Limestone

Sedimentary rock
Limestone in Waitomo District, New Zealand
Composition
Calcium carbonate: inorganic crystalline calcite and/or organic calcareous material

Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃). Many limestones are composed from skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera.

Limestone makes up about 10% of the total volume of all sedimentary rocks. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes, in which water erodes the limestone over thousands to millions of years. Most cave systems are through limestone bedrock.

Limestone has numerous uses: as a building material, as aggregate for the base of roads, as white pigment or filler in products such as toothpaste or paints and as a chemical feedstock.

Description[link]

Limestone quarry at Cedar Creek, Virginia, USA

La Zaplaz formations in the Piatra Craiului Mountains, Romania.

Like most other sedimentary rocks, limestone is composed of grains. Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera. Other carbonate grains comprising limestones are ooids, peloids, intraclasts, and extraclasts. These organisms secrete shells made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these shells behind after the organisms die.

Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert (chalcedony, flint, jasper, etc.) or siliceous skeletal fragment (sponge spicules, diatoms, radiolarians), and varying amounts of clay, silt and sand (terrestrial detritus) carried in by rivers.

Some limestones do not consist of grains at all, and are formed completely by the chemical precipitation of calcite or aragonite, i.e. travertine. Secondary calcite may be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters (groundwater that precipitates the material in caves). This produces speleothems, such as stalagmites and stalactites. Another form taken by calcite is oolitic limestone, which can be recognized by its granular (oolite) appearance.

The primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly marine organisms. Some of these organisms can construct mounds of rock known as reefs, building upon past generations. Below about 3,000 meters, water pressure and temperature conditions cause the dissolution of calcite to increase nonlinearly, so limestone typically does not form in deeper waters (see lysocline). Limestones may also form in both lacustrine and evaporite depositional environments.^[1][2]

Calcite can be either dissolved or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors, including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Calcite exhibits an unusual characteristic called retrograde solubility, in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases.

Because of impurities, such as clay, sand, organic remains, iron oxide and other materials, many limestones exhibit different colors, especially on weathered surfaces.

Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method of formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock. When conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together, or it can fill fractures.

Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly where there are waterfalls, and around hot or cold springs. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the water leaves a solution supersaturated with the chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls. Coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells.

During regional metamorphism that occurs during the mountain building process (orogeny), limestone recrystallizes into marble.

Limestone is a parent material of Mollisol soil group.

Classification[link]

Two major classification schemes, the Folk and the Dunham, are used for identifying limestone and carbonate rocks.

Folk classification[link]

Robert L. Folk developed a classification system that places primary emphasis on the detailed composition of grains and interstitial material in carbonate rocks. Based on composition, there are three main components: allochems (grains), matrix (mostly micrite), and cement (sparite). The Folk system uses two-part names; the first refers to the grains and the second is the root. It is helpful to have a petrographic microscope when using the Folk scheme, because it is easier to determine the components present in each sample.^[3]

Dunham classification[link]

The Dunham scheme focuses on depositional textures. Each name is based upon the texture of the grains that make up the limestone. Robert J. Dunham published his system for limestone in 1962; it focuses on the depositional fabric of carbonate rocks. Dunham divides the rocks into four main groups based on relative proportions of coarser clastic particles. Dunham names are essentially for rock families. His efforts deal with the question of whether or not the grains were originally in mutual contact, and therefore self-supporting, or whether the rock is characterized by the presence of frame builders and algal mats. Unlike the Folk scheme, Dunham deals with the original porosity of the rock. The Dunham scheme is more useful for hand samples because it is based on texture, not the grains in the sample.^[4]

Limestone landscape[link]

The Cudgel of Hercules, a tall limestone rock (Pieskowa Skała Castle in the background)

Limestone makes up about 10% of the total volume of all sedimentary rocks.^[5][6]

Limestone is partially soluble, especially in acid, and therefore forms many erosional landforms. These include limestone pavements, pot holes, cenotes, caves and gorges. Such erosion landscapes are known as karsts. Limestone is less resistant than most igneous rocks, but more resistant than most other sedimentary rocks. It is therefore usually associated with hills and downland, and occurs in regions with other sedimentary rocks, typically clays.

Karst topography and caves develop in limestone rocks due to their solubility in dilute acidic groundwater. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to karst landscapes. Regions overlying limestone bedrock tend to have fewer visible above-ground sources (ponds and streams), as surface water easily drains downward through joints in the limestone. While draining, water and organic acid from the soil slowly (over thousands or millions of years) enlarges these cracks, dissolving the calcium carbonate and carrying it away in solution. Most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. Cooling groundwater or mixing of different groundwaters will also create conditions suitable for cave formation.

Coastal limestones are often eroded by organisms which bore into the rock by various means. This process is known as bioerosion. It is most common in the tropics, and it is known throughout the fossil record (see Taylor and Wilson, 2003).

Bands of limestone emerge from the Earth's surface in often spectacular rocky outcrops and islands. Examples include the Burren in Co. Clare, Ireland; the Verdon Gorge in France; Malham Cove in North Yorkshire and the Isle of Wight,^[7] England; on Fårö near the Swedish island of Gotland, the Niagara Escarpment in Canada/United States, Notch Peak in Utah, the Ha Long Bay National Park in Vietnam and the hills around the Lijiang River and Guilin city in China.

The Florida Keys, islands off the south coast of Florida, are composed mainly of oolitic limestone (the Lower Keys) and the carbonate skeletons of coral reefs (the Upper Keys), which thrived in the area during interglacial periods when sea level was higher than at present.

Unique habitats are found on alvars, extremely level expanses of limestone with thin soil mantles. The largest such expanse in Europe is the Stora Alvaret on the island of Öland, Sweden. Another area with large quantities of limestone is the island of Gotland, Sweden. Huge quarries in northwestern Europe, such as those of Mount Saint Peter (Belgium/Netherlands), extend for more than a hundred kilometers.

The world's largest limestone quarry is at Michigan Limestone and Chemical Company in Rogers City, Michigan.^[8]

Uses[link]

Limestone is very common in architecture, especially in Europe and North America. Many landmarks across the world, including the Great Pyramid and its associated complex in Giza, Egypt, are made of limestone. So many buildings in Kingston, Canada were constructed from it that it is nicknamed the 'Limestone City'.^[9] On the island of Malta, a variety of limestone called Globigerina limestone was, for a long time, the only building material available, and is still very frequently used on all types of buildings and sculptures. Limestone is readily available and relatively easy to cut into blocks or more elaborate carving. It is also long-lasting and stands up well to exposure. However, it is a very heavy material, making it impractical for tall buildings, and relatively expensive as a building material.

The Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World; its outside cover is made entirely from limestone.

Courthouse built of limestone in Manhattan, Kansas

A limestone plate with a negative map of Moosburg in Bavaria is prepared for a lithography print.

Limestone was most popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Train stations, banks and other structures from that era are normally made of limestone. It is used as a facade on some skyscrapers, but only in thin plates for covering, rather than solid blocks. In the United States, Indiana, most notably the Bloomington area, has long been a source of high quality quarried limestone, called Indiana limestone. Many famous buildings in London are built from Portland limestone.

Limestone was also a very popular building block in the Middle Ages in the areas where it occurred, since it is hard, durable, and commonly occurs in easily accessible surface exposures. Many medieval churches and castles in Europe are made of limestone. Beer stone was a popular kind of limestone for medieval buildings in southern England.

Limestone and (to a lesser extent) marble are reactive to acid solutions, making acid rain a significant problem to the preservation of artifacts made from this stone. Many limestone statues and building surfaces have suffered severe damage due to acid rain. Acid-based cleaning chemicals can also etch limestone, which should only be cleaned with a neutral or mild alkaline-based cleaner.

Other uses include:

• It is the raw material for the manufacture of quicklime (calcium oxide), slaked lime (calcium hydroxide), cement and mortar.
• Pulverized limestone is used as a soil conditioner to neutralize acidic soils.
• It is crushed for use as aggregate—the solid base for many roads.
• Geological formations of limestone are among the best petroleum reservoirs;
• As a reagent in flue-gas desulfurization, it reacts with sulfur dioxide for air pollution control.
• Glass making, in some circumstances, uses limestone.
• It is added to toothpaste, paper, plastics, paint, tiles, and other materials as both white pigment and a cheap filler.
• It can suppress methane explosions in underground coal mines.
• Purified, it is added to bread and cereals as a source of calcium.
• Calcium levels in livestock feed are supplemented with it, such as for poultry (when ground up).^[10]
• It can be used for remineralizing and increasing the alkalinity of purified water to prevent pipe corrosion and to restore essential nutrient levels.^[11]
• Used in blast furnaces, limestone extracts iron from its ore.
• It is often found in medicines and cosmetics.
• It is used in sculptures because of its suitability for carving.

Gallery[link]

• 

  A stratigraphic section of Ordovician limestone exposed in central Tennessee, U.S. The less-resistant and thinner beds are composed of shale. The vertical lines are drill holes for explosives used during road construction.

• 

  Thin-section view of a Middle Jurassic limestone in southern Utah. The round grains are ooids; the largest is 1.2 mm in diameter. This limestone is an oosparite.

• 

  Photo and etched section of a sample of fossiliferous limestone from the Kope Formation (Upper Ordovician) near Cincinnati, Ohio.

• 

  Biosparite limestone of the Brassfield Formation (Lower Silurian) near Fairborn, Ohio, showing grains mainly composed of crinoid fragments.

See also[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Limestones

• Calcium carbonate
• Chalk
• Coral sand
• Kurkar
• In Praise of Limestone
• List of types of limestone by location

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Taylor, P.D. and Wilson, M.A., 2003. Palaeoecology and evolution of marine hard substrate communities. Earth-Science Reviews 62: 1–103.[1]
• Folk RL, (1974) Petrology of Sedimentary Rocks, Hemphill Publishing, Austin, Texas
• Dunham, R.J., 1962, Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional textures, in Ham W.E. (ed.), Classification of carbonate rocks: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Mem. 1,p. 108-121
• Robert S. Boynton-Chemistry and technology of lime and limestone- Wiley (1980) - 578 pages - ISBN 0471027715

Nicky Bomba
Nicky Bomba on 11 May 2007
Background information
Birth name	Nicholas Caruana
Born	(1963-09-07) 7 September 1963 (age 48)
Origin	Malta
Genres	Reggae, Funk, Roots Music
Occupations	Musician
Instruments	drums, percussion, Guitar
Associated acts	The Truth Bomba John Butler Trio

Nicky Bomba at a rally in Warburton, Victoria

Nicholas Caruana aka Nicky Bomba^[1] (born 7 September 1963, Malta) is an Australian musician and singer. He is the frontman of his band Bomba as well as the drummer and percussionist of John Butler Trio and has also performed with several other artists. He is also a solo artist.^[2]

Biography[link]

Bomba's family migrated to Australia late 1964. He started learning drums when he was six years old.

In 1978 he formed a cover band with his brother, Michael, called Fugitive Flight. In 1982, Fugitive Flight became a band playing original music with vocalist, Peter Miller, bassist, Steve Morgan (later of Icehouse), and guitarist, Peter Weeda. They soon changed their name to Guided Tour. After a considerable hiatus working in a variety of known and unknown bands, Nicky formed The Truth in 1993, with Michael Caruana (keyboards), Tony Kopa (vocals) and Geoff Wells (guitars). The Truth released a self-titled album in 1995, and in 1997 added a bass player Mick Girasole for the release of a second album, Headspace with the band re-branded as Truth. Truth broke up in late 1997.

In 1998 he formed a new band, Banana Oil, with Tim Neal (keyboards), Andy Baylor (guitar) and David Williamson (saxophone), releasing an album, Guavo Lampo.

In 1999 he formed Bomba with Paul Coyle (trumpet, trombone), Dorian West (bass), Pete Mitchell (saxophone, guitar), George Servanis (drums) and his brother Michael (keyboards). Bomba has released four albums.

In 2000 Bomba together with Joe Camilleri set up Transmitter Records.

In 2003 he joined John Butler, together with Shannon Birchall as part of the John Butler Trio to record the group's 2004 album, Sunrise Over Sea. After recording the album he re-joined his band, Bomba.

2006 saw Bomba and Camilleri release Limestone, an album of covers and original music.

He recorded an album of Maltese songs, Nicol Caruana, in 2007 with his 70 year old father, Nicol Caruana. This was followed in 2008 by his first solo release an EP, Jah In the Moment, which he then toured with a trio around Australia. In 2009 he released, Planet Juice, his first solo album, on which he played drums, guitar, ukele and marimba.

In 2009 he re-joined the John Butler Trio with Byron Luiters on bass, recording the group's fifth studio album, April Uprising. In 2010 Bomba toured with the John Butler Trio, prompting the album.

Personal[link]

Nicky Bomba's sister, Daniella Caruana is the artist Mama Kin, whose husband is John Butler. His brother Michael Caruana plays in Mama Kin and Bomba.

Discography[link]

Joe Camilleri/Nicky Bomba[link]

• Limestone - Transmitter/MGM (2005)

Nicky Bomba & Laroz Haim[link]

• Bomba vs. Laroz - Mushroom (2 September 2006)

Nicky Bomba & Nicol Caruana[link]

• Nicol Caruna (2007)

Dereb Desalegn & Nicky Bomba[link]

• Drums and Lions - Transmitter/MGM (4 November 2006)

Solo[link]

• Jah In the Moment - MGM (5 July 2008)
• Planet Juice - Bomba Music/Mushroom (19 May 2009)

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official Website

Joe Camilleri
Joe Camilleri at Mordialloc Festival, March 2006 Photo: Mandy Hall
Background information
Birth name	Joseph Vincent Camilleri
Also known as	Jo Jo Zep, Joey Vincent
Born	(1948-05-21) 21 May 1948 (age 64)
Origin	Malta
Genres	Rock, R&B, Blues
Occupations	Singer-songwriter
Instruments	Saxophone, Vocalist
Years active	1964 through present
Associated acts	Jo Jo Zep & The Falcons Black Sorrows Adderley Smith Blues Band
Website	Joe Camilleri.com.au

Joseph Vincent "Joe" Camilleri,^[1] (born 21 May 1948 in Malta) aka Jo Jo Zep or Joey Vincent, is an Australian vocalist, songwriter and saxophonist.^[2][3] Camilleri has recorded as a solo artist and as a member of Jo Jo Zep & The Falcons and The Black Sorrows.^[2][4] Jo Jo Zep & The Falcons highest charting single was "Hit & Run" from June 1979, which peaked at #12;^[5] Jo Jo Zep's "Taxi Mary peaked at #11 in September 1982;^[5] and The Black Sorrows top single, "Chained to the Wheel", peaked at #9 in March 1989.^[6]

Camilleri has also produced records for The Sports, Jo Jo Zep & The Falcons, Paul Kelly & the Dots, The Black Sorrows, Renée Geyer and Ross Wilson.^[4] Australian music journalist, Ian McFarlane, described him as "one of the most genuinely talented figures in Australian music",^[3] and, as a member of Jo Jo Zep & The Falcons, Camilleri was inducted into the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) Hall of Fame in 2007.^[7][8]

Biography[link]

Early years[link]

Joe Camilleri was born the third of ten children in Malta in 1948. The family migrated to Australia when he was two.^[9] Camilleri grew up in Port Melbourne and listened to rock music on the radio.^[9] His mother called him Zep and he became known as Jo Zep. Camilleri began his music career in 1964 when literally thrown onstage to sing with The Drollies.^[9] He played blues and R&B in the mid-1960s with The King Bees,^[4][9] and was then a member of Adderley Smith Blues Band.^[4][10][11] In 1968, lead singer for the band, Broderick Smith had been conscripted for National Service during the Vietnam War.^[9] Camilleri lasted a year with Adderley Smith, and enjoyed working with the band including guitarist Kerryn Tolhurst (later in The Dingoes with Smith).^[9] According to Australian music journalist Ed Nimmervoll, Camilleri was sacked for sounding too much like Mick Jagger and upstaging other band members.^[10] After Adderley Smith, Camilleri was a member of various bands, including The Pelaco Brothers during 1974–1975.^[4][9]

Jo Jo Zep & The Falcons: 1975–1983, 2001-2003[link]

Jo Jo Zep & The Falcons formed in 1975 and Camilleri gained national prominence as the group's lead singer, co-songwriter and saxophonist.^[2] Other members (from 1976 on) included Jeff Burstin (guitar, vocals), John Power (bass guitar, vocals), Gary Young (drums), Tony Faehse (guitar, vocals) and Wilbur Wilde on sax.^[2][4] Incorporating influences from blues, R&B, soul, punk rock, New Wave and reggae, the group achieved considerable commercial and critical success in Australia.^[2] Hit singles for Jo Jo Zep & The Falcons included "Shape I'm In" and "Puppet on a String"; their highest charting single was "Hit & Run" from June 1979 which peaked at #12.

In 1981, most of The Falcons left the group, and the act's name was shortened to Jo Jo Zep. "Taxi Mary", credited to Jo Jo Zep, peaked at #11 in September 1982.^[5] The Jo Jo Zep ensemble became unwieldy with, at its peak, a roster of 11 members and disbanded in 1983.^[2]

The classic 1976-1981 group reformed in 2001 for a one-off gig, but stayed together to release an album of new material, Ricochet, in 2003.^[9][12] As a member of Jo Jo Zep & The Falcons, Camilleri was inducted into the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) Hall of Fame in 2007.^[7][8]

The Black Sorrows: 1984–current[link]

After the demise of Jo Jo Zep & the Falcons in 1983, Camilleri achieved his greatest success with another long-running group The Black Sorrows, which began in 1984 as an informal semi-acoustic band playing blues, R&B and zydeco.^[3] The Black Sorrows had a shifting line-up and at various points included three ex-Falcons: Jeff Burstin, Wayne Burt, and Gary Young.^[3] Later additions to the band included sisters Vika and Linda Bull on vocals, and backing vocalist and lyricist Nick Smith. Camilleri himself has been the only constant member of the group.

The Black Sorrows developed a strong fan following and garnered wide critical acclaim for their recordings and superb live performances.^[3] After starting life as an acoustic cover band, they evolved into a full electric ensemble that wrote their own material, releasing a string of commercially successful and critically acclaimed albums in the 1980s and 1990s. These albums included A Place in the World, Dear Children (an Australian Top 20 album in 1987),^[5] Hold on to Me (peaked at #7, 1988), Harley & Rose (peaked at #3, 1990), Better Times (peaked at #13, 1992) and compilation The Chosen Ones - Greatest Hits (peaked at #4, 1993).^[6] Top 30 hit singles by the band were "Chained to the Wheel" (which peaked at #9 in 1989), "Harley & Rose" (1990) "Never Let Me Go" (1990), and "Snake Skin Shoes" (1994).^[6]

For the first several years the band was in existence, Camilleri performed under the pseudonym "Joey Vincent" (a name he had previously used for a solo single), although he wrote and produced material for the group using his real name. The "Joey Vincent" persona was finally dropped in time for the release of 1990's Harley & Rose.

With a number of different line-ups, the band has continued to release material through the 1990s and 2000s. Their most recent release of original material was Roarin' Town in 2006,^[9][12] followed by a live-in-the-studio album of newly recorded versions of older songs called 4 Days In Sing Sing (2009).

Other projects[link]

The Revelators[link]

While with The Black Sorrows, Camilleri also performed with The Revelators (originally, as least for the first few gigs, The Delta Revelators). The Revelators returned to the Black Sorrows roots of playing mostly covers of country/R&B style music, and had virtually the same line-up as The Black Sorrows. They released their first album in 1991, and followed it up with two others, including the self-tiled The Revelators in 2002.^[3][9][12]

Bakelite Radio[link]

Bakelite Radio was another side project from the early 2000s. This particular group focussed on more acoustically-oriented music, though still in a country/R&B mold. The group has released four albums: in order of release, they are Bakelite Radio Volume II (2003), Bakelite Radio Volume III (2004) Bakelite Radio Volume IV (2007), and Bakelite Radio Volume I (2009).^[12]

Camilleri/Bomba[link]

Limestone, released in 2005, was a collaboration between Camilleri and Bomba's Nicky Bomba.^[9][12]

Solo releases[link]

Camelleri has only infrequently released material with solo billing. A 1980 single credited to "Joey Vincent" was his first solo project; two singles from the 1980s and a 1995 EP called All Saint's Hotel are his only other solo releases of original material.^[4] (Note that a few CD 'best-of' releases, which compile material by Jo Jo Zep, The Black Sorrows and Joe's other bands, are credited to Joe Camilleri.)

Production and session work[link]

Beginning in the late 1970s, Camilleri also produced recordings for other artists including The Sports, Paul Kelly & the Dots, Renée Geyer and Ross Wilson.^[4] He can also be heard as a session musician and/or vocalist on recordings by dozens of Australian recording acts, including Skyhooks, Tim Finn, Icehouse and Mondo Rock.^[4]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website
• Joe Camilleri at Australian Rock Database by Magnus Holmgren