maomé
http://pl.wn.com/Mahomet
http://hi.wn.com/मुहम्मद
http://it.wn.com/Maometto
http://id.wn.com/Muhammad
http://nl.wn.com/Mohammed
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
Revisions and sourced additions are welcome; please only include historical figures.
The following is a list of significant men and women known for being the father, mother, or considered the founders mostly in Western socities in a field, listed by category. In most non-science fields, the title of being the "father" is debatable.
|
Church[link]
Main article: Church Fathers
Games[link]
| Subject | Father/Mother | Reason |
|---|---|---|
| Miniature wargaming | H.G. Wells[1] | |
| The modern video game industry | Nolan Bushnell | Creator of Pong and founder of Atari and Chuck E. Cheese's |
| Modern video game | Shigeru Miyamoto[2] | Creator of many successful Nintendo franchises |
| Role-playing game | Gary Gygax[3] | Creator of Dungeons & Dragons |
| Stealth game | Hideo Kojima[4] | Creator of the Metal Gear stealth-action games |
| Video game | Thomas T. Goldsmith, Jr. | Inventor of the First video game |
| Wargaming | Charles S. Roberts[5] |
Humanities[link]
Military[link]
| Subject | Father/Mother | Reason |
|---|---|---|
| Aerial warfare | Oswald Boelcke[6] | The first to formalize rules of air fighting, which he presented as the Dicta Boelcke, also credited as being the first pilot to shoot down an aircraft. |
| Atomic bomb | Robert Oppenheimer[7] Leó Szilárd[8] Enrico Fermi[9] |
|
| Blitzkrieg | Heinz Guderian[10][11] | |
| The West's Hydrogen bomb | Edward Teller[12] | |
| Atomic submarine and "nuclear navy" | Hyman G. Rickover[13][14][15] | |
| Fourth Generation Warfare | William S. Lind[citation needed] | |
| French sailing navy | Jean-Baptiste Colbert[16] | Built on the fleet of France inherited from Cardinal Richelieu. |
| Naval Special Warfare | Phil H. Bucklew[17] | US Naval Officer and First Commanding Officer of Navy SEAL Team One |
| Naval tactical studies | Paul Hoste[18] | Jesuit Professor of Mathematics at the Royal College of the Marine in Toulon; wrote L'Art des Armées Navales (1697) |
| Luftwaffe and Luftstreitkräfte | Oswald Boelcke[19] | |
| The Soviet Union's Hydrogen Bomb | Andrei Sakharov[20] | |
| United States Airborne | William C. Lee[21] | First commander of the parachute school at Fort Benning, Georgia. |
| United States Cavalry | Kazimierz Pułaski[22] | Brigadier-general and commander of the cavalry of the Continental Army (1770s). |
| United States Navy | Commodore John Barry[23] Captain John Paul Jones[24] |
Nations[link]
Natural and social sciences[link]
Sports[link]
| Subject | Father/Mother | Reason |
|---|---|---|
| American football | Walter Camp[25] | |
| American motocross | Edison Dye[26] | Introduced motorcross to American riders. |
| American road racing | Cameron Argetsinger[27] | Introduced the first US auto race that was dedicated to road courses at Watkins Glen. |
| American soccer | Steve Ross[28] | Godfather, created the New York Cosmos soccer team and imported a number of well known international footballers to the team in an attempt to bring interest to soccer in the US. |
| Angling | Izaak Walton[29] | Author of The Compleat Angler. |
| Argentine football | Alexander Watson Hutton[30] | |
| Argentine professional golf | José Jurado[31] | |
| Argentine winter sports | Otto Meiling[32] | |
| Association football | Ebenezer Cobb Morley[33] | |
| Baseball | Henry Chadwick[34][35][36][37] | |
| Basketball | James Naismith | Left many diaries and interviews that explain how and when he created basketball. |
| BMX | Scot Breithaupt[38] | |
| Brazilian football | Charles William Miller[39] | |
| Camel Lights | Jim Downing | Built a racecar a season before it became the basis of a new lightweight prototype class in |
| Canadian rodeo | O. Raymond Knight[41] | Coined the rodeo term "stampede" and was world's first rodeo producer, rodeo stock contractor, and rodeo champion in 1902. |
| Drag racing | Wally Parks[42] | Founder of the NHRA and organized the first legitimate drag race. |
| Don Garlits[43] | Considered to be one of the innovators of drag racing safety. | |
| Eddie Hill[44] | Regarded as the forefather of drag racing. | |
| Drifting | Kunimitsu Takahashi[45] | Introduced an aggressive high speed cornering technique that became widely used for illicit purposes which eventually became a sport. |
| East Coast skateboarding | Vinny Raffa (godfather)[46] | |
| Florida skateboarding | Bruce Walker (godfather)[47] | |
| Modern football | Ebenezer Cobb Morley[48] | |
| Freestyle BMX | Bob Haro[49][50] | |
| Freestyle Motocross | Mike Metzger[51] | Godfather. |
| Funny Car | Dick Landy[52] | |
| Ice Hockey | James Creighton (ice hockey) | Captained of one of the two teams that participated in the first indoor hockey game on March 3, 1875 in Montreal. |
| Import drag racing | Frank Choi[53] | Hosted one of the first events specifially for import cars in the mid-1990s to keep drivers out of street racing that progressed into a professional category. |
| Italian football | James Richardson Spensley[54] | Given due to his association with Genoa CFC and his contribution to the modern day variation of the game in Italy. |
| William Garbutt[55] | Laying the foundations of skilled coaching in Italian football. | |
| Japanese baseball | Horace Wilson[56] | Credited for introducing baseball in Japan. |
| Hiroshi Hiraoka[57] | Credited for establishing the first baseball team. | |
| Jogging | Jim Fixx[58] | Founding father. |
| Kart racing | Art Ingels[59] | Developed the world's first kart (1956). |
| Lacrosse | William George Beers[60][61][62][63] | Codified the sport. |
| Mixed martial arts | Bruce Lee[64] | Called so by Dana White, president of the Ultimate Fighting Championship. For his experimentation into other styles and invention of Jeet Kune Do. |
| Modern bodybuilding | Eugen Sandow[65] | |
| Harold Zinkin[66] | Called so by Arnold Schwarzenegger during a press statement on his passing in 2004. Inventor of the modern exercise machines. | |
| Modern boxing | James Figg[67] | |
| James J. Corbett[citation needed] | ||
| Modern figure skating | Jackson Haines[68] | "Jackson Haines - The Father of Figure Skating," according to Roy Blakey |
| Modern football in Japan | Dettmar Cramer[69] | |
| Modern rodeo | Earl W. Bascom[70] | Bascom's many equipment innovations pioneered the sport starting in 1916. |
| Modern sabre fencing | Italo Santelli[71] | |
| Modern surfing | Duke Kahanamoku[72] | |
| Rodeo bareback bronc riding | Earl W. Bascom[70] | Bascom designed and made the first one-hand rigging in 1924. |
| Rugby union | A. G. Guillemard[73] | |
| William Webb Ellis[74] | "Who with a fine disregard for the rules of football as played in his time first took the ball in his arms and ran with it thus originating the distinctive feature of the rugby game". | |
| Scuba diving | Jacques Cousteau[75] | Developed the aqua-lung jointly with Émile Gagnan; popularized scuba diving as a research diver, writer, and film and television producer and personality. |
| Skateboarding | Skip Engblom (godfather)[76] | |
| Tony Hawk (godfather)[77] | ||
| Snowboarding | Jake Burton Carpenter[78] | |
| Stock car racing | Bill France, Sr.[79][80] | Foundation of the sanctioning body for stock car racing |
| Supercross | Mike Goodwin[81] | Organized the first supercross race. |
| Televised golf | Frank Chirkinian[82][83] | Personally responsible for much of the production conventions of modern golf broadcasting. |
Technology[link]
Fields[link]
| Subject | Father/Mother | Reason |
|---|---|---|
| Aerodynamics (modern) | Sir George Cayley [84][85] | Founding father of modern Aerodynamics. The first to identify the four aerodynamic forces of flight—weight, lift, drag, and thrust. Modern airplane design is based on those discoveries. |
| Architecture | Imhotep[86] | Built the first pyramid |
| Astronautics | Konstantin Tsiolkovsky[87] |
|
| Aviation | Father Francesco Lana-Terzi[90] | Book: Prodromo alla Arte Maestra (1670). First to describe the geometry and physics of a flying vessel. |
| British watchmaking | Thomas Tompion[91] | |
| Clinical trials | James Lind[92] | Conducted the first controlled clinical trial in the modern era of medicine, an investigation on using citrus food as a treatment for scurvy aboard HMS Salisbury in 1747 |
| Computing | Charles Babbage[93] | Inventor of the Analytical Engine which was never constructed in his lifetime. |
| Cybernetics | Norbert Wiener[94][95] | |
| Genetics | Gregor Mendel | Founder of the Genetics[96] |
| Modern Bladesmithing | William F. Moran | Founder of the American Bladesmith Society |
| Modern Kinematics | Ferdinand Freudenstein | Applied digital computation to the kinematic synthesis of mechanisms.[97] |
| Modern Knifemaking | Bob Loveless | Founder of the Knifemakers' Guild |
| Photography | Louis Daguerre[98] Nicéphore Niépce[99] William Henry Fox Talbot[100] Thomas Wedgwood[101] |
Inventions[link]
| Subject | Father/Mother | Reason |
|---|---|---|
| Air conditioning | Willis Carrier | [102] |
| C (programming language) | Dennis Ritchie | |
| Chronograph | George Graham[91][103] | Referred so by Bernard Humbert of the Horology School of Bienne on his 1990 book he Chronograph as Graham was the first to construct a horological mechanism |
| Compact Disc | Kees Immink[104] | |
| Compiler | Grace Hopper | |
| Computer | Konrad Zuse[105] | Invented world's first functional program-controlled computer. |
| Alan Turing[106][107] | Was a secret code breaker during WWII and invented the Turing machine (1936). | |
| John von Neumann[108] | Became "intrigued" with Turing's universal machine and later emphasised the importance of the stored-program concept for electronic computing (1945), including the possibility of allowing the machine to modify its own program in useful ways while running. | |
| John V. Atanasoff[109] | Invented the digital computer in the 1930s | |
| John W. Mauchly [110] J.Presper Eckert[111] |
Invented the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) in 1946. ENIAC was the first general-purpose electronic computer capable of being reprogrammed to solve a full range of computing problems. | |
| Computer Program | Ada Lovelace[112] | Recognized by historians as the writer of the world's first computer program which was for the Charles Babbage Analytical Engine, but was never complete within either her or his lifetime. |
| Ekranoplan | Rostislav Alexeev | |
| Helicopter | Igor Sikorsky [113] | Invented the first successful helicopter, upon which further designs were based. |
| Internet | Vint Cerf[114][115] Bob Kahn[116] [117] |
Co-invented Internet protocol (IP) and Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) in 1973, the two original protocols of the Internet protocol suite.[118] |
| Instant noodle | Momofuku Ando[119] | Inventor of the instant noodle, also founder of Nissin Foods to produce and market them. |
| Japanese television | Kenjiro Takayanagi[120][121] | |
| Jet engine | Frank Whittle[122][123] | |
| Karaoke | Daisuke Inoue[124] | Inventor of the machine as a means of allowing people to sing without the need of a live back-up. |
| Laser | Charles Hard Townes | |
| Lightning prediction system | Alexander Stepanovich Popov | The first lightning prediction system, the Lightning detector, was invented in 1894 by Alexander Stepanovich Popov. |
| Marine chronometer | John Harrison[125] | |
| Microprocessor | Marcian Hoff[126] Masatoshi Shima[127] |
|
| Mobile phone | Martin Cooper[128] | He is the main brainchild of hand-held phone and with the help of Motorola team he developed the first handset in 1973 weighing in at two kilos. |
| Pentium microprocessor | Vinod Dham[129][130] | The original Pentium (P5) was developed by a team of engineers, including John H. Crawford, chief architect of the original 386,[131] and Donald Alpert, who managed the architectural team. Dror Avnon managed the design of the FPU.[132] Dham was general manager of the P5 group.[133] Some media sources have called him the "father of the Pentium". |
| Personal computer | Chuck Peddle[134] | Developed the 6502 microprocessor, the KIM-1 and the Commodore PET |
| Henry Edward "Ed" Roberts[135] André Truong Trong Thi[136] |
||
| Programmable logic controller | Dick Morley[citation needed] | |
| Radio | Alexander Stepanovich Popov [137] Lee De Forest[138][139][140] Guglielmo Marconi[141] Jagdish Chandra Bose[142] Nikola Tesla[143] |
The research of these pioneers led to the development of the radio |
| Radio (Radio broadcasting) | Reginald Fessenden[citation needed] David Sarnoff[citation needed] |
Fessenden is credited as the first to broadcast radio signals on Christmas Eve, 1906. Sarnoff proposed a chain of radio stations to Marconi's associates in 1915. |
| Radio (FM radio) | Edwin H. Armstrong[citation needed] | Obtained the first Federal Communications Commission (FCC) license to operate an FM station in Alpine, New Jersey at approximately 50 megahertz (1939) |
| Radiotelephony | Reginald Fessenden[144][145] | |
| Search Engine | Alan Emtage[146][147][148] | Created Archie, a pre-Web search engine which pioneered many of the techniques used by subsequent search engines |
| SGML | Charles Goldfarb[149] | |
| Telephone | Alexander Graham Bell[150] | See Invention of the telephone |
| Television | Philo T. Farnsworth[151] | Co-Inventors of the Electronic Television. Farnsworth invented the Image dissector while Zworykin created the Iconoscope, both fully electronic forms of television. Logie Baird invented the world's first working television system, also the first electronic color television system. |
| Tokamak | Lev Artsimovich | |
| Tube structure | Fazlur Khan[156] | Invented the tube structural system and first employed it in his designs for the DeWitt-Chestnut Apartments, John Hancock Center and Sears Tower. |
| World Wide Web | Tim Berners-Lee[157] | |
| Visual Basic | Alan Cooper[158] | |
| XML | Jon Bosak[159] |
Towns, cities and regions[link]
| Subject | Father/Mother | Reason |
|---|---|---|
| British Columbia | James Douglas[160] | Fur trader and manager for the North West Company and Hudson's Bay Company, Governor of the Colony of Vancouver Island and first Governor of the Colony of British Columbia. |
| Lan Kwai Fong | Allan Zeman[161] | Noted for turning a small square of streets in Central, into a thriving bar and night life districts in Hong Kong. |
Transport[link]
| Subject | Father/Mother | Reason |
|---|---|---|
| 20th century American car industry | Henry Ford[162] | Noted for introducing a simple and affordable car for the ordinary American masses. |
| American Interstate Highway System | Dwight D. Eisenhower[163] | |
| High-performance VW industry | Gene Berg[164] | |
| Hot rod | Ed Winfield[165] | |
| Import Car Culture | RJ DeVera[166] | Influential for popularising the import car scene in the mid-1990s. |
| Kustom Kulture | Von Dutch[167] | |
| Monster truck | Bob Chandler[168] | Famed for building Bigfoot, which was the first to be capable of driving over cars and subsequently became one of the most famous monster truck in history |
| Mountain bike | Gary Fisher[169] | |
| Rotary engine | Felix Wankel[170][171] | |
| Route 66 | Cyrus Avery[172] | |
| Tailfin | Harley Earl[173][174][175] | |
| Traffic safety | William Phelps Eno[176] | |
| Yellow school bus | Frank W. Cyr[177] |
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ The Miniatures Page. The World of Miniatures - An Overview.
- ^ "Nintendo's Shigeru Miyamoto, 'The Father of Modern Video Games,' Receives The Jim". Reuters. 2009-01-15. http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS218035+15-Jan-2009+PRN20090115.
- ^ Rausch, Allen (August 15, 2004). "Gary Gygax Interview - Part I". GameSpy. http://pc.gamespy.com/articles/538/538817p1.html. Retrieved 2005-01-03.
- ^ "Hideo Kojima 'GDC 2009 Keynote' video Part 2 of 4". 1UP.com. March 26, 2009. http://gamevideos.1up.com/video/id/24175. Retrieved 2010-04-01.
- ^ "Charles S. Roberts: The Founding Father"
- ^ http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=8194
- ^ J Robert Oppenheimer
- ^ Bernstein, Barton J: "Introduction" to The Voice of the Dolphins and Other Stories (expanded edition), by Leo Szilard. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992, p.5: "Its author, Leo Szilard, now dead nearly three decades, was a Hungarian émigré scientist and one of many putative fathers of the A-bomb."
- ^ Lichello, R. (1971). Enrico Fermi: Father of the Atomic Bomb. SamHar Press. ISBN 978-0-87157-011-6. http://books.google.com/?id=Xh8eKgAACAAJ&dq=Lichello.
- ^ Chris Trueman. "Heinz Guderian". http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/heinz_guderian.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-26.
- ^ Chris Shimp (March 1, 2001). "General Heinz Guderian: The Father of Blitzkrieg". http://history.sandiego.edu/GEN/st/~cshimp/guderian.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-26.
- ^ "'Father of H-Bomb' Agrees to Rally Scientific Talent." The New York Times, December 31, 1965, p.19. Story opens: "Albany, December 30—Governor Rockefeller will make an intensified attack on air pollution with the help of Dr. Edward Teller, the 'father of the hydrogen bomb.'"
- ^ Jeffries, John (2001). Justice Lewis F. Powell, Jr. Fordham Univ Press. ISBN 0-8232-2110-5. , p.162: "'Admiral Rickover', said Powell, '"father of the atomic submarine", is a great naval officer... It is not equally clear that he is a careful and thorough student of American education.'"
- ^ "Submarine Range Called Unlimited; Rickover Says Atomic Craft Can Cruise Under Ice To North Pole and Beyond," The New York Times, December 6, 1957, p.33: "The admiral, who is often called the 'Father of the Atomic Submarine'..."
- ^ Galantin, I. J. (1997). Submarine Admiral: From Battlewagons to Ballistic Missiles. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06675-8. , p. 217: "Chet Holifield... member of the JCAE... said 'Of all the men I dealt with in public service, at least one will go down in history: Admiral Hyman G. Rickover, the father of the nuclear Navy.'"
- ^ Warner, Oliver (1973). Great Battle Fleets. Hamlyn. p. 98. ISBN 0-600-33913-0 ISBN 978-0-600-33913-7.
- ^ Lanning, Col. Michael Lee (October 29, 2002). Blood Warriors: American Military Elites. New York: Ballantine. pp. 368. ISBN 978-0-345-44891-0.
- ^ Warner, Oliver (1973). Great Battle Fleets. Hamlyn. p. 96. ISBN 0-600-33913-0 ISBN 978-0-600-33913-7.
- ^ http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/FWWboelcke.htm
- ^ "Andrei Sakharov: Soviet Physics, Nuclear Weapons, and Human Rights". Center for the History of Physics. American Institute of Physics. http://www.aip.org/history/sakharov/. Retrieved 2007-03-03.
- ^ "General William C. Lee: Father of the Airborne". Archived from the original on 2008-06-12. http://web.archive.org/web/20080612100930/http://www.screamingeagle.org/WilliamLeeChapter/williamclee.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-12.
- ^ Yale Richmond (1995). From Da to Yes: understanding the East Europeans. Intercultural Press. p. 72. ISBN 1-877864-30-7, ISBN 978-1-877864-30-8. http://books.google.com/?id=2Y8GNIp42ysC&printsec=frontcover.
- ^ John Barry Kelly. "Commodore Barry". http://www.ushistory.org/people/commodorebarry.htm. Retrieved 2007-06-16.
- ^ Hoover Library, "Revolutionary America! Where Did We Go From There? The Continental Navy -- John Paul Jones"
- ^ http://www.collegefootball.org/famersearch.php?id=88004
- ^ http://www.motorcyclemuseum.org/halloffame/hofbiopage.asp?id=163
- ^ http://www.wheels.ca/newsFeatures/article/485678
- ^ http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/eticket/story?page=cosmos
- ^ New International Encyclopedia. New York City: Dodd, Mead and Company. 1914. pp. Fathers.
- ^ "32". International Federation of Football History & Statistics. http://www.iffhs.de/?29dad5a85ad4a91b972b9815e85fdcdc3bfcdc0aec28d6eda0a70c. Retrieved November 9, 2011. "Arnoldo Pencliffe Watson Hutton (20.8.1886-29.7.1951), popularly known as "El Fantástico", was the son of Scotsman Alexander (Alejandro) Watson Hutton, who was a football pioneer and is considered the father of Argentine football."
- ^ "Pro Shop & Clubhouse". Algodon Wine Estates. InvestProperty Group, LLC. http://www.algodonwineestates.com/en_US/tourism/golf/proshop/_view/lang=en_US. Retrieved November 9, 2011. "Only at our pro shop can you find unique AWE merchandise, as well as memorabilia of the legends who inspire us; José Jurado, "The Father of Argentine Professional Golf", and José Luis Clerc ("Batata"), one of the most important Argentine tennis players in history."
- ^ Mirodan, Seamus (February 14, 2004). "Nazis' Argentine village hide-out pulls in tourists". The Sunday Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/southamerica/argentina/1454352/Nazis-Argentine-village-hide-out-pulls-in-tourists.html. Retrieved November 9, 2011. "Across the road from Priebke's delicatessen is the Club Andino Bariloche, a mountaineering association set up in 1931 by Otto Meiling, the father of Argentine winter sports and a former member of the Hitler Youth."
- ^ http://www.sportsbooks.net/soccer/history.html
- ^ "Henry Chadwick, Chad, The Father of Base Ball [sic]"; National Baseball Hall of Fame bio,[1]. Not a player, but a journalist and organizer, the Hall of Fame credits him as "inventor of the box score" and "author of the first rule-book."
- ^
- 'Spalding's Baseball Guide and Official League Book for 1889, ed. Henry Chadwick at Project Gutenberg: "Henry Chadwick, the veteran journalist, upon whom the honored sobriquet of 'Father of Base Ball[sic]' rests so happily and well, appears in portraiture, and so well preserved in his physical manhood that his sixty-three years rest lightly upon his well timed life."
- ^ "Matty" at Harvard; The New York Times, February 16, 1909, p. 7: "Charles H. Ebbets, Chairman of the Chadwick Monument Committee, has announced that the contract has been awarded for a suitable monument to be placed on the plot in Greenwood[sic] Cemetery where the remains of the late Henry Chadwick, 'the Father of Baseball,' repose."
- ^ Collins, Glen (2004): "Ground as Hallowed as Cooperstown," The New York Times, April 1, 2004. (Article on baseball notables interred in the Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn) "Among the nearly 600,000 people buried there are no less than four pioneers who were accorded the title 'Father of Baseball' in the popular press: Henry Chadwick, Duncan Curry, William Tucker and William Wheaton....The memorial for Henry Chadwick bears a 'Father of Base Ball' inscription.... [Duncan] Curry, first president of the Knickerbocker Baseball Club, is immortalized with a monument that proudly dubs him 'Father of Baseball' because he headed the club that scholars say first codified many of the game's rules...."
- ^ http://citracycling.multiply.com/journal/item/27
- ^ Hamilton, Aidan (1998). An Entirely Different Game, The British Influence on Brazilian Football. Mainstream Publishing. ISBN 1-84018-041-2.
- ^ Goudinoff, Connie (1992). Mazda Motorsports: 20 Victorious Years in America. Motorbooks International. p. 96. ISBN 0-87938-582-0.
- ^ Hicken, J.O. Ed. "Raymond Roundup 1902–1967". Lethbridge, Alberta Canada: The Lethbridge Herald Company, Ltd., 1967. pp. 243, 519.
- ^ http://www.mshf.com/hof/parks_wally.htm
- ^ http://www.recordnet.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20091003/A_SPORTS/910030344#STS=g0jw5l2c.1e6j
- ^ http://www.motorsport.com/news/article.asp?ID=30337&FS=NHRA
- ^ http://ezinearticles.com/?The-History-of-Drifting&id=875478
- ^ http://boarding.com/skate/video/totalvid/2/7.html
- ^ http://www.skaterlegends.com/skaters/bruce_walker.htm
- ^ http://www.hull.co.uk/websitefiles/Did%20You%20Know.pdf
- ^ http://www.pinkbike.com/news/article1273.html
- ^ http://www.23mag.com/com/haro/haro.htm
- ^ http://www.freestyle-motocross.co.uk/top3-freestyle-motocross-riders
- ^ http://www.mopar.com/life/legends/dicklandy.html
- ^ "Frank Choi, the father of import drag racing, has done it again..." http://turbohightechperformance.automotive.com/65970/turp-0311-battle-in-virginia-drag-race/index.html
- ^ "English Players in Italy". RSSSF.com. http://www.rsssf.com/players/eng-players-in-it.html. Retrieved August 2007.
- ^ http://www.target.com/William-Garbutt-Father-Italian-Football/dp/1899807829
- ^ http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/16820/the_social_impact_of_japanese_baseball_pg2_pg2.html?cat=9
- ^ Klein, Christopher (2006-10-01). "A passion for the Sox in Kyoto's Fenway Park". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/travel/articles/2006/10/01/a_passion_for_the_sox_in_kyotos_fenway_park/?page=2.
- ^ "Fathers (and mothers) of invention: ultimate victims of their own success". The Independent (London). 2004-02-12. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/fathers-and-mothers-of-invention-ultimate-victims-of-their-own-success-569681.html. Retrieved 2010-05-08.
- ^ http://www.vintagekarts.com/ingels.htm - vintagekarts.com
- ^ STX Lacrosse
- ^ HickokSports.com - History - Lacrosse
- ^ Lacrosse History. Historical Facts About Lacrosse
- ^ http://www.schoolnet.ca/aboriginal/handbook/arts_lacrosse.html
- ^ Wickert, Marc. 2004. Dana White and the future of UFC. kucklepit.com. See Wikiquotes for the text.
- ^ http://www.musclepowershop.com/2009/04/eugene-sandow-father-of-bodybuilding.html
- ^ http://gov.ca.gov/press-release/2761/
- ^ http://www.eastsideboxing.com/news.php?p=4864&more=1
- ^ Roy Blakey's Icestage Archive, accessed December 15, 2011.
- ^ http://www.worldsoccer.com/blogs/the-football-professor-a-profile-of-dettmar-cramer
- ^ a b Elgin, Fran, et al. Editors. "Mohahve VI, A Collection of Histories", Hesperia, California, USA: Mohahve Historical Society, 2011. pp.77.
- ^ Santelli bio including several references backing up the statement, including a quote from Dr. William Gaugler December 1997: "I am, in fact, only two generations removed from the 'father of modern sabre' [referring to Santelli]".
- ^ http://www.surfingmuseum.org/collection/duke/duke.html
- ^ http://www.basicbloganomics.com/2009/03/first-fa-cup-final-on-march-16-1872.html
- ^ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WWEplaque_700.jpg
- ^ Diving Almanac article.
- ^ http://www.kontinent.se/slideshow.php?story=70
- ^ http://www.danshamptons.com/content/hamptonstyle/2008/july_11/11.html
- ^ http://www.nestle.bg/news.details.asp?lang=1&nid=48&page=1
- ^ "The Hall dinner and ceremony that also would include induction of William H.G. France, the father of stock car racing" http://books.simonandschuster.com/Wildest-Ride/Joe-Menzer/9780743226257/excerpt_with_id/14145
- ^ http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1842&dat=19920609&id=KFAeAAAAIBAJ&sjid=YscEAAAAIBAJ&pg=1892,1191270
- ^ http://www.drivingtoday.com/wcco/features/archive/thompson/index.html
- ^ Dolch, Craig (March 4, 2011). "Chirkinian's impact on televised golf can't be overstated". PGATOUR.com. http://www.pgatour.com/2011/r/03/04/dolch-column-chirkinian/index.html. Retrieved July 15, 2011. "Bringing sounds to golf is just part of the reason why Chirkinian — who is considered "the father of televised golf" — was elected February 9 into the World Golf Hall of Fame on an emergency vote."
- ^ Goldstein, Richard (March 5, 2011). "Frank Chirkinian, the Father of Televised Golf, Dies at 84". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/06/sports/golf/06chirkinian.html. Retrieved July 15, 2011. "Frank is universally regarded as the father of golf television,” Jim Nantz, CBS’s longtime lead golf announcer, told the PGA Tour Web site this year. “He invented it. He took a sport that no one knew how to televise and made it interesting. He brought the Masters tournament to life."
- ^ "Sir George Carley (British Inventor and Scientist)". Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/100795/Sir-George-Cayley-6th-Baronet. Retrieved 2009-07-26. "English pioneer of aerial navigation and aeronautical engineering and designer of the first successful glider to carry a human being aloft."
- ^ "The Pioneers: Aviation and Airmodelling". http://www.ctie.monash.edu.au/hargrave/cayley.html. Retrieved 2009-07-26. "Sir George Cayley, is sometimes called the 'Father of Aviation'. A pioneer in his field, he is credited with the first major breakthrough in heavier-than-air flight. He was the first to identify the four aerodynamic forces of flight—weight, lift, drag, and thrust—and their relationship and also the first to build a successful human carrying glider."
- ^ Albert Gallatin Mackey, The Builder Magazine, December 1922, Volume VIII, Number 12, Part XVI.
- ^ Tsiolkovskiy
- ^ Goddard
- ^ Oberth
- ^ Woods, Thomas. How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization, p 36. (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005); ISBN 0-89526-038-7.
- ^ a b . http://www.watchtime.com/2010/03/the-man-behind-the-brand-george-graham/.
- ^ Twyman, Richard (22 September 2004). "A brief history of clinical trials". The Human Genome. Wellcome Trust. http://genome.wellcome.ac.uk/doc_WTD020948.html. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
- ^ Lee, J.A.N. (1995). International Biographical Dictionary of Computer Pioneers. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn. ISBN 1-884964-47-8.
- ^ Belzer, Belzer (1977). Encyclopedia of Computer Science and Technology: Volume 7 - Curve Fitting to Early Development.... Marcel Dekker. ISBN 0-262-73009-X. , p. 55: "It is probably not an accident that the 'father of cybernetics,' Norbert Wiener, ..."
- ^ Wiener, Norbert (1965) [1948]. Cybernetics, Second Edition: or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. MIT Press. ISBN 0-8247-2257-4. (Wiener is credited with coining the term in its common modern usage)
- ^ Bowler, Peter J. (2003). Evolution: the history of an idea. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23693-9.
- ^ http://www.springerlink.com/content/p68g683357756307/fulltext.pdf?page=1 Life and career of Ferdinand Freudenstein
- ^ Barger, M. Susan; William B. White (2000). The Daguerreotype: Nineteenth-Century Technology and Modern Science. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6458-5. p. 20, "Louis Jacques Monde Daguerre: The second father of photography is Daguerre..."
- ^ Barger, M. Susan; William B. White (2000). The Daguerreotype: Nineteenth-Century Technology and Modern Science. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6458-5. p. 17, "The first father of photography was Nicéphore Niépce...."
- ^ Ellis, Roger (2001). Who's Who in Victorian Britain. Stackpole Books. ISBN 0-8117-1640-6. , p. 116: cites book title: "A. H. Booth: William Henry Fox Talbot: father of photography, 1965".
- ^ Booth, Martin (1999). Opium: A History. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-20667-4. p. 30 "Robert Hall, the divine, was addicted [to opium], as was Thomas Wedgwood, the father of photography."
- ^ The Father of Cool - Willis Haviland Carrier and Air Conditioning
- ^ http://www.thetimetv.com/news-brawn-announces-new-team-partnership-with-graham-london-859-133
- ^ Untitled Document
- ^ Konrad Zuse's versus John von Neumann's Computer Concepts
- ^ Gray, Paul (1999-03-29). "Alan Turing - Time 100 People of the Century". Time. http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/turing.html. Retrieved 2009-06-13. "The fact remains that everyone who taps at a keyboard, opening a spreadsheet or a word-processing program, is working on an incarnation of a Turing machine"
- ^ 'Father of the computer' honoured - BBC News, Monday, 7 June 2004
- ^ The Modern History of Computing - Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- ^ Bruner, Jeffrey. "Atanasoff, father of the computer, dies at 91". Rebuilding the ABC. Ames Laboratory. http://www.scl.ameslab.gov/ABC/Articles/Register6-95.html. Retrieved 2006-07-28.
- ^ "Inventor Profile: John Mauchly". Invent Now - Hall of Fame. North Canton, OH, USA: National Inventors Hall of Fame. March 29, 2004. http://www.invent.org/hall_of_fame/182.html. Retrieved December 12, 2011.
- ^ "Inventor Profile: J. Presper Eckert". Invent Now - Hall of Fame. North Canton, OH, USA: National Inventors Hall of Fame. March 29, 2004. http://www.invent.org/hall_of_fame/181.html. Retrieved December 12, 2011.
- ^ Ada Lovelace
- ^ Igor Sikorsky is considered to be the "father" of helicopters not because he invented the first. He is called that because he invented the first successful helicopter, upon which further designs were based, an article from inventors.About.com by Mary Bellis
- ^ Making Televised Emergency Information Accessible from the Gallaudet University website
- ^ Although it's a title he objects to (see Interview with Vinton Cerf, from a January 2006 article in Government Computer News), Cerf is willing to call himself one of the Internet's fathers, citing Bob Kahn in particularly as being someone with whom he should share that title.
- ^ Kahn do, No (2007). " Father of internet warns against Net Neutrality", The Register, Thursday 18 January
- ^ Louis Pouzin
- ^ "Fascinating facts about the invention of the Internet by Vinton Cerf in 1973". The Great Idea Finder. http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventions/internet.htm.
- ^ http://www.wakin-web.com/Wakin/NewsVault/InstantNoodles.html
- ^ "Kenjiro Takayanagi: The Father of Japanese Television". NHK Science & Technical Research Laboratories. http://www.nhk.or.jp/strl/aboutstrl/evolution-of-tv-en/p05/. Retrieved 2006-12-09.
- ^ "Kenjiro Takayanagi, Electrical Engineer, 91 (obituary)". New York Times. 1990-07-25. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE6D61231F936A15754C0A966958260. Retrieved 2006-12-09.
- ^ "Sculpture to jet engine inventor". BBC News. 2005-10-20. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/coventry_warwickshire/4362374.stm. Retrieved 2010-05-08.
- ^ Aircraft Engine
- ^ http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-234142.html
- ^ . http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/clocks-n-watches/watch/watches/harrison/index.htm.
- ^ http://www.rpi.edu/about/hof/hoff.html
- ^ "Kosaku Inagaki’s Home Page". Kyoto University. http://inagaki.ist.i.kyoto-u.ac.jp. Retrieved 2010-04-01.
- ^ "Meet the man who invented the mobile phone". BBC News. 2010-04-23. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/click_online/8639590.stm. Retrieved 2010-05-08.
- ^ The Technology Trailblazer: Vinod Dham. University of Cincinnati.
- ^ Priya Ganapati at Techfest 99, IIT Bombay. Rediff.com.
- ^ p. 54, "Intel Turns 35: Now What?", David L. Margulius, InfoWorld, July 21, 2003, ISSN 0199-6649.
- ^ p. 21, "Architecture of the Pentium microprocessor", D. Alpert and D. Avnon, IEEE Micro, 13, #3 (June 1993), pp. 11–21, doi:10.1109/40.216745.
- ^ p. 90, "Inside Intel", Business Week, #3268, June 1, 1992.
- ^ Commodore History: Chuck Peddle
- ^ "Microsoft founders lead tributes to 'father of the PC'". BBC News. April 2, 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8600493.stm. Retrieved April 2, 2010.
- ^ A Talk with the Father of Computing, Wired Magazine
- ^ The "The First Electronic Church of America" website poses the question: "Russia's Popov: Did he 'invent' radio?" According to this account, Alexander Popov is the "radio man." Among other things, it notes that Popov reported sending and receiving a wireless signal across a 600 yards distance in 1895. Two years later, it says, he set up a shore station at Kronstadt and equipped the Russian navy cruiser Africa with his wireless communications apparatus to provide ship-to-shore communication., an article by Stan Horzepa wondering who is the father of the radio
- ^ De Forest, Lee (1950). Father of Radio: The Autobiography of Lee de Forest. Chicago: Wilcox & Follett. (This book sold fewer than a thousand copies and is accordingly rare and expensive today).
- ^ Dennis, Everette E..; Edward Pease (1994). Radio—The Forgotten Medium. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 1-56593-873-9. , p. 198: "the egotistical Lee De Forest who discovered, however unwittingly, the audion tube that allowed him to proclaim himself 'the father of radio'"
- ^ Shurkin, Joseph (1996). Engines of the Mind: The Evolution of the Computer from the Mainframes to Microprocessors. W. W. Norton and Company. ISBN 0-393-31471-5. , p. 132: "De Forest, who was not a modest man, called himself the 'Father of Radio,' an epithet whose accuracy is debatable."
- ^ Guglielmo Marconi - the "father of radio"
- ^ A. K. Sen (1997). "Sir J.C. Bose and radio science", Microwave Symposium Digest 2 (8-13), pp. 557-560.
- ^ Ask the average person "Who invented radio?" and the average answer will be "Marconi." Ask the same question on the Internet, and the average answer will not likely be "Marconi." Instead, try one of the following on for size: Nikola Tesla, Alexander Popov, Oliver Lodge, Reginald Fessenden, Heinrich Hertz, Mahlon Loomis, Nathan Stubblefield, James Clerk Maxwell and even Thomas Edison, among others, an article by Stan Horzepa wondering who is the father of the radio
- ^ McLuhan, Marshall; Barrington Nevitt (1972). Take Today; the Executive as Dropout. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ISBN 0-15-187830-7. "Fessenden, the Forgotten Father of 'Wireless' Telephony" (section heading)[2]
- ^ Zuill, William S. (2001): The Forgotten Father of Radio", American Heritage of Science and Technology, 17(1)40–47, as cited in Silverman, Steve (2003). Lindbergh's Artificial Heart: More Fascinating True Stories From Einstein's Refrigerator. Andrews McMeel Publishing. ISBN 0-7407-3340-0. p. 160
- ^ [3] from the Eweek website
- ^ [4] History of the Internet
- ^ [5] History of the Search Engine - What Came Before Google?
- ^ XML for Newcomers and Managers - Part I
- ^ Van Meggelen, Jim; Jared Smith, Leif Madsen (2005). Asterisk: The Future of Telephony. O'Reilly. ISBN 0-596-00962-3. , p.190: "Although Alexander Graham Bell is most famously remembered as the father of the telephone, the reality is that during the latter half of the 1800s dozens of minds were at work on the project of carrying voice over telegraph lines."
- ^ http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/F/htmlF/farnsworthp/farnsworthp.htm
. Society of Television Engineers. URL accessed January 20, 2008. "Isn't it about time that Philo Farnsworth gets some credit??? - ^ "Zworykin at IEEE Global History Network". http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Vladimir_Zworykin. Retrieved 2008-03-03. ""the oft-called Father of Television Vladimir Zworykin""
- ^ "Zworykin at Museum.TV". http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/Z/htmlZ/zworykinvla/zworykinvla.htm. Retrieved 2008-03-03. ""inventor Vladimir Zworykin is often described as "the father of television". ""
- ^ "John Logie Baird: TV Inventor". http://www.sydenham.org.uk/john_logie_baird.html. Retrieved 2009-07-26. "John Logie Baird invented Television in 1926. His initial TV system was electro-mechanical. He (later) embraced electronic TV and developed the world's first color television system."
- ^ "The World's First High Definition Color Television System". http://www.bairdtelevision.com/colour.html. Retrieved 2009-07-26.
- ^ Weingardt, Richard (2005). Engineering Legends. ASCE Publications. p. 75. ISBN 0-7844-0801-7.
- ^ Three loud cheers for the father of the web, 28 January 2005, Telegraph.co.uk
- ^ Cooper, Alan, Why I am called "the Father of Visual Basic" "Mitchell Waite called me the "father of Visual Basic" in the foreword to what I believe was the first book ever published for VB, called the Visual Basic How-To (now in its second edition, published by The Waite Group Press). I thought the appellation was an appropriate one, and frequently use the quoted phrase as my one-line biography."
- ^ XML.com: "XML Father" leaves W3C for OASIS
- ^ BC Archives: Sir James Douglas
- ^ http://www.straitstimes.com/Breaking%2BNews/Asia/Story/STIStory_429594.html
- ^ http://trendsupdates.com/henry-ford-father-of-20th-century-american-industry/
- ^ Federal Highway Administration [6]. URL accessed July 21, 2006.
- ^ http://www.vwtrendsweb.com/features/0106vwt_people/index.html
- ^ http://www.hemmings.com/mus/stories/2008/02/01/hmn_feature17.html
- ^ http://www.versusmotorsport.com/about_us.php
- ^ http://www.hotrod.com/eventcoverage/kustom_kulture_tribute/index.html
- ^ http://mthof.angelfire.com/CLASS2008.html
- ^ http://www.bvv.cz/i2000/Akce/b-slife.nsf/WWWAllPDocsID/BEXP-7L6PQ9?OpenDocument&LANG=GB&NAV=1&ID=0
- ^ http://irishcar.com/wankelge.htm
- ^ http://www.rotorhead.ca/articles/2002/12/22/felix-wankel-bio/
- ^ Steil, Tim (2000). Route 66. MBI Publishing Company. p. 18. ISBN 0-7603-0747-4. "Avery, though dubbed the 'Father of Route 66' by some, was a political appointee who also left office the next year."
- ^ http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X91l3wqJnikC&pg=PA179&lpg=PA179&dq=%22father+of+the+tail+fin%22&source=bl&ots=0R7qHrSvev&sig=NllowJaW5UQa_SJB7MZgZOoVbWA&hl=en&ei=xTYaTZ2WKIa4hAeOj_W3Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22father%20of%20the%20tail%20fin%22&f=false
- ^ McCosh, Dan (2003-03-07). "DRIVING; Most Cars Are Born As Models of Clay". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2003/03/07/travel/driving-most-cars-are-born-as-models-of-clay.html?src=pm.
- ^ http://www.retrofuture.com/index.php/2009/01/24/harley-earls-dream-car-the-firebird-iii/
- ^ Eno Transportation Foundation [7]. URL accessed August 23, 2006.
- ^ Watson, Rollin J. (2002). The School As a Safe Haven. Bergen Garvey/Greenwood. p. 30. ISBN 0-89789-900-8. http://books.google.com/?id=uNbd6oIXm0MC&pg=PA30&lpg=PA30. "The modern school bus began in a conference in 1939 called by Frank W. Cyr, the 'Father of the Yellow School' bus, who was a professor at Teachers College, Columbia University. At that meeting, Cyr urged the standardization of the school bus. Participants came up with the standard yellow color and some basic construction standards. Cyr had... found that children were riding in all sorts of vehicles—one district, he found, was painting their buses red, white, and blue to instill patriotism."
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| Born | (1951-06-15) June 15, 1951 (age 61) Ahvaz |
|---|---|
| Era | 20th / 21st-century philosophy |
| Region | Critical Theory |
| School | Postcolonialism, critical theory |
| Main interests | Liberation theory, Literary theory, Aesthetics, Cultural theory, Sociology of Culture |
| Notable ideas | Trans-Aesthetics, Radical Hermeneutics, Anti-colonial Modernity, Will to Resist Power, Dialectics of National Traumas and National Art Forms, Phantom Liberties |
Hamid Dabashi (Persian: حمید دباشی), born 1951 in Ahvaz, is an Iranian-American Professor of Iranian Studies and Comparative Literature at Columbia University in New York City.[1]
He is the author of over twenty books.[2] Among them are his Theology of Discontent; several books on Iranian cinema; Staging a Revolution; an edited volume, Dreams of a Nation: On Palestinian Cinema; and his one-volume analysis of Iranian history Iran: A People Interrupted.[3]
Contents
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Biography[link]
Born and raised in southern city of Ahvaz in Iran, Dabashi was educated in Iran and then in the United States, where he received a dual Ph.D. in sociology of culture and Islamic studies from the University of Pennsylvania in 1984, followed by a postdoctoral fellowship at Harvard University. He wrote his dissertation on Max Weber’s theory of charismatic authority with Philip Rieff, the most distinguished Freudian cultural critic. He lives in New York with his wife and colleague Golbarg Bashi.[4]
Major works[link]
Hamid Dabashi’s books are Iran: A People Interrupted, which traces the last two hundred year's of Iran's history including analysis of cultural trends, and political developments, up to the collapse of the reform movement and the emergence of the presidency of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. Dabashi argues that "Iran needs to be understood as the site of an ongoing contest between two contrasting visions of modernity, one colonial, the other anticolonial".
His book Theology of Discontent, is a study of the global rise of Islamism as a form of liberation theology. In this book Dabashi coined the term “colonial modernity," which refers to the paradoxical reception of the European project of Enlightenment modernity by the rest of the world, whereby non-Europeans are assigned subjectness precisely at the moment of the denial of their historical agency.[5]
His other book Close Up: Iranian Cinema, Past, Present, Future is the founding text on modern Iranian cinema and the phenomenon of (Iranian) national cinema as a form of cultural modernity – featured even in the Lonely Planet travel guide for Iran. In his essay "For the Last Time: Civilizations", he has also posited the binary opposition between “Islam and the West” as a major narrative strategy of raising a fictive centre for European modernity and lowering the rest of the world as peripheral to that centre.[6]
In Truth and Narrative, he has deconstructed the essentialist conception of Islam projected by Orientalists and Islamists alike. Instead he has posited, in what he calls a “polyfocal” conception of Islam, three competing discourses and institutions of authority – which he terms “nomocentric” (law-based), “logocentric” (reason-based) and “homocentric” (human-based) – vying for power and competing for legitimacy. The historical dynamics among these three readings of “Islam”, he concludes, constitutes the moral, political and intellectual history of Muslims.
Among his other work — which has been translated into many languages — are his essays Artist without Borders (2005), Women without Headache (2005), For the Last Time Civilization (2001) and "The End of Islamic Ideology" (2000).[7]
Hamid Dabashi is also the author of numerous articles and public speeches, ranging in their subject matters from Islamism, feminism, globalised empire and ideologies and strategies of resistance, to visual and performing arts in a global context.
Philosophy[link]
Among the distinctive aspects of Dabashi’s thinking are a philosophical preoccupation with geopolitics and the transaesthetics of emerging art forms that correspond to it. Dabashi’s principle work in which his political and aesthetic philosophy becomes historically anchored is his work on the rise of national cinema. There he contends that the only way out of the paradox of colonial modernity is the creative constitution of the postcolonial subject via a critical conversation with the historical predicament of the colonial subject. Dabashi argues that it is on the aesthetic site that the postcolonial subject must articulate the politics of her emancipation. In this respect, Dabashi’s major theoretical contribution is the collapsing of the binary opposition between the creative and the critical, the true and the beautiful, the poetics and the politics etc. On the colonial site, Dabashi argues in a memorable dialogue with Nietzsche and Heidegger, the Will to Power becomes the will to resist power.[citation needed]
In an essay on Qur’anic hermeneutics, “In the Absence of the Face” (2000), Dabashi has also taken the Derridian correspondence between the signifier and the signified and expanded it from what he considers its “Christian Christological” context and read it through a Judeo-Islamic frame of reference in which, Dabashi proposes, there is a fundamental difference between a sign and a signifier, a difference that points to a metaphysical system of signification that violently force-feed meaning into otherwise resistant and unruly signs[disambiguation needed 
]. It is from this radical questioning of the legislated semantics of signs incarcerated as signifiers that Dabashi has subsequently developed a notion of non-Aristotelian mimesis, as best articulated in his essay on Persian Passion Play, "Ta’ziyeh: A Theater of Protest" (2005). Here he proposes that in Persian Passion Play, we witness an instantaneous, non-metaphysical and above all transitory, correspondence between the signifier and the signified and thus the modus operandi of the mimesis is not predicated on a permanent correspondence in any act of representation. There are serious philosophical implications to this particular mode of non-representational representation that Dabashi has extensively examined in his essays on the work of the prominent artist Shirin Neshat[citation needed]. Dabashi’s political dedication to the Palestinian cause, and his work on Palestinian cinema, has an added aesthetic dimension in which he is exploring the crisis of mimesis in national traumas that defy any act of visual, literary, or performative representation.
Dabashi’s primarily feminist concerns are articulated in a series of essays[citation needed]that he has written on contemporary literary, visual and performing arts. There his major philosophical preoccupation is with the emergence of a mode of transaesthetics (“art without border”) that remains politically relevant, socially engaged and above all gender conscious. In his philosophical reflections[citation needed], he is in continuous conversation with Jean Baudrillard, the distinguished French philosopher, and his notion of “transaesthetics of indifference”. Contrary to Baudrillard, Dabashi argues that art must and continues to make a difference and empower the disenfranchised.
So far in his political thought, Dabashi has been concerned with the emerging patterns of global domination and strategies of regional resistance to them[citation needed]. Equally important to Dabashi’s thinking is the global geopolitics of labour and capital migration migration[citation needed].
Film and art[link]
Hamid Dabashi has been principal advisor for many globally recognized artists and filmmakers; he was consulted by Ridley Scott in his making of Kingdom of Heaven[8] (2005, Fox Twentieth Century, Hollywood, USA). Scott defended his film by saying that it was approved and verified by Dabashi: "I showed the film to one very important Muslim in New York, a lecturer from Columbia, and he said it was the best portrayal of Saladin he's ever seen".[9]
Dabashi was the chief consultant to Hany Abu-Assad's “Paradise Now” (2005), awarded the Golden Globe for best foreign language film and an Academy Award nominee in the same category, and Shirin Neshat’s “Women without Men” (2006).
Professor Dabashi has also served as jury member on many international art and film festivals,[10] most recently the Locarno International Festival in Switzerland. In the context of his commitment to advancing trans-national art and independent world cinema, he is the founder of Dreams of a Nation, a Palestinian Film Project, dedicated to preserving and safeguarding Palestinian Cinema.[1] As a theorist of trans-aesthetics (“art without border”), his articles and essays on the relationship between art and politics have been featured, translated to many languages, and published by museums and cultural institutes in Europe.[11] For his contributions to Iranian cinema, Mohsen Makhmalbaf, the Iranian film-maker called Dabashi "a rare cultural critic".
Public commentary and criticism[link]
Professor Dabashi has been a commentator on a number of political issues, often regarding the Middle East, Columbia University, American foreign policy, or a combination of those.
Columbia University[link]
In 2004, Professor Dabashi was involved in a dispute at Columbia University between Jewish students and pro-Palestinian professors, which included accusations of antisemitism against the professors.[12] According to the New York Times, Dabashi was mentioned principally because of his published political viewpoints, and that he canceled a class to attend a Palestinian rally.[13] The New York chapter of the American Civil Liberties Union sided with the professors.[14] An ad hoc committee formed by Lee C. Bollinger, Columbia University's president, reported in March 2005 that they could not find any credible allegations of antisemitism, but did criticize the university's grievance procedures, and recommended changes. However, the committee was criticized for failing to examine an article in which Dabashi wrote that Israelis suffer from "a vulgarity of character that is bone-deep and structural to the skeletal vertebrae of its culture."[15]
In 2002, Dabashi sharply criticized Rabbi Charles Sheer (who was the university's Jewish chaplain between 1969 and 2004) after he admonished several professors for cancelling their classes to attend pro-Palestinian rallies. Dabashi wrote in the Columbia Spectator that Rabbi Sheer "has taken upon himself the task of mobilizing and spearheading a crusade of fear and intimidation against members of the Columbia faculty and students who have dared to speak against the slaughter of innocent Palestinians."[15]
Views on Israel[link]
Dabashi has described the state of Israel as "a dyslexic Biblical exegesis," "occupied Palestine," "a vicarious avocation," "a dangerous delusion," "a colonial settlement," "a Jewish apartheid state," and "a racist apartheid state"[16] In an interview with AsiaSource in June 2003, Dabashi stated that supporters of Israel "cannot see that Israel over the past 50 years as a colonial state - first with white European colonial settlers, then white American colonial settlers, now white Russian colonial settlers - amounts to nothing more than a military base for the rising predatory empire of the United States. Israel has no privilege greater or less than Pakistan or Kuwait or Saudi Arabia. These are all military bases but some of them, like Israel, are like the hardware of the American imperial imagination."[17]
In an interview with the Electronic Intifada in September 2002, Dabashi referred to the pro-Israel lobby as "Gestapo apparatchiks" and that "The so-called "pro-Israeli lobby" is an integral component of the imperial designs of the Bush administration for savage and predatory globalization." He also criticized "fanatic zealots from Brooklyn" who have settled on Palestinian lands.[18] Dabashi has also harshly criticized the New York Times for what he describes as a bias towards Israel, stating that the paper is "the single most nauseating propaganda paper on planet."[19]
In September 2004, Dabashi sharply criticized Israel in the Egyptian newspaper Al-Ahram, writing that:
What they call "Israel" is no mere military state. A subsumed militarism, a systemic mendacity with an ingrained violence constitutional to the very fusion of its fabric, has penetrated the deepest corners of what these people have to call their "soul."... Half a century of systematic maiming and murdering of another people has left its deep marks on the faces of these people, the way they talk, the way they walk, the way they handle objects, the way they greet each other, the way they look at the world. There is an endemic prevarication to this machinery, a vulgarity of character that is bone-deep and structural to the skeletal vertebrae of its culture.[20]
Responding to Dabashi’s Al-Ahram essay, Columbia University President Lee Bollinger said, “I want to completely disassociate myself from those ideas. They’re outrageous things to say, in my view.”[21] Jonathan Rosenblum, director of Jewish Media Resources, later wrote that "Dabashi apparently subscribes to Lamarkian genetics [that an organism can pass on characteristics that it acquired during its lifetime to its offspring]. Not only have the alleged actions of Israeli Jews effected changes in their very bone structure, but those changes are transmitted to subsequent generations. Dabashi’s depiction of the debased Jewish physiognomy is racism pure and simple."[22] In The Bulletin, Herb Denenberg wrote that Dabashi's article "is not borderline racism. It’s as gross and obvious as racism can get."[23]
In a sworn statement submitted to the US Commission on Civil Rights, Dabashi stated that he has not expressed, nor ever harbored, any anti-Semitic sentiments and that the 2004 Al-Ahram essay was being misconstrued.[24] He has also criticized pro-Israel groups in the United States, saying that the "pro-Israeli Zionist lobby in the US banked and invested heavily in infiltrating, buying, and paying for all the major and minor corridors of power."[25] In the same article, Dabashi endorsed cultural and academic boycotts of Israel.[25]
In a letter to the Columbia Spectator, Dabashi wrote that the above passage was "not a racial characterization of a people, but a critical reflection on the body politics of state militarism" and the effects that it has on human beings. Dabashi also apologized for "any hurt that I may have inadvertently caused" due to the interpretation of the passage.[26]
Support for Academic Boycott of Israel and Israelis[link]
In an article published January 2009, Dabashi advocated for boycott efforts targeting both individuals and institutions:
"The divestment campaign that has been far more successful in Western Europe needs to be reinvigorated in North America – as must the boycotting of the Israeli cultural and academic institutions… Naming names and denouncing individually every prominent Israeli intellectual who has publicly endorsed their elected officials' wide-eyed barbarism, and then categorically boycotting their universities and colleges, film festivals and cultural institutions, is the single most important act of solidarity that their counterparts can do around the world."[27]
Dabashi is on the advisory board of the U.S. Campaign for the Academic & Cultural Boycott of Israel.
Victor Luria[link]
In September 2004, Victor Luria, a Ph.D. student who worked in a Columbia genetics lab and who served in the Israeli military in 1998, sent an email to Dabashi sharply criticizing him for an article he wrote in Al-Ahram in which wrote that black soldiers in Israel are "mesmerized pigeons now under the spell of a cobra." Luria wrote that during his service in the Israeli military, Black soldiers were always treated equally.[20][28] Dabashi forwarded the email to several top Columbia officials, including Columbia's provost Alan Brinkley, claiming that Luria had engaged in "conduct unbecoming of a student of Columbia University." Dabashi also stated that he felt physically threatened by Luria, and asked for campus security to be notified "to protect my person from a potential attack by a militant slanderer," although he added that he would not contact the police "for the time being."[28][29] Brinkley subsequently told Dabashi that he was overreacting, that there was nothing threatening about Luria's email and that he would not notify campus security.[28] In an interview with The New York Sun, Luria defended his email, stating that "As a member of the university, I have the right to tell him he's wrong," and accused Dabashi of trying to "silence" him,[28] and criticized him in an article in the Columbia Daily Spectator. Dabashi declined any further comment on the incident.[30]
[edit] Criticism of the movie "300"
Dabashi criticized the film 300, the 2007 movie which depicts the of Battle of Thermopylae in 480 BC of 300 Spartans against the Persian Empire. Dabashi stated that the director Zack Snyder is "fearful of all the racialised minorities in and out of the United States—Jews, Muslims, Asians, Africans, Latinos—gathering storm around his white-washed racism." Dabashi also stated "That monstrosity that Snyder pictures marching towards Thermopylae is the American empire -- and that band of brothers that stood up to that monstrosity are those resisting this empire: they are the Iraqi resistance, the Palestinians, Hizbullah."[31]
Criticism of Lee Bollinger's Comments on Ahmadinejad and Allegations of White Supremacy[link]
Following Columbia University President Lee Bollinger's statements on Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad during Ahmadinejad's visit to Columbia in September 2007 (in which Bollinger stated that the Iranian President was a "petty and cruel dictator" who lacked the "intellectual courage" to offer real answers on denying the Holocaust) Dabashi wrote that Bollinger's statements were "the most ridiculous clichés of the neocon propaganda machinery, wrapped in the missionary position of a white racist supremacist carrying the heavy burden of civilizing the world." Dabashi further stated that Bollinger's comments were "propaganda warfare … waged by the self-proclaimed moral authority of the United States" and that "Only Lee Bollinger's mind-numbing racism when introducing Ahmadinejad could have made the demagogue look like the innocent bystander in a self-promotional circus." In addition, Dabashi wrote that when Bollinger made these comments, "Nothing short of the devil incarnate, the Christian Fundamentalist in Bollinger thought, was sitting in front of him" and that Bollinger's "shamelessly racist" comments were "replete with racism."[32][33]
Judith Jackson, a professor of epidemiology at Columbia who is the co-coordinator of Scholars for Peace in the Middle East, criticized Dabashi for his remarks, stating that Dabashi's article was "sheer demagoguery" and that "attributing President Bollinger's remarks or behavior to racism is absurd."[32]
Criticism of the U.S. foreign policy[link]
Dabashi has described the United States as "the most devastating military machinery in human history, which in turn generates and sustains other militant monstrosities like Ariel Sharon, Saddam Hussein, Osama Bin Laden, Mullah Omar, and Yasser Arafat."[18] Dabashi has also stated that "American imperialism... is written into the DNA of this country's political culture"[16] In a 2006 essay, Dabashi referred to the World Trade Center towers (which were destroyed by the attacks of September 11, 2001) as "two totem poles of U.S. empire in New York.".[34]
Dabashi has also sharply criticized Iranians living in the United States who support a US policy of regime change in Iran. In August 2008, Dabashi wrote that:
"A band of useless expatriate Iranians are now swarming Washington D.C. hotel lobbies and the White House and State Department offices, seeking a pathetic role and a lucrative salary for regime change in Iran, doing nothing but wasting our tax money, while registering their ignoble names in the annals of a maligned nation. History is now recording their shameful names and will deal with them in proper time -- Abbas Milani, Mohsen Sazegara, Amir Taheri, Azar Nafisi, Ramin Ahmadi, Roya Hakakian, and an ilk of reprehensible names next to them."[19]
Reading Lolita in Iran and Azar Nafisi[link]
Main article: Reading Lolita in Tehran
In 2006, Dabashi sharply criticized Azar Nafisi for her book Reading Lolita in Tehran, stating that "By seeking to recycle a kaffeeklatsch version of English literature as the ideological foregrounding of American empire, Reading Lolita in Tehran is reminiscent of the most pestiferous colonial projects" and accusing her of being a "native informer and colonial agent."[34] In an interview with Z Magazine, Dabashi compared Nafisi to former American soldier Lynndie England, who was convicted of abusing Iraqi prisoners at Abu Ghraib."[35][36]
Nafisi responded to Dabashi's criticism by stating that she is not, as Dabashi claims, a neoconservative, that she opposed the Iraq war, and that she is more interested in literature than in politics. In an interview, Nafisi stated that she's never argued for an attack on Iran and that democracy, when it comes, should come from the Iranian people (and not from US military or political intervention). She added that while she is willing to engage in "serious argument...Debate that is polarized isn't worth my time." She stated that she did not respond directly to Dabashi because "You don't want to debase yourself and start calling names."[35]
Views on Barack Obama and John McCain[link]
During the 2008 Presidential election, Dabashi criticized democratic presidential nominee Barack Obama for "falling right into the oldest trap that the American Zionist cabal has in its bag of tricks" and criticized him for giving "Jerusalem to a band of white European colonial settlers," arguing instead that "Jerusalem belongs to Palestinians." Dabashi concluded by writing that Obama's pro-Israel stance "spells out the particulars of his own moral depravity and political cowardice." However, Dabashi stated the Obama was preferable to Republican Candidate John McCain because "even if [Obama] has sold his soul, ... he used to have one. That is not the case with McCain."[16]
Selected bibliography[link]
Islamic and Iranian studies[link]
Islamic Liberation Theology Resisting the Empire By Hamid Dabashi
- 2008 Islamic Liberation Theology; Resisting the Empire. Routledge
- 2007 Iran: A People Interrupted. New York, New Press. [2]
- 2005 Theology of Discontent: The Ideological Foundations of the Islamic Revolution in Iran. (Second Edition) with a New Introduction. New York, New York University Press (1993). New Edition, New Brunswick, NJ, Transaction Publishers.[3].
- 2005 "Ignaz Goldziher and the Question Concerning Orientalism,” as an Introduction to a new Edition of Ignaz Goldziher’s Muslim Studies. New Brunswick, NJ, Transaction Publishers. [4]
- 2000 “The End of Islamic Ideology,” Social Research. Volume 67, Number 2, Summer 2000. pp. 475–518. [5]
- 1999 Staging a Revolution: The Art of Persuasion in the Islamic Republic of Iran. (With Peter Chelkowski). London, Edward Booth-Clibborn Editions.
- 1993 "Historical Conditions of Persian Sufism during the Seljuk Period." In Leonard Lewisohn (ed.), Classical Persian Sufism: From Its Origins to Rumi. London and New York, Khaniqahi Nimatallahi Publishers.
- 1992 Authority in Islam: From the Rise of Muhammad to the Establishment of the Umayyads. Second Edition. New Brunswick, NJ & London, Transaction Books. Winner of the 1990 Association of American Publishers Award in the category of religion and philosophy.
- 1989 Expectation of the Millennium: Shi’ism in History. With S.H. Nasr and S.V.R. Nasr. New York, State University of New York Press.
- 1989 "By What Authority? —The Formation of Khomeini's Revolutionary Discourse, 1964-1977." Social Compass, vol. 36, no. 4, December 1989.
- 1988 Shi’ism: Doctrines, Thought, and Spirituality. With S.H. Nasr, and S.V.R. Nasr. New York, State University of New York Press.
- 1986 "Symbiosis of Religious and Political Authorities in Islam." In Thomas Robbins and Roland Robertson (eds.), Church-State Relations: Tensions and Transitions. New Brunswick, NJ, and London, Transaction Books.
- 1986 "The Sufi Doctrine of 'The Perfect Man' and a View of the Hierarchical Structure of the Islamic Culture." Islamic Quarterly, vol. 30, no. 2, Second Quarter, 1986.
- 1989 "Modern Shi’i Thought". The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modem Islamic World.
Islamic philosophy[link]
- 1999 Truth and Narrative: The Untimely Thoughts of Ayn al-Qudat al-Hamadhani. London, Curzon Press.
- 1996 "The Philosopher/Vizier: Khwajah Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and His Isma’ili Connection." In Farhad Daftari (ed.), Studies in Isma’ili History and Doctrines. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1996.
- 1994 "Khwajah Nasir al-Din al-Tusi: The Philosopher/Vizier." In Oliver Leaman (ed.), A History of Islamic Philosophy. London, Routledge.
- 1994 "Mir Damad and the School of Isfahan.” In Oliver Leaman (ed.), A History of Islamic Philosophy. London, Routledge.
- 1994 "Ayn al-Qudat: That Individual." In Oliver Leaman (ed.), A History of Islamic Philosophy. London, Routledge.
- 1990 "Danish-namah-yi AIa'i”. Encyclopædia Iranica.
- 1990 "Mir Damad". The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Visual, performing arts and aesthetics[link]
- 2005 “Artists without Borders: On Contemporary Iranian Art” in Octavio Zaya (Ed), Contemporary Iranian Artists: Since the Revolution (San Sebastian, Spain: Museum of Contemporary Art, 2005). In English, Spanish, and Catalan.
- 2005 “Shirin Neshat: Transcending the Boundaries of an Imaginative Geography” in Octavio Zaya (Ed), The Last Word. San Sebastian, Spain, Museum of Modern Art. In English and Spanish.
- 2005 “Women without Headaches: On Shirin Neshat’s ‘Women without Men.’” Berlin, Germany, Hamburger Bahnhof, Museum für Gegenwart. In English and German.
- 2005 “Ta’ziyeh: Theater of Protest,” in The Drama Review (TDR). [6]
- 2002 “Bordercrossings: Shirin Neshat’s Body of Evidence,” Catalogue of Castello di Rivoli Retrospective on Shirin Neshat. Turin, Italy. January 2002.
- 2000 “In the Absence of the Face,” Social Research, Volume 67, Number 1. Spring 2000. pp. 127–185. [7]
- 1993 Parviz Sayyad's Theater of Diaspora. Costa Mesa, CA, Mazda.
World cinema[link]
- 2011 Co-curated with Negar Mottahedeh and La Frances Hui the Asia Society's tribute to the silenced Iranian director Jafar Panahi (February 25-March 11, 2011)
- 2008 Makhmalbaf at Large: The Making of a Rebel Filmmaker. London, I. B. Tauris. [8]
- 2006 Dreams of a Nation: On Palestinian Cinema]. Edited, with an Introduction. London and New York, Verso. [9]
- 2006 Masters and Masterpieces of Iranian Cinema. Washington DC, Mage. [10]
- 2004 Yami Karano Kobo] (The Light Arisen from the Darkness: On Mohsen Makhmalbaf) —in Japanese, Tokyo. [11]
- 2002 “Dead Certainties: Makhmalbaf’s Early Cinema,” in Richard Tapper (Eds), Studies in Iranian Cinema. London, I.B. Tauris.
- 2001 Close up: Iranian Cinema, Past, Present, Future. London and New York, Verso, 2001. [Translated into Arabic, Japanese, Spanish, and Turkish].
- 1999 “Mohsen Makhmalbaf’s Moment of Innocence,” in Rose Issa and Sheila Whitaker (Eds), Life and Art: The New Iranian Cinema. London, The British Film Institute, 1999. pp. 115–128.
Persian and comparative literature[link]
- 2007 The Adventures of Amir Hamza. Introduction. Random House Modern Library. [12].
- 2003 "Nima Yushij and Constitution of a National subject," Oriente Moderno, Volume xxii (lxxxiii), 2003.
- 1994 "Of Poetics, Politics and Ethics: The Legacy of Parvin E’tesami. In Heshmat Moayyad (ed.), Once a Dewdrop Accosted a Rose: Essays on the Poetry of Parvin E’tesami. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers.
- 1988 "Forough Farrokhzad and the Formative Forces of Iranian Culture." In Michael C. Hillmann (ed.), Forough Farrokhzad: A Quarter Century Later. Literature East and West.
- 1985 "The Poetics of the Politics: Commitment in Modern Persian Literature." Iranian Studies, Special Issue, The Sociology of the Iranian Writer, ed. by Michael C. Hillmann, vol. 18, nos. 2-4, Spring-Autumn, 1985.
- Year? "Persian Literature" for The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modem Islamic World.
Postcolonial theory[link]
- 2008 Islamic Liberation Theology: Resisting the Empire. New York, Routledge. [13]
- 2001 “For the Last Time: Civilizations,” International Sociology. September 2001. Volume 16 (3): 361-368. [14]
- 2001 “No soy subalternista,” in Ileana Rodriguez (Ed), Convergencia de Tiempos: Estudios subalternos / contextos latinoamericanos estado, cultura, subalternidad. Atlanta, GA: Editions Rodopi b.v. 2001. pp. 49–59.
References[link]
- ^ a b Hamid Dabashi official site
- ^ Hamid Dabashi's Official Web Site
- ^ Iran: A People Interrupted
- ^ Hamid Dabashi's Official Web Site
- ^ Hamid Dabashi (2006). Theology of Discontent: The Ideological Foundation of the Islamic Revolution. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 1-4128-0516-3. http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN1412805163&id=sTFdNNQP4ewC&pg=PR9&lpg=PP1&dq=dabashi&sig=xgqVb9Fj8S7GReyOKMafuuCuAbI.
- ^ For the Last Time: Civilizations - Dabashi 16 (3): 361 - International Sociology
- ^ The End of Islamic Ideology (2000)
- ^ "Interviews: Kingdom of Heaven Scholars". Christianity Today. Archived from the original on 2008-02-19. http://web.archive.org/web/20080219211329/http://www.christianitytoday.com/movies/interviews/KOHhistorians.html. Retrieved 2008-02-25.
- ^ "Film-maker defends Crusades epic". BBC News. April 28, 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/film/4492625.stm. Retrieved 2008-02-25.
- ^ "Locarno International Film Festival". IMDB. http://www.imdb.com/Sections/Awards/Locarno_International_Film_Festival/2004.
- ^ Fundació Antoni Tàpies
- ^ Columbia University's Own Middle East War
- ^ Kleinfield, N. R. (January 18, 2005). "Mideast Tensions Are Getting Personal on Campus at Columbia". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/18/education/18columbia.html?pagewanted=2. Retrieved 2008-02-27.
- ^ "Civil Liberties Official Defends Columbia Professors - December 28, 2004". The New York Sun. http://www.nysun.com/article/6826. Retrieved 2008-02-27.
- ^ a b "Faculty Committee Largely Clears Scholars - March 31, 2005 -". The New York Sun. http://www.nysun.com/article/11414. Retrieved 2008-02-27.
- ^ a b c Obama's Palestinian problem by Hamid Dabashi, Al-Ahram Weekly, 26 June - 2 July 2008, Issue No. 903.
- ^ Nermeen Shaikh (June 12, 2003). "AsiaSource Special Report - Interview with Hamid Dabashi". Asia Source. http://www.asiasoc.org/news/special_reports/dabashi.cfm.
- ^ a b Campus Watch: Interview with Prof. Hamid Dabashi, The Electronic Intifada, September 30, 2002 (retrieved on November 8, 2008).
- ^ a b How Do We Sleep While Beirut Is Burning? by Hamid Dabashi, OhmyNews, August 9, 2006.(retrieved on November 8, 2008).
- ^ a b Hamid Dabashi (September 23–29, 2004). "For a Fistful of Dust: A Passage to Palestine". Al-Ahram Weekly. http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2004/709/cu12.htm.
- ^ Columbia’s Own Middle East War, Jennifer Senior, Jan. 10, 2005, New York Magazine, [1]
- ^ Double standards by Jonathan Rosenblum, Jewish Media Resources, March 18, 2005.
- ^ Columbia Has Come To Stand For Terrorism, Genocide By Herb Denenberg, The Bulletin, January 20, 2009.
- ^ US Commission on Civil Rights - Campus Anti-Semitism, Briefing Report, July 2006.
- ^ a b The Moral and Military Meltdown of Israel by Hamid Dabashi, The Palestine Chronicle, January 12, 2009.
- ^ Dabashi Explains Comments on Militarism of Israel by Hamid Dabashi, Columbia Spectator, January 27, 2005.
- ^ Boycott & Divestment Efforts Proliferate on Campus, Anti-Defamation League (ADL), April 8, 2009.
- ^ a b c d Professor Fearful of Attack, By Jacob Gershman, New York Sun, November 22, 2004 (retrieved on December 2, 2008).
- ^ Columbia University's Hysterical Professor by Daniel Pipes, Frontpagemag, December 1, 2004.
- ^ Student Intimidation Here and Now by Victor Luria, Columbia Daily Spectator, January 26, 2005 (reprinted on Campus Watch) (retrieved on December 15, 2009).
- ^ Hamid Dabashi (August 2–8, 2007). "The '300' stroke". Al-Ahram Weekly. http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2007/856/cu1.htm.
- ^ a b .Annie Karni (October 15, 2007). "Columbia Professor Calls Bollinger White Supremacist". New York Sun. http://www2.nysun.com/new-york/columbia-professor-calls-bollinger-white/.
- ^ Of banality and burden by Hamid Dabashi, Al-Ahram Weekly, October 11–17, 2007, Issue No. 866. (retrieved on November 8, 2008).
- ^ a b Hamid Dabashi (06-01-2006). "Native informers and the making of the American empire". Al-Ahram, # 797. http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2006/797/special.htm. Retrieved 09-01-2008.
- ^ a b Book clubbed by Christopher Shea, The Boston Globe, October 29, 2006 (retrieved on October 21, 2009).
- ^ Reading Lolita at Columbia by Robert Fulford, National Post, November 6, 2006 (retrieved on October 21, 2009).
External links[link]
 |
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Hamid Dabashi |
- Official Web site
- Academic site at Columbia University
- Persian Biography, Makhmalbaf Film House.
- Op-eds
- Hamid Dabashi speaks in the documentary film on Omar Khayyām, Intoxicating Rhymes and Sobering Wine, YouTube (48 sec).
- [http://www.legalleft.org/?page_id=137 Hamid Dabashi speaks at Harvard Law School
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Dabashi, Hamid |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | June 15, 1951 |
| Place of birth | Ahvaz |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Hamid_Dabashi
Related pages:
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For other people named George Galloway, see George Galloway (disambiguation).
| George Galloway MP | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Galloway at a Stop The War protest in London, 24 February 2007 | |
| Member of Parliament for Bradford West |
|
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office 29 March 2012 |
|
| Preceded by | Marsha Singh |
| Majority | 10,140 (16.7%) |
| Member of Parliament for Bethnal Green and Bow |
|
| In office 5 May 2005 – 6 May 2010 |
|
| Preceded by | Oona King |
| Succeeded by | Rushanara Ali |
| Majority | 823 (1.9%) |
| Member of Parliament for Glasgow Kelvin |
|
| In office 1 May 1997 – 5 May 2005 |
|
| Preceded by | Constituency created |
| Succeeded by | Constituency abolished |
| Majority | 7,260 (27.1%) |
| Member of Parliament for Glasgow Hillhead |
|
| In office 11 June 1987 – 1 May 1997 |
|
| Preceded by | Roy Jenkins |
| Succeeded by | Constituency abolished |
| Majority | 4,826 (12.3%) |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1954-08-16) 16 August 1954 (age 57) Dundee |
| Citizenship | British |
| Political party | Respect (2004–present) Labour (1967–2003) |
| Residence | London |
| Website | www.georgegalloway.com |
George Galloway (born 16 August 1954) is a British politician, author, journalist, and broadcaster, and the Respect Member of Parliament (MP) for Bradford West. He was previously an MP for the Labour Party, for Glasgow Hillhead and then its successor constituency Glasgow Kelvin from 1987 until 2005. He was expelled from the Labour Party in October 2003 because of his strident public opposition to the Iraq War.[1] He subsequently became a founding member of the left-wing Respect Party, and was elected as the MP for Bethnal Green and Bow in 2005.[2] In 2010, Galloway unsuccessfully contested the seat of Poplar and Limehouse, and in 2011 he unsuccessfully contested the Glasgow list for the Scottish Parliament, before being elected as an MP in the Bradford West by-election, 2012.[3][4]
Galloway is well known for his campaigns in support of the Palestinians in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. In the late-1980s Hansard records him delivering a ferocious assault on the Ba'ath regime, and Galloway opposed Saddam's regime until the United States-led Gulf War in 1991.[5] Galloway is known for a visit to Iraq where he met Saddam Hussein, and delivered a speech, which ended in English with the statement "Sir, I salute your courage, your strength, your indefatigability."[6] He has always stated that he was addressing the Iraqi people in the speech.[7] Galloway testified to the United States Senate in 2005 over alleged illicit payments from the United Nations' Oil for Food Programme.[8]
Contents
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Early and personal life[link]
Galloway was born in the Lochee area of Dundee to a Scottish trade unionist father and Irish republican mother.[9][10] He describes himself as "born in an attic in a slum tenement in the Irish quarter of Dundee, which is known as Tipperary".[11][12] He grew up in Charleston and attended Charleston Primary and then Harris Academy, a non-denominational school. During his school years at Charleston Primary and Harris Academy, he used to play football for the school team. As an amateur footballer, he went on to play for West End United U12s, Lochee Boys Club U16s and St Columbus U18s.[13]
From 1979 to 1999, he was married to Elaine Fyffe, with whom he has a daughter. In 1994, he married Amineh Abu-Zayyad as a second wife in a Muslim ceremony (later after his divorce from his first wife, he and Abu-Zayyad also undertook a civil ceremony); Zayyad filed for divorce in 2005. In 2005, Galloway married as his third wife Rima Husseini, a Lebanese woman and former researcher, also in a Muslim ceremony. She gave birth to their first son in May 2007, and a second son in December 2011. In March 2012, Galloway married Putri Gayatri Pertiwi, a consultant with a Dutch research firm.[14]
Galloway was raised as a Roman Catholic.[12] By his own account he decided, at the age of 18, never to drink alcohol. He disapproves of it and describes it as having a "very deleterious effect on people".[9][15] He stated at a March 2012 rally "We stand for justice and haqq" and "A Muslim is somebody who is not afraid of earthly power but who fears only the Judgment Day. I’m ready for that, I’m working for that and it’s the only thing I fear".[16]
In a April 2012 New Statesman magazine interview with Galloway, Jemima Khan asserted that the politician had become a Muslim sometime around 2000, but had not advertised this fact.[17] Galloway subsequently denied a ceremony had taken place: "I have never attended any such ceremony in Kilburn, Karachi or Kathmandu. It is simply and categorically untrue."[18]
Labour Party organiser[link]
Galloway joined the Labour Party at 13 years old and, within five years, was secretary of the Dundee West Constituency Labour Party. His enthusiasm led him to become Vice-Chairman of the Labour Party in the City of Dundee and a member of the Scottish Executive Committee in 1975. On 5 May 1977, he contested his first election campaign in the Scottish district elections, but failed to hold the safe Labour seat at Gillburn, Dundee. He was defeated by the Independent candidate Bunty Turley. Galloway became the secretary organiser of Dundee Labour Party—the youngest ever Scottish chairman—in March 1981 at 26 years old.[19]
In his mid-20s after a trip to Beirut in 1977,[12] he became a passionate supporter of Palestine stating "barely a week after my return I made a pledge to devote the rest of my life to the Palestinian and Arab cause". He supported Dundee City Council which flew the Palestinian flag inside the City Chambers and was involved in the twinning of Dundee with Nablus in 1980,[20] although he did not take part in the visit of Lord Provost Gowans, Ernie Ross MP and three City Councillors to Nablus and Kuwait in April 1981.[19]
In 1981, Galloway wrote an article in Scottish Marxist supporting Communist Party affiliation with the Labour Party. In response, Denis Healey, Deputy Leader of the Labour Party, tried and failed to remove Galloway from the list of Prospective Parliamentary Candidates. Healey lost his motion by 13 votes to 5.[21] Galloway had argued that this was his own personal viewpoint, not that of the Labour Party. He once quipped that, in order to overcome a £1.5 million deficit which had arisen in the city budget, he, Ernie Ross and leading Councillors should be placed in the stocks in the city square: "we would allow people to throw buckets of water over us at 20p a time."[22]
Galloway stood for a place on the Labour Party National Executive Committee in 1986; in a large field of candidates he finished second from the bottom. At the 1986 Labour Party Conference, he made a strong attack on the Labour Party's Deputy Leader and Shadow Chancellor Roy Hattersley for not favouring exchange controls.
War on Want[link]
From November 1983 to 1987, Galloway was General Secretary of War on Want, a British charity that campaigns against poverty worldwide. In this post he was much travelled, writing eye-witness accounts of the famine in Eritrea in 1985 which were published in The Sunday Times and The Spectator.[23]
The Daily Mirror accused him of living luxuriously at the charity's expense.[24] An independent auditor cleared him of misuse of funds,[25] though he did repay £1,720 in contested expenses.[26] He later reportedly won £155,000 from "The Mirror in an unrelated libel lawsuit.[27]
More than two years after Galloway stepped down to serve as a Labour MP, the UK Government investigated War on Want. It found accounting irregularities from 1985 to 1989, but little evidence that money was used for non-charitable purposes. The commission said responsibility lay largely with auditors, and did not single out individuals for blame.[25]
Reported Break In[link]
In an article published by the Daily Mail at the beginning of May 2012, it was asserted that staff at his £1.4 million London home had discovered items had been moved and curious objects were found in the house such as an empty bottle of gin and a gay pornographic video stashed in a closet. The culprit is thought to have been an unidentified homeless man.[28] Galloway has increased security at his home to prevent any more homeless intruders.
Parliamentary career[link]
Member of Parliament for a Glasgow seat[link]
In the 1987 election, Galloway won Glasgow Hillhead constituency for the Labour Party from Roy Jenkins of the Social Democratic Party (who had briefly led that Party earlier in the decade) with a majority of 3,251. Although known for his left-wing views, Galloway was never a member of Labour's leftist groupings of MPs, the Tribune Group or the Socialist Campaign Group. In 2002, Galloway stated "I am on the anti-imperialist left... If you are asking did I support the Soviet Union, yes I did. Yes, I did support the Soviet Union, and I think the disappearance of the Soviet Union is the biggest catastrophe of my life."[29]
Asked about a War on Want conference on Mykonos, Greece during his previous job, the new MP replied "I travelled and spent lots of time with people in Greece, many of whom were women, some of whom were known carnally to me. I actually had sexual intercourse with some of the people in Greece."[30] The statement put Galloway on the front pages of the tabloid press and in February 1988 the Executive Committee of his Constituency Labour Party passed a vote of no confidence in him.[30]
He gained re-selection when challenged by Trish Godman (wife of fellow MP Norman Godman) in June 1989, but failed to get a majority of the electoral college on the first ballot. This was the worst result for any sitting Labour MP who was reselected; 13 of the 26 members of the Constituency Party's Executive Committee resigned that August, indicating their dissatisfaction with the result.[31]
In 1990, a classified advertisement appeared in the Labour-Left weekly Tribune headed "Lost: MP who answers to the name of George", "balding and has been nicknamed gorgeous", claiming that the lost MP had been seen in Romania but had not been to a constituency meeting for a year. A telephone number was given which turned out to be for the Groucho Club in London, from which Galloway had recently been excluded (although subsequently readmitted). Galloway threatened legal action and pointed out that he had been to five constituency meetings. He eventually settled for an out-of-court payment by Tribune.
The leadership election of the Labour Party in 1992 saw Galloway voting for the eventual winners, John Smith for Leader and Margaret Beckett as Deputy Leader. In 1994, after Smith's death, Galloway declined to cast a vote in the leadership election (one of only three MPs to do so). In a debate with the Leader of the Scottish National Party Alex Salmond, Galloway responded to one of Salmond's jibes against the Labour Party by declaring "I don't give a fuck what Tony Blair thinks."[31]
Although facing a challenge for the Labour nomination for the seat of Glasgow Kelvin in 1997, Galloway defeated Shiona Waldron. He was unchallenged for the nomination in 2001.
In the 1997 and 2001 elections Galloway was the Labour candidate for the seat of Glasgow Kelvin, winning with majorities of over 16,000 and 12,000 respectively. During the 2001 Parliament, he voted against the Whip 27 times. During the 2001–02 session he was the 9th most rebellious Labour MP.
Expulsion from the Labour Party[link]
Galloway became the Vice President of the Stop the War Coalition in 2001. He is actively involved, often speaking on StWC platforms at anti-war demonstrations. From this position Galloway made many aggressive and controversial statements in opposition to the 2003 invasion of Iraq. These were the formal reasons for his expulsion from the Labour Party. He reportedly said in a 28 March 2003 interview with Abu Dhabi TV that Tony Blair and George W. Bush had "lied to the British Air Force and Navy, when they said the battle of Iraq would be very quick and easy. They attacked Iraq like wolves...." and added, "... the best thing British troops can do is to refuse to obey illegal orders."[32] He called the Labour Government "Tony Blair's lie machine."[33] The Observer reported in 2003 that the Director of Public Prosecutions looked at a request by the solicitor Justin Hugheston-Roberts to pursue Galloway under the Incitement to Disaffection Act, 1934,[34] though no prosecution occurred.
On 18 April, The Sun published an interview with Tony Blair who said: "His comments were disgraceful and wrong. The National Executive will deal with it." The General Secretary of the Labour Party, citing Galloway's outspoken opinion of Blair and Bush in their pursuit of the Iraq war, suspended him from holding office in the party on 6 May 2003, pending a hearing on charges that he had violated the party's constitution by "bringing the Labour Party into disrepute through behaviour that is prejudicial or grossly detrimental to the Party". The National Constitutional Committee held a hearing on 22 October 2003, to consider the charges, taking evidence from Galloway himself, from other party witnesses, viewing media interviews, and hearing character testimony from Tony Benn, among others. The following day, the committee found the charge of bringing the party into disrepute proved, and so expelled Galloway from the Labour Party. Galloway called the Committee's hearing "a show trial" and "a kangaroo court".[35]
2005 election[link]
In January 2004, Galloway announced he would be working with members of the Socialist Alliance in England and Wales, and others, under the name Respect – The Unity Coalition, generally referred to simply as Respect.
Galloway later announced that he would not force a by-election and intended not to contest the next general election in Glasgow. Galloway's Glasgow Kelvin seat was split between three neighbouring constituencies for the May 2005 general election. One of these, the new Glasgow Central constituency, might have been his best chance with a relatively large Muslim vote. However, his long-time friend Mohammad Sarwar, the first Muslim Labour MP and a strong opponent of the Iraq War also intended to go for it; Galloway did not wish to challenge him. After the European election results became known, Galloway announced that he would stand in Bethnal Green and Bow, the area where Respect had its strongest election results and where the sitting Labour MP, Oona King, supported the Iraq War. On 2 December, despite speculation that he might stand in Newham, he confirmed that he would be the candidate for Bethnal Green and Bow.
The ensuing electoral campaign in the seat proved to be a difficult one with heated rhetoric. The BBC reported that Galloway had himself been threatened with death by extreme Islamists from the banned organisation al-Ghurabaa. All the major candidates united in condemning the threats and violence.[36] On 5 May, Galloway won the seat by 823 votes and made a fiery acceptance speech, saying that Tony Blair had the blood of 100,000 people on his hands and denouncing the returning officer over alleged discrepancies in the electoral process. When challenged in a subsequent televised interview by Jeremy Paxman as to whether he was happy to have removed one of the few black women in Parliament, Galloway replied "I don't believe that people get elected because of the colour of their skin. I believe people get elected because of their record and because of their policies."[37] Jeremy Paxman during the same BBC interview accused Galloway of being a demagogue.[37]
Oona King later told BBC Radio 4's Today programme that she found Paxman's line of question inappropriate. "He shouldn't be barred from running against me because I'm a black woman. ... I was not defined, or did not wish to be defined, by either my ethnicity or religious background."[38]
"It's good to be back", Galloway said on being sworn in as MP for Bethnal Green after the May election. He pledged to represent "the people that New Labour has abandoned" and to "speak for those who have nobody else to speak for them."[39]
Parliamentary participation statistics[link]
After he was suspended and later expelled from the Labour Party, Galloway's participation in Parliamentary activity fell to minimal levels. After speaking in a debate on Iraq on 25 March 2003, Galloway did not intervene in any way in Parliamentary debates or ask any oral questions for the remainder of the Parliament and his participation in House of Commons divisions was among the lowest of any MP.[40]
Following the 2005 election, his participation rate remained low, and at the end of the year he had participated in only 15% of Divisions in the House of Commons since the general election, placing him 634th of 645 MPs. Of the eleven MPs below him in the rankings, one was the then Prime Minister Tony Blair, five were Sinn Féin members who have an abstentionist policy toward taking their seats, three were the speaker and deputy speakers and therefore ineligible to vote, and two had died since the election. Galloway claims a record of unusual activity at a "grass roots" level. His own estimate is that he made 1,100 public speeches between September 2001 and May 2005.[41]
In September 2009, he still had one of the lowest voting participation records in parliament at 8.4% as a total of 93 votes out of a possible 1,113 divisions.[42]
Suspension from the House of Commons[link]
On 17 July 2007, following a four-year inquiry, the House of Commons Select Committee on Standards and Privileges published its sixth report. The Committee concluded that there was no evidence that Galloway gained any personal benefit from either the former Iraqi regime, or from the Oil-for-Food Programme.
| “ | I have not found evidence that Mr Galloway has, directly and personally, unlawfully received moneys from the former Iraqi regime. I have been given evidence by Dr Al-Chalabi of a payment by him of $120,000 to Mr Galloway's former wife, Dr Abu-Zayyad, which derived from a commission payment Dr Al-Chalabi received under the programme. As I do not have access to the bank accounts in question, I do not know whether Mr Galloway benefited in any way from this payment. Nor do I know whether Mr Galloway benefited from a payment of $150,000 to Dr Abu-Zayyad which the US Senate Permanent Sub-Committee on Investigations found to have been made by Mr Fawaz Zureikat out of oil contract commission.[43] | ” |
However, it found that Galloway's use of parliamentary resources to support his work on the Mariam Appeal "went beyond what was reasonable."
| “ | Had these been the only matters before us, we would have confined ourselves to seeking an apology to the House. However, Mr Galloway's conduct . . . and his calling into question of the Commissioner's and our own integrity have in our view damaged the reputation of the House. In accordance with precedent, we recommend that he apologise to the House, and be suspended from its service for a period of eighteen actual sitting days. As the House is shortly to go into its Summer Recess, we further recommend that Mr Galloway's period of suspension should begin on 8 October, the day it resumes.[44] | ” |
In response, Galloway stated
| “ | The Committee appear utterly oblivious to the grotesque irony of a pro-sanctions and pro-war Committee of a pro-sanctions and pro-war Parliament passing judgement on the work of their opponents."[45] | ” |
At a press conference following publication of the report, Galloway stated "To be deprived of the company for 18 days of the honourable ladies and gentleman behind me [in parliament] will be painful ... but I'm intending to struggle on regardless ... What really upset them [the committee] is that I always defend myself.[46]
Candidate at other elections[link]
On 10 August 2007, Galloway confirmed he would stand in newly created constituency of Poplar and Limehouse[47][48] where the Labour Party had a notional majority of 3,942.[49] The Labour candidate was the current Poplar and Canning Town MP Jim Fitzpatrick. Galloway said he had planned to stand down from Parliament at the next election, but was prompted to stay on and fight to win the neighbouring east London constituency after he felt he was unfairly suspended from Parliament for 18 days. In the election Galloway was defeated, coming third after the Labour and Conservative candidates. He received 8,460 votes. Galloway headed the post-split Respect (London-wide) top-up list for the London Assembly election, 2008 but was not selected.[50]
On 5 May 2011, in the Scottish Parliament general election, 2011, the Respect Party, on whose list Galloway was standing in the Glasgow electoral region, received 6,972 votes (3.3%), failing to achieve any seats in the Holyrood Parliament.[51][52]
2012 by-election[link]
Main article: Bradford West by-election, 2012
After the resignation of sitting Labour MP Marsha Singh due to ill health, Galloway returned to Parliament at the March 2012 Bradford West by-election in an unexpected landslide result, with Galloway calling it "the most sensational victory in British political history".[53] His 36% swing from Labour was the third-largest in modern British political history.[54]The result was seen as a major disappointment for Labour, with Galloway speaking of his belief that it showed the "alienation" of voters from the leading three political parties.[55]
On 16 April, Galloway was sworn into Parliament by the Speaker of the House of Commons, John Bercow.[56]
Political views[link]
Galloway advocates greater spending on welfare benefits, and some nationalisation of large industries. Galloway is opposed to abortion, although he supports Respect's pro-choice stance. He opposes Scottish independence but supports the right of the people to vote on the matter via a referendum. He also supports the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. In the 2007 Scottish Parliament election, George Galloway supported Solidarity,[57] despite not supporting all their policies, such as Scottish independence. Galloway has attracted most attention for his comments on foreign policy, taking a special interest in Libya, Pakistan, Iraq, and the Palestinian-Israeli conflict. According to the report Preventing terrorism, where next for Britain? from the counter-extremism think tank Quilliam, which receives private and public funding, Galloway is "Islamist backed".[58] Inayat Bunglawala, chair of Muslims4Uk and a former MCB spokesperson, disagreed, saying: "This is just like something straight out of a Stasi manual. The advice from Quilliam is frankly appalling and incredibly self-serving."[59]
Iraq and Saddam Hussein[link]
Galloway opposed the 1991 Gulf War and was critical of the effect the subsequent sanctions had on the people of Iraq. He visited Iraq twice and met senior government officials. His involvement caused some critics to deride him as the "member for Baghdad North". In 1994, Galloway faced some of his strongest criticism on his return from a Middle-Eastern visit during which he had met Saddam Hussein "to try and bring about an end to sanctions, suffering and war". At the meeting, he reported the support given to Saddam by the people of the Gaza Strip and ended his speech in English with the statement "Sir, I salute your courage, your strength, your indefatigability".[60] In a January 2007 edition of the BBC's Hardtalk he stated that he was saluting the "Iraqi people".[7] Galloway's speech was translated for Hussein. Anasal-Tikriti, a friend of Galloway's and a Respect candidate, spokesman for the Muslim Association of Britain said: "I understand Arabic and it [Galloway's salutation] was taken completely out of context. When he said "you" he meant the Iraqi people, he was saluting their indefatigability, their resolve against sanctions. Even the interpreter got it right and, in Arabic, says salutes the stand of the Iraqi people'."[61]
In 1999, Galloway was criticised for spending Christmas in Iraq with Tariq Aziz, who was Iraq's Deputy Prime Minister. In the 17 May 2005, hearing of the United States Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Galloway stated that he had had many meetings with Aziz, and characterised their relationship as friendly.[62] After the fall of Saddam, he continued to praise Aziz, calling him "an eminent diplomatic and intellectual person". In 2006 a video surfaced showing Galloway enthusiastically greeting Uday Hussein, Saddam's eldest son, with the title of "Excellency" at Uday's palace in 1999.[63] "The two men also made unflattering comments about the United States and joked about losing weight, going bald and how difficult it is to give up smoking cigars," according to The Scotsman.[64]
In a House of Commons debate on 6 March 2002, Foreign Office Minister Ben Bradshaw said of Galloway that he was "not just an apologist, but a mouthpiece, for the Iraqi regime over many years." Galloway called the Minister a liar and refused to withdraw: "[Bradshaw's] imputation that I am a mouthpiece for a dictator is a clear imputation of dishonour" he said, and the sitting was suspended due to the dispute.[65] Bradshaw later withdrew his allegation, and Galloway apologised for using unparliamentary language. In August 2002, Galloway returned to Iraq and met Saddam Hussein for a second time. According to Galloway, the intention of the trip was to persuade Saddam to re-admit Hans Blix, and the United Nations weapons inspectors into the country.[66]
Giving evidence in his libel case against the Daily Telegraph newspaper in 2004, Galloway testified that he regarded Saddam as a "bestial dictator" and would have welcomed his removal from power, but not by means of a military attack on Iraq. Galloway also pointed that he was a prominent critic of Saddam Hussein's regime in the 1980s, as well as of the role of Margaret Thatcher's government in supporting arms sales to Iraq during the Iran/Iraq war. Labour MP Tam Dalyell said during the controversy over whether Galloway should be expelled from the Labour Party that "in the mid-1980s there was only one MP that I can recollect making speeches about human rights in Iraq and this was George Galloway."[67] When the issue of Galloway's meetings with Saddam Hussein is raised, including before the US Senate, Galloway has argued that he had met Saddam "exactly the same number of times as US Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld met him. The difference is Donald Rumsfeld met him to sell him guns and to give him maps the better to target those guns."[68] He continued "I met him to try to bring about an end to sanctions, suffering and war".
During a 9 March 2005 interview at the University of Dhaka campus Galloway called for a global alliance between Muslims and progressives: "Not only do I think it’s possible but I think it is vitally necessary and I think it is happening already. It is possible because the progressive movement around the world and the Muslims have the same enemies. Their enemies are the Zionist occupation, American occupation, British occupation of poor countries mainly Muslim countries."[69]
Israel and Palestine[link]
At a 22 July 2006 demonstration (and later in a Socialist Worker op-ed),[70] Galloway stated "Hezbollah has never been a terrorist organisation!" The National Union of Students of the United Kingdom passed a motion condemning Galloway for this statement. In 2009, Galloway received a Palestinian passport from Hamas leader Ismail Haniya. Hamas are a considered a terrorist organisation by the European Union, and the US.[71]
According to Al-Ahram, in a series of speeches broadcast on Arab television, Galloway described Jerusalem and Baghdad as being "raped" by "foreigners," referring to Israel's illegal annexation of East Jerusalem, and the war in Iraq.[72]
In an interview with the American radio host Alex Jones, Galloway blamed Israel for creating "conditions in the Arab countries and in some European countries to stampede Jewish people ... into the Zionist state". Jones then alleged that the "Zionists" funded Hitler, to which Galloway replied that Zionists used the Jewish people "to create this little settler state on the Mediterranean," whose purpose was "to act as an advance guard for their own interests in the Arab world..."[73]
Galloway was introduced as “a former member of the British Houses of Parliament” during a live interview with Qatari Al-Jazeera television, to which he responded: “I am still a member of parliament and was re-elected five times. On the last occasion I was re-elected despite all the efforts made by the British government, the Zionist movement and the newspapers and news media which are controlled by Zionism.”
Galloway expressed support for the Syrian presence in Lebanon five months before it ended, telling the Daily Star of Lebanon "Syrian troops in Lebanon maintain stability and protect the country from Israel". In the same article he expressed his opposition to United Nations Security Council Resolution 1559, which urged the Lebanese Government to establish control over all its territory.[74]
In an interview with the Hizbullah run Al-Manar TV, which aired on 26 July 2011 (as translated by MEMRI), Galloway accused Israel of being responsible for the assassination of Rafiq Al-Hariri, stating that "Israel was the only country with any interest and any benefit to gain from the assassination of the martyr Rafiq Al-Hariri. They are the ones who had the capability to do so, they are the ones who had the motive for doing so, and they are the ones who had the criminal record for doing so. How many hundreds of people has Israel killed in Lebanon? Assassination squads of people landing on the beach, and people planting bombs of one kind or another..." He further stated that "When this inquiry [the Special Tribunal for Lebanon] refused to lead in that direction, I knew it was a fake inquiry" and that "this process and all these individuals are completely discredited."[75][76][77]
Several months earlier in a speech given in Edmonton, Alberta in November 2010, Galloway stated that
“I believe, and I don’t know anybody who is objective in this matter who does not believe, that Hezbollah are absolutely innocent of this crime, and it is time that the tribunal looked to the people who benefited from this crime..in Israel."[78][79]
Blair and Bush[link]
At the national conference of the National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers, on 30 June 2003, Galloway apologised for describing George W. Bush as a "wolf", saying that to do so defamed wolves: "No wolf would commit the sort of crimes against humanity that George Bush committed against the people of Iraq."
On 20 November 2004, George Galloway gave an interview on Abu Dhabi TV in which he said:[80]
| “ | The people who invaded and destroyed Iraq and have murdered more than a million Iraqi people by sanctions and war will burn in Hell in the hell-fires, and their name in history will be branded as killers and war criminals for all time. Fallujah is a Guernica, Fallujah is a Stalingrad, and Iraq is in flames as a result of the actions of these criminals. Not the resistance, not anybody else but these criminals who invaded and fell like wolves upon the people of Iraq. And by the way, those Arab regimes which helped them to do it will burn in the same hell-fires. | ” |
On 20 June 2005, he appeared on Al Jazeera English to lambast these two leaders and others.[80]
| “ | Bush, and Blair, and the prime minister of Japan, and Silvio Berlusconi, these people are criminals, and they are responsible for mass murder in the world, for the war, and for the occupation, through their support for Israel, and through their support for a globalised capitalist economic system, which is the biggest killer the world has ever known. It has killed far more people than Adolf Hitler. It has killed far more people than George Bush. The economic system which these people support, which leaves most of the people in the world hungry, and without clean water to drink. So we're going to put them on trial, the leaders, when they come. They think they're coming for a holiday in a beautiful country called Scotland; in fact, they're coming to their trial....Ancient freedoms, which we had for hundreds of years, are being taken away from us under the name of the war on terror, when the real big terrorists are the governments of Britain and the United States. They are the real rogue states breaking international law, invading other people's countries, killing their children in the name of anti-terrorism, when in fact, all they're achieving is to make more terrorists in the world, not less, to make the world more dangerous, rather than less. | ” |
On 3 February 2006, Galloway was refused entry to Egypt at Cairo Airport and was detained "on grounds of national security", where he had been invited to 'give evidence' at a 'mock trial' of Bush and Blair. After being detained overnight, he said Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak "apologised on behalf of the Egyptian people", and he was allowed to enter the country. After initial derogatory comments from Galloway[citation needed] and a spokesman from his Respect party regarding Mubarak's pro-Western stance and ties to Bush and Blair, Galloway later commented: "It was a most gracious apology which I accept wholeheartedly. I consider the matter now closed."[81][82]
Suicide bombings[link]
In the House of Commons, on the day of the 7 July 2005 London bombings that killed 52 people and injured hundreds more, and following a visit to the Royal London Hospital in his constituency where many of the victims had been taken, Galloway condemned the attacks strongly, but argued that they could not be separated from the hatred and bitterness felt among Muslims because of injustices in Palestine, Iraq, and Afghanistan, including injustices, he said, suffered as a result of British foreign policy:
| “ | I condemn the act that was committed this morning. I have no need to speculate about its authorship. It is absolutely clear that Islamist extremists, inspired by the al-Qaeda world outlook, are responsible. I condemn it utterly as a despicable act, committed against working people on their way to work, without warning, on tubes and buses. Let there be no equivocation: the primary responsibility for this morning's bloodshed lies with the perpetrators of those acts... The hon. Member for North Durham (Mr. Jones), in an otherwise fine speech, described today's events as "unpredictable". They were not remotely unpredictable. Our own security services predicted them and warned the Government that if we [invaded Iraq] we would be at greater risk from terrorist attacks such as the one that we have suffered this morning... Despicable, yes; but not unpredictable. It was entirely predictable and, I predict, it will not be the last.[83][84] | ” |
Winding up the debate for the government in the last moments allotted, Armed Forces Minister Adam Ingram described Galloway's remarks as "disgraceful" and accused Galloway of "dipping his poisonous tongue in a pool of blood."[85] No time remained for Galloway to intervene and he ran afoul of the Deputy Speaker when trying to make a point of order about Ingram's attack. He later went on to describe Ingram as a "thug" who had committed a "foul-mouthed, deliberately timed, last-10-seconds smear."[86] The men had previously clashed over claims in Galloway's autobiography (see below).
In an interview with Piers Morgan for GQ Magazine in May 2006, Galloway was asked whether a suicide bomb attack on Tony Blair with "no other casualties" would be morally justifiable "as revenge for the war on Iraq?". He answered "Yes it would be morally justified. I am not calling for it, but if it happened it would be of a wholly different moral order to the events of 7/7. It would be entirely logical and explicable, and morally equivalent to ordering the deaths of thousands of innocent people in Iraq as Blair did." He further stated that if he knew about such a plan that he would inform the relevant authorities, saying: "I would [tell the police], because such an operation would be counterproductive because it would just generate a new wave of anti-Muslim, anti-Arab sentiment whipped up by the press. It would lead to new draconian anti-terror laws, and would probably strengthen the resolve of the British and American services in Iraq rather than weaken it. So yes, I would inform the authorities."[87] Christopher Hitchens claimed this to be a call for an attack while appearing not to.[88]
Pakistan coup of 1999[link]
At the time of the 1999 Musharraf coup in Pakistan, he wrote, "In poor third world countries like Pakistan, politics is too important to be left to petty squabbling politicians. Pakistan is always on the brink of breaking apart into its widely disparate components. Only the armed forces can really be counted on to hold such a country together... Democracy is a means, not an end in itself and it has a bad name on the streets of Karachi and Lahore."[89] Nonetheless, on his TalkSport talk radio show, Galloway has been outspoken in criticising the former Pakistani leader Pervez Musharraf.
Record on LGBT issues[link]
In 1994, Galloway voted in support of the equalisation of the age of consent for homosexuality (which was then 21 years) with that for heterosexuality at 16 years.[90] He also voted against a reduction of the homosexual age of consent to 18.[91] He voted in favour of permitting unmarried and gay couples to adopt children.[92] Critics have claimed that his involvement in the leadership of Respect – which made no explicit mention of gay rights in its 2005 election manifesto[93] and accepted donations from Islamic Party members[94] – raise questions about commitment to those issues, as does his rather poor voting record in parliamentary divisions, 80% of which he missed, during the 2001-5 parliament while still a Glasgow MP.[95] However, Respect's 2005 conference, in which Galloway took part, resolved that explicit defence of equal rights and calls for the end to all discrimination against lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people would be made in all of its manifestos and principal election materials.[96]
Galloway's assertion on The Wright Stuff chat show (13 March 2008) that the executed boyfriend of homosexual Iranian asylum seeker Mehdi Kazemi was executed for sex crimes rather than for being homosexual[97] received criticism from Peter Tatchell, among others.[98] Galloway also stated on The Wright Stuff that the case of gay rights in Iran was being used by supporters of war with Iran.
Humanitarian work[link]
Mariam Appeal[link]
In 1998 Galloway founded the Mariam Appeal, intended "to campaign against sanctions on Iraq which are having disastrous effects on the ordinary people of Iraq". The campaign was named after Mariam Hamza, a child flown by the fund from Iraq to Britain to receive treatment for leukaemia. The intention was to raise awareness of the suffering and death of hundreds of thousands of other Iraqi children due to poor health conditions and lack of suitable medicines and facilities, and to campaign for the lifting of the Iraq sanctions that many maintained were responsible for that situation.
The fund received scrutiny during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, after a complaint that Galloway used some of the donation money to pay his travel expenses.[99] Galloway said that the expenses were incurred in his capacity as the Appeal's chairman. Although the Mariam Appeal was never a registered charity and never intended to be such, it was investigated by the Charity Commission. The report of this year-long inquiry, published in June 2004,[100] found that the Mariam Appeal was doing charitable work (and so ought to have registered with them), but did not substantiate allegations that any funds had been misused.
A further Charity Commission Report published on 7 June 2007 found that the Appeal had received funds from Fawaz Zureikat that originated from the Oil For Food programme, and concluded that: "Although Mr Galloway, Mr Halford and Mr Al-Mukhtar have confirmed that they were unaware of the source of Mr Zureikat’s donations, the Commission has concluded that the charity trustees should have made further enquiries when accepting such large single and cumulative donations to satisfy themselves as to their origin and legitimacy. The Commission’s conclusion is that the charity trustees did not properly discharge their duty of care as trustees to the Appeal in respect of these donations." They added: "The Commission is also concerned, having considered the totality of the evidence before it, that Mr Galloway may also have known of the connection between the Appeal and the Programme".[101] Galloway responded: "I've always disputed the Commission's retrospective view that a campaign to win a change in national and international policy—a political campaign—was, in fact, a charity."[102]
Viva Palestina aid convoy[link]
Main article: Viva Palestina
In response to the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict, in January 2009 Galloway instigated the Viva Palestina aid convoy to the Gaza Strip. On 14 February 2009, after raising over £1 million-worth of humanitarian aid in four weeks, Galloway and hundreds of volunteers launched the convoy comprising approximately 120 vehicles intended for use in the Strip, including a fire engine donated by the Fire Brigades Union (FBU), 12 ambulances, a boat and trucks full of medicines, tools, clothes, blankets and gifts for children. The 5,000-mile route passed through Belgium, France, Spain, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt.[103]
On 20 February, Galloway condemned Lancashire Police after they arrested nine of the volunteers under the Terrorism Act a day before the convoy's launch. Galloway said: "The arrests were clearly deliberately timed for the eve of the departure of the convoy. Photographs of the high-profile snatch on the M65 were immediately fed to the press to maximise the newsworthiness of the smear that was being perpetrated on the convoy." Viva Palestina reported an 80% drop in donations following the broadcast of the arrests and the police allegations on the BBC.[104]
The convoy arrived in Gaza on 9 March,[105] accompanied by approximately 180 extra trucks of aid donated by Libya's Gaddafi Foundation. All the British aid was delivered with the exception of the fire engine and boat which were blocked by the Egyptian government. The boat is to be delivered later in a flotilla of craft which Viva Palestina intends to take into Gaza harbour.[106] On 10 March 2009, Galloway announced at a press conference in Gaza City attended by several senior Hamas officials: "We are giving you now 100 vehicles and all of their contents, and we make no apology for what I am about to say. We are giving them to the elected government of Palestine," adding he would personally donate three cars and 25,000 pounds to Hamas Prime Minister Ismail Haniya.[107]
The Charity Commission opened a statutory inquiry into Viva Palestina on 23 March 2009, citing concerns over the finances, use of funds for non-charitable purposes, and the lack of "substantive response" to their repeated requests.[108] George Galloway admitted that the appeal had not responded to the requests, but argued that a substantive response was anyway due to be passed to the Charity Commission only hours after they launched the inquiry. He argued that the Charity Commission's actions were suspicious, hinting that they might be politically motivated.[108] On 8 April 2009, Galloway joined Vietnam War veteran Ron Kovic to launch Viva Palestina US.[109]
A third Viva Palestina convoy began at the end of 2009. On 8 January 2010, Galloway and his colleague Ron McKay were deported from Egypt immediately upon entry from Gaza. They had been attempting to help take about 200 aid trucks into the Gaza Strip. They were driven by the police to the airport and put on a plane to London. The previous day an Egyptian soldier had been killed during a clash at the border with Hamas loyalists. Several Palestinians were also injured.[110][111]
The Foreign Ministry of Egypt released a statement reading: "George Galloway is considered persona non grata and will not be allowed to enter into Egypt again". Shortly after his deportation Galloway said, "It is a badge of honour to be deported by a dictatorship" and "I've been thrown out of better joints than that."[112][113] He also vowed to go back to the Gaza strip. The Daily Record described his mood as "defiant".[113]
Controversy[link]
Oil for Food[link]
[edit] Daily Telegraph libel case
On 22 April 2003, the Daily Telegraph published news articles and comment describing documents found by its reporter David Blair in the ruins of the Iraqi Foreign Ministry. The documents purported to be records of meetings between Galloway and Iraqi intelligence agents, and state that he had received £375,000 per year from the proceeds of the Oil-for-Food Programme. Galloway completely denied the story, and pointed to the nature of the discovery within an unguarded, bombed-out building as being questionable. He instigated legal action against the newspaper, which was heard in the High Court from 14 November 2004.[114]
On 2 December, Justice David Eady ruled that the story had been "seriously defamatory", and that the Telegraph was "obliged to compensate Mr Galloway ... and to make an award for the purposes of restoring his reputation". Galloway was awarded damages of £150,000 plus, after a failed appeal in 2006,[115] legal costs of about £2 million.[116]
The libel case was regarded by both sides as an important test of the Reynolds qualified-privilege defence. The Daily Telegraph did not attempt to claim justification (where the defendant seeks to prove the truth of the defamatory reports): "It has never been the Telegraph's case to suggest that the allegations contained in these documents are true".[117] Instead, the paper sought to argue that it acted responsibly because the allegations it reported were of sufficient public interest to outweigh the damage caused to Galloway's reputation.[118] However the trial judge did not accept this defence saying the suggestion such as Galloway was guilty of "treason", "in Saddam's pay", and being "Saddam's little helper" caused him to conclude "the newspaper was not neutral but both embraced the allegations with relish and fervour and went on to embellish them".[116] Additionally Galloway had not been given a fair or reasonable opportunity to make inquiries or meaningful comment upon the documents before they were published.[114]
The issue of whether the documents were genuine was likewise not at issue at the trial. However, it later transpired that the expert hired by Galloway's lawyers, a forensic expert named Oliver Thorne, said "In my opinion the evidence found fully supports that the vast majority of the submitted documents are authentic."[119] He added "It should be noted that I am unable to comment on the veracity of the information within the disputed Telegraph documents, whether or not they are authentic."
Others[link]
The Christian Science Monitor also published a story on 25 April 2003, stating that they had documentary evidence that he had received "more than ten million dollars" from the Iraqi regime. However, on 20 June 2003, the Monitor reported[120] that their own investigation had concluded the documents were sophisticated forgeries, and apologised. Galloway rejected the newspaper's apology, asserted that the affair was a conspiracy against him, and continued a libel claim against the paper.
The Christian Science Monitor settled the claim, paying him an undisclosed sum in damages, on 19 March 2004.[121][122] It emerged that these documents had first been offered to the Daily Telegraph, but they had rejected them. The documents' origin remains obscure.
In January 2004, a further set of allegations were made in Al-Mada,[123] a newspaper in Iraq. The newspaper claimed to have found documents in the Iraqi national oil corporation showing that Galloway received (through an intermediary) some of the profits arising from the sale of 19.5 million barrels (3,100,000 m³) of oil. Galloway acknowledged that money had been paid into the Mariam Appeal by Iraqi businessmen who had profited from the UN-run programme, but denied benefiting personally, and maintained that, in any case, there was nothing illicit about this:
| “ | It is hard to see what is dishonourable, let alone "illicit", about Arab nationalist businessmen donating some of the profits they made from legitimate UN-controlled business with Iraq to anti-sanctions campaigns, as opposed to, say, keeping their profits for themselves. | ” |
The report of the Iraq Survey Group published in October 2004 claimed that Galloway was one of the recipients of a fund used by Iraq to buy influence among foreign politicians. Galloway denied receiving any money from Saddam Hussein's regime. The Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards had begun an investigation into George Galloway but suspended it when Galloway launched legal action.
US Senate[link]
Allegations[link]
In May 2005, a US Senate committee report[124] accused Galloway along with former French minister Charles Pasqua of receiving the right to buy oil under the UN's oil-for-food scheme. The report was issued by the US Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, chaired by Senator Norm Coleman, a Republican from Minnesota. The report cited further documents from the Iraqi oil ministry and interviews with Iraqi officials.
Coleman's committee said Pasqua had received allocations worth 11 million barrels (1,700,000 m3) from 1999 to 2000, and Galloway received allocations worth 20 million barrels (3,200,000 m3) from 2000 to 2003. The allegations against Pasqua and Galloway, both outspoken opponents of U.N. sanctions against Iraq in the 1990s, have been made before, including in an October report by US arms inspector Charles Duelfer as well as in the various purported documents described earlier in this section. But Coleman's report provided several new details. It also included information from interrogations of former high-ranking officials in US custody, including former Foreign Minister Tariq Aziz and former Vice President Taha Yassin Ramadan. Among the claims is that there is new evidence to suggest that the Mariam Appeal, a children's leukaemia charity founded by Galloway, was in fact used to conceal oil payments. The report cites Ramadan as saying under interrogation that Galloway was allocated oil "because of his opinions about Iraq."
Socialist Worker reported what they say is evidence that the key Iraqi oil ministry documents regarding oil allocations, in which Galloway's name appears six times (contracts M/08/35, M/09/23,[125] M/10/38, M/11/04, M/12/14, M/13/48) have been tampered with. They published a copy of contract M/09/23 and allege that George Galloway's name appears to have been added in a different font and at a different angle to the rest of the text on that line. In these documents (relating to oil allocations 8–13), Galloway is among just a few people whose nationality is never identified, whilst Zureikat is the only one whose nationality is identified in one instance but not in others.[126] Galloway combatively countered the charges by accusing Coleman and other pro-war politicians of covering up the "theft of billions of dollars of Iraq's wealth... on your watch" that had occurred under a post-invasion Coalition Provisional Authority, committed by "Halliburton and other American corporations... with the connivance of your own government."[127][128]
Galloway's response[link]
On 17 May 2005, the committee held a hearing concerning specific allegations (of which Galloway was one part) relating to improprieties surrounding the Oil-for-Food programme. Attending Galloway's oral testimony and enquiring of him were two of the thirteen committee members: the chair (Coleman) and the ranking Democrat (Carl Levin).[129]
Upon Galloway's arrival in the US, he told Reuters, "I have no expectation of justice from a group of Christian fundamentalist and Zionist activists under the chairmanship of a neo-con George Bush". Galloway described Coleman as a "pro-war, neo-con hawk and the lickspittle of George W. Bush", who, he said, sought revenge against anyone who did not support the invasion of Iraq.
In his testimony, Galloway made the following statements in response to the allegations against him:[130]
| “ | Senator, I am not now, nor have I ever been, an oil trader. and neither has anyone on my behalf. I have never seen a barrel of oil, owned one, bought one, sold one - and neither has anyone on my behalf. Now I know that standards have slipped in the last few years in Washington, but for a lawyer you are remarkably cavalier with any idea of justice. I am here today but last week you already found me guilty. You traduced my name around the world without ever having asked me a single question, without ever having contacted me, without ever written to me or telephoned me, without any attempt to contact me whatsoever. And you call that justice. | ” |
He questioned the reliability of evidence given by former Iraqi Vice President Taha Yassin Ramadan, stating that the circumstances of his captivity by American forces call into question the authenticity of the remarks. Galloway also pointed out an error in the report, where documents by The Daily Telegraph were said to have covered an earlier period from those held by the Senate. In fact the report's documents referred to the same period as those used by The Daily Telegraph, though Galloway pointed out that the presumed forgeries pertaining to the Christian Science Monitor report did refer to an earlier period.
Galloway also denounced the invasion of Iraq as having been based on "a pack of lies" in his Senate testimony. The US media, in reporting his appearance, emphasised his blunt remarks on the war. The British media gave generally more positive coverage; TV presenter Anne Robinson said Galloway "quite frankly put the pride back in British politics" when introducing him for a prime time talk show.[131][132]
A report by the then-majority Republican Party staff of the United States Senate Committee on Investigations published in October 2005 asserted that Galloway had given false "or misleading"[133] testimony under oath when appearing before them. The report exhibits bank statements it claims show that £85,000 of proceeds from the Oil-for-Food Programme had been paid to Galloway's then-wife Amineh Abu-Zayyad. Galloway reiterated his denial of the charges and challenged the US Senate committee to charge him with perjury. He claimed Coleman's motive was revenge over the embarrassment of his appearance before the committee in May.[134][135][136]
Stance on the Islamic Republic of Iran[link]
Galloway has attracted criticism from both the Left and the Right for his comments relating to the regime in Iran, and his work for the state-run satellite television channel, Press TV. Scott Long, writing in The Guardian, criticised Galloway's claim that "homosexuals aren't executed in Iran, just rapists", pointing out that current law in the country stipulates that "Penetrative sex acts between men can bring death on the first conviction".[137] Long-time Gay Rights activist Peter Tatchell, also writing in The Guardian, accused Galloway of spouting "Iranian Propaganda", continuing: "His claim that lesbian and gay people are not at risk of execution in Iran is refuted by every reputable human rights organisation, including Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, the International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission and the International Lesbian and Gay Association."[138] Galloway argued that Western governments should accept the election of the conservative President of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.[139]
The Trotskyist Workers' Liberty group also condemns Galloway, largely on the basis of his support and work for the current Iranian regime. In "No vote for Galloway – an open letter to the left", he is quoted from his Press TV interview with President Ahmadinejad as stating that he requires "police protection in London from the Iranian opposition because of my support for your election campaign. I mention this so you know where I’m coming from."[140]
Controversy at Oxford University[link]
On 2 November 2006, The Times reported that Galloway was in a fracas at the Oxford Union. He was there to discuss his book. (Galloway, George (2006). Fidel Castro Handbook. MQ Publications. ISBN 1-84072-688-1. ) In his speech to the Union, Galloway claimed "that democracy in Cuba is more “free” than in the UK", and when questioned on this, he mentioned "that Oxford students are too privileged to understand what he was talking about".[141] Three former state school students who met him afterwards and disputed this description, allege that Galloway said: "I don’t represent anyone’s views. I represent me. I don’t give a fuck what anyone else thinks."[141]
[edit] Clashes with the News of the World
Galloway says that the Metropolitan Police Service told him they had evidence he was targeted by Glenn Mulcaire, a private investigator working for the News of the World who was jailed for phone hacking in 2007. In 2010 Galloway began legal action for breach of privacy. In 2012 it was reported that Galloway had settled out of court, along with many other victims of phone hacking.[142] The terms of the settlement were not disclosed, but he had previously claimed to have been offered "substantial sums of money" by NOTW to settle out of court.[143]
The settlement with News International in respect of phone-hacking is understood not to cover a legal dispute regarding the activities of Mazher Mahmood, an undercover reporter for the News of the World. In March 2006 Galloway claimed in a statement that Mahmood, who uses a disguise as a sheikh to frame celebrities, targeted him in an alleged sting operation. Galloway claims that Mahmood and an accomplice tried but failed to implicate him in illegal party funding, and to agree with antisemitic statements. Galloway wrote to the Metropolitan police commissioner and the Speaker of the House of Commons about the incident. He also released photographs of Mahmood and revealed other aspects of his activities.[144][145] The News of the World lost a High Court action to prevent publication of photographs of Mahmood.[146]
Islamic Forum of Europe[link]
Galloway has been recorded as saying that he owes "more than I can say, more than it would be wise for me to say, to the Islamic Forum of Europe".[147][148]
Hamas[link]
Respect MP George Galloway was barred in 2009 from visiting Canada (a ban now reversed[149]) because of his support for Hamas,[150] and donations to suspected vehicles of the Hamas-run government in the Gaza Strip.[151]
Forbidden to enter Canada[link]
On 20 March 2009, Galloway was advised by the Canada Border Services Agency he was deemed inadmissible to Canada on "security grounds" due to his involvement in the Viva Palestina aid convoy to the Gaza Strip following the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict.[151] The Gaza Strip is governed by Hamas, which is on Canada's list of terrorist organisations. This resulted from a personal donation of £25,000 made by Galloway ten days earlier. The Canadians ruled (and maintained on appeal) that this constituted explicit support for Hamas, although Galloway argued it was not the case as the money was intended to be used for aid purposes.[71][152]
Galloway was on a lecture tour of North America, and was due to speak on war prevention and Gaza for a United Church congregation in Toronto, as well as for events in Mississauga, Ottawa and Montreal. Galloway was also described as an "infamous street-corner Cromwell" by Alykhan Velshi, communications director for Jason Kenney, Canada's Minister of Citizenship, Immigration and Multiculturalism. Galloway described the ban as "idiotic"[153] and Immigration Minister Jason Kenney was accused by Jack Layton, leader of Canada's New Democratic Party (NDP), of being a "minister of censorship."[154][155] Toronto Coalition to Stop the War, the group who invited Galloway to Canada, sought an emergency injunction to allow for his entry into Canada for the first speech in Toronto citing their rights to freedom of association and freedom of expression.[151] On 30 March 2009, the Federal Court of Canada upheld the decision of the Canada Border Services Agency.[156] Justice Luc Martineau cited non-citizens "do not have an unqualified right to enter in Canada. The admission of a foreign national to this country is a privilege determined by statute, regulation or otherwise, and not as a matter of right." The judge also noted "a proper factual record and the benefit of full legal argument...are lacking at the present time."[151] Subsequently, Galloway cancelled his Canadian tour and instead, delivered his speech over video link from New York to his Canadian audiences.[157]
Galloway was allowed entry into Canada in October 2010, after a judge concluded that the original ban had been undertaken for political reasons. He continued to criticise Jason Kenney, saying that the minister had "damaged Canada's reputation" and had used "anti-terrorism" as a means of suppressing political debate.[158] Galloway has also threatened to sue the Canadian government for the banning incident.[159]
Media activities[link]
Autobiography[link]
His autobiography, I'm Not The Only One, was published on 28 April 2004. The book's title is a quotation from the song "Imagine" by John Lennon. Armed Forces Minister Adam Ingram applied for an interim interdict to prevent the book's publication. Ingram asserted that Galloway's text, which stated that Ingram "played the flute in a sectarian, anti-Catholic, Protestant-supremacist Orange Order band", was in bad faith and defamatory, although Ingram's lawyers conceded that for a year as a teenager he had been a member of a junior Orange Lodge in Barlanark, Glasgow, and had attended three parades. The Judge, Lord Kingarth, decided to refuse an interim interdict, that the balance of the arguments favoured Galloway's publisher, and that the phrase "sectarian, anti-Catholic, Protestant-supremacist" was fair comment on that organisation. Although Ingram was not and never had been a flute-player, the defending advocate observed that "playing the flute carries no obvious defamatory imputation ... it is not to the discredit of anyone that he plays the flute." The judge ruled that Ingram should pay the full court costs of the hearing.[160]
Other books[link]
Galloway has also published the Fidel Castro Handbook, a biography of the former Cuban President in 2006 (MQ Publications. ISBN 1-84072-688-1).
In August 2011, Galloway's book entitled Open Season: The Neil Lennon Story[161] which explores anti-Irish and anti-Catholic racism and bigotry in Scotland and describes many of the related hardships which have befallen Celtic manager Neil Lennon throughout his footballing career. Galloway himself has claimed that he was the victim of a sectarian attack at Glasgow Airport on 10 June 2007.[162][163] He believes that his attackers were on the way home from attending an Orange Order parade in London and that they attacked him because he is a Celtic fan.[164] No arrest was made in connection with this incident.
Publishing ventures[link]
Galloway has been involved in several publishing companies. He owned Asian Voice, which published a newspaper called East from 1996. It later transpired that the Pakistan Government was funding Galloway's company Asian Voice with several hundred-thousand-pounds. "Documents show that the Pakistan government agreed an initial budget for the weekly newspaper of £547,000. According to a memorandum dated 2 January 1996, the Pakistan government proposed to "covertly sponsor" the publication, with money allocated to "the Secret Fund of the High Commissioner for Pakistan in the UK as a special grant for the project".[165] The Commons Committee cleared Galloway of any wrongdoing in this matter.[166]
In 2005 Galloway established Friction Books, an imprint for fiction and non-fiction, with longstanding associate Ron McKay.[167] Friction claimed its purpose was to publish "books that burn, books that cause controversy and get people talking". As of 2009[update] it has released at least two books: Paco Ignacio Taibo II novel An Easy Thing[168] and Topple the Mighty by Leon Kuhn and Colin Gile.[169]
[edit] Celebrity Big Brother
In January 2006 Galloway appeared on the fourth series of the reality show for three weeks. During his time on the programme he appeared apparently licking milk, while pretending to be a cat, from the cupped hands of another housemate, actress Rula Lenska. Galloway was a sitting member of parliament at the time, leading to the allegation that he was bringing parliament into disrepute.[170]
Galloway acted as the guest presenter for the E4 companion programme to the 2007 edition of Big Brother, Big Brother's Big Mouth, from 5 to 8 June 2007.
talkSPORT[link]
| Genre | Political discussion |
|---|---|
| Running time | Friday 22:00–01:00 Saturday 22:00–01:00 |
| Country | UK |
| Languages | English |
| Home station | talkSPORT |
| Syndicates | Talk 107 |
| Hosts | George Galloway |
| Recording studio | Central London |
| Opening theme | The theme from Top Cat |
On 11 March 2006, Galloway started broadcasting on Britain's commercial radio station, the UTV-owned talkSPORT, and two weeks later started a simultaneous broadcast on Talk 107, TalkSPORT's Edinburgh-based sister station.
Billed as "The Mother of All Talk Shows", Galloway began every broadcast by playing the theme from the Top Cat cartoon series.
Galloway ceased presenting the show on 27 March 2010, due to campaign commitments in the 2010 UK General Election. During this time, he was replaced by Mike Graham.[171]
In August 2010, Galloway returned to the radio station with a new show bearing a similar format to his original, but this time titled The Week with George Galloway, described by the station as a "No-holds barred review of the past seven days around the world".[172] It was announced in March 2012 that Galloway's programme is to end as TalkSport plans to drop the non-sport elements of its schedule.[173]
Connection to Press TV[link]
Galloway began presenting a programme titled The Real Deal on 21 May 2007. Originally on Raj TV, a satellite channel primarily aimed at the British Asian community, the show was resurrected, following a short break, on 10 February 2008 by Press TV, a London-based news channel controlled by the government of Iran. The series was still running in late 2011.[174]
Galloway hosts a 45-minute weekly current affairs show Comment on Press TV. This programme invites the viewers to engage in lively debate on international political issues.[175]
In 2009, the British telecommunications regulator Ofcom criticised Galloway for breaching their broadcasting code by "breaking impartiality rules" in several of his Press TV programmes on the war in Gaza in which Israeli opinion failed to be "'adequately represented'".[176]
Journalism[link]
As of 25 June 2007, Galloway has contributed a weekly column in the Daily Record giving his views on politics and popular culture. He used this column to reveal he was considering running for a seat in the Scottish Parliament in the May 2011 election.[177] Galloway is an occasional contributor to The Guardian newspaper and website.[178]
As an orator[link]
|
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: George Galloway |
The Times finds that he has "the gift of the Glasgow gab, a love of the stage and an inexhaustible fund of self-belief."[179] The Guardian finds him "renowned for his colourful rhetoric and combative debating style"[180] and the Spectator once awarded him Debater of the Year.[181]
Honours[link]
Galloway has been conferred by the President of Pakistan with the following decorations:[182]
- Hilal-e-Pakistan
- Hilal-e-Quaid-e-Azam
References[link]
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External links[link]
|
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: George Galloway |
- GeorgeGalloway.com Official website
- www.debretts.co.uk
- Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by George Galloway
- George Galloway at the Internet Movie Database
- The Scotsman. Indefatigably yours. Personal interview, 19 May 2003.
| Parliament of the United Kingdom | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Roy Jenkins |
Member of Parliament for Glasgow Hillhead 1987 – 1997 |
Succeeded by Constituency Abolished |
| Preceded by Constituency Created |
Member of Parliament for Glasgow Kelvin 1997 – 2005 |
Succeeded by Constituency Abolished |
| Preceded by Oona King |
Member of Parliament for Bethnal Green and Bow 2005 – 2010 |
Succeeded by Rushanara Ali |
| Preceded by Marsha Singh |
Member of Parliament for Bradford West 2012 – present |
Incumbent |
|
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | George Galloway |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | politician |
| Date of birth | 16 August 1954 |
| Place of birth | Dundee, Scotland |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
