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- 1984 anti-Sikh riots
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10 Janpath
Coordinates: 28°36′49″N 77°13′06″E / 28.6135°N 77.2184°E / 28.6135; 77.2184
10 Janpath is a house on Janpath road, New Delhi. It is presently the official residence of Sonia Gandhi, the President of Indian National Congress party (INC). The national headquarters of Indian National Congress is right behind it on 24, Akbar Road.
It was residence of India's second Prime Minister, Lal Bahadur Shastri (1964-1966) and where his body lay in state on January 11, 1966. Today his biographical museum, Lal Bhadur Shastri Memorial at 1, Moti Lal Nehru Place (formerly 10 Janpath), adjacent to the complex.
The house was the residence of Prime Minister, Lal Bahadur Shastri who succeeded Jawaharlal Nehru in 1960s, in fact adjacent to the complex, facing the roundabout is Lal Bhadur Shastri Memorial at 1, Moti Lal Nehru Place., the rest had gone to Congress party. In fact in 1990s, when the Congress, under Rajiv Gandhi, supported Chandra Shekhar as PM, Rajiv offered L. K. Advani, then Leader of Opposition" in the Parliament, so "that the opposition leader can have a permanent address".
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Bangladesh
Coordinates: 23°N 90°E / 23°N 90°E / 23; 90
Bangladesh (
i/ˈbɑːŋɡlədɛʃ/ or i/bæŋɡləˈdɛʃ/ (Anglicized pronunciation); Bengali: বাংলাদেশ), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh (Bengali: গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ Gônoprojatontri Bangladesh) is a sovereign state located in South Asia. It is bordered by India and Burma and by the Bay of Bengal to the south. The capital (and largest city) is Dhaka, located in central Bangladesh. The official state language is Bengali. The name Bangladesh means "Land of Bengal" or "Country of Bengal" the in the Bengali language, from Bangla "Bengal" and desh holding a dual meaning of "land" and "country" as English "country," German land, French pays, etc.
The borders of present-day Bangladesh were established with the partition of Bengal during the reign and demise of the British India. Its map was chartered by Sir Cyril Radcliffe during the creation of Pakistan and India in 1947, when the region became East Pakistan, part of the newly formed nation of Pakistan. Due to political exclusion and economic exploitation by the politically dominant West Pakistan, popular agitation grew against West Pakistan and led to the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, after the Bangladeshi Declaration of Independence on 26 March 1971. With the intervention of the Indian Army, the war came to an end on 16 December 1971 with the surrender of the Pakistan Army at Ramna Race Course.
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Bhubaneswar
Bhubaneswar /ˌbʊvəˈneɪʃwər/, also spelled Bhubaneshwar (Oriya: ଭୁବନେଶ୍ଵର Bhubanēsbara
pronunciation (help·info)), is the capital of the Indian state of Orissa, officially spelled Odisha. The city has a history of over 2000 years starting with the Chhedi dynasty (around 2nd century BCE) who had Sisupalgarh near present-day Bhubaneswar as their capital. Bhubaneswar has been known by names such as Toshali, Kalinga Nagari, Nagar Kalinga, Ekamra Kanan, Ekamra Kshetra and Mandira Malini Nagari (City of Temples) otherwise known as the Temple City of India. Bhubaneswar, literally means the Lord (Eeswar) of the Universe (Bhuban). It is the largest city of Orissa, and a center of economic and religious importance in the region today.
Bhubaneswar's possession of magnificent sculptures and architectural heritage, coupled with the sanctity as Ekamrakshetra make this one of the great religious centres of Orissa since early medieval days. With its large number of Hindu temples (over 600 in number), which span the entire spectrum of Kalinga architecture, Bhubaneswar is often referred to as a Temple City of India and together with Puri and Konark it forms the Swarna Tribhuja (Golden Triangle); one of the most visited destinations in East India.
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Gujarat
Gujarat /ˌɡʊdʒəˈrɑːt/ (Gujarati: ગુજરાત Gujǎrāt [ɡudʒ(ə)ɾat] (
listen)) is a state in western India. It has an area of 75,686 sq mi (196,030 km2) with a coastline of 1,600 km, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula, and a population in excess of 60 million. The state is bordered by Rajasthan to the north, Maharashtra to the south, Madhya Pradesh to the east and the Arabian Sea as well as the Pakistani province of Sindh on the west. Its capital is Gandhinagar, while its largest city is Ahmedabad. Gujarat is home to the Gujarati-speaking people of India.
The state encompasses major sites of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, such as Lothal and Dholavira. Lothal is believed to be one of the world's first ports. Gujarat's coastal cities, chiefly Bharuch and Khambhat, served as ports and trading centers in the Maurya and Gupta empires. Mahatma Gandhi, India's "father of the nation", who led the Indian Independence Movement against the British colonial rule was a Gujarati.Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, independent India's first Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister was also from Gujarat.
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India
India (i/ˈɪndiə/), officially the Republic of India (Bhārat Gaṇarājya), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the south-west, and the Bay of Bengal on the south-east, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west;China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Burma and Bangladesh to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; in addition, India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia.
Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history. Four of the world's major religions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism—originated here, whereas Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived in the 1st millennium CE and also helped shape the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by and brought under the administration of the British East India Company from the early 18th century and administered directly by the United Kingdom from the mid-19th century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by non-violent resistance led by Mahatma Gandhi.
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Kashmir
Kashmir (Balti, Gojri, Poonchi/Chibhali, Dogri: कश्मीर; Kashmiri: कॅशीर, کٔشِیر; Ladakhi: ཀཤམིར; Uyghur: كەشمىر; Shina: کشمیر) is the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term Kashmir geographically denoted only the valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal mountain range. Today Kashmir denotes a larger area that includes the Indian-administered state of Jammu and Kashmir (the Kashmir valley, Jammu and Ladakh), the Pakistani-administered Gilgit–Baltistan and the Azad Kashmir provinces, and the Chinese-administered regions of Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract.
In the first half of the first millennium, the Kashmir region became an important center of Hinduism and later of Buddhism; later still, in the ninth century, Kashmir Shaivism arose. In 1349, Shah Mir became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir and inaugurated the Salatin-i-Kashmir or Swati dynasty. For the next five centuries, Muslim monarchs ruled Kashmir, including the Mughals, who ruled from 1526 until 1751, then the Afghan Durrani Empire that ruled from 1747 until 1820. That year, the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir. In 1846, upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar, the Dogras—under Gulab Singh—became the new rulers. Dogra Rule, under the paramountcy (or tutelage) of the British Crown, lasted until 1947, when the former princely state became a disputed territory, now administered by three countries: India, Pakistan, and the People's Republic of China.
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Line of Control
Coordinates: 34°56′N 76°46′E / 34.933°N 76.767°E / 34.933; 76.767
The term Line of Control (LOC) refers to the military control line between the Indian and Pakistani-controlled parts of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir—a line which, to this day, does not constitute a legally recognized international boundary but is the de facto border. Originally known as the "Cease-fire Line", it was redesignated as the "Line of Control" following the Simla Agreement, which was signed on 3 July 1972. The part of the former princely state that is under Indian control is known as the State of Jammu and Kashmir. The two parts of the former princely state that are under Pakistani control are known as Gilgit–Baltistan and Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK). Its northern most point is known as the NJ9842.
Another cease-fire line, one that separates the Indian-controlled state of Jammu and Kashmir from the Chinese-controlled area known as Aksai Chin, lies further to the east and is known as the Line of Actual Control (LAC).
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Orissa
Orissa /ɔːˈrɪsə/ (Oriya: ଓଡ଼ିଶା [oˑɽisaˑ], Hindi: ओड़िशा – Oṛiśā), officially spelled Odisha, is a state of India, located on the east coast of India, by the Bay of Bengal. It is the modern name of the ancient nation of Kalinga, which was invaded by the Maurya Emperor Ashoka in 261 BCE. The modern state of Orissa was established on April 1, 1936, as a province in India, and consists predominantly of Oriya speakers. April 1st is therefore celebrated as Utkala Dibasa (formation day of Orissa). Cuttack remained the capital of the state for over eight centuries until April 13, 1948 when Bhubaneswar was officially declared as the new capital of Orissa, and is the present capital of this state.
Orissa is the ninth largest state by area in India, and the eleventh largest by population. Oriya (officially spelled Odia) is the official and most widely spoken language, spoken by three quarters of the population. Orissa has a relatively unindented coastline (about 480 km long) and lacked good ports, except for the deepwater facility at Paradip, until the recent launch of the Dhamara Port (The Dhamra Port Company Limited (DPCL) is a 50:50 joint venture of L&T and Tata Steel. DPCL has been awarded a concession by Government of Orissa to build and operate a port north of the mouth of river Dhamra in Bhadrak district). The narrow, level coastal strip, including the Mahanadi River delta supports the bulk of the population. The interior of the state is mountainous and sparsely populated.Deomali at 1672 m is the highest point of the state. Orissa is subject to intense cyclones. The most intense one, in October 1999, Tropical Cyclone 05B caused severe damage and nearly 15,000 deaths.
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Pakistan
Pakistan (
i/ˈpækɨstæn/ or i/pɑːkiˈstɑːn/; Urdu: پاکستان) (Urdu pronunciation: [paːkɪˈst̪aːn] (
listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (Urdu: اسلامی جمہوریۂ پاکستان), is a sovereign country in South Asia. It sits at the crossroads of the strategically important regions of South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East. It has a 1,046-kilometre (650 mi) coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by India to the east, Afghanistan to the west and north, Iran to the southwest and China in the far northeast. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistan's narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, and it shares a marine border with Oman.
The territory of modern Pakistan was the site of several ancient cultures, including the Neolithic Mehrgarh and the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation, and has undergone invasions or settlements by Hindu, Persian, Indo-Greek, Islamic, Turco-Mongol, Afghan and Sikh cultures. Thus the area has been ruled by numerous empires and dynasties, including the Indian Mauryan Empire, the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the Arab Umayyad Caliphate, the Mongol Empire, the Mughal Empire, the Durrani Empire, the Sikh Empire and the British Empire. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and India's struggle for independence, Pakistan was created in 1947 as an independent nation for Muslims from the regions in the east and west of India where there was a Muslim majority. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a new constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic. A civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh.
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Raj Ghat
Raj Ghat (Hindi: राज घाट) is a memorial to Mahatma Gandhi. Originally it was the name of a historic ghat of Old Delhi (Shahjahanabad) on the banks of Yamuna river. Close to it, and east of Daryaganj was “Raj Ghat Gate” of the walled city, opening at Raj Ghat on Yamuna River. Later the memorial area was also called Raj ghat. It is a black marble platform that marks the spot of Mahatma Gandhi's cremation, Antyesti (Antim Sanskar) on 31 January 1948, a day after his assassination. It is left open to the sky while an eternal flame burns perpetually at one end. It is located on the banks of the river Yamuna in Delhi in India on Ring Road officially known as Mahatma Gandhi Road. A stone footpath flanked by lawns leads to the walled enclosure that houses the memorial. All guests must remove their shoes before entering the Raj Ghat walls.
The memorial has the epitaph Hē Ram, (literally 'O' Ram', but also translated to 'O God'), believed to be the last words uttered by Gandhi. The memorial was designed by Vanu G. Bhuta. It was originally designed to reflect the simplicity of Mahatma Gandhi's life. The design that won the government of India invitational competition had the black marble slab surrounded by red earth as none of Gandhiji's ashram residences had any "English lawn". The memorial has gone through a number of design changes since then, a few at the behest of Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of independent India.
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Soviet Union
The Soviet Union (Russian: Советский Союз, tr. Sovetsky Soyuz), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR; Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik; IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲetskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪˈstʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪsˈpublʲɪk] ( listen); abbreviated СССР, SSSR), was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991.
The Soviet Union was a single-party state ruled by the Communist Party from its foundation until 1990. A union of 15 subnational Soviet republics, the Soviet state was structured under a highly centralized government and economy.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 caused the downfall of the Russian Empire. Following the Russian Revolution, there was a struggle for power between the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin, and the anti-communist White movement. In December 1922, the Bolsheviks won the civil war, and the Soviet Union was formed with the merger of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.
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Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (i/ʃriː ˈlɑːŋkə/, /sriːˈlɑːŋkə/, or /sriːˈlæŋkə/;Sinhala: ශ්රී ලංකාව, Tamil: இலங்கை), is a country off the southern coast of the Indian subcontinent in South Asia. Known until 1972 as Ceylon ( /sɨˈlɒn/, /seɪˈlɒn/, or /siːˈlɒn/), Sri Lanka is an island surrounded by the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Mannar, the Palk Strait, and lies in the vicinity of India and the Maldives.
As a result of its location in the path of major sea routes, Sri Lanka is a strategic naval link between West Asia and South East Asia. It was an important stop on the ancient Silk Road. Sri Lanka has also been a center of the Buddhist religion and culture from ancient times, being the nation where the Buddhist teachings were first written down as well as the oldest continually Buddhist country. Sri Lanka boasts a diverse range of cultures, languages and religions. The Sinhalese people form the majority of the population; Tamils, who are concentrated in the north and east of the island, form the largest ethnic minority. Other communities include Moors, Burghers, Kaffirs, Malays and the aboriginal Vedda people.
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Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu /ˈtæmɨl ˈnɑːduː/ (Tamiḻ Nāṭu [t̪amɨɭ naːɖɯ] ( listen)) is one of the 28 states of India. Its capital is Chennai, the largest city. Tamil Nadu lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Pondicherry, and the states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. It is bound by the Eastern Ghats in the north, the Nilgiri, the Anamalai Hills, and Palakkad on the west, by the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Gulf of Mannar, the Palk Strait in the south east, and by the Indian Ocean in the south.
Tamil Nadu is the eleventh largest state in India by area and the seventh most populous state. It is the fourth largest contributor (as of 2010) to India's GDP and ranks tenth in Human Development Index as of 2006. Tamil Nadu is also the most urbanised state in India. The state has the highest number (10.56%) of business enterprises and stands second in total employment (9.97%) in India, compared to the population share of about 6%.
The region has been the home of the Tamil people since at least 500 BCE. Its official language Tamil has been in use in inscriptions and literature for over 2000 years. Tamil Nadu is home to many natural resources, Hindu temples of Dravidian architecture, hill stations, beach resorts, multi-religious pilgrimage sites and eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
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USSR
The Soviet Union (Russian: Советский Союз, tr. Sovetsky Soyuz), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR; Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik; IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲetskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪˈstʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪsˈpublʲɪk] ( listen); abbreviated СССР, SSSR), was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991.
The Soviet Union was a single-party state ruled by the Communist Party from its foundation until 1990. A union of 15 subnational Soviet republics, the Soviet state was structured under a highly centralized government and economy.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 caused the downfall of the Russian Empire. Following the Russian Revolution, there was a struggle for power between the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin, and the anti-communist White movement. In December 1922, the Bolsheviks won the civil war, and the Soviet Union was formed with the merger of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.
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A. P. J. Abdul Kalam
Avul Pakir Jainulabdeen Abdul Kalam ( pronunciation (help·info); born 15 October 1931) usually referred to as A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, is an Indian politician and scientist who served as the 11th President of India. Apart from being a professor of aerospace engineering, he is also famous for his contribution to missile technology for India, pertaining to which he has been honoured Bharat Ratna award, India's highest civilian honour.
He was born and brought up at Rameswaram in Tamil Nadu, being born in a poor family he had to work his way through average grades and financial hard ships, completing his studies in aerospace engineering at Madras Institute of Technology (MIT – Chennai). He joined Aeronautical Development Establishment of Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), India and is known for his many contributions to Aeronautical and Missile technology of India.
A. P. J. Abdul Kalam was elected president of India in 2002, defeating Lakshmi Sahgal, and was supported by both National Democratic Alliance (NDA) and BJP, then major political party of India. After serving office as a president till 2007 he is now a visiting professor at Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad and Indian Institute of Management, Indore; Chancellor of Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology Thiruvananthapuram, a professor of Aerospace Engineering at Anna University (Chennai), JSS University (Mysore), and an adjunct/visiting faculty at many other academic and research institutions across India and is involved in philanthropic work as on 2012 .
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Abul Kalam Azad
Maulana Abul Kalam Muhiyuddin Ahmed Azad (Urdu: مولانا ابوالکلام محی الدین احمد آزاد, Bengali: আবুল কালাম মুহিয়ুদ্দিন আহমেদ আজাদ) (11 November 1888 – 22 February 1958) was an Indian Muslim scholar and a senior political leader of the Indian independence movement. He was one of the most prominent Muslim leaders to support Hindu-Muslim unity, opposing the partition of India on communal lines. Following India's independence, he became the first Minister of Education in the Indian government. He is also known for having predicted the future military rule and partition of Pakistan before its independence. He was posthumously awarded India's highest civilian award, the Bharat Ratna in 1992. He is commonly remembered as Maulana Azad; he had adopted Azad (Free) as his pen name. His contribution to establishing the education foundation in India is recognised by celebrating his birthday as "National Education Day" across India.
As a young man, Azad composed poetry in Urdu as well as treatises on religion and philosophy. He rose to prominence through his work as a journalist, publishing works critical of the British Raj and espousing the causes of Indian nationalism. Azad became the leader of the Khilafat Movement during which he came into close contact with Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi. Azad became an enthusiastic supporter of Gandhi's ideas of non-violent civil disobedience, and worked actively to organise the Non-cooperation movement in protest at the 1919 Rowlatt Acts. Azad committed himself to Gandhi's ideals, including promoting Swadeshi (Indigenous) products and the cause of Swaraj (Self-rule) for India. He became the youngest person to serve as the President of the Indian National Congress in 1923.
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Alfred Webb
Alfred Webb (1834 – 1908) was an Irish Parliamentary Party politician and Member of Parliament (MP) who played a role in every major nationalist organization from Butt’s Home Government Association to the United Irish League. Visiting India, he notably became the third non-Indian to preside over the Indian National Congress, at Madras in 1894.
He was first elected to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom on 24 February 1890, when he won a by-election for the West Waterford constituency. He was again returned for West Waterford in the 1892 general election, this time as an anti-Parnellite MP.
Webb was a supporter of Anti-Caste, Britain's first anti-racism journal which started in 1888. Researchers have reported international collaboration between subscribers and other activists. For example, although he was not a regular subscriber, Dadabhai Naoroji co-signed a letter with Webb and others to request support for a new association: ‘The Society for the Furtherance of Human Brotherhood’.
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Amartya Sen
Amartya Sen, CH (Bengali: অমর্ত্য সেন, translit. Ômorto Shen; born 3 November 1933) is an Indian economist who was awarded the 1998 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his contributions to welfare economics and social choice theory, and for his interest in the problems of society's poorest members. Sen is best known for his work on the causes of famine, which led to the development of practical solutions for preventing or limiting the effects of real or perceived shortages of food. He helped to create the United Nations Human Development Index. In 2012, he became the first non-American recipient of the National Humanities Medal.
He is currently the Thomas W. Lamont University Professor and Professor of Economics and Philosophy at Harvard University. He is also a senior fellow at the Harvard Society of Fellows, distinguished fellow of All Souls College, Oxford and a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, where he previously served as Master from 1998 to 2004. He is the first Indian and the first Asian academic to head an Oxbridge college.
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Anandamohan Bose
Ananda Mohan Bose (Bengali: আনন্দমোহন বসু) (September 23, 1847 – August 20, 1906), a barrister, was one of the earliest Indian political leaders during the British Raj. He co-founded the Indian National Association, one of the earliest Indian political organizations, and later became a senior leader of the Indian National Congress. In 1874, he became the first Indian Wrangler (a student who has completed the third year of the Mathematical Tripos with first-class honours) of the Cambridge University. He was also a prominent religious leader of Brahmoism and with Sivanath Sastri a leading light of Adi Dharm.
Anandamohan was born at Jaysiddhi village in Mymensingh District of Bengal province in British India (in Itna Upazila of Kishoreganj District of present-day Bangladesh). His father was Padmalochan Bose and mother was Umakishori Devi. He passed his matriculation examination from the Mymensingh Zilla School and stood ninth in the examination. He passed his F.A. and B.A. examination from the Presidency College, Calcutta and secured first position in both the examination. In 1870, he received the Premchand Roychand studentship. In 1878, he went to England for higher education along with Keshab Chandra Sen.
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Annie Besant
Annie Besant (/ˈbɛsənt/; née Wood, 1 October 1847 – 20 September 1933) was a prominent British Theosophist, women's rights activist, writer and orator and supporter of Irish and Indian self rule.
She was married at 19 to Frank Besant but separated from him over religious differences. She then became a prominent speaker for the National Secular Society (NCS) and writer and a close friend of Charles Bradlaugh. In 1877 they were prosecuted for publishing a book by birth control campaigner Charles Knowlton. The scandal made them famous and Bradlaugh was elected Member of Parliament for Northampton in 1880.
She became involved with Union organisers including the Bloody Sunday demonstration and the London matchgirls strike of 1888 and was a leading speaker for the Fabian Society and the Marxist Social Democratic Federation (SDF). She was elected to the London School Board for Tower Hamlets, topping the poll even though few women were qualified to vote at that time.
In 1890 Besant met Helena Blavatsky and over the next few years her interest in Theosophy grew while her interest in secular matters waned. She became a member of the Society and a highly successful lecturer in Theosophy. As part of her Theosophy-related work, she travelled to India where in 1898 she helped establish the Central Hindu College, and in 1902 she established the first overseas Lodge of the International Order of Co-Freemasonry, Le Droit Humain in England. Over the next few years she established lodges in many parts of the British Empire. In 1907 she became President of the Theosophical Society.
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Aruna Asaf Ali
Aruna Asaf Ali (Bengali: অরুণা আসফ আলী) (July 16, 1909 – July 29, 1996), born Aruna Ganguli, was an Indian independence activist. She is widely remembered for hoisting the Indian National Congress flag at the Gowalia Tank maidan in Bombay during the Quit India Movement, 1942. She was 87 years old at the time of her death.
Aruna Asaf Ali was born as Aruna Ganguly on July 16, 1908 at Kalka, Punjab, British India, but now in the state of Haryana into a Bengali Brahmo family. She was educated at Sacred Heart Convent in Lahore and then in Nainital. She graduated and worked as a teacher. She taught at the Gokhale Memorial School in Calcutta. She met Asaf Ali, a leader in the Congress party at Allahabad and married him in 1928, despite parental opposition on grounds of religion (she was a Brahmo while he was a Muslim) and age (a difference of more than 20 years).
She became an active member of Congress Party after marrying asaf ali and participated in public processions during the Salt Satyagraha. She was arrested on the charge that she was a vagrant and hence not released in 1931 under the Gandhi-Irwin Pact which stipulated release of all political prisoners. Other women co-prisoners refused to leave the premises unless she was also released and gave in only after Mohandas K. Gandhi intervened. A public agitation secured her release.
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Ashoke Kumar Sen
Ashoke Kumar Sen (Bengali: অশোককুমার সেন) (10 October 1913 – 31 August 1996) was an Indian barrister, a former Cabinet minister of India, and an Indian parliamentarian.
He also holds the record for winning a Lok Sabha seat the most times and also the record for being not only an MP for the most years, but also a cabinet minister - serving more than 7 prime ministers. For decades he was the inevitable Union Law Minister.
Ashoke Kumar Sen was born in 1913 in a Vaidya-Brahmin family. His father was a district magistrate. His elder brother, Sukumar Sen ICS (b. 1899), who went on to become India, Sudan and Nepal's first Chief Election Commissioner, funded his education in England, at the London school of Economics. Ashoke Sen went on to study for the Bar at Gray's Inn.
Upon his return, he started teaching law at the City College, Kolkata a constituent college of the University of Calcutta He then began practicing in the Calcutta High Court. At the age of 26, he had already written a book about Commercial Law, which was endorsed by Mr. Sen's then senior Sudhi Ranjan Das, the future Chief Justice of India.
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Atal Bihari Vajpayee
Atal Bihari Vajpayee (Hindi: अटलबिहारी वाजपेयी, Birth: 25 December 1924 in Gwalior) is a veteran Indian statesman who served as a non congress Prime Minister of India three times, viz. 13 days in 1996, 13 months from 1998 to 1999, and lastly a five year's term from 19 March 1998 until 19 May 2004. A parliamentarian for over four decades, Vajpayee was elected to the Lok Sabha a record nine times, and twice to the Rajya Sabha. He also served as the Member of Parliament for Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, until 2009, when he retired from active politics due to health concerns. Vajpayee was one amongst the founder members of erstwhile Jana Sangh and had been its president also. He was also the Minister of External Affairs in the cabinet of Morarji Desai. When Janata government collapsed Vajpayee merged his entire party into a fresh party and named it as Bharatiya Janata Party in the interest of nation. A poet-politician Vajpayee has been the liberal face of BJP.
Atal Bihari Vajpayee was born to Krishna Devi and Krishna Bihari Vajpayee on 25th December, 1924 in a respected middle class Brahmin family. His birthplace was Shinde Ki Chhavani, a small town in Gwalior district of Madhya Pradesh (then known as Central Province). His grandfather, Pandit Shyam Lal Vajpayee, had migrated to Gwalior from his ancestral village of Bateshwar, Uttar Pradesh and his father, Krishna Bihari Vajpayee, was a poet and a schoolmaster in his hometown. Vajpayee attended Gwalior's Victoria College (now Laxmi Bai College), and graduated with distinctions in Hindi, English and Sanskrit. He completed his Post Graduation with a (M.A.) degree in Political Science from DAV College, Kanpur, securing first-class. Later he became a full time worker of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh and served the Rashtradharma, Veer Arjun and Panchjanya newspapers as a journalist. Like other full time workers of the Sangh, Vajpayee never married and decided to dedicate his entire life for the service of the nation.
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B. R. Ambedkar
Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar ([bʱiːmraːw raːmdʑiː aːmbeːɽkər]; 14 April 1891 – 6 December 1956), popularly also known as Babasaheb, was an Indian jurist, political leader, philosopher, anthropologist, historian, orator, economist, teacher, and editor. He was also the Chairman of the Drafting Committee of Indian Constitution. Born into a poor Mahar (considered an Untouchable caste) family, Ambedkar campaigned against social discrimination, the system of Chaturvarna – the categorization of Hindu society into four varnas – and the Hindu caste system. He converted to Buddhism and is also credited with providing a spark for the transformation of hundreds of thousands of Dalits or untouchables to Theravada Buddhism. Ambedkar was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian award, in 1990.
Overcoming numerous social and financial obstacles, Ambedkar became one of the first outcastes to obtain a college education in India. Eventually earning law degree and doctorates for his study and research in law, economics and political science from Columbia University and the London School of Economics, Ambedkar gained a reputation as a scholar and practiced law for a few years, later campaigning by publishing journals advocating political rights and social freedom for India's untouchables. He is regarded as a Bodhisattva by some Indian Buddhists, though he never claimed himself to be a Bodhisattva.
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Badruddin Tyabji
Badruddin Tyabji (Tyab Ali) (1844–1906) was the third President of the Indian National Congress. He was succeeded by George Yule.
Badruddin Tyabji was the "First Muslim" to become the "President of Indian National Congress".
He was born on November 22, 1844 in Mumbai, India. He was the son of Mullah Tyab Ali Bhai Mian, a Sulaimani Bohra, and a scion of an old Cambay emigrant Arab family.
He sent all of his eight sons to Europe for further studies, at a time when English education was considered an anathema for Muslims in India. Badruddin Tyabji returned to India in 1821 as the first Indian Solicitor, one of the other brother was sent to Najran for religious studies. Apart from Badruddin Tyabji (who at one time was the vice-chancellor of Aligarh Muslim University ), all of his other brothers were prominent and well respected members of Indian establishment. Their accomplishments included the first Muslim Chief Justice of Bombay High Court, the first Indian barrister and the first Muslim to qualify as an Engineer.
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Bansi Lal
Chaudhary Bansi Lal (Hindi: चौधरी बंसी लाल) (August 26, 1927 – March 28, 2006) was an Indian freedom fighter, senior Congress leader, former Chief Minister of Haryana and considered by many to be the architect of modern Haryana. He was born in a Jat family of Golagarh village in Bhiwani district of Haryana. He served three separate terms as Chief Minister of Haryana: 1968–75, 1985–87, and 1996–99. Bansi Lal was considered a close confidante of former Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and her son Sanjay Gandhi during the Emergency era in 1975. He served as the Defence Minister from December 1975 to March 1977, and had a brief stint as a Minister Without Portfolio in the Union government in 1975. He also held the Railways and Transport portfolios. Lal was elected to the State Assembly seven times, the first time in 1967. He set up Haryana Vikas Party after parting ways with the Indian National Congress in 1996.
Bansi Lal studied at the Punjab University Law College, Jalandhar. In 1972, the Kurukshetra University and the Haryana Agricultural University awarded him honorary degrees of Doctor of Law and Doctor of Science respectively.
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Bhagwan Das
Bhagwan Das (January 12, 1869 – September 18, 1958) was an Indian theosophist and public figure. For a time he served in the Central Legislative Assembly of British India. He became allied with the Hindustani Culture Society and was active in opposing rioting as a form of protest. As an advocate for national freedom from the British rule, he was often in danger of reprisals from the Colonial government. He was awarded Bharat Ratna in 1955. He was the fourth recipient of India's highest civilian award.
Born in Varanasi, India, he graduated school to became a deputy in the collections bureau, and later left to continue his academic pursuits. Das joined the Theosophical Society in 1894 inspired by a speech by Annie Besant. After the 1895 split, he sided with the Theosophical Society Adyar. Within that society, he was an opponent of Jiddu Krishnamurti and his Order of the Star in the East organisation. Das joined the Indian National Congress during the Non-cooperation movement and was honoured with the Bharat Ratna in 1955.
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Bhupendra Nath Bose
Bhupendra Nath Bose (1859–1924) was an Indian politician and President of the Indian National Congress in 1914.
Bose was born in Krishnanagar, West Bengal in 1859. He graduated from the Presidency College, Calcutta in 1880. He completed his master's degree in 1881 and his law degree in 1883.
From 1904 to 1910, Bose was a member of the Bengal Legislature. During this period, he was involved in the nationalist movement. In 1905 he presided over the Bengal Provincial Conference held at Mymensingh. He joined the anti-partition agitation and campaign against British goods throughout Bengal. He opposed the passing of the Press Act in 1910. He became the President of the Indian National Congress in 1914.
Bose was a member and under-secretary in the Council of the Secretary of State for India from 1917 to 1923. In 1923 he was made a member of the Executive Council of the Governor of Bengal. He then became the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Calcutta. He was the first president of Mohun Bagan AC, Calcutta. He died in 1924.
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Bidhan Chandra Roy
Bidhan Chandra Roy, M.R.C.P., F.R.C.S. (1 July 1882 – 1 July 1962) was the second Chief Minister of West Bengal in India. He remained in his post for 14 years as a Indian National Congress candidate, from 1948 until his death in 1962. He was a highly respected physician and a renowned freedom fighter. Bidhan Roy is often considered the great architect of West Bengal, who founded three eminent cities, Durgapur, Kalyani and Bidhannagar. He was an alumnus of the Medical College Calcutta of the University of Calcutta. He is one of the few people who completed both F.R.C.S. and M.R.C.P. simultaneously within only two years and three months. In India, the National Doctor's Day is celebrated on the date of his birth (and death) July 1 every year. Dr. Bidhan Chandra Roy constituted a trust for his properties at Patna for social service and made eminent nationalist Ganga Sharan Singh (Sinha) the trustee. He was awarded Bharat Ratna on 4 February 1961, India's highest civilian honour. He was also a member of the Brahmo Samaj[citation needed].
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Bismillah Khan
Ustad Bismillah Khan (Urdu: استاد بسم اللہ خان صاحب; March 21, 1916 – August 21, 2006) was an Indian shehnai maestro. He was the third classical musician to be awarded the Bharat Ratna (in 2001), the highest civilian honour in India and gained worldwide acclaim for playing the shehnai for more than eight decades.
Bismillah Khan was born in a bihari Dalit Muslim family at Bhirung Raut Ki Gali, in Dumraon, Bihar, as the second son of Paigambar Khan and Mitthan. He was named as Qamaruddin to rhyme with Shamsuddin, their first son. His grandfather, Rasool Baksh Khan uttered "Bismillah" (the basmala) after looking at the newborn, thus he was named Bismillah Khan.
His ancestors were court musicians and used to play in Naqqar khana in the princely states of Bhojpur, now in Bihar. His father was a shehnai player in the court of Maharaja Keshav Prasad Singh of Dumraon Estate, Bihar.
At the age of six, he moved to Varanasi. He received his training under his uncle, the late Ali Baksh 'Vilayatu', a shehnai player attached to Varanasi's Vishwanath Temple.
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C. Rajagopalachari
Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (Tamil: சக்ரவர்த்தி ராஜகோபாலாச்சாரி Cakravartī Rācakōpālācārī) (10 December 1878 – 25 December 1972), informally called Rajaji or C.R., was an Indian lawyer, independence activist, politician, writer and statesman. Rajagopalachari was the last Governor-General of India. He also served as leader of the Indian National Congress, Premier of the Madras Presidency, Governor of West Bengal, Minister for Home Affairs of the Indian Union and Chief Minister of Madras state. Rajaji founded the Swatantra Party and was one of the first recipients of India's highest civilian award, the Bharat Ratna. He vehemently opposed the use of nuclear weapons and was a proponent of world peace and disarmament. During his lifetime, he also acquired the nickname Mango of Salem.
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C. Sankaran Nair
Sir Chettur Sankaran Nair KCIE (July 11, 1857 – 1934) was the President of the Indian National Congress in 1897 held at Amraoti. Until present he is the only Keralite to hold the post.
He was born on July 11, 1857 on the Malabar Coast. His early education began in the traditional style at home and continued in schools in Malabar, till he passed the Arts examination with a first class from the Provincial School at Calicut. Then he joined the Presidency College, Madras. In 1877 he took his Arts degree, and two years later secured the Law degree from the Madras Law College.
Sir Sankaran Nair started as a lawyer in 1880 in the High Court of Madras. In 1884, the Madras Government appointed him as a member of the Committee for an enquiry into the state of Malabar. Till 1908, he was the Advocate-General to the Government and an Acting Judge from time to time. In 1908 he became a permanent Judge in the High Court of Madras and held the post till 1915.He was a part of the bench that tried Collector Ashe Murder case along with C. A. White, then the Chief Justice of Madras, Mr. Justice Ayling, as a special case.
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C. V. Raman
Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, FRS, (Tamil: சந்திரசேகர வெங்கட ராமன்), (7 November 1888 – 21 November 1970) was an Indian physicist whose work was influential in the growth of science in India. He was the recipient of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1930 for the discovery that when light traverses a transparent material, some of the light that is deflected changes in wavelength. This phenomenon is now called Raman scattering and is the result of the Raman effect.
Venkata Raman was born at Thiruvanaikaval, near Tiruchirappalli, Madras Presidency to R. Chandrasekhara Iyer (b. 1866) and Parvati Ammal (Saptarshi Parvati). He was the second of their five children. At an early age, Raman moved to the city of Vizag, Andhra Pradesh. Studied in St.Aloysius Anglo-Indian High School. His father was a lecturer in Mathematics and physics at Presidency College (Madras) which Raman entered in 1902 at the age of 13. In 1904 he passed his B.A. examination in first place and won the gold medal in physics, and in 1907 he gained his M.A. degree with the highest distinctions.
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Chandra Shekhar
Chandra Shekhar Singh (1 July 1927 - 8 July 2007) was the eighth Prime Minister of India.
Chandra Shekhar Singh was born on 1 July 1927 to a farming family in Ibrahimpatti, a village in the Ballia district of Uttar Pradesh. He was awarded a Master of Arts degree at Allahabad University. He was known as a firebrand in student politics. After graduation, he became active in socialist politics.
He joined the socialist movement and was elected secretary of the district Praja Socialist Party (PSP), Ballia. Within a year, he was elected joint secretary of the PSP’s State unit in Uttar Pradesh. In 1955-56, he took over as general secretary of the party in the State. His career as a parliamentarian began with his election to the Rajya Sabha from Uttar Pradesh in 1962.He came under the spell of Acharya Narendra Dev, a fiery Socialist leader in the beginning of his political career. From 1962 to 1967, Shekhar belonged to the Rajya Sabha, the Upper house of the Parliament of India. He had a nationwide padayatra in 1984 to know the country better, which he claimed gave the jitters to Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister. He was called a "Young Turk".
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Charan Singh
Chaudhary Charan Singh (Caudharī Caraṇ Siṅh; 23 December 1902 – 29 May 1987) was the fifth Prime Minister of the Republic of India, serving from 28 July 1979 until 14 January 1980.
Born into a Jat family in 1902, Charan Singh entered politics as part of the Independence Movement. After independence he became particularly notable in the 1950s for opposing and winning a battle against Nehru's socialistic and collectivist land use policies, for the sake of the Indian Farmer, which endeared him to the agrarian communities throughout the nation, particularly in his native Uttar Pradesh.
The leader of the Bharatiya Lok Dal, a major constituent of the Janata coalition, he was disappointed in his ambition to become Prime Minister in 1977 by Jayaprakash Narayan's choice of Morarji Desai. He settled at the time for the largely honorary post of Deputy Prime Minister of India.During 1977 Lok Sabha Elections, there was not a single party, hence it was problem, which symbol has to be adopted (many parties joined the front to contest the elections after emergency was over). Hence, a request was made to Chaudhary Charan Singh (Lok Dal) and he agreed to release his party-Lok Dal's symbol "HALDHAR'. This symbol was locked in that elections, but a promise was made to Chaudhary Charan Singh that he would be Prime Minister if the front won that election, but this promise was never kept by other party leaders, hence,Chaudhary Charan Singh had a knot in his heart, resulting in a revolt; when the time came he became Prime Minister. However, the internal stresses of the coalition's government caused him to leave the government with the former Lok Dal, after being promised by Indira Gandhi the support of the Congress Party on the floor of the House in any efforts to form a government. He was sworn in as Prime Minister with the support of just 64 MPs.
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Chittaranjan Das
Chittaranjan Das (C. R. Das) (Bengali: চিত্তরঞ্জন দাস Chittorônjon Dash) (popularly called Deshbandhu "Friend of the country") (5 November 1870 – 16 June 1925) was an Indian politician and leader of the Swaraj (Independence) Party in Bengal under British rule.
After failing the competitive entrance examination for the British-dominated Indian Civil Service, Das entered the legal profession. He defended many accused of political offenses and took an active part in nationalistic journalism.
Bitterly opposing British rule in India and rejecting all ideas of political or economic development of India along Western lines, he idealized the life of the ancient Indian village and saw a golden age in ancient Indian history. He supported the noncooperation movement launched against British rule by Mahatma Gandhi and in 1921 was imprisoned for six months as a political offender. In 1922 he became president of the Indian National Congress. Under his leadership the Congress abandoned its intentions to boycott colonially sponsored elections for provincial councils. It decided instead to participate in order to seek positions that would permit them to obstruct governmental business from within.
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Dadabhai Naoroji
Dadabhai Naoroji (4 September 1825 – 30 June 1917) (Hindi: दादाभाई नौरोजी), known as the Grand Old Man of India, was a Parsi intellectual, educator, cotton trader, and an early Indian political and social leader. His book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India brought attention to the draining of India's wealth into Britain. He was a Member of Parliament (MP) in the British House of Commons between 1892 and 1895, and the first Asian to be a British MP. He is also credited with the founding of the Indian National Congress, along with A.O. Hume and Dinshaw Edulji Wacha.
At the early age of 25, he was appointed leading Professor at the Elphinstone Institution in 1850, becoming the first Indian to hold such an academic position. Being an Athornan (ordained priest), Naoroji founded the Rahnumae Mazdayasne Sabha (Guides on the Mazdayasne Path) on 1 August 1851 to restore the Zoroastrian religion to its original purity and simplicity. In 1854, he also founded a fortnightly publication, the Rast Goftar (or The Truth Teller), to clarify Zoroastrian concepts. By 1855 he was Professor of Mathematics and Natural philosophy in Bombay. He travelled to London in 1855 to become a partner in Cama & Co, opening a Liverpool location for the first Indian company to be established in Britain. Within three years, he had resigned on ethical grounds. In 1859, he established his own cotton trading company, Naoroji & Co. Later, he became professor of Gujarati at University College London.
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Dev Kant Baruah
Debakanta Barua (also spelled as Dev Kant Baruah) (Assamese: দেৱকান্ত বৰুৱা) (22 February 1914 – 28 January 1996) was an Indian politician from Assam, who served as the President of the Indian National Congress during the Indian Emergency (1975-1977) and was one of the most loyal supporters of then-Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. He is most remembered for his famous saying that "Indira is India and India is Indira", which most considered sycophancy and undue glorification of Indira Gandhi. He later joined Congress (Urs) which was later renamed as Indian Congress (Socialist). He was the Governor of Bihar from 1 February 1971 to 4 February 1973. He died in New Delhi.
Barua was a noted poet as well. His collection of Assamese poems, Sagar Dekhisa (সাগৰ দেখিছা) is still very popular. He was the elder brother of famous Assamese poet Nabakanta Barua.
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Dinesh Singh
Dinesh Singh (19 July 1925 – 30 November 1995) was an Indian politician. A member of the Kalakankar dynasty, he served as a Member of Parliament on several occasions and twice served as the Minister of External Affairs of India.
Dinesh Singh was born on 19 July 1925, to Raja Avadhesh Singh, the talukdar, or landed nobleman, of Kalakankar in of Uttar Pradesh. He was educated at Doon School and went to Colvin College, Lucknow and at Lucknow University.
In 1962-66 he was Deputy Minister in the Ministry of External Affairs 1962-66, Minister of State 1966-67, and Minister of Commerce 1967-69 and 1988–89, Minister of Industrial Development and Internal Trade 1970-71. He was Minister of External Affairs 1969-70 and 1993-1995.
He was elected from Pratapgarh for seven terms from the Second Lok Sabha (1957–62), to the Fifth Lok Sabha (1971–77), and then again for the Eighth and Ninth Lok Sabha 1984-1991, serving in the Rajya Sabha in the interregnum.
He married Neelima Kumari, princess from the Tehri-Garhwal family ,in 1944, and had six daughters. His sixth daughter is Ratna Singh, currently MP from the same Pratapgarh constituency.
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Dinshaw Edulji Wacha
Sir Dinshaw Edulji Wacha (1844-1936) was a Parsi Indian politician from Bombay. He was one of the founders of the Indian National Congress, and its President in 1901.
He was President of the Indian Merchants' Chamber in 1915. He was knighted in 1917.
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Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed
Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed (Assamese: ফখৰুদ্দিন আলি আহমেদ pronunciation (help·info) (13 May 1905 – 11 February 1977) was the fifth President of India from 1974 to 1977.
Fakhruddin's grandfather, Khaliluddin Ali Ahmed, of Kacharighat near Golaghat, Assam, married in one of the families who were the relics of Emperor Aurangzeb's bid to conquer Assam
Ahmed was born on 13 May 1905, in Hauz Qazi area in Old Delhi, India. His father was Col. Zalnur Ali who married the daughter of the Nawab of Loharu in Delhi
His family was a well known Assamese Muslim family.[citation needed]
He started his education in the Government High School from Gonda district, Uttar Pradesh, India. He matriculated from the Delhi Government High School and went to England for higher education in 1923 continuing studies at St Catharine's College, Cambridge and was called to the Bar from the Inner Temple of London.. He started legal practice in the Lahore High Court in 1928.
He met Jawaharlal Nehru in England in 1925. He joined the Indian National Congress and actively participated in the Indian freedom movement. In 1942 he was arrested in the Quit India movement and sentenced to 3 1/2 years' imprisonment. He was a member of the Assam Pradesh Congress Committee from 1936 and of AICC from 1947 to 74, and remained the Minister of Finance, Revenue and labour in the 1938 Gopinath Bordoloi Ministry.
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Farah Pahlavi
Farah Pahlavi (Persian: فرح پهلوی, Azerbaijani: فرح پهلوی; born Farah Diba, 14 October 1938, Tehran) is the former Queen and Empress of Iran. She is the widow of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran, and only Empress (Shahbanou) of modern Iran. She was Queen consort of Iran from 1959 until 1967 and Empress consort from 1967 until exile in 1979.
Though the titles and distinctions of the Iranian Imperial Family were abolished within Iran by the Islamic government, she is still styled Empress or Shahbanou, out of courtesy, by the foreign media as well as by supporters of the monarchy. Some countries, such as the United States of America, Denmark, Spain and Germany, still address the former Empress as Her Imperial Majesty The Shahbanou of Iran in official documents, for example Royal wedding guest lists.
Farah Diba was born on 14 October 1938 in the Iranian capital Tehran, to an upper class family. Born as Farah Diba, she was the only child of Captain Sohrab Diba and his wife, Farideh Ghotbi. Farah Pahlavi's father's family is of Azerbaijani origin. In her memoir, the former Empress writes that her father's family were natives of Iranian Azarbaijan while her mother's family were from Gilan Province (Lahijan) on the Iranian coast of the Caspian Sea.
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Feroze Gandhi
Feroze Jehangir Gandhi or Feroze Gandhy (Firoz Jahangīr Gāndhī; Hindi: फिरोज जहाँगीर गांधी; 12 September 1912 – 8 September 1960) was an Indian politician and journalist, and publisher of the The National Herald and The Navjivan newspapers from Lucknow.
He became a member of the provincial parliament (1950–1952), and later a member of the Lok Sabha, the Lower House of India's parliament. In 1942 he married Indira Nehru (later Prime Minister of India) and they had two sons, Rajiv Gandhi (also later a Prime Minister) and Sanjay Gandhi, and thus became part of the Nehru dynasty.
Feroze Jehangir Gandhi was born in Mumbai at the Tehmulji Nariman Hospital situated in Fort, to a Parsi (Zoroastrian) family from Gujarat. Feroze's surname being Gandhi has nothing to do with the surname of the father of the nation Shri Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. His family had migrated to Bombay from Bharuch in South Gujarat where their ancestral home, which belonged to his grandfather, still exists in Kotpariwad.
Feroze was the youngest of the five children of Jehangir Faredoon Gandhi and Ratimai Gandhi (formerly Ratimai Commissariat). His elder brothers were Dorab Jehangir Gandhi and Faridun Jehangir Gandhi.[1][2] while his two elder sisters were Tehmina Kershashp Gandhi and Aloo Gandhi Dastur. His parents lived in Nauroji Natakwala Bhawan in Khetwadi Mohalla in Bombay. His father Jehangir Gandhi was a Marine Engineer in Kellick Nixon and was later promoted as a Warrant Engineer.
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George Yule
George Yule (1829–1892) was a Scottish businessman in India who notably became the fourth President of the Indian National Congress in 1888, the first non-Indian to hold that office. He was succeeded by Sir William Wedderburn.
He was the chief of the well-known Andrew Yule and Co. in Kolkata; was also Sheriff of Kolkata for sometime and President of the Indian Chamber of Commerce.
preface to second edition 1.the origins of language 2.the development of writing
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Gopinath Bordoloi
Gopinath Bordoloi (6 June 1890–5 August 1950) was the first Chief Minister of the Indian state of Assam, and also a leading Indian independence activist. He was a follower of the Gandhian principle of non violence as a political tool. Due to his unselfish dedication towards Assam and its people, the then Governor of Assam Jayram Das Doulatram conferred him with the title “Lokapriya” (loved by all).
Gopinath Bordoloi was born on 6 June 1890 at Raha. His father was Buddheswar Bordoloi and mother Praneswari Bordoloi. He lost his mother when he was only 12 years old. He got admitted in Cotton College after passing matriculation in 1907. He passed I.A. in 1st Div. In 1909 and took admission in the renowned Scottish Church College, Calcutta and graduated in 1911. He then passed M.A. from Calcutta University in 1914. He studied Law for three years but came back to Guwahati without sitting in the final examination. Then on request of Tarun Ram Phukan, he took up the temporary job as Headmaster of Sonaram High School. During that period, he sat and passed in the Law examination and started practising in 1917 in Guwahati.
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Govind Ballabh Pant
Bharat Ratna Pandit Govind Ballabh Pant (September 10, 1887 - March 7, 1961) was a statesman of India, an Indian independence activist, and one of the foremost political leaders from Uttarakhand (then in United Provinces) and of the movement to establish Hindi as the official language of India.
Govind Ballabh Pant was born on September 10, 1887 in Khoont village of Shyahi Devi hills in District Almora. His mother's name was Govindi. His father, Manorath Pant, was constantly on the road. Govind was brought up by his grandfather, Bandri Dutt Joshi, who played a significant part in molding his political views.
As a lawyer in Kashipur, Pant began his active work against the British Raj in 1914, when he helped a local parishad, or village council, in their successful challenge of a law requiring locals to provide free transportation of the luggage of travelling British officials. In 1921, he entered politics and was elected to the Legislative Assembly of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh.
In 1930, he was arrested and imprisoned for several weeks for organizing a Salt March inspired by Gandhi's earlier actions. In 1933, he was arrested along with Harsh Dev Bahuguna (Gnadhi of Choukot)and imprisoned for seven months for attending a session of the then-banned provincial Congress. In 1935, the ban was rescinded, and Pant joined the new Legislative Council. During the Second World War, Pant acted as the tiebreaker between Gandhi's faction, which advocated supporting the British Crown in their war effort, and Subash Chandra Bose's faction, which advocated taking advantage of the situation to expel the British Raj by any means necessary.
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Gulzarilal Nanda
Gulzarilal Nanda (4 July 1898 – 15 January 1998) was an Indian politician and an economist with specialization in labour problems. He was the interim Prime Minister of India twice for thirteen days each: the first time after the death of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru in 1964, and the second time after the death of Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri in 1966. (Both his terms ended after the ruling Indian National Congress party procedurally elected a new prime minister.) The Government of India honoured Nanda with the Bharat Ratna award in 1997.
Nanda was born on 4 July 1898 in Sialkot in the Punjab Province of British India into a Punjabi Hindu Khatri family.[citation needed] (After the partition of British India into India and Pakistan in 1947, Sialkot became a part of the Punjab Province of Pakistan.) Nanda received his education in Lahore, Amritsar, Agra, and Allahabad.[citation needed]
Nanda worked as a research scholar on labor problems at Allahabad University (1920–1921), and became a Professor of Economics at National College in Bombay (Mumbai) in 1921. The same year, he joined the Indian Non-Cooperation Movement against the British Raj. In 1922, he became secretary of the Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association where he worked until 1946. He was imprisoned for Satyagraha in 1932, and again from 1942 to 1944. Honored with “Proud Past Alumni" in the list of 42 members, from "Allahabad University Alumni Association", NCR, Ghaziabad (Greater Noida) Chapter 2007-2008 registered under society act 1860 with registration no. 407/2000.
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H. D. Deve Gowda
Haradanahalli Doddegowda Deve Gowda (Kannada: ಹರದನಹಳ್ಳಿ ದೊಡ್ಡೇಗೌಡ ದೇವೇಗೌಡ, born 18 May 1933) was the 11th Prime Minister of India (1996–1997) and the 14th Chief minister of the state of Karnataka (1994–1996).
He is an influential leader of the Vokkaliga community and is popularly known as "Mannina maga" (Son of the soil) for espousing the cause of the farmers. He is the National President of the Janata Dal (Secular) party.
Haradanahalli Doddegowda Deve Gowda was born on 18th May, 1933 in Haradanahalli village of Holenarasipura taluk, Hassan District, Karnataka. He earned his Diploma in Civil Engineering from Smt.L.V. Polytechnic, Hassan, Karnataka. He married Smt. Chennamma and the couple have 4 sons and 2 daughters.
His parents, Shri Dodde Gowda and Smt. Devamma were from a middle class agricultural background. Hence, he was exposed to the hardships of farmers, early in his life and later became a champion of the farmers cause.
Deve Gowda joined the Indian National Congress party in 1953 and remained its member until 1962. During that period, He was the President of Anjaneya Cooperative Society of Holenarasipura and later became a Member of the Taluk Development Board, Holenarasipura taluk, Hassan.
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Hakim Ajmal Khan
Ajmal Khan (or Hakim Ajmal Khan) (1863–1927) was an Indian physician specialising in the field of South Asian traditional Unani medicine as well as a Muslim nationalist politician and freedom fighter. Through his founding of the Tibbia College in Delhi, he is credited with the revival of Unani medicine in early 20th century India. Khan also recognised the talents of chemist Dr. Salimuzzaman Siddiqui, whose subsequent research into important medicinal plants used in the field gave it a new direction. A close associate of Gandhi, he participated in the Non-cooperation movement (Satyagraha), led the Khilafat Movement, and became the fifth Muslim[citation needed]President of the Indian National Congress during the 1921 session held in Ahmedabad, Gujarat.
Khan was one of the founders of the Jamia Millia Islamia University, becoming its first chancellor in 1920 and remaining in office until his death in 1927.
Hakim Born in 1863, Khan descended from a distinguished line of physicians who had come to India during the reign of Mughal Emperor Babar. His family were all Unani doctors who had practiced this ancient form of medicine since their arrival in the country. They were then known as the Rais of Delhi. His grandfather, Hakim Sharif Khan, was physician to Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam and built the Sharif Manzil, a hospital-cum-college teaching Unani medicine.
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Henry Kissinger
Heinz Alfred "Henry" Kissinger ( /ˈkɪsɪndʒər/; born May 27, 1923) is a German-born American writer, political scientist, diplomat, and businessman. A recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize, he served as National Security Advisor and later concurrently as Secretary of State in the administrations of Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. After his term, his opinion was still sought by many subsequent presidents and many world leaders.
A proponent of Realpolitik, Kissinger played a dominant role in United States foreign policy between 1969 and 1977. During this period, he pioneered the policy of détente with the Soviet Union, orchestrated the opening of relations with the People's Republic of China, and negotiated the Paris Peace Accords, ending American involvement in the Vietnam War. Various American policies of that era, including the bombing of Cambodia, remain controversial to many.
Kissinger is still a controversial figure today. He is the founder and chairman of Kissinger Associates, an international consulting firm.
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I. K. Gujral
Inder Kumar Gujral (born 4 December 1919) served as the 12th Prime Minister of India. Gujral was the second PM to govern exclusively from the Rajya Sabha, first being his predecessor H.D. Deve Gowda.
He participated in India's freedom struggle, and was jailed in 1942 during the 'Quit India Movement'.
In the tumultuous days of June 1975, he was minister of Information and Broadcasting. On 12 June 1975, the Allahabad high court gave a verdict that Prime Minister Indira Gandhi used unfair means in elections of 1971 and termed her election null and void.
Later, Gujral was appointed Ambassador of India to the Soviet Union as the Indian envoy to Moscow.
Gujral left the Congress Party in the mid-1980s and joined the Janata Dal. The Dal was a third-party with mainly socialist leanings and regional bases. In the 1989 elections, Gujral was elected from the Jalandhar parliamentary constituency in Punjab. He served as Minister of External Affairs in the V. P. Singh cabinet. In 1989 V. P. Singh sent him to Srinagar to seal the deal with the kidnappers in the case of the 1989 kidnapping of Rubaiya Sayeed. The largest issue he had to deal with in this cabinet role was Iraq's invasion of Kuwait and the subsequent events that led to the first Gulf War of January 1991. As India's representative, he personally met with Iraq's Saddam Hussein. His hug with Hussein during the meeting remains a matter of controversy. In the 1991 mid-term parliamentary elections, Gujral contested from Patna constituency in Bihar against Samajwadi Janata Party (Rashtriya) candidate and then-Finance Minister Yashwant Sinha. However, the election was countermanded following complaints of large-scale irregularities.
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Indira Gandhi
Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi (Hindi: इंदिरा प्रियदर्शिनी गांधी Indirā Priyadarśinī Gāndhī listen (help·info), née Nehru; 19 November 1917 – 31 October 1984) was an Indian politician who served as the third Prime Minister of India for three consecutive terms (1966–77) and a fourth term (1980–84). Gandhi was the second female head of government in the world after Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, and she remains as the world's second longest serving female Prime Minister as of 2012. She was the first woman to become prime minister in India.
Gandhi was the only child of Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of independent India. She adhered to the quasi-socialist policies of industrial development that had been begun by her father. Gandhi established closer relations with the Soviet Union, depending on that nation for support in India’s long-standing conflict with Pakistan. She was also the only Indian Prime Minister to have declared a state of emergency in order to 'rule by decree' and the only Indian Prime Minister to have been imprisoned after holding that office. She was assassinated by her Sikh bodyguards in retaliation for ordering Operation Blue Star.
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Jacqueline Kennedy
Jacqueline "Jackie" Lee Bouvier Kennedy Onassis (pronounced /ˌdʒækˈliːn ˈliː ˈbuːvieɪ ˈkɛnɨdi oʊˈnæsɨs/; July 28, 1929 – May 19, 1994) was the wife of the 35th President of the United States, John F. Kennedy, and served as First Lady of the United States during his presidency from 1961 until his assassination in 1963. Five years later she married Greek shipping magnate Aristotle Onassis; they remained married until his death in 1975. For the final two decades of her life, Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis had a career as a book editor. She is remembered for her contributions to the arts and preservation of historic architecture, her style, elegance, and grace. A fashion icon, her famous pink Chanel suit has become a symbol of her husband's assassination and one of the lasting images of the 1960s. A book containing the transcripts of interviews with Kennedy from 1964 was released in September, 2011. She was the first and only Catholic to serve as First Lady.
Jacqueline Lee Bouvier was born in Southampton, New York, to Wall Street stock broker John Vernou Bouvier III (also known as 'Black Jack Bouvier') and Janet Norton Lee. Jacqueline's younger sister Caroline Lee—later known as Lee—was born in 1933. The Bouviers divorced in 1940. Janet Bouvier later married Standard Oil heir Hugh D. Auchincloss, Jr. in 1942, and had two more children: Janet and James Auchincloss.
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Jagjivan Ram
Babu Jagjivan Ram (Devanāgarī: जगजीवन राम) (5 April 1908 – 6 July 1986), known popularly as Babuji, was a freedom fighter and a social reformer hailing from the scheduled castes of Bihar in India. He was from the Chamar caste and was a leader for his community. He was instrumental in foundation of the 'All-India Depressed Classes League', an organization dedicated to attaining equality for untouchables, in 1935 and was elected to Bihar Legislative Assembly in 1937, that is when he organized, rural labour movement.
In 1946, he became the youngest minister in Jawaharlal Nehru's provisional government, the First Union Cabinet of India as a Labour minister, and also a member of Constituent Assembly of India, where he ensured that social justice was enshrined in the Constitution. He went on serve as a minister in the Indian parliament with various portfolios for more than forty years as a member of Indian National Congress (INC), most importantly he was the Defence Minister of India during the Indo-Pak war of 1971, which resulted in formation of Bangladesh. His contribution to the Green Revolution in India and modernising Indian agriculture, during his two tenures as Union Agriculture Minister are still remembered, especial during 1974 drought when he was asked to hold the additional portfolio to tide over the food crisis. Though he supported Indira Gandhi during the Emergency in India (1975–1977), he left Congress in 1977 and joined Janata Party alliance in 1977, along with his Congress for Democracy, he later served as the Deputy Prime Minister of India (1977–1979), then in 1980, he formed Congress (J).
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Jagmohanlal Sinha
Jagmohanlal Sinha also Jagmohan Lal Sinha(born 12 May 1920 - 20 March 2008) was a former Indian Permanent Judge. He was known mostly for his 1975 ruling in State of Uttar Pradesh v. Raj Narain on the election of then Indian Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi, in which he declared the election invalid. Events that followed his decision resulted in the Prime Minister declaring a state of emergency in India. The ruling by Dr. Jagmohanlal Sinha is considered to be one of the most acclaimed judicial rulings in India. It is considered to be taken with highest regard to rule of law and justice. The ruling was against the supreme leader of the country and was expected to cause unrest. Dr. Jagmohanlal Sinha was considered to be a 'legal luminary' of India. He is considered to be one of the best judges of modern India.
The judgement by Dr. Jagmohanlal Sinha on 12th June 1975, is one of the proudest decisions ever made by a judge in Indian History. Indian Judiciary and Public has kept this decision in the league of the top decisions ever taken as it upheld the independence of the judicial system of India.
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Jawaharlal Nehru
Jawaharlal Nehru (IPA: [dʒəʋaːɦərˈlaːl ˈneːɦru] ( listen), Hindi: जवाहरलाल नेहरू; 14 November 1889 – 27 May 1964), often referred to with the epithet of Panditji, was an Indian lawyer, politician and statesman who became the first Prime Minister of independent India (1947–64) and became noted for his “neutralist” policies in foreign affairs. He was also one of the principal leaders of India’s independence movement in the 1930s and ’40s. Nehru was elected by the Indian National Congress to assume office as independent India's first Prime Minister, and re-elected when the Congress Party won India's first general election in 1951 and 1952. Nehru contributed to the establishment of a parliamentary democracy in India and was one of the founders of the international Non-Aligned Movement.
The son of moderate nationalist leader and Congressman Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru became a leader of the left wing of the Congress when fairly young. Rising to become Congress President under the mentorship of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Nehru was a charismatic leader, advocating complete independence for India from the British Empire. Throughout his life, Nehru advocated Democratic Socialism/Fabian Socialism and a strong public sector as the means by which economic development could be pursued by poorer nations. He was the father of Indira Gandhi and the maternal grandfather of Rajiv Gandhi, who would later serve as the third and sixth Prime Ministers of India respectively.
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Jawarharalal Nehru
Jawaharlal Nehru (IPA: [dʒəʋaːɦərˈlaːl ˈneːɦru] ( listen), Hindi: जवाहरलाल नेहरू; 14 November 1889 – 27 May 1964), often referred to with the epithet of Panditji, was an Indian lawyer, politician and statesman who became the first Prime Minister of independent India (1947–64) and became noted for his “neutralist” policies in foreign affairs. He was also one of the principal leaders of India’s independence movement in the 1930s and ’40s. Nehru was elected by the Indian National Congress to assume office as independent India's first Prime Minister, and re-elected when the Congress Party won India's first general election in 1951 and 1952. Nehru contributed to the establishment of a parliamentary democracy in India and was one of the founders of the international Non-Aligned Movement.
The son of moderate nationalist leader and Congressman Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru became a leader of the left wing of the Congress when fairly young. Rising to become Congress President under the mentorship of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Nehru was a charismatic leader, advocating complete independence for India from the British Empire. Throughout his life, Nehru advocated Democratic Socialism/Fabian Socialism and a strong public sector as the means by which economic development could be pursued by poorer nations. He was the father of Indira Gandhi and the maternal grandfather of Rajiv Gandhi, who would later serve as the third and sixth Prime Ministers of India respectively.
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Jayaprakash Narayan
Jayaprakash Narayan (11 October 1902 – 8 October 1979), widely known as JP Narayan, Jayaprakash, or Loknayak, was an Indian independence activist and political leader, remembered especially for leading the opposition to Indira Gandhi in the 1970s and for giving a call for peaceful Total Revolution. His biography, Jayaprakash, was written by his nationalist friend and an eminent writer of Hindi literature, Ramavriksha Benipuri. In 1998, he was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian award, in recognition of his social work. Other awards include the Magsaysay award for Public Service in 1965. The airport of Patna is also named after him.
Jayprakash Narayan was born on 11 October 1902 in the village of Sitabdiara, Bihar, India. He came from a middle-class family.
Sandip Das, a biographer, says that
Returning from the US in late 1929 as a supporter of Marxist theories, Narayan joined the Indian National Congress on the invitation of Jawaharlal Nehru in 1929; Mahatma Gandhi became his mentor in the Congress. He shared the same house at Kadam Kuan in Patna with his close friend and nationalist Ganga Sharan Sinha (Shrivastava). with whom he shared the most cordial and lasting friendship.
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Jivatram Kripalani
Jivatram Bhagwandas Kripalani (11 November 1888 – 19 March 1982), popularly known as Acharya Kripalani, was an Indian politician, noted particularly for holding the presidency of the Indian National Congress during the transfer of power in 1947. During the election for the post of the future Prime Minister of India held by the Congress party, he had the second highest number of votes after Sardar Patel. However, on Gandhi's insistence, both Patel and Kripalani backed out to allow Jawahar Lal Nehru to become the first Prime Minister of India.
Kripalani was a Gandhian Socialist, environmentalist, mystic and freedom fighter.
He grew close to Gandhi and became in time one of his most ardent disciples. Kripalani was a familiar figure to generations of dissenters, from the Non-Cooperation Movements of the 1920s through till the Emergency of the 1970s.
Jivatram (also spelled Jayant) Bhagwandas Kripalani was born in Hyderabad in Sindh in 1888. Following his education at Fergusson College in Pune, he worked as a schoolteacher before joining the freedom movement in the wake of Gandhi's return from South Africa.
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K. Kamaraj
Kumarasami Kamaraj (Tamil: குமாரசாமி காமராஜ்) better known as K. Kamaraj (15 July 1903 – 2 October 1975) was an Indian politician from Tamil Nadu widely acknowledged as the "Kingmaker" in Indian politics during the 1960s. He was the chief minister of Tamil Nadu during 1954-1963 and a Member of Parliament during 1952-1954 and 1969-1975. He was known for his simplicity and integrity.
He was involved in the Indian independence movement. As a high ranking office bearer of the Indian National Congress, he was instrumental in bringing to power two Prime Ministers, Lal Bahadur Shastri in 1964 and Indira Gandhi in 1966. In Tamil Nadu, his home state, he is still remembered for bringing school education to millions of the rural poor by introducing free education and the free Midday Meal Scheme during his tenure as chief minister. He was awarded India's highest civilian honour, the Bharat Ratna, posthumously in 1976. The domestic terminal of the Chennai airport is named "Kamaraj Terminal", Chennai's Beach Road renamed "Kamarajar Salai", Bengaluru's North Parade Road as "K. Kamaraj Rd." and the Madurai Kamaraj University in his honour.
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Kamla Nehru
Kamala Kaul Nehru (1899–1936) was the wife of Jawaharlal Nehru - leader of the Indian National Congress. Kamala married Nehru on 7 February 1916.
Born on 1 August 1899 and brought up in a traditional Kashmiri Brahmin family of old Delhi, Kamala was simple, quiet and unobtrusive .[citation needed] She felt alienated amongst the more Westernized Nehrus.[citation needed] It was only with the involvement of the Nehrus in the national movement, that she emerged into the forefront.[citation needed] In the Non Cooperation movement of 1921, she organized groups of women in Allahabad and picketed shops selling foreign cloth and liquor. When her husband was arrested to prevent him delivering a "seditious" public speech, she went in his place to read it out. She was twice arrested by British authorities.
Rajpati and Jawaharmal Kaul were Kamala Nehru's parents. Kamala, their eldest child, had two brothers, Chand Bahadur Kaul and the botanist, Kailas Nath Kaul, and a sister, Swaroop Kathju. In November 1917, Kamala gave birth to a daughter, Indira Priyadarshini, who later succeeded her father as prime minister and head of the Congress party. Kamala gave birth to a boy in November 1924, but he was premature and died 2 days later.
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Katherine Frank
Katherine Frank is a noted American author and biographer, now living in England. Her works include a highly-acclaimed biography of Lucie Duff Gordon, and the more controversial biography of Indira Gandhi.
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Kehar Singh
Kehar Singh was tried and executed for conspiracy in the plot of Indira Gandhi assassination, carried out by Satwant Singh and Beant Singh. He was hanged in Tihar Jail on January 6, 1989. Beant Singh was the nephew of Kehar Singh. The assassination was motivated by Operation Blue Star which was carried out starting on 3 June 1984, the military action against the Sikh "Golden Temple" in Amritsar to flush out the militants from the temple and restore its sanctity of the Sikhism's holiest shrine. These violent events which led to the desecration of the holy shrine Golden Temple / Harminder Sahib caused outrage amongst the Sikh community, who claimed that the attacks were pre-planned and that anti-Sikh violence which followed was government orchestrated. Beant Singh and Satwant Singh were Sikh bodyguards of Indira Gandhi, and on 31 October 1984 they assassinated her in her garden, putting thirty three bullets in her chest and abdomen.
Beant Singh was killed by gunfire at the scene of the assassination. Satwant Singh was arrested and Kehar Singh was later arrested for conspiracy in the assassination. Both were sentenced to death and hanged in Tihar jail in Delhi.
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Khushwant Singh
Khushwant Singh (Punjabi: ਖ਼ੁਸ਼ਵੰਤ ਸਿੰਘ [xʊʃʋən̪t̪ sɪ́ŋɡ]; born 2 February 1915) is a prominent Indian novelist and journalist. Singh's weekly column, "With Malice towards One and All", carried by several Indian newspapers, is among the most widely-read columns in the country.
An important Indo-Anglian novelist, Singh is best known for his trenchant secularism, his humor, and an abiding love of poetry. His comparisons of social and behavioral characteristics of Westerners and Indians are laced with acid wit. He served as editor of several well-known literary and news magazines, as well as two major broadsheet newspapers, through the 1970s and 1980s.He is a recipient of the Padma Vibhushan the second highest civilian award in India.
He was born in Hadali District Khushab, Punjab (which now lies in Pakistan), in a Sikh family. His father, Sir Sobha Singh, was a prominent builder in Lutyens' Delhi.
He was educated at Modern School, New Delhi, Government College, Lahore, St. Stephen's College in Delhi and King's College, London, before reading for the Bar at the Inner Temple.
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Lal Bahadur Shastri
Lal Bahadur Shastri (Hindi: लालबहादुर शास्त्री, pronounced [laːl bəˈɦaːd̪ʊr ˈʃaːst̪ri]; 2 October 1904 – 11 January 1966) was the second Prime Minister of the Republic of India and a significant figure in the Indian independence movement.
Lal Bahadur was born in Mughal Sarai, United Provinces, India to Sharada Srivastava Prasad, a school teacher, who later became a clerk in the Revenue Office at Allahabad, and Ramdulari Devi. When he was three months old, he slipped out of his mother's arms into a cowherder's basket at the ghats of the Ganges. The cowherder, who had no children, took the child as a gift from God and took him home. Lal Bahadur's parents lodged a complaint with the police, who traced the child, and returned him to his parents.
His father died when he was only a year and a half old. His mother took him and his two sisters to her father's house and settled down there. Lal Bahadur stayed at his grandfather Hazari Lal's house till he was ten. He studied up to class IV at Railway School Mughalsarai. Since there was no high school in the town, he was sent to Varanasi, where he stayed with his maternal uncle and joined the Harischandra High School. While in Varanasi, Shastri once went with his friends to see a fair on the other bank of the Ganges. On the way back he had no money for the boat fare. Instead of borrowing from his friends, he jumped into the river and swam to the other bank.
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Lala Lajpat Rai
Lala Lajpat Rai (28 January 1865 – 17 November 1928) was an Indian author, freedom fighter and politician who is chiefly remembered as a leader in the Indian fight for freedom from the British Raj. He was popularly known as Punjab Kesari (Punjabi:The Lion of Punjab) or Sher-e-Punjab (Urdu:The Lion of Punjab) meaning the same and was part of the Lal Bal Pal trio. He was also associated with activities of Punjab National Bank and Lakshmi Insurance Company in their early stages. He sustained serious injuries by the police when leading a non-violent protest against the Simon Commission and died less than three weeks later. His death anniversary (November 17) is one of several days celebrated as Martyrs' Day in India.
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Lalmohan Ghosh
Lalmohan Ghosh (1849–1909) was the sixteenth President of the Indian National Congress.
He was born in Krishnagar, West Bengal in 1849. He studied in England and qualified as a Barrister-at-law and joined the Calcutta Bar in 1873.
Ghosh was elected President of the Madras session (1903) of the Indian National Congress.
His social and political ideals were derived mostly from the liberal humanism of Victorian England. He strongly believed the importance of Western education for the people of India as a force to unite the people into one nation and he pleaded for compulsory primary education in India in his Presidential address at the Madras session of the Congress.
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Lata Mangeshkar
Lata Mangeshkar (born September 28, 1929) is a singer from India. She is one of the best-known and most respected playback singers in India. Mangeshkar's career started in 1942 and has spanned over six and a half decades. She has recorded songs for over a thousand Hindi films and has sung songs in over thirty-six regional Indian languages and foreign languages, though primarily in Hindi. She is the elder sister of singer Asha Bhosle, Hridayanath Mangeshkar, Usha Mangeshkar and Meena Mangeshkar. She is the second vocalist to have ever been awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour.
Mangeshkar was featured in the Guinness Book of World Records from 1974 to 1991 for having made the most recordings in the world. The claim was that she had recorded approximately 25,000 solo, duet, and chorus-backed songs in 20 Indian languages between 1948 to 1974. Over the years, while several sources have supported this claim, others have raised concerns over its veracity, claiming that this number was highly exaggerated and that Mangeshkar's younger sister, Asha Bhosle, had more song recordings than she had. In 2011 Guinness officially acknowledged Bhosle as the most recorded artist in music history.
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M. C. Chagla
M. C. Chagla(ছাগলা) (30 September 1900 – 9 February 1981), full name Mahommedali Currim Chagla(ছাগলা), was a renowned Indian jurist, diplomat, and Cabinet Minister who served as Chief Justice of the Bombay High Court from 1948 to 1958.
Born on 30 September 1900 in Bombay to a well-off Shia Muslim merchant family, Chagla(ছাগলা) suffered a lonely childhood owing to his mother's death in 1905. He was educated at St. Xavier's High School and College in Bombay, after which he went on to study at Lincoln College, Oxford University, from 1919 until 1922. He then was admitted to the Bar of the Bombay High Court, where he worked with such illuminaries as Sir Jamsetji Kanga and Mohammed Ali Jinnah, who would one day become the founder of Pakistan.
Chagla(ছাগলা) idolized Jinnah and held membership in the Muslim League, but severed all ties to Jinnah after he began to work for the cause of a separate Muslim state. He, along with others, then founded the Muslim Nationalist Party in Bombay, a party which was ignored and pushed aside in the independence struggle. He was appointed as Professor of law to Government Law College, Bombay in 1927, where he worked with Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. He was appointed as a judge to Bombay High Court in 1941, becoming Chief Justice in 1948 and serving in that capacity to 1958.
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M. G. Ramachandran
Maruthur Gopalan Ramachandran (17 January 1917 – 24 December 1987), popularly known by his initials MGR, was an Indian film actor, director, producer, and politician who also served as the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu successively for three terms.
In his youth, MGR and his elder brother, M. G. Chakrapani became members of a drama troupe to support their family. Influenced by Gandhian ideals, MGR joined the Indian National Congress. After a few years of acting in plays, he made his film debut in the 1936 film Sathi Leelavathi in a supporting role. In the late 1940s he graduated to leading roles and for the next three decades dominated the Tamil film industry. He became a member of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) and rose rapidly through its ranks. He successfully used his popularity as a film hero to build a large political base. In 1972, he left the DMK to form his own party the Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (ADMK). In 1977 he became the chief minister of Tamil Nadu - the first film actor in India to become the chief minister of a state. He remained as chief minister till his death in 1987.
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M. S. Subbulakshmi
Madurai Shanmukhavadivu Subbulakshmi (Tamil: மதுரை சண்முகவடிவு சுப்புலட்சுமி, Madhurai Shanmukhavadivu Subbulakshmi ? 16 September 1916 – 11 December 2004), also known as M.S., was a renowned Carnatic vocalist. She was the first musician ever to be awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honor. She is the first Indian musician to receive the Ramon Magsaysay award, Asia's highest civilian award, in 1974 with the citation reading "Exacting purists acknowledge Srimati M. S. Subbulakshmi as the leading exponent of classical and semi-classical songs in the Karnataka tradition of South India."
Subbulakshmi (Kunjamma to her family) was born in Madurai, Madras Presidency, India to veena player Shanmukavadiver Ammal and Subramania Iyer. Her grandmother Akkammal was a violinist.
She started learning Carnatic music at an early age and trained in Carnatic music under the tutelage of Semmangudi Srinivasa Iyer and subsequently in Hindustani music under Pandit Narayanrao Vyas. She also learned Sanskrit and Telugu under Dr. Nedunuri Krishnamurthy.
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M.G. Ramachandran
Maruthur Gopalan Ramachandran (17 January 1917 – 24 December 1987), popularly known by his initials MGR, was an Indian film actor, director, producer, and politician who also served as the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu successively for three terms.
In his youth, MGR and his elder brother, M. G. Chakrapani became members of a drama troupe to support their family. Influenced by Gandhian ideals, MGR joined the Indian National Congress. After a few years of acting in plays, he made his film debut in the 1936 film Sathi Leelavathi in a supporting role. In the late 1940s he graduated to leading roles and for the next three decades dominated the Tamil film industry. He became a member of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) and rose rapidly through its ranks. He successfully used his popularity as a film hero to build a large political base. In 1972, he left the DMK to form his own party the Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (ADMK). In 1977 he became the chief minister of Tamil Nadu - the first film actor in India to become the chief minister of a state. He remained as chief minister till his death in 1987.
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Madan Mohan Malaviya
Madan Mohan Malaviya pronunciation (help·info)(Hindi: पंडित मदन मोहन मालवीय) (1861–1946) was an Indian educationist, and freedom fighter notable for his role in the Indian independence movement and his espousal of Hindu nationalism. Later in life, he was also addressed as 'Mahamana'.
He was the President of the Indian National Congress on four occasions and today is most remembered as the founder of the largest residential university in Asia and one of the largest in the world, having over 12,000 students across arts sciences, engineering and technology, Banaras Hindu University (BHU) at Varanasi in 1916, of which he also remained the Vice Chancellor, 1919–1938 Pandit Malviya was one of the founders of Scouting in India. He also founded a highly influential, English-newspaper, The Leader published from Allahabad in 1909.
On his 150th birth anniversary (i.e. 25th Dec, 2011), Indian PM Dr. Manmohan Singh announced that a Centre for Malaviya Studies will be set up at the Banaras Hindu University apart from establishment of scholarships and education related awards in his memory, and UPA chairperson released a biography of Madan Mohan Malaviya.
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Maulana Mohammad Ali
Mohammad Ali Jouhar (Urdu: مَولانا مُحمّد علی جَوہر) was an Indian Muslim leader, activist, scholar, journalist and poet, and was among the leading figures of the Khilafat Movement.
He was the sixth Muslim to become the President of Indian National Congress and it lasted only for few months. He was one of the founders of the All India Muslim League and he was also the former president of the All India Muslim League
Mohammad Ali, (10 December 1878 – 4 January 1931) well-known as Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar (مَولانا مُحمّد علی جَوہر), was born in 1878 in Rampur in India. He belonged to the family of famous Yousaf Zai, a "Rohilla" tribe of Pathans in Rohilkhand, the north west region of Uttarpardesh of India, however, their origin is traced back to the highland of Khyber pukhtoonkhawa, present day Pakistan. His ancestors settled in Rohilkhand, during the 19th century, later they settled in Rampur. However the progeny of Yousuf Zai tribe still found in Afghanistan, the Khyber Pukhtoonkhawa, Pakistan who still maintain Pushto language. He was the brother of Shaukat Ali and Zulfiqar Ali. Despite the early death of his father, the family strived and Ali attended the Darul Uloom Deoband, Aligarh Muslim University and Lincoln College, Oxford University in 1898, studying modern history.
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Morarji Desai
Morarji Ranchhodji Desai (Gujarati: મોરારજી રણછોડજી દેસાઈ, Hindi: मोरारजी देसाई; 29 February 1896 – 10 April 1995) was an Indian independence activist and the fourth Prime Minister of India from 1977–79. He was the first Indian Prime Minister who did not belong to the Indian National Congress. After assuming the office, Desai promoted his policies and peace initiatives between Pakistan and India to avoid conflicts, such as Indo-Pakistani war of 1971. For this, he was conferred with Nishaan-e-Pakistan (Order of Pakistan). Desai is the only Indian national to receive the highest civilian award from Pakistan, the Nishaan-e-Pakistan.
Morarji Desai was born into an Anavil Brahmin family in Bhadeli, Valsad in Bombay Presidency (now in Gujarat). His schooling life of Primary section is in Saurashtra The Kundla School, Savarkundla. It's now actual name is J.V.Modi School.After he joined Bai Ava Bai High School, Valsad. After graduating from Wilson College, Mumbai, he join ed the civil service in Gujarat. Later, he left the service of the British in 1924 and joined the civil disobedience movement against British rule in India in 1930. He spent many years in jail during the freedom struggle and owing to his sharp leadership skills and tough spirit, he became a favourite amongst freedom-fighters and an important leader of the Indian National Congress in Gujarat. When provincial elections were held in 1934 and 1937, Desai was elected and served as the Revenue Minister and Home Minister of the Bombay Presidency.
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Mother Teresa
Blessed Mother Teresa of Calcutta (Albanian: Nënë Tereza) as she is known to the Catholic Church, or Mother Teresa as she is commonly known, was born Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu (pronounced [aɡˈnɛs ˈɡɔndʒa bɔjaˈdʒiu]). Although born on the 26 August 1910, she considered 27 August, the day she was baptized, to be her "true birthday". “By blood, I am Albanian. By citizenship, an Indian. By faith, I am a Catholic nun. As to my calling, I belong to the world. As to my heart, I belong entirely to the Heart of Jesus.” Mother Teresa died on 5 September 1997 and is not yet a Catholic Saint. In late 2003, the leaders of the church completed the process of beatification, the third step toward possible sainthood. A second miracle credited to Mother Teresa is required before she can be recognized as a saint by the Catholic church.
Mother Teresa founded the Missionaries of Charity, a Roman Catholic religious congregation, which in 2012 consisted of over 4,500 sisters and is active in 133 countries. Members of the order must adhere to the vows of chastity, poverty and obedience, and the fourth vow, to give "Wholehearted and Free service to the poorest of the poor". The Missionaries of Charity at the time of her death had 610 missions in 123 countries including hospices and homes for people with HIV/AIDS, leprosy and tuberculosis, soup kitchens, children's and family counselling programmes, orphanages and schools.
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Motilal Nehru
Motilal Nehru (6 May 1861 – 6 February 1931) was a lawyer, an activist of the Indian National Movement and an important leader of the Indian National Congress, who also served as the Congress President twice, 1919–1920 and 1928–1929. He was the founder patriarch of India's most powerful political family, the Nehru-Gandhi family.
The Nehrus originally Kashmiri Pandits from Kashmir, settled in Delhi in the beginning of 18th century, where Motilal Nehru's grandfather, Lakshmi Narayan, became the first lawyer (Vakil) of the East India Company at the Mughal Imperial Court of Delhi after 1812. His father Gangadhar, was a police constable (Kotwal)[citation needed] in Delhi in 1857, and during the Bengal Mutiny, when the British troops began shelling their way into the city, he fled to Agra along with his wife Jeorani and four children. He died here four years later, and three months after his death, his youngest son Motilal was born.{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}
He spent the early part of childhood in Khetri, second largest thikana estate within the princely Jaipur State, now in Rajasthan, where his elder brother, Nandlal was Diwan (Chief Minister). Thereafter in 1870, when Nandlal left his job, qualified as a lawyer and started practicing English law at Agra, the family moved with him. Subsequently the High Court shifted base to Allahabad, and the family settled there.
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Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari
Dr. Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari (Hindi: मुख़्तार अहमद अंसारी, Urdu: مُختار احمد انصاری) was an Indian nationalist and political leader, and former president of the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League during the Indian Independence Movement. One of the founders of the Jamia Millia Islamia University he remained its Chancellor 1928 to 1936.
Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari was born on December 25, 1880 in Yusufpur-Mohammadabad town, Ghazipur district,(now part of Uttar Pradesh).
Educated at the Victoria School, Ansari and his family moved to Hyderabad. Ansari obtained a medical degree from the Madras Medical College and went to England on scholarship studies. He achieved the M.D.[citation needed] and M.S.[citation needed] degrees. He was a top-class student and worked at the London Lock Hospital and the Charing Cross Hospital in London. He was an Indian pioneer in surgery, and today there is an Ansari Ward in the Charing Cross Hospital in honour of his work.[citation needed]
Dr. Ansari became involved in the Indian Independence Movement during his stay in England. He moved back to Delhi and joined both the Indian Congress and the Muslim League. He played an important role in the negotiation of the 1916 Lucknow Pact and served as the League's president in 1918 and 1920. He was an outspoken supporter of the Khilafat movement, and led the Indian medical mission to treat the wounded Turkish soldiers during the Balkan Wars. (Syed Tanvir Wasti, The Indian Red Crescent Mission to the Balkan Wars, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 45, No. 3, 393–406, May 2009)
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N. G. Chandavarkar
Sir Narayan Ganesh Chandavarkar (Konkani: नारायण गणेश चन्दावरकर)(December 2, 1855 - May 14, 1923) was an early Indian National Congress politician and Hindu reformer. He was regarded by some as the "leading Hindu reformer of western India"
Narayan Ganesh Chandavarkar was born in Honavar in the Bombay Presidency on December 2, 1855. His maternal uncle was Shamrao Vithal Kaikini, another notable reformer from the Saraswat community. He served as a Dakshina Fellow in Elphinstone College for some time before earning a law degree in 1881. Shortly before the Indian National Congress was founded in 1885, N. G. Chandavarkar went to England as a member of the three-man delegation. The group was sent to educate public opinion about India right before general elections took place in England. G.L. Chandavarkar writes
He was elected the president of the annual session of the Indian National Congress in 1900 and one year later he was promoted to the high bench at the Bombay High Court. He took a break from politics for the next twelve years and devoted his time to the judicial system and various social groups till 1913. The main social group he worked with was the Prarthana Samaj ("Prayer Society"). He took the leadership reins from Mahadev Govind Ranade after the death of the latter in 1901. The organization was inspired by the Brahmo Samaj and was involved in the modernization of Hindu society.
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Nandini Satpathy
Nandini Satpathy (Oriya: ନନ୍ଦିନୀ ଶତପଥୀ; 9 June 1931 in Cuttack – 4 August 2006 in Bhubaneswar) was an Indian politician and author. She was the Chief Minister of Orissa from June 1972 to December 1976.
Satpathy was born on 9 June 1931 and grew up in Pithapur, Cuttack, India. She was the oldest daughter of Kalindi Charan Panigrahi; her family was of the Brahmin caste. Satpathy's uncle Bhagavati Charan Panigrahi founded the Orissan branch of the Communist Party of India.[citation needed]
While at Ravenshaw College pursuing her Master of Arts in Oriya, she became involved with the Communist Party's student wing, the Student Federation. In 1951, a student protest movement began in Orissa; it demonstrated against rising college education costs, which later became a national youth movement. Satpathy was a leader in this movement, and a police lathi charge was used against one protest she was in. She was jailed, like many others; while there, she met Devendra Satpathy, another Student Federation member and the man whom she later married. (He was later elected for two terms as the lower house member of parliament from Dhenkanal.)[citation needed]
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Neelam Sanjiva Reddy
Neelam Sanjiva Reddy pronunciation (help·info) (19 May 1913 - 1 June 1996) was the sixth President of India, serving from 1977 to 1982 and was[clarification needed] the only person to be elected President unopposed.
Reddy was born in Illur village of district Anantapur in the state of Andhra Pradesh.[citation needed] He had his primary education at the High School run by Theosophical Society Adyar, Madras. The spiritual atmosphere of the school left a deep impact on his mind.[citation needed] He joined the Government Arts College at Anantapur for his higher studies.[citation needed]
Mahatma Gandhi's visit to Anantapur in July 1929 influenced Reddy, whon discarded his foreign clothes and took to Khadi as his dress.[citation needed] He gave up his studies and joined the Indian Independence Movement in 1931 as a member of the Congress Party.[citation needed]
He was elected to the Madras Legislative Assembly in 1946 and became the Secretary of the Madras Congress Legislature Party.[citation needed] In 1947, he became a Member of the Indian Constituent Assembly.[citation needed] He was Minister for Prohibition, Housing and Forests in the composite state of Madras from 1949 to 1951.[citation needed] He was elected as President of the Andhra Pradesh Congress Committee in 1951.[citation needed] In 1952, he was elected as a Member of the Rajya Sabha.[citation needed]
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Nellie Sengupta
Nellie Sengupta (1886–1973) was an Englishwoman who fought for Indian Independence and was elected President of the Indian National Congress
Born Edith Ellen Gray, she was the daughter of Frederick and Edith Henrietta Gray. She was born and brought up in Cambridge, where her father worked at a club As a young girl, she fell in love with Jatindramohan Sengupta, a young Bengali student at Downing Collegewho lodged at her parental home. Despite parental opposition, she married Jatindramohan and returned to Calcutta with him.Nellie as she was known and Jatin had two sons Sishir and Anil.
On returning to India, Nellie's husband Jatindramohan started a very successful career as a lawyer in Calcutta . However in 1921 he joined the Indian freedom struggle and was Mahatma Gandhi's right hand man in Bengal apart from being the Mayor of Calcutta for three terms and the head of the Legislative Assembly. Nellie joined her husband in participating in the Non-Cooperation Movement of 1921. After his imprisonment during the Assam-Bengal Railwaymen's strike, she forcefully 'protested against the District authorities' imposition of a ban on assembly, addressed mass meetings and courted arrest. She defied the law by selling Khadi(hand spun cloth) door to door. In 1931 she suffered four months' imprisonment at Delhi for addressing an unlawful assembly. Jatin was imprisoned in Ranchi and died in 1936.
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Nicolae Ceauşescu
Nicolae Ceauşescu (Romanian pronunciation: [nikoˈla.e t͡ʃe̯a.uˈʃesku]; 26 January 1918 – 25 December 1989) was a Romanian Communist politician. He was General Secretary of the Romanian Communist Party from 1965 to 1989, and as such was the country's last Communist leader. He was also the country's head of state from 1967 to 1989.
His rule was marked in the first decade by an open policy towards Western Europe and the United States, which deviated from that of the other Warsaw Pact states during the Cold War. He continued a trend first established by his predecessor, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej, who had tactfully coaxed the Soviet Union into withdrawing its troops from Romania in 1958.
Ceauşescu's second decade was characterized by an increasingly brutal and repressive regime—by some accounts, the most Stalinist regime in the Soviet bloc. It was also marked by an ubiquitous personality cult, nationalism and a deterioration in foreign relations with the Western powers as well as the Soviet Union. Ceauşescu's government was overthrown in the December 1989 revolution, and he and his wife were executed following a televised and hastily organised two-hour court session.
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P. V. Narasimha Rao
Pamulaparti Venkata "Narasimha Rao" (28 June 1921 – 23 December 2004) was an Indian lawyer, politician, and activist who served as the ninth Prime Minister of India (1991–1996). He led an important administration, overseeing a major economic transformation and several home incidents affecting national security of India. Rao who held the Industries portfolio was personally responsible for the dismantling of the Licence Raj as this came under the purview of the Industries Ministry. He is often referred to as the "Father of Indian Economic Reforms". Rao accelerated the dismantling of the license raj, reversing the socialist policies under the government of Rajiv Gandhi. He is best remembered for employing Dr. Manmohan Singh as his Finance Minister. Dr. Manmohan Singh launched India's globalization angle of the reforms that implemented the IMF policies to rescue the almost bankrupt nation from economic collapse. Rao was also referred to as Chanakya for his ability to steer tough economic and political legislation through the parliament at a time when he headed a minority government.
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Pandurang Vaman Kane
Bharat Ratna Dr. Pandurang Vaman Kane (pronounced Kaa-nay) (Marathi: डॉ. पांडुरंग वामन काणे) (1880–1972) was a notable Indologist and Sanskrit scholar. He received India's highest civilian award Bharat Ratna in 1963. He was born in a conservative Chitpavan Brahmin family in the Ratnagiri district in Maharashtra, India. Eminent Historian Professor R.S. Sharma writes of him in the following words: "Pandurang Vaman Kane, a great Sanskritist wedded to social reform, continued the earlier tradition of scholarship. His monumental work entitled the "History of the Dharmasastra", published in five volumes in the twentieth century, is an encyclopedia of ancient social laws and customs. This enables us to study the social processes in ancient India."
Dr. Kane is famous for his magnum opus in English, History of Dharmasastra subtitled Ancient and Mediaeval Religions and Civil Law in India. This work researched the evolution of code of conduct in ancient and mediaeval India by looking into several texts and manuscripts compiled over the centuries. It was published in five volumes; the 1st volume was published in 1930 and the last, in 1962. It runs to a total of more than 6,500 pages. Dr. Kane used the resources available at prestigious institutes such as the Asiatic Society of Bombay and Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, among others. The work is known for its expanse and depth – ranging across diverse subjects such as the Mahabharat, Puranas and Kautilya – including references to previously obscure sources. The richness in the work is attributed to his in-depth knowledge of Sanskrit. His success is believed to be an outcome of his objective study of the texts instead of deifying them.
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Pherozeshah Mehta
Sir Pherozeshah Mehta, KCIE (August 4, 1845 - November 5, 1915) was an Parsi Indian political leader, activist, and a leading lawyer, who was knighted by then British Government in India for his service to the law. His political ideology was, as was the case with most of the Indian leaders of his time, moderate and was hence not directly opposed to the crown's sovereignty but only demanded more autonomy for Indians to self-rule.
He became the Municipal commissioner of Bombay Municipality in 1873 and its President four times - 1884, 1885, 1905 and 1911.
He was chosen the president of Indian National Congress in 1890.
Pherozshah Merwanjee Mehta was born on the 4th August 1845 in Bombay, to a Parsi business family.
Graduating from the Elphinstone College in 1864 he passed the M.A. examination, with honors, six months later, being the first Parsi to have obtained a Master's degree from the University of Mumbai. He later went to England to study law at Lincoln's Inn in London.
In 1868 he returned to India and was admitted to the bar, and soon established a practice for himself in a profession which was till then dominated by British lawyers.
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Pupul Jayakar
Pupul Jayakar (September 11, 1915 – March 29, 1997) was an Indian cultural activist and writer, best known for her work on the revival of traditional and village arts, handlooms and handicrafts in post-independence India. She organized a series of Indian arts festivals in the 1980s in France, the U.S. and Japan that helped to popularize Indian arts in the West. She was a friend and biographer to both the Nehru-Gandhi family and spiritual teacher J Krishnamurti. Jayakar had a close relationship with three prime ministers: Jawaharlal Nehru, his daughter Indira Gandhi and her son Rajiv Gandhi. She served as cultural adviser to latter two, confirming her preeminence in cultural matters. She "presided colossus-like over the country's cultural scene for nearly 40 years," founding key arts and crafts institutions and promoting talented artists, and Indian arts and crafts through festivals and exhibitions worldwide.
In 1950, Jawaharlal Nehru, invited her to study the handloom sector and workout plans for its revival, eventually she served as chair of the All-India Handloom Board and Handicrafts and Handlooms Export Corporation and played an important role in the revival of Madhubani painting. Jayakar founded the National Crafts Museum in 1956, and the Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) in 1984, to restore and manage monuments and advocate for heritage property conservation. She was a founder and trustee of the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA), established in 1985 and in 1990 founded the National Institute of Fashion Technology in New Delhi. She was awarded the Padma Bhushan, (India's third highest civilian honour) in 1967.
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R. Venkataraman
Ramaswamy Venkataraman (Tamil: இராமசுவாமி வெங்கட்ராமன் pronunciation (help·info), 4 December 1910 – 27 January 2009) was an Indian lawyer, Indian independence activist and politician who served as a Union minister and as the eighth President of India.
Venkataraman was born in Rajamadam village in Tanjore district, Madras Presidency. He studied law and practised in the Madras High Court and the Supreme Court of India. In his young age, he was an activist of the Indian independence movement and participated in the Quit India Movement. He was appointed member of the Constituent Assembly and the provisional cabinet. He was elected to Lok Sabha four times and served as Union Finance Minister and Defence Minister. In 1984, he was elected the seventh Vice-President of India and in 1987, he became the 8th President of India and served from 1987 to 1992. He also served as a State minister under K. Kamaraj and M. Bhaktavatsalam.
Venkataraman was born in Rajamadam village near in Pattukottai, near Tanjore district in Tamil Nadu. He had his school education in National College Higher Secondary School at Trichy.
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Rabindranath Tagore
Rabindranath Tagore (Bengali: রবীন্দ্রনাথ ঠাকুর; 7 May 1861 – 7 August 1941), sobriquet Gurudev, was a Bengali polymath who reshaped his region's literature and music. Author of Gitanjali and its "profoundly sensitive, fresh and beautiful verse", he became the first non-European to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913. In translation his poetry was viewed as spiritual and mercurial; his seemingly mesmeric personality, flowing hair, and other-worldly dress earned him a prophet-like reputation in the West. His "elegant prose and magical poetry" remain largely unknown outside Bengal. Tagore introduced new prose and verse forms and the use of colloquial language into Bengali literature, thereby freeing it from traditional models based on classical Sanskrit. He was highly influential in introducing the best of Indian culture to the West and vice versa, and he is generally regarded as the outstanding creative artist of modern India.
A Pirali Brahmin from Calcutta, Tagore wrote poetry as an eight-year-old. At age sixteen, he released his first substantial poems under the pseudonym Bhānusiṃha ("Sun Lion"), which were seized upon by literary authorities as long-lost classics. He graduated to his first short stories and dramas—and the aegis of his birth name—by 1877. As a humanist, universalist internationalist, and strident anti-nationalist he denounced the Raj and advocated independence from Britain. As an exponent of the Bengal Renaissance, he advanced a vast canon that comprised paintings, sketches and doodles, hundreds of texts, and some two thousand songs; his legacy endures also in the institution he founded, Visva-Bharati University.
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Raj Narain
Raj Narain (1917 – December 31, 1986) was an Indian politician who, as a candidate of Janata Party for the Lok Sabha in 1977, ran for office in Rae Bareli constituency and defeated Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India. He was the Minister of Health during Morarji Desai's ministry and a commemorative stamp was released in his honor by the former Vice President of India, Bhairon Singh Shekhawat. Raj Narain was the only politician who defeated Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India, in the 1977 Lok Sabha elections in Rai Bareli[citation needed]. (Although he was defeated by her in 1971 elections.) Raj Narain accused Indira Gandhi of election fraud and filed an election petition against her. The Allahabad High Court, on 12 June 1975, upheld the accusations and set aside the election of Indira Gandhi and also disqualified her from running in the Lok Sabha elections for next 6 years.
Raj Narain was born in 1917 in a Bhumihar Brahmin family in Uttar Pradesh and studied M.A and LLB. He was born in a village named Motikoat, Gangapur in Varanasi. He was from the Royal family of Varanasi and was directly associated with the family of Maharaja Chet Singh and Maharaja Balwant Singh, who were kings of Varanasi over a century back.
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Raja Ramanna
Raja Ramanna (January 28, 1925 - September 24, 2004), D.Phil., was an Indian nuclear scientist and a prominent physicist, is best known for his leadership directing the research integral for the development of Indian nuclear programme in its early stages. Having started and joined the nuclear programme in 1964, Ramanna worked under Homi Jehangir Bhabha, and later directed this program in 1967. Ramanna expanded and supervised the scientific research on nuclear weapons and was the first directing officer of the small team of scientists that supervised and carried out the test of the nuclear device, under a codename Smiling Buddha, in 1974.
Ramanna associated and directed the India's nuclear weapons for more than 4 decades, and also initiate industrial defense programmes for the Indian Armed Forces. Because of his directing role and leadership for the developing the Indian nuclear programme for 4 decades, Ramanna is often considered as the "Father of the Indian nuclear programme", and also was a recipient of highest Indian civil decorations for honoring his services to build the nuclear programme. Ramanna died in Mumbai in 2004 at the age of 79. As a physicist and scientist, Dr. Raja Ramanna received highly respected in both India and academic scientists from Pakistan, and remembered as a leading figure in the development of nuclear physics.
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Rajendra Prasad
Rajendra Prasad ( pronunciation (help·info); 3 December 1884 – 28 February 1963) was an Indian politician and educator. He was one of the architects of the Indian Republic, having drafted its first constitution and serving as the first president of independent India (26 January 1950 – 13 May 1962). Rajendra Prasad is the only president in India to have been elected twice for the post.
During the independence movement, he left his law work and joined the Congress Party, playing a prominent role in the Indian Independence Movement. He served as the president of the Constituent Assembly that drafted the first constitution of the Republic, which lasted from 1948 to 1950. He also became the first Minister of Food and Agriculture in the year 1946 in the Interim national Government.
Rajendra Prasad was born and brought up in Siwan, Bihar in East India. He was the youngest son of Mahavira Sahai, and born in a Kayastha family. He was known as "Rajen" to his family and friends. His father was a scholar of both the Persian and Sanskrit languages, while his mother, Kamleshwari Devi, was a religious woman.
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Rajiv Gandhi
Rajiv Ratna Gandhi /ˈrɑːdʒiːv ˈɡɑːndiː/ ( pronunciation (help·info); 20 August 1944 – 21 May 1991) was the sixth Prime Minister of India (1984–1989). He took office after his mother's assassination on 31 October 1984; he himself was assassinated on 21 May 1991. He became the youngest Prime Minister of India when he took office at the age of 40.
Rajiv Gandhi was the eldest son of Indira and Feroze Gandhi. He went to study at Trinity College, Cambridge, and later at Imperial College London, but did not complete a degree at either. At Cambridge he met the Italian-born Antonia Albina Maino, then a waitress in a restaurant, whom he later married. After dropping out of university, he became a professional pilot for Indian Airlines. He remained aloof from politics, despite his family's political prominence. It was only following the death of his younger brother Sanjay Gandhi in 1980 that Rajiv entered politics. Following the assassination of his mother in 1984 after Operation Blue Star, the Indian National Congress party leaders nominated him to be Prime Minister.
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Ramachandra Guha
Ramachandra Guha (born 29 April 1958) is an eminent Indian historian and writer whose research interests have included environmental, social, political and cricket history. He is also a columnist for the newspapers The Telegraph (syndicated in several Indian languages), and Hindustan Times. A regular contributor to various academic journals, Guha has written extensively for the magazine Outlook, where he masters over a classic genre of narrative non fiction.
Guha was born on 29 April 1958 at Dehra Dun, Uttarakhand where his father Ram Das Guha worked at the Forest Research Institute. Ramachandra Guha studied at The Doon School and St. Stephen's College, Delhi. He graduated in Economics with a BA in 1977 and then an MA from the Delhi School of Economics (University of Delhi). He then went to Indian Institute of Management Calcutta, where he did a Fellowship (equivalent to a Ph.D) on the social history of forestry in Uttaranchal, that focused on the Chipko movement. It was later published as The Unquiet Woods .
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Rammanohar Lohia
Rammanohar Lohia (b: March 23,1910- d: October 12, 1967) was an Indian freedom fighter and a socialist political leader.
Lohia was born in a village Akbarpur in Ambedkar Nagar district, Uttar Pradesh, in India to Hira Lal, a nationalist and Chanda,a teacher. He was born to Marwari Maheshwari family. His mother died when he was very young. Ram was introduced to the Indian Independence Movement at an early age by his father through the various protest assemblies Hira Lal took his son to. Ram made his first contribution to the freedom struggle by organizing a small hartal on the death of Lokmanya Tilak.
Hari Lal, an ardent follower of Mahatma Gandhi, took his son along on a meeting with the Mahatma. This meeting deeply influenced Lohia and sustained him during trying circumstances and helped seed his thoughts, actions and love for swaraj. Ram was so impressed by Gandhiji's spiritual power and radiant self-control that he pledged to follow the Mahatma's footsteps. He proved his allegiance to Gandhi, and more importantly to the movement as a whole, by joining a satyagraha march at the age of ten.
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Ravi Shankar
Ravi Shankar (Bengali: রবি শংকর; born Robindro Shaunkor Chowdhury on 7 April 1920), often referred to with the title Pandit, is an Indian musician and composer who plays the plucked string instrument sitar. He has been described as the most known contemporary Indian musician by Hans Neuhoff in Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart.
Shankar was born in Varanasi and spent his youth touring Europe and India with the dance group of his brother Uday Shankar. He gave up dancing in 1938 to study sitar playing under court musician Allauddin Khan. After finishing his studies in 1944, Shankar worked as a composer, creating the music for the Apu Trilogy by Satyajit Ray, and was music director of All India Radio, New Delhi, from 1949 to 1956.
In 1956, he began to tour Europe and America playing Indian classical music and increased its popularity there in the 1960s through teaching, performance, and his association with violinist Yehudi Menuhin and George Harrison of The Beatles. Shankar engaged Western music by writing concerti for sitar and orchestra and toured the world in the 1970s and 1980s. From 1986 to 1992 he served as a nominated member of the upper chamber of the Parliament of India. Shankar was awarded India's highest civilian honor, the Bharat Ratna, in 1999, and received three Grammy Awards. He continues to perform in the 2000s, often with his daughter Anoushka.
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Richard Nixon
Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was the 37th President of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974. The only president to resign the office, Nixon had previously served as a US representative and senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961.
Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California. After completing his undergraduate work at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937, and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife, Pat Nixon, moved to Washington to work for the federal government in 1942. He subsequently served in the United States Navy during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950. His pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the running mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president. He waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California in 1962. In 1968, he ran again for the presidency and was elected.
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S. Nijalingappa
Siddavanahalli Nijalingappa ( Kannada: ಸಿದ್ಧವನಹಳ್ಳಿ ನಿಜಲಿಂಗಪ್ಪ ) (December 10, 1902 – August 8, 2000, Chitradurga) was a senior Congress politician and the Chief Minister of Karnataka between 1956 and 1958 and once again, between 1962 and 1968. He played an important role in the Indian freedom movement as well as in the Karnataka Unification movement.
S. Nijalingappa was born on December 10th 1902 in a middle-class Hindu Lingayath Banajiga family in a small village called Siddavanahalli in Bellary district. He graduated in arts from the Central College, Bangalore, in 1924 and got his Law degree from the Law College, Poona in 1926.
Nijalingappa used to attend the Congress sessions as a spectator. It was in 1936, when he came into contact with Dr. N. S. Hardikar, that he began to take an active interest in the organization. He served it first as a volunteer, rising to be the President of the Pradesh Congress Committee and finally the President of the All India Congress Committee in 1968.
He became president of the Mysore Congress and was a member of the historic Constituent Assembly from 1946-1950 and also a member of Parliament from the Chitaldrug constituency (now Chitradurga) between 1952 to 1957. Nijalingappa served thrice as chief minister of Mysore and Karnataka and has been described as the ‘Maker of Modern Karnataka’. The state owes much to him for development of agricultural, irrigation, industrial and transport projects.After giving up active politics, he served as chairman, Sardar Valabhbai Patel Society.
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S. Srinivasa Iyengar
Seshadri Srinivasa Iyengar CIE (Tamil: சேஷாத்திரி ஸ்ரீநிவாச அய்யங்கார்) (11 September 1874 – 19 May 1941), also seen as Sreenivasa Iyengar and Srinivasa Ayyangar, was an Indian lawyer, freedom-fighter and politician from the Indian National Congress. Iyengar was the Advocate-General of Madras Presidency from 1916 to 1920. He also served as a member of the bar council from 1912 to 1920, the law member of Madras Presidency from 1916 to 1920 and as the president of the Swarajya Party faction of the Indian National Congress from 1923 to 1930. Srinivasa Iyengar was the son-in-law of renowned lawyer and first Indian Advocate-general of Madras, Sir Vembaukum Bhashyam Aiyangar. Iyengar's followers called him Lion of the South.
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Sardar Swaran Singh
Sardar Swaran Singh was an Indian politician. He was India's longest serving union cabinet minister.
Saradar Swaran Singh was born on 19th August 1907 in Shankar Village in Jallandhar District of Punjab. He was born into an agricultural family.
He completed his intermediate (High school) ar Rahdhir College in Kapurthala. He then joined Government College, Lahore and completed a degree in Physics with honors.
He then worked as a lecturer in Physics in Khalsa College, Lyallpur. After leaving this job he studied law in Government law college in Lahore and received his L.L.B in 1932.
He started a law practice near his birth village in the nearby town of Jallandhar - he specialised in criminal suits.
In 1930s he joined the Akali Dal political party and by the mid forties he was a prominent leader in the mid 1940s. He played an important role in the compromise between the Indian national congress party and the Akali Dal in the early 1940s.
Just before the 1946 elections, the panthic party was formed with Baldev Singh as the leader and Sardar Swaran Singh was elected its deputy leader. In 1946 he was elected a member of the Punjab legislative assembly. He then became parliamentary secretary to the Punjab Coalition government.
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Sarojini Naidu
Sarojini Naidu (née Chattopadhyaya; 13 February 1879 – 2 March 1949), also known by the sobriquet The Nightingale of India (Bharatiya Kokila), was a child prodigy, Indian independence activist and poet. Naidu was the second Indian woman to become the President of the Indian National Congress and the first woman to become the Governor of Uttar Pradesh state. Her birthday is celebrated as Women's Day in India.
Sarojini Chattopadhyay, later Naidu, belonged to a Bengali family of Kulin Brahmins. She was born in Hyderabad, India as the eldest daughter of scientist, philosopher, linguist and educator Aghornath Chattopadhyaya, and Barada Sundari Devi, a Bengali poetess. After receiving a doctor of science degree from Edinburgh University, her father settled in Hyderabad State, where he founded and administered the Hyderabad College, which later became the Nizam College in Hyderabad. Her father was a linguist and thinker, and the first member of Indian National Congress in Hyderabad. Her mother, Barada Sundari Devi, was a poetess baji and used to write poetry in Bengali.
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Satyajit Ray
Satyajit Ray ( Shottojit Rae (help·info); 2 May 1921 – 23 April 1992) was an Indian Bengali motion-picture director, writer, and illustrator who brought the Indian cinema to world recognition with Pather Panchali (1955; The Song of the Road) and its two sequels, known as the Apu Trilogy. As a director Ray was noted for his humanism, his versatility, and his detailed control over his films and their music. He was one of the greatest filmmakers of the 20th century. Ray was born in the city of Kolkata into a Bengali family prominent in the world of arts and literature. Starting his career as a commercial artist, Ray was drawn into independent filmmaking after meeting French filmmaker Jean Renoir and viewing the Italian neorealist film Bicycle Thieves of Vittorio De Sica during a visit to London.
Ray directed thirty-seven films, including feature films, documentaries and shorts. He was also a fiction writer, publisher, illustrator, graphic designer and film critic. Ray's first film, Pather Panchali (1955), won eleven international prizes, including Best Human Documentary at the Cannes film festival. This film, Aparajito (1956) and Apur Sansar (1959) form The Apu Trilogy. Ray did the scripting, casting, scoring, and editing, and designed his own credit titles and publicity material. Ray received many major awards in his career, including 32 Indian National Film Awards, a number of awards at international film festivals and award ceremonies, and an Academy Honorary Award in 1992. The Government of India honoured him with the Bharat Ratna in 1992.
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Shahbanu
Shahbanu (in Persian: شهبانو - Šahbānū) means Empress in Persian. It was a title that was only conferred on the third royal consort of Mohammad Reza Shah, Farah Pahlavi, in 1967.
She was the first Empress to be crowned in Iran since the Arab invasion in the 7th century. The two Sassanian Empresses, Purandokht and Azarmidokht, c. 630, were the last two that carried the title before Farah Diba.
The Sasanian title for Shahbanu was bâmbişnân bâmbişn, meaning the Queen of Queens, borne by the monarch's principal wife, to distinguish her from the other queens in the royal household.
Today, HIM Empress Farah is often accorded her title by courtesy, as other countries allow royals to use, informally, titles connected with abolished monarchies, but the title is no longer valid in Iran.
Per pre-revolutionary rules, Yasmine Pahlavi, Crown Princess of Iran, would currently hold this title.
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Shankar Dayal Sharma
Shankar Dayal Sharma pronunciation (help·info) (Hindi: शंकर दयाल शर्मा; 19 August 1918 - 26 December 1999) was the ninth President of India serving from 1992 to 1997. Prior to his presidency, Dr Sharma had been the eighth Vice President of India, serving under President Ramaswamy Venkataraman. He was also Chief Minister (1952–1956), and Cabinet Minister (1956–1967), holding the portfolios of Education, Law, Public Works, Industry and Commerce, National Resources and Separate Revenue. He was the President of the Indian National Congress in 1972-1974 and returned to government as Union Minister for Communications from 1974 to 1977.
The International Bar Association presented Dr. Sharma with the 'Living Legends of Law Award of Recognition' for his outstanding contribution to the legal profession internationally and for commitment to the rule of law.
Dr. Sharma was born in Bhopal, then the capital of the princely state of Bhopal.
Sharma comes from the city of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. Sharma received his education at St. John's College, Agra College, Punjab University and Lucknow University. He obtained his Ph.D. in Law from Fitzwilliam College. Sharma was awarded the Chakravarti Gold Medal for Social Service by Lucknow University. Dr. Sharma taught Law at Lucknow University and at Cambridge University. While at Cambridge, Dr. Sharma was Treasurer of the Tagore Society and the Cambridge Majlis. He taught law at Cambridge University from 1946 to 1947. He was Honored as “Proud Past Alumni" in the list of 42 members, from "Allahabad University Alumni Association", Ghaziabad.
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Sitaram Kesri
Sitaram Kesri was elected to the Lok Sabha from Kati har Lok Sabha Constituency (fourth) when he won on a janata party ticket and was given a last moment call by then Bihar Janata Party President S N Sinha; he represented Bihar in the Rajya Sabha several times: July 1971 to April 1974, April 1974 to April 1980, July 1980 to July 1986, April 1988 to April 1994, April 1994 to April 2000. He was Union Minister during the reigns of Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi and P.V. Narasimha Rao as Prime Minister of India.
Kesri also served as treasurer of the Congress party for more than a decade and he was considered by all to be very honest at his work.From September 1996 to March 1998. In addition, he was elected unanimously as the President of the Congress Parliamentary Party on 3 January 1997. For 16 years under 3 different Congress Presidents he was the treasurer.
After P.V. Narasimha Rao stepped down as president of Congress in September 1996, Kesri was appointed new President of the party. The following years were difficult for the Congress party. Kesri's lack of popular support among the masses caused further damage to the party. Kesri's most controversial act was the sudden withdrawal of support to H.D. Deve Gowda's United Front government that led to the fall of the government in April 1997. However compromise was reached and the UF elected I. K. Gujral as the new leader with continued support from the Congress party.In June 1997, he was duly elected President of the Congress party by defeating Sharad Pawar and Rajesh Pilot.
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Subhas Chandra Bose
Subhas Chandra Bose ( listen (help·info); January 1897 – 18 August 1945 [unconfirmed]) byname Netaji (Hindi: “Respected leader”) was an Indian revolutionary who led an Indian national force against the British colonizers (and therefore also against the allied Western powers) during World War II. Bose was one of the most prominent leaders in the Indian independence movement and is a legendary figure in India today.
He is presumed to have died "in absentia" on 18 August 1945 from injuries sustained in an alleged aircraft crash in Taihoku (Taipei). However, no actual evidence of the death of Subhas Chandra Bose on that day has ever been officially authenticated and many committees were set up by the government of India to investigate the mystery of his presumed death.
Bose advocated complete unconditional independence for India, whereas the All-India Congress Committee wanted it in phases, through Dominion status. Finally at the historic Lahore Congress convention, the Congress adopted Purna Swaraj (complete independence) as its motto. Gandhi was given rousing receptions wherever he went after Gandhi-Irwin pact. Subhas Chandra Bose, traveling with Gandhi in these travels, later wrote that the great enthusiasm he saw among the people enthused him tremendously and that he doubted if any other leader anywhere in the world received such a reception as Gandhi did during these travels across the country. He was imprisoned and expelled from India. Defying the ban, he came back to India and was imprisoned again.
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U. N. Dhebar
Uchharangrai Navalshankar Dhebar (1905–1977) was active in India's struggle for Independence, and later served as Chief Minister of Saurashtra, and President of the Indian National Congress. As a freedom fighter and right hand to Gandhiji, Dhebar is one of the keys to helping India gain Independence from the British in 1947. He was born on September 21, 1905 in the hamlet of Gangajala, eleven miles from Jamnagar in Gujarat. He belonged to the Nagar community. After his university education, he started a legal practice and from the very beginning gained a name as a reputable lawyer. Under the influence of Mahatma Gandhi he left his promising legal career in 1936 and devoted himself to national service and freedom fighting for the country he loved.
In 1941 Dhebar was selected by Gandhiji to offer Individual Satyagraha at Viramgam. He was arrested and sentenced to six months imprisonment. In 1942 he was again arrested during the Quit India Movement. On the attainment of independence, Dhebar played a prominent role in the merger of the States of Kathiawad in the Indian Union and then in the formation of the Kathiawad Union known as 'United State of Kathiawar'. He was appointed as Chief Minister of Saurashtra State in 1948. During his administration several reform were introduced in Saurashtra for the uplift of Villages.
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Uma Shankar Dikshit
Uma Shankar Dikshit was an Indian politician, cabinet minister and Governor of West Bengal and Governor of Karnataka.
He was awarded Padma Vibhushan, the second highest civilian award in India in 1989, by the Government of India.
Born in Ugoo in Unnao district of Uttar Pradesh state, to Ram Sarup and Shiv Pyari, he later studied at the Christ Church College, Kanpur.
Uma Shankar Dikshit started his political career when he joined the Indian freedom movement, during which he was imprisoned four times.
Post-Independence he remained close to Nehru and later sided Indira Gandhi during the 1969 split in Indian National Congress. He joined the Indira Gandhi cabinet in 1971, thereafter he remained Minister for Works and Housing, Govt. of India, 1971-72 later given additional charge of Health and Family Planning, Minister for Home Affairs, 1973–74 and Minister for Shipping and Transport, 1975. He also remained Treasurer, All India Congress Committee (AICC), 1970-75.
He remained the Governor of Karnataka, 1976–77 and Governor of West Bengal 1984-1986.
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V. P. Singh
Vishwanath Pratap Singh (25 June 1931 – 27 November 2008) was the seventh Prime Minister of India and the 41st Raja Bahadur of Manda.
He was born in the Rajput Gaharwar (Rathore) Royal Family of Manda to Raja Bhagwati Prasad Singh of Daiya and was later adopted by Raja Bahadur Ram Gopal Singh of Manda in 1936, whom he succeeded in 1941. V. P. Singh studied at Colonel Brown Cambridge School, Dehradun for five years, and entered local politics in Allahabad during the Nehru era. He married Rani Sita Kumari, born 1936 in Deogarh, Udaipur, daughter of Rawat Sangram Singh II of Deogarh on 25 June 1955. He soon made a name for himself in the state Congress Party for his unfailing rectitude, a reputation that he would carry with him throughout his career.
He was appointed by Indira Gandhi as the Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh in 1980, when the Congress came back to power after the Janata Party interregnum. As Chief Minister, he cracked down hard on the dacoity, or banditry, problem, that was particularly severe in the rural districts of the south-west. He received much favourable national publicity when he offered to resign following a self-professed failure to stamp out the problem, and again when he personally oversaw the surrender of some of the most feared dacoits of the area in 1983. However he is often accused of falsely accusing Rajeev Gandhi in Bofors case out of political rivalry based on caste based politics.His reservation policies are often described by polical analyst as only a way to divide congress"s socialist votebank consisting of Brahmin,Muslims,OBC on caste grounds and to hamper left ideology's spread in cow belt.He is often accused to wage caste based political vendetta on Brahmin leaders in UP like Harishankar Tiwari and supporting Rajput leaders like Virendra Pratap Shahi who was allegedly eliminated by another criminal Shriprakash Shukla.
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V. V. Giri
Varahagiri Venkata Giri pronunciation (help·info) (Telugu: వరాహగిరి వేంకట గిరి; 10 August 1894 – 23 June 1980), commonly known as V. V. Giri, was the fourth President of the Republic of India from 24 August 1969 to 23 August 1974.
He was born to Varahagiri Venkata Jogaiah, residing in Brahmapur(Berhampur) in the Ganjam district of the erstwhile Madras Presidency. The town and district are now part of the state of Orissa. His father was an eminent lawyer and migrated to Brahmapur from Chintalapalli village, now part of East Godavari District - Andhra Pradesh State.
In 1913, he went to University College Dublin to study law, but was expelled from Ireland in 1916 after becoming involved with the Sinn Féin movement.[citation needed]Involvement which brought him into close contact with Éamon de Valera, Michael Collins, Patrick Pearse, Desmond FitzGerald, Eoin MacNeill, James Connolly and others.[citation needed]
Upon returning to India, he became heavily involved in the labour movement, becoming general secretary and then president of the All-India Railwaymen's Federation and twice serving as president of the All-India Trade Union Congress.
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Ved Mehta
Ved Parkash Mehta (Born March 21, 1934) is a writer who was born in Lahore, British India (now a Pakistani city) to a Hindu family. He lost his sight at the age of four as the result of an attack of cerebrospinal meningitis. Because of the limited prospects for blind people in general, his father, a doctor, sent him over 1,300 miles away to the Dadar School for the Blind in Bombay.
He was educated at Pomona College, at Balliol College, Oxford where he read Modern History, and at Harvard University, where he earned a double BA and MA. While at Pomona, one of Mehta's student readers, because very few books were available in Braille at that time, was Eugene Rose, who went on to become the Russian Orthodox hieromonk Father Seraphim Rose. Mehta referred to him in two books, one of which was Stolen Light, his second book of memoirs: “I felt very lucky to have found Gene as a reader. ... He read with such clarity that I almost had the illusion that he was explaining things.”
Mehta has lived in the Western world since 1949; he became an American citizen in 1975. His first book, an autobiography called Face to Face, which placed his early life in the context of Indian politics and history and Anglo-Indian relations, was published in 1957. Since then he has written more than 24 books, including several that deal with the subject of blindness, as well as hundreds of articles and short stories, for British, Indian and American publications. He was a staff writer at The New Yorker from 1961 to 1994, during which time Spy magazine published a critical article about his misogynist attitude toward his assistants and writings that were frequently regarded as dull and self-indulgent. He left the magazine after, as he has claimed, he was "terminated" by editor Tina Brown.
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Vinoba Bhave
Vinoba Bhave (Marathi: विनोबा भावे),Vinayak Narahari Bhave (September 11, 1895 - November 15, 1982) often called Acharya (Sanskrit for teacher), was an Indian advocate of nonviolence and human rights. He is best known for the Bhoodan Andolan. He is considered as a National Teacher of India and the spiritual successor of Mahatma Gandhi.
He was born in Gagode village in Colaba (now Raigad District of Mumbai State, Maharashtra) on September 11, 1895 into a pious family of the Chitpavan Brahmin clan. He was brought-up in Baroda. He was highly inspired after reading the Bhagavad Gita, Mahabharat, Ramayan at a very early age. His father, Naraharishumbhurao Bhave was a devout Hindu and his mother, Rukmini Devi who died in 1918, was a great influence on him. In his memoir, Bhave states that, "there is nothing to equal the part my mother played in shaping my mind". Specifically, her devotion and spirituality.
His two brothers, Balkoba Bhave and Shivaji Bhave, were also bachelors devoted to social work.
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Visvesvaraya
Sir Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya(Telugu: మోక్షగుండం విశ్వేశ్వరయ్య) (Kannada: ಮೋಕ್ಷಗುಂಡಂ ವಿಶ್ವೇಶ್ವರಯ್ಯ , KCIE, popularly known as Sir MV; 15 September 1861 – 14 April 1962) was a notable Indian engineer, scholar, statesman and the Diwan of Mysore during 1912 to 1918. He was a recipient of the Indian Republic's highest honour, the Bharat Ratna, in 1955. He was knighted as a Commander of the British Indian Empire by King George V for his myriad contributions to the public good. Every year, 15 September is celebrated as Engineer's Day in India in his memory. He is held in high regard pre-eminent engineer of India. He was the chief designer of the flood protection system for the city of Hyderabad, as well as the chief engineer responsible for the construction of the Krishna Raja Sagara dam in Mysore.
Visvesvaraya was born in 1860, in the Kingdom of Mysore, to a Telugu Brahmin family of Mokshagundam Srinivasa Sastry and Venkatalakshmamma in present day Muddenahalli village, 40 miles from Bangalore, India. Visvesvaraya lost his father at the age of 15. He enrolled for primary school in Chikballapur, and attended high school in Bangalore. He earned his Bachelor of Arts from Madras University in 1881 and later studied civil engineering at the prestigious College of Engineering, Pune, popularly known as COEP.
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Yashwantrao Chavan
Yashwantrao Balwantrao Chavan (12 March 1913 - 25 November 1984) was the first Chief Minister of Maharashtra after the division of Bombay State and the fifth Deputy Prime Minister of India. He was a strong Congress leader, Cooperative leader, social activist and writer. He was popularly known as Leader of Common People. He advocated socialist democracy in his speeches and articles and was instrumental in establishing co-operatives in Maharashtra for the betterment of the farmers.
Yashwantrao Chavan was born in a peasant family on 12 March 1913 in the village of Devrashtre in Satara District (now in Sangli District) of Maharashtra, India. He lost his father in his early childhood and was brought up by his uncle and mother. His mother taught him about self-dependency and patriotism. From his childhood he was fascinated by the freedom struggle of India. Despite the adverse family situation.
Chavan was an active participant in the struggle for independence of India. In 1930, he was fined for his participation in the Non-cooperation Movement led by Mahatma Gandhi.During this period he came in contact with Swami Ramanand Bharti,Dhulappa Navale,Gaurihar(Appasaheb) Sihasane & V.S.Page.There friendship lasted forever. In 1932, he was sentenced to 18 months in prison for hoisting the Indian flag in Satara.
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Zail Singh
Giani Zail Singh pronunciation (help·info) (Punjabi: ਜ਼ੈਲ ਸਿੰਘ, Hindi: जैल सिंह; May 5, 1916 – December 25, 1994) was an Indian politician and member of the Congress Party. He served as the seventh President of India. His term was marked by Operation Blue Star, the assassination of Indira Gandhi, and the 1984 anti-Sikh riots. He died of injuries in 1994 after a car accident.
He was born in Sandhwan, Faridkot district on May 5, 1916 to Kishan Singh. He was a Sikh by religion, was given the title of Giani, as he was educated and learned about Guru Granth Sahib at Shaheed Sikh Missionary College in Amritsar. However, he did not have formal secular education.
In 1947, with the reorganization of India along secular lines an, he opposed Harindar Singh, ruler of Faridkot State and was incarcerated and tortured for five years. He was called on to be the Revenue Minister of the recently formed Patiala and East Punjab States Union, under Chief Minister Gian Singh Rarewala in 1949 and later became Minister of Agriculture in 1951. From 1956 to 1962, he was a member of the Rajya Sabha.
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Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (Urdu: ذوالفقار علی بھٹو, Sindhi: ذوالفقار علي ڀُٽو, IPA: [zʊlfɪqɑːɾ ɑli bʱʊʈːoː]) (5 January 1928 – 4 April 1979) was 9th Prime Minister of Pakistan from 1973 to 1977, and prior to that, 4th President of Pakistan from 1971 to 1973. Bhutto was the founder of the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) and served as its chairman until his execution in 1979. His elder daughter, Benazir Bhutto, later also served as Prime Minister, while his son Murtaza Bhutto served as member of Parliament of Pakistan.
Educated at the University of Southern California and University of California, Berkeley in the United States and the University of Oxford in the United Kingdom, Bhutto was noted for his progressive economic initiatives, industrialisation, education, and foreign policy, and his intellectualism. In addition to national security issues, Bhutto promoted his policies on nationalisation, health care, and social reforms. Under his premiership, Pakistan's Parliament gave approval and passed unanimously the 1973 Constitution of Pakistan, a supreme law that provides a parliamentary system to Pakistan, strengthened Sino-Pakistani and Saudi-Pakistani relations, recognised East-Pakistan as Bangladesh, and hosted the second Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC) in 1974 where he delegated and invited leaders from the Muslim world to Lahore, Punjab Province of Pakistan. In July 1972, Bhutto successfully proceeded the Shimla treaty, signed with Indira Gandhi of India, brought 93,000 Prisoners of War back to Pakistan, and secured 5,000 sq mi (13,000 km2) held by India. In 20 January 1972, weeks after the Indo-Pakistani 1971 winter war, Bhutto orchestrated, authorised, and administrated the scientific research on nuclear weapons; for this, he is colloquially known in the world as "Father of the Pakistan's nuclear deterrent programme".
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Gandhi, Indira Filmography
- Fire in the Blood (2012)
- 2012: Time for Change (2010)
- The History of Indian Politics (2009)
- Indira Gandhi: The Death of Mother India (2004)
- In den Katakomben des Pergamonmuseums - Das Jahrhundertprojekt Museumsinsel (2003)
- The Korean War: Fire and Ice (1999)
- Dynasty: The Nehru-Gandhi Story (1998)
- Cronkite Remembers (1997)
- Assassinations That Changed the World (1996)
- India's Rajiv (1991)
- Saddam Hussein: Defying the World - A Visual Biography (1990)
- Homage to Lal Bahadur Shastri (1990)
- Commando (1988)
- Jumbish: A Movement - The Movie (1986)
- The Gandhis of India (1985)
- Lover Boy (1985)
- IX Asian Games: New Delhi 1982 (1982)
- The World of Buckminster Fuller (1974)
- Grierson (1973)
- Lord Mountbatten: A Man for the Century (1968)
- Jacqueline Kennedy's Asian Journey (1962)
Famous quotes by Indira Gandhi:
"You must learn to be still in the midst of activity and to be vibrantly alive in repose."
"Anger is never without an argument, but seldom with a good one."
"I suppose leadership at one time meant muscles; but today it means getting along with people"
"There is not love where there is no will."
"You cannot shake hands with a clenched fist."
"Where there is love there is life."
"People tend to forget their duties but remember their rights."
"My grandfather once told me that there are two kinds of people: those who work and those who take the credit. He told me to try to be in the first group; there was less competition there."
"Forgiveness is a virtue of the brave."
"The power to question is the basis of all human progress."
"You must learn to be still in the midst of activity and to be vibrantly alive in repose."
"Anger is never without an argument, but seldom with a good one."
"I suppose leadership at one time meant muscles; but today it means getting along with people"
"There is not love where there is no will."
"You cannot shake hands with a clenched fist."
"Where there is love there is life."
"People tend to forget their duties but remember their rights."
"My grandfather once told me that there are two kinds of people: those who work and those who take the credit. He told me to try to be in the first group; there was less competition there."
"Forgiveness is a virtue of the brave."
"The power to question is the basis of all human progress."
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Was Indira Gandhi India's most controversial PM?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 20:12
- Updated: 18 Dec 2012
On her 27th death anniversary, CNN-IBN assesses the political career and legacy of Indira Gandhi.
http://wn.com/Was_Indira_Gandhi_India's_most_controversial_PM?
On her 27th death anniversary, CNN-IBN assesses the political career and legacy of Indira Gandhi.
Indira Gandhi Interview 1971
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:15
- Updated: 19 Dec 2012
http://wn.com/Indira_Gandhi_Interview_1971
Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi on Kashmir
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:41
- Updated: 12 Dec 2012
Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi visits the UK. She is seen with Prime Minister Harold Wilson and answers questions on the Kashmir dispute. Date: 02/04/1966
http://wn.com/Indian_Prime_Minister_Indira_Gandhi_on_Kashmir
Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi visits the UK. She is seen with Prime Minister Harold Wilson and answers questions on the Kashmir dispute. Date: 02/04/1966
- published: 03 Nov 2011
- views: 19507
- author: hijazna
Interview with Indira Gandhi by Chris Panos
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 30:16
- Updated: 18 Dec 2012
India, Are you a Communist, She said, No... More Secrets
http://wn.com/Interview_with_Indira_Gandhi_by_Chris_Panos
India, Are you a Communist, She said, No... More Secrets
- published: 24 Jan 2012
- views: 4262
- author: ChrisPanosSr
Indira Gandhi
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:09
- Updated: 17 Nov 2012
A BBC interview with Indian Prime Minister Indira gandhi. (Courtesy of jonmojuddho.org)
http://wn.com/Indira_Gandhi
A BBC interview with Indian Prime Minister Indira gandhi. (Courtesy of jonmojuddho.org)
- published: 14 Feb 2008
- views: 57505
- author: Baundulle
I owe Indira Gandhi everything, she was my mentor: Pranab to NDTV
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:35
- Updated: 28 Nov 2012
Pranab Mukherjee, from Birbhum to Raisina Hill: In an interview to NDTV, the man who's almost certain to be the next President of India says he has no regrets about not being picked earlier as Prime Minister by his party. Mr Mukherjee says he appeals to estranged ally Mamata Banerjee again to support him, and that he will meet her if the occasion demands when he goes to Bengal as part of his campaign. Mr Mukherjee says he owes everything to Indira Gandhi, who he describes as his mentor. He also says that he believes the Congress must create and promote younger leaders, which is why he had decided to retire from active politics in 2014. Watch full show: www.ndtv.com
http://wn.com/I_owe_Indira_Gandhi_everything,_she_was_my_mentor_Pranab_to_NDTV
Pranab Mukherjee, from Birbhum to Raisina Hill: In an interview to NDTV, the man who's almost certain to be the next President of India says he has no regrets about not being picked earlier as Prime Minister by his party. Mr Mukherjee says he appeals to estranged ally Mamata Banerjee again to support him, and that he will meet her if the occasion demands when he goes to Bengal as part of his campaign. Mr Mukherjee says he owes everything to Indira Gandhi, who he describes as his mentor. He also says that he believes the Congress must create and promote younger leaders, which is why he had decided to retire from active politics in 2014. Watch full show: www.ndtv.com
- published: 30 Jun 2012
- views: 814
- author: ndtv
NIXON TAPES: Women "tougher than men" & TV show
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:29
- Updated: 20 Nov 2012
Reporter John Chancellor December 24, 1971 017-011 White House Telephone President Richard Nixon calls John Chancellor of NBC to thank him for his "Day in the Life of the President" TV show. They also discuss the India-Pakistan conflict and problems in the Middle East. Nixon specifically talks about women as leaders (including people like Indira Gandhi and Golda Meir). (Photo: Leader of India Indira Gandhi and President Richard Nixon, November 1971.)
http://wn.com/NIXON_TAPES_Women_tougher_than_men_TV_show
Reporter John Chancellor December 24, 1971 017-011 White House Telephone President Richard Nixon calls John Chancellor of NBC to thank him for his "Day in the Life of the President" TV show. They also discuss the India-Pakistan conflict and problems in the Middle East. Nixon specifically talks about women as leaders (including people like Indira Gandhi and Golda Meir). (Photo: Leader of India Indira Gandhi and President Richard Nixon, November 1971.)
- published: 13 Aug 2008
- views: 85910
- author: rmm413c
Indira Gandhi assassination: The mystery of 31st bullet
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 20:25
- Updated: 14 Nov 2012
Indira Gandhi assassination: The mystery of 31st bullet For more content go to www.indiatvnews.com Follow us on facebook at www.facebook.com Follow us on twitter at twitter.com
http://wn.com/Indira_Gandhi_assassination_The_mystery_of_31st_bullet
Indira Gandhi assassination: The mystery of 31st bullet For more content go to www.indiatvnews.com Follow us on facebook at www.facebook.com Follow us on twitter at twitter.com
- published: 31 Oct 2012
- views: 1322
- author: IndiaTV
Exclusive: The other side of Indira Gandhi
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 15:21
- Updated: 22 Nov 2012
Watch India TV special coverage on untold story about Indira Gandhi's private life.
http://wn.com/Exclusive_The_other_side_of_Indira_Gandhi
Watch India TV special coverage on untold story about Indira Gandhi's private life.
- published: 04 Sep 2012
- views: 2577
- author: IndiaTV
Indira Priyadarshini (HIndi) Part 01
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:42
- Updated: 01 Dec 2012
Indira Priyadarshini Nehru, the only child of Jawaharlal and Kamala Nehru, was born in Allahabad, in Ananda Bhavan, on 19 November 1917. Her grandfather, Motilal Nehru, named her Indira after his own mother. She was one of the most important historical personalities of modern India, whose ideas and activities profoundly affected different spheres of public life and politics in India, and left an imprint on world affairs. She was the first and only woman Prime Minister of India. In 1923, she was admitted to St. Cicilias, a private school in Allahabad. In March 1926, she accompanied her parents to Switzerland and studied there at I'Ecole Nouvelle. In December, 1927, she returned to India and joined St. Mary's Convent in Allahabad. As a teenager, she began to take active part in the freedom struggle.
http://wn.com/Indira_Priyadarshini_HIndi_Part_01
Indira Priyadarshini Nehru, the only child of Jawaharlal and Kamala Nehru, was born in Allahabad, in Ananda Bhavan, on 19 November 1917. Her grandfather, Motilal Nehru, named her Indira after his own mother. She was one of the most important historical personalities of modern India, whose ideas and activities profoundly affected different spheres of public life and politics in India, and left an imprint on world affairs. She was the first and only woman Prime Minister of India. In 1923, she was admitted to St. Cicilias, a private school in Allahabad. In March 1926, she accompanied her parents to Switzerland and studied there at I'Ecole Nouvelle. In December, 1927, she returned to India and joined St. Mary's Convent in Allahabad. As a teenager, she began to take active part in the freedom struggle.
- published: 22 Oct 2009
- views: 6942
- author: Pressbrief In
Political Terrorist - Indira Gandhi khan ( Memuna Begum)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:52
- Updated: 13 Dec 2012
Indira Gandhi was a biggest political terrorist. She imposed Emergency on citizens of India when she was found guilty of election fraud. She also attacked Golden Temple in Bluestar Operation in pretext of Bhindranwale who was her own creation. She killed thousands of Sikhs in the name of killing Bhindranwala. She was the reason behind separatist khalistani movement .
http://wn.com/Political_Terrorist_Indira_Gandhi_khan_Memuna_Begum
Indira Gandhi was a biggest political terrorist. She imposed Emergency on citizens of India when she was found guilty of election fraud. She also attacked Golden Temple in Bluestar Operation in pretext of Bhindranwale who was her own creation. She killed thousands of Sikhs in the name of killing Bhindranwala. She was the reason behind separatist khalistani movement .
- published: 09 Aug 2010
- views: 146141
- author: IndiraFromHell
The Real 'Indira GANDHI' :: 1/5 :: INDIA and INDIRA :: 25 Years After A PM's Assassination
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:08
- Updated: 30 Oct 2012
A special show 25 years after the assassination of India's only woman PM. What Made, Indira Gandhi, Larger Than Life !? Watch !!! ======= Continuables :: "Sikh body declares Indira's assassins martyrs" :: ibnlive.in.com "Indira's assassins glorified at Canadian Baisakhi parade" :: ibnlive.in.com "India and Indira: 25 years after a PM's assassination" :: ibnlive.in.com "Indira introduced dynasty politics system :: Ram Guha" :: ibnlive.in.com
http://wn.com/The_Real_'Indira_GANDHI'_1_5_INDIA_and_INDIRA_25_Years_After_A_PM's_Assassination
A special show 25 years after the assassination of India's only woman PM. What Made, Indira Gandhi, Larger Than Life !? Watch !!! ======= Continuables :: "Sikh body declares Indira's assassins martyrs" :: ibnlive.in.com "Indira's assassins glorified at Canadian Baisakhi parade" :: ibnlive.in.com "India and Indira: 25 years after a PM's assassination" :: ibnlive.in.com "Indira introduced dynasty politics system :: Ram Guha" :: ibnlive.in.com
- published: 31 Oct 2009
- views: 34616
- author: 1gazebo
Papan Indira Gandhi
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:09
- Updated: 16 Dec 2012
it is a video about papan indira gandhi who had attacked on the Golden Temple
http://wn.com/Papan_Indira_Gandhi
it is a video about papan indira gandhi who had attacked on the Golden Temple
- published: 13 Mar 2008
- views: 99973
- author: NAVDEEP SINGH
Indira Gandhi interview on India Pakistan War in 1971
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:16
- Updated: 18 Dec 2012
How to Win Friends and Influence People For PArt 1 :- www.youtube.com Earn Money from Home by Inviting Friends 1000$ Weekly, by just invite 10 friends daily referraltask.com former prime minister mrs. indra gandhi interview on india-pakistan war in 1971
http://wn.com/Indira_Gandhi_interview_on_India_Pakistan_War_in_1971
How to Win Friends and Influence People For PArt 1 :- www.youtube.com Earn Money from Home by Inviting Friends 1000$ Weekly, by just invite 10 friends daily referraltask.com former prime minister mrs. indra gandhi interview on india-pakistan war in 1971
- published: 04 Mar 2012
- views: 16384
- author: anoonbasil
Indira Gandhi Quotes
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:00
- Updated: 28 Jun 2012
A good collection of Quotes by Indira Gandhi , former Prime Minister of India. Read more Indira Gandhi Quotes at thequotes.net
http://wn.com/Indira_Gandhi_Quotes
A good collection of Quotes by Indira Gandhi , former Prime Minister of India. Read more Indira Gandhi Quotes at thequotes.net
- published: 27 Jun 2012
- views: 255
- author: Rajamanickam Antonimuthu
Indira Gandhi's impact on world administration, explained by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:08
- Updated: 06 Feb 2012
www.tm.org Indira Gandhi's impact on world administration, explained by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi Reporter Maharishi, first, I think everyone would be interested in what your views are on the worlds' situation, as it is today? Maharishi: The world's situation is better than before, one thing; and it's going to be better, day by day, because more and more people are responding to this technology of the Unified Field. So the world has a brighter future, day by day. Reporter: I was wondering if you had any comment on some of the recent events? Last night you touched very briefly on the Indira Gandhi event in India. Do you have any more comments or reflections on that event? Can you explain.... Maharishi: The reflection on Indira Gandhi's last moments are very serious for the world, I would say. And the main thing that I was saying was, that her last moments have thrown a big challenge to the statesman of the world; the challenge to find a system of administration which will satisfy everyone. As long as all the people in the country are not satisfied, such unfortunate events are bound to continue. It's the dissatisfaction of the people which is responsible for such events in the world. Now, the question whether at all it is possible to satisfy everyone? And I have a big yes for it.
http://wn.com/Indira_Gandhi's_impact_on_world_administration,_explained_by_Maharishi_Mahesh_Yogi
www.tm.org Indira Gandhi's impact on world administration, explained by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi Reporter Maharishi, first, I think everyone would be interested in what your views are on the worlds' situation, as it is today? Maharishi: The world's situation is better than before, one thing; and it's going to be better, day by day, because more and more people are responding to this technology of the Unified Field. So the world has a brighter future, day by day. Reporter: I was wondering if you had any comment on some of the recent events? Last night you touched very briefly on the Indira Gandhi event in India. Do you have any more comments or reflections on that event? Can you explain.... Maharishi: The reflection on Indira Gandhi's last moments are very serious for the world, I would say. And the main thing that I was saying was, that her last moments have thrown a big challenge to the statesman of the world; the challenge to find a system of administration which will satisfy everyone. As long as all the people in the country are not satisfied, such unfortunate events are bound to continue. It's the dissatisfaction of the people which is responsible for such events in the world. Now, the question whether at all it is possible to satisfy everyone? And I have a big yes for it.
- published: 28 Dec 2009
- views: 4879
- author: maharishichannel
Delhi Indira Gandhi International Airport Terminal 3
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:28
- Updated: 15 Dec 2012
The new Terminal 3 at Indira Gandhi International Airport (IATA: DEL ICAO: VIDP) in Delhi, India. Filmed with Sony Handycam HDR-CX150.
http://wn.com/Delhi_Indira_Gandhi_International_Airport_Terminal_3
The new Terminal 3 at Indira Gandhi International Airport (IATA: DEL ICAO: VIDP) in Delhi, India. Filmed with Sony Handycam HDR-CX150.
- published: 29 Dec 2011
- views: 8597
- author: Jaspreet Singh
The Real 'Indira GANDHI' :: 2/5 :: INDIA and INDIRA :: 25 Years After A PM's Assassination
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:53
- Updated: 18 Dec 2012
A special show 25 years after the assassination of India's only woman PM. What Made, Indira Gandhi, Larger Than Life !? Watch !!! ======= Continuables :: "Sikh body declares Indira's assassins martyrs" :: ibnlive.in.com "Indira's assassins glorified at Canadian Baisakhi parade" :: ibnlive.in.com "India and Indira: 25 years after a PM's assassination" :: ibnlive.in.com "Indira introduced dynasty politics system :: Ram Guha" :: ibnlive.in.com
http://wn.com/The_Real_'Indira_GANDHI'_2_5_INDIA_and_INDIRA_25_Years_After_A_PM's_Assassination
A special show 25 years after the assassination of India's only woman PM. What Made, Indira Gandhi, Larger Than Life !? Watch !!! ======= Continuables :: "Sikh body declares Indira's assassins martyrs" :: ibnlive.in.com "Indira's assassins glorified at Canadian Baisakhi parade" :: ibnlive.in.com "India and Indira: 25 years after a PM's assassination" :: ibnlive.in.com "Indira introduced dynasty politics system :: Ram Guha" :: ibnlive.in.com
- published: 31 Oct 2009
- views: 324607
- author: 1gazebo
Rakesh Sharma's Message from Space to Indira Gandhi
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:27
- Updated: 14 Dec 2012
In a famous conversation, he was asked by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi how India looked from the space and he replied, Saare Jahan Se Achcha, (better than the whole world). Rakesh Sharma the first Indian to travel in space. The fellowship of Dignified Indians. Join us on facebook: www.facebook.com
http://wn.com/Rakesh_Sharma's_Message_from_Space_to_Indira_Gandhi
In a famous conversation, he was asked by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi how India looked from the space and he replied, Saare Jahan Se Achcha, (better than the whole world). Rakesh Sharma the first Indian to travel in space. The fellowship of Dignified Indians. Join us on facebook: www.facebook.com
- published: 05 May 2010
- views: 60791
- author: DignifiedIndians
News Coverage Of Indira Gandhi Assassination In 1984
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:54
- Updated: 15 Dec 2012
Indira Gandhi, who orchestrated emergency rule in India and Punjab ordered the storming and attack on Amritsar in June 1984. Months later she was assassinated. This video contains BBC News coverage of the time.
http://wn.com/News_Coverage_Of_Indira_Gandhi_Assassination_In_1984
Indira Gandhi, who orchestrated emergency rule in India and Punjab ordered the storming and attack on Amritsar in June 1984. Months later she was assassinated. This video contains BBC News coverage of the time.
- published: 31 Oct 2012
- views: 1662
- author: DotHyphenProductions
Prem Rawat Maharaji at Indira Gandhi Stadium: Delhi Part1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:01
- Updated: 09 Oct 2012
theypi.net Prem Rawat Maharaji at Indira Gandhi Stadium Delhi,India P1 - Hindi Prem Rawat, known also by the honorary title Maharaji, has traveled the world for four decades, inspiring people to find peace within.
http://wn.com/Prem_Rawat_Maharaji_at_Indira_Gandhi_Stadium_Delhi_Part1
theypi.net Prem Rawat Maharaji at Indira Gandhi Stadium Delhi,India P1 - Hindi Prem Rawat, known also by the honorary title Maharaji, has traveled the world for four decades, inspiring people to find peace within.
- published: 06 May 2008
- views: 11172
- author: veryvishal
2011 May 23 - Arriving at Indira Gandhi International Airport, New Delhi
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 12:36
- Updated: 07 Dec 2012
www.zephyrinthesky.com
http://wn.com/2011_May_23_Arriving_at_Indira_Gandhi_International_Airport,_New_Delhi
Prem Rawat Maharaji at Indira Gandhi Stadium: Delhi Part2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:41
- Updated: 02 Dec 2012
theypi.net Prem Rawat Maharaji at Indira Gandhi Stadium Delhi,India. Prem Rawat, known also by the honorary title Maharaji, has travelled the world for four decades, inspiring people to find peace within.
http://wn.com/Prem_Rawat_Maharaji_at_Indira_Gandhi_Stadium_Delhi_Part2
theypi.net Prem Rawat Maharaji at Indira Gandhi Stadium Delhi,India. Prem Rawat, known also by the honorary title Maharaji, has travelled the world for four decades, inspiring people to find peace within.
- published: 06 May 2008
- views: 5434
- author: veryvishal
photo: AP / Jason DeCrow
16 Dec 2012
NEWTOWN, Conn. — The gunman in the Connecticut shooting rampage committed suicide as first responders closed in, the governor said Sunday, raising the specter that Adam Lanza had planned an even more gruesome massacre and was stopped short. Lanza blasted his way into the building and used a high-power rifle to kill 20 children and six adults, including the principal who tried to stop him, authorities said ... Among the questions ... H ... The Rev....(size: 8.8Kb)
photo: AP / Charles Krupa
18 Dec 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. "Most people reason dramatically, not quantitatively." -Oliver Wendell Holmes. On the same day that a 20-year-old, described as brilliant but remote, walked into an elementary school in Connecticut and massacred 26 children and adults, the school where I teach went on "lock-down." Four students with a handgun were arrested ... That morning before school, he had posted on Twitter and Facebook....(size: 14.0Kb)
photo: AP / Jason DeCrow
18 Dec 2012
An increasing number of US congressmen have called for a national dialogue about measures to curb gun violence following the shooting last week at a primary school in Connecticut that killed 26 people, including 20 children and six adults. White House officials have said that President Barack Obama would make preventing gun-related violence a priority in his second term in office and stricter laws would be part of the effort. ... ....(size: 19.2Kb)
photo: AP / Manu Brabo
18 Dec 2012
The UN's humanitarian chief has called on Syria to urgently allow fuel imports for aid deliveries and give access to 10 more aid agencies. Valerie Amos met government officials in the capital, Damascus, to discuss the growing humanitarian crisis. UN workers also needed to freely move into opposition-controlled areas to step up their aid efforts, she said ... 'Greater rebel contact' ... The claim could not be independently verified ... ....(size: 2.6Kb)
photo: AP / Khalil Hamra
16 Dec 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. "Fundamentalism is good for protest, good for revolution, and good for war, but not so good for development.". After a century of being persecuted and driven underground, mainly for their vibrant nationalism and their anti-imperialist and pro-Palestinian views, Egypt's Islamist Muslim Brotherhood has finally taken center-state ... Such actions will have to be avoided....(size: 6.9Kb)
Newstrack India
19 Dec 2012
New Delhi, Dec 19 (IANS) Deepa Mehta has received flak for showing former prime minister Indira Gandhi in "poor light" as well as for using the country's map without Jammu and Kashmir in "Midnight's Children" ... Balakrishna Pillai had said the movie shouldn't have been shown in a Congress-ruled state as it shows Indira Gandhi "in poor light"....(size: 2.9Kb)
Newstrack India
19 Dec 2012
The women parliamentarians stood in front of Father of the Nation Mahatma Gandhi's statue here holding banners in their hands ... UPA chairperson Sonia Gandhi, who has taken a serious note of the Sunday night's gang-rape in Delhi, has written strong-worded letters to Union Home Minister Sushil Kumar Shinde and Delhi Chief Minister Sheila Dikshit ... Indira Gandhi . Rajiv Gandhi . Sonia Gandhi . Gandhi Nagar ... Gandhi Smarak Nidhi ... Gandhi Bazar ....(size: 4.1Kb)
The Hindu
19 Dec 2012
Call sign VU2RG is remembered by senior Indian hams, because it belonged to Rajiv Gandhi ... “Rajiv Gandhi received his ham licence in 1975 ... “Rajiv Gandhi asked a simple but incisive question ... (Incidentally, the age for issue of ham licence was later reduced from 14 to 12.) Then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, also thought this system of communication would work wonders for the nation....(size: 3.3Kb)
Zeenews
19 Dec 2012
The Times of India
19 Dec 2012
Newstrack India
19 Dec 2012
New Delhi, Dec 19 (IANS) The Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) Wednesday said that it would soon be signing a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with a Pakistani university to increase cooperation in education between the two nations ......(size: 1.8Kb)
The Times of India
19 Dec 2012
The Indira Gandhi National Open University (Ignou) and Pakistan's Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU) have decided to constitute a task force of faculty members from both the universities in order to map out a comprehensive scheme of collaboration between them, so that a ......(size: 1.4Kb)
Newstrack India
18 Dec 2012
A 76-year-old woman from Kangra district died Monday evening in the Indira Gandhi Medical College and Hospital (IGMCH) here, a health official told IANS ... Indira Gandhi ... Gandhi Medical College ... ) .. ). ... . . . . . .. . . .. ....(size: 2.1Kb)
The Times of India
18 Dec 2012
NAGPUR. In an effort to keep the pressure on the government, Shiv Sena MLC Deepak Sawant from Mumbai, like every year, visited Indira Gandhi Government Medical College (IGGMC) on Wednesday to take stock of progress of developmental work in college since last winter session ... The building will house anatomy lecture hall, library, and women's hostel ... Sawant was also upset on the issue of the implementation of Rajiv Gandhi Jeevandayi Yojna....(size: 2.2Kb)
The Times of India
18 Dec 2012
NEW DELHI ... This year's star attraction would be GM Radoslaw Wojtaszek of Poland ... The winner will take home the purse of Rs 4 lakh. The championship will be declared open on Wednesday evening at the Indira Gandhi Indoor Stadium ... ....(size: 1.3Kb)
The Times of India
18 Dec 2012
... in hospitality and hotel administration program will be conducted on April 27, 2013.The course is offered jointly by the National Council for Hotel Management & Catering Technology (NCHMCT), Union Ministry of Tourism and Indira Gandhi National Open University....(size: 1.3Kb)
Newstrack India
18 Dec 2012
Tweet. The All India Joint Entrance Examination (JEE) for admissions to B.Sc. in Hospitality and Hotel Administration program will be conducted on April 27, 2013. Apply online for Hotel Management Joint Entrance Exam ... of India and Indira Gandhi National Open University ... (Source PIB) ... ) .. ). ... . . . . . .. . . .. ....(size: 2.2Kb)
Deccan Herald
18 Dec 2012
He had stolen a cellphone and a laptop from his co-passengers. A businessman claiming to be a Jawaharlal Nehru University student was arrested at Bengaluru International Airport (BIA) for stealing valuables of passengers at Indira Gandhi International Airport, the CISF said on Tuesday. Raquib Ahmed Dar (30), a former JNU student and a resident of Lal Chawk in Srinagar, was held after two theft cases were reported on Monday ... ....(size: 2.1Kb)
| Indira Gandhi इंदिरा गांधी |
|
|---|---|
 |
|
| 3rd Prime Minister of India | |
| In office 14 January 1980 – 31 October 1984 |
|
| President | Neelam Sanjiva Reddy Zail Singh |
| Preceded by | Charan Singh |
| Succeeded by | Rajiv Gandhi |
| In office 24 January 1966 – 24 March 1977 |
|
| President | Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan Zakir Hussain Varahagiri Venkata Giri (Acting) Mohammad Hidayatullah (Acting) Varahagiri Venkata Giri Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed Basappa Danappa Jatti (Acting) |
| Deputy | Morarji Desai |
| Preceded by | Gulzarilal Nanda (Acting) |
| Succeeded by | Morarji Desai |
| Minister of External Affairs | |
| In office 9 March 1984 – 31 October 1984 |
|
| Preceded by | Narasimha Rao |
| Succeeded by | Rajiv Gandhi |
| In office 22 August 1967 – 14 March 1969 |
|
| Preceded by | Mahommedali Currim Chagla |
| Succeeded by | Dinesh Singh |
| Minister of Defence | |
| In office 14 January 1980 – 15 January 1982 |
|
| Preceded by | Chidambaram Subramaniam |
| Succeeded by | Ramaswamy Venkataraman |
| In office 30 November 1975 – 20 December 1975 |
|
| Preceded by | Sardar Swaran Singh |
| Succeeded by | Bansi Lal |
| Minister of Home Affairs | |
| In office 27 June 1970 – 4 February 1973 |
|
| Preceded by | Yashwantrao Chavan |
| Succeeded by | Uma Shankar Dikshit |
| Minister of Finance | |
| In office 16 July 1969 – 27 June 1970 |
|
| Preceded by | Morarji Desai |
| Succeeded by | Yashwantrao Chavan |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Indira Priyadarshini Nehru (1917-11-19)19 November 1917 Allahabad, United Provinces, British India |
| Died | 31 October 1984(1984-10-31) (aged 66) New Delhi, India |
| Political party | Indian National Congress |
| Spouse(s) | Feroze Gandhi |
| Children | Rajiv Sanjay |
| Signature |  |
Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi (Hindi: इंदिरा प्रियदर्शिनी गांधी Indirā Priyadarśinī Gāndhī listen (help·info), née Nehru; 19 November 1917 – 31 October 1984) was an Indian politician who served as the third Prime Minister of India for three consecutive terms (1966–77) and a fourth term (1980–84). Gandhi was the second female head of government in the world after Sirimavo Bandaranaike of Sri Lanka, and she remains as the world's second longest serving female Prime Minister as of 2012. She was the first woman to become prime minister in India.[1]
Gandhi was the only child of Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of independent India. She adhered to the quasi-socialist policies of industrial development that had been begun by her father. Gandhi established closer relations with the Soviet Union, depending on that nation for support in India’s long-standing conflict with Pakistan. She was also the only Indian Prime Minister to have declared a state of emergency in order to 'rule by decree' and the only Indian Prime Minister to have been imprisoned after holding that office. She was assassinated by her Sikh bodyguards in retaliation for ordering Operation Blue Star.
Early life and career[link]
Indira Gandhi was born on 19 November 1917 at the Anand Bhavan in the historically important town of Allahabad, in what was then the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, into the politically influential Nehru Family.[2] Indira Gandhi's father was Jawaharlal Nehru and her mother was Kamla Nehru. Her grandfather, Motilal Nehru, was a prominent Indian nationalist leader. Her father, Jawaharlal Nehru, was a pivotal figure in the independence movement of India.
In 1934–35, after finishing school, Indira joined Shantiniketan,[3] a school set up by Rabindranath Tagore. Subsequently, she went to England and sat for the University of Oxford entrance examination, but she failed,[4] and spent a few months at Badminton School in Bristol, before passing the exam in 1937 and enrolling at Somerville College, Oxford where she never finished her degree. Khushwant Singh, who has personally known Indira Gandhi, has said that she felt uncomfortable around educated people because she had no real education.[5] During her stay in the UK, she frequently met Feroze Gandhi, whom she knew from Allahabad, and who was studying at the London School of Economics. The marriage took place in Allahabad according to Hindu rituals though Feroze belonged to a Parsi family of Gujarat.[6]
She returned to India in 1941. In the 1950s, she served her father unofficially as a personal assistant during his tenure as the first Prime Minister of India. After her father's death in 1964 she was appointed as a member of the Rajya Sabha (upper house) and became a member of Lal Bahadur Shastri's cabinet as Minister of Information and Broadcasting.[7]
Then Congress Party President K. Kamaraj was instrumental in making Indira Gandhi the Prime Minister after the sudden demise of Shastri. Gandhi soon showed an ability to win elections and outmaneuver opponents. She introduced more left-wing economic policies and promoted agricultural productivity. She led India as Prime Minister during the decisive victory of East Pakistan over Pakistan in 1971 war and creation of an independent Bangladesh. She imposed a state of emergency in 1975. Congress Party and Indira Gandhi herself lost the next general election for the first time in 1977. Indira Gandhi led the Congress back to victory in 1980 elections and Gandhi resumed the office of the Prime Minister. In June 1984, under Gandhi's order, the Indian army forcefully entered the Golden Temple, the most sacred Sikh Gurdwara, to remove armed insurgents present inside the temple. She was killed on 31 October 1984 in retaliation for this operation by her bodyguards.
Legislative career[link]
When Gandhi became Prime Minister in 1966, the Congress was split in two factions, the socialists led by Gandhi, and the conservatives led by Morarji Desai. Rammanohar Lohia called her Gungi Gudiya which means 'Dumb Doll'.[8] The internal problems showed in the 1967 election where the Congress lost nearly 60 seats winning 297 seats in the 545 seat Lok Sabha. She had to accommodate Desai as Deputy Prime Minister of India and Minister of Finance. In 1969 after many disagreements with Desai, the Indian National Congress split. She ruled with support from Socialist and Communist Parties for the next two years. In the same year, in July 1969 she nationalized banks.
War with Pakistan in 1971[link]
Main article: Indo-Pakistan War of 1971
The Pakistan army conducted atrocities against the civilian populations of East Pakistan.[9][10] An estimated 10 million refugees fled to India, causing financial hardship and instability in the country. The United States under Richard Nixon supported Pakistan, and mooted a UN resolution warning India against going to war. Nixon apparently disliked Indira personally, referring to her as a "witch" and "clever fox" in his private communication with Secretary of State Henry Kissinger (now released by the State Department).[11] Indira signed the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, resulting in political support and a Soviet veto at the UN.
Foreign policy[link]
Gandhi invited the Pakistani President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto to Shimla for a week-long summit. The two national leaders eventually signed the Shimla Agreement, which bound the two countries to resolve the Kashmir dispute by negotiations and peaceful means. Due to her antipathy for Nixon, relations with the United States grew distant, while relations with the Soviet Union grew closer.
Congress was criticized by some for not making the Line of Control (LoC) a permanent border while a few critics even believed that Pakistan-administered Kashmir should have been extracted from Pakistan, whose 93,000 prisoners of war were under Indian control. But the agreement did remove immediate United Nations and third party interference, and greatly reduced the likelihood of Pakistan launching a major attack in the near future. By not demanding total capitulation on a sensitive issue from Bhutto, she had allowed Pakistan to stabilize and normalize. Trade relations were also normalized, though much contact remained frozen (sealed) for years.
Nuclear weapons program[link]
Gandhi contributed and further carried out the vision of Jawarharalal Nehru, former Premier of India to develop the program. Gandhi gave authorization of developing nuclear weapons in 1967, in response to the Test No. 6 by People's Republic of China. Gandhi saw this test as Chinese nuclear intimidation, therefore, Gandhi promoted the views of Nehru to establish India's stability and security interests as independent from those of the nuclear superpowers.
The program became fully mature in 1974, when dr. Raja Ramanna reported to Gandhi that India has ability to test the first nuclear weapon. Gandhi gave verbal authorization of this test, and preparations were made in a long-constructed army base, the Indian Army Pokhran Test Range. In 1974, India successfully conducted an underground nuclear test, unofficially code named as "Smiling Buddha", near the desert village of Pokhran in Rajasthan. As the world was quiet by this test, a vehement protest came forward from Pakistan. Great ire was raised in Pakistan, Pakistan's Prime minister Zulfi Ali Bhutto described this test as "Indian hegemony" to intimidate Pakistan. Gandhi directed a letter to Bhutto and, later to the world, describing the test as for peaceful purposes and India's commitment as to develop its programme for industrial and scientific use.
Green Revolution[link]
Main article: Green Revolution
Special agricultural innovation programs and extra government support launched in the 1960s finally transformed India's chronic food shortages into surplus production of wheat, rice, cotton and milk, the success mainly attributed to the hard working majority Sikh farmers of Punjab. Rather than relying on food aid from the United States – headed by a President whom Gandhi disliked considerably (the feeling was mutual: to Nixon, Indira was "the old witch"),[11] the country became a food exporter. That achievement, along with the diversification of its commercial crop production, has become known as the "Green Revolution". At the same time, the White Revolution was an expansion in milk production which helped to combat malnutrition, especially amidst young children. 'Food security', as the program was called, was another source of support for Gandhi in the years leading up to 1975.[12]
Established in the early 1960s, the Green Revolution was the unofficial name given to the Intense Agricultural District Program (IADP) which sought to insure abundant, inexpensive grain for urban dwellers upon whose support Gandhi—as indeed all Indian politicians—heavily depended.[13] The program was based on four premises: 1) New varieties of seed(s), 2) Acceptance of the necessity of the chemicalization of Indian agriculture, i.e. fertilizers, pesticides, weed killers, etc., 3) A commitment to national and international cooperative research to develop new and improved existing seed varieties, 4) The concept of developing a scientific, agricultural institutions in the form of land grant colleges.[14]
Bank nationalizations[link]
In 1969, fourteen major banks were nationalized as a means of encouraging economic development[15] and widening access to banking facilities. Banks were given targets for lending in priority areas (like agriculture) and were directed to offer banking services to poorer members of Indian society who ahd been neglected by the private banks. Under the nationalization drive, the number of bank branches rose from 8,200 to over 62,000, most of which were opened in the unbanked, rural areas. The nationalization drive not only helped to increase household savings, but it also provided considerable investments in the informal sector, in small and medium-sized enterprises, and in agriculture, and contributed significantly to regional development and to the expansion of India’s industrial and agricultural base.[16]
1971 election victory and second term[link]
The government faced major problems after her tremendous mandate of 1971. The internal structure of the Congress Party had withered following its numerous splits, leaving it entirely dependent on her leadership for its election fortunes. Garibi Hatao (Eradicate Poverty) was the theme for Gandhi's 1971 bid. The slogan and the proposed anti-poverty programs that came with it were designed to give Gandhi an independent national support, based on rural and urban poor. This would allow her to bypass the dominant rural castes both in and of state and local government; likewise the urban commercial class. And, for their part, the previously voiceless poor would at last gain both political worth and political weight.
The programs created through Garibi Hatao, though carried out locally, were funded, developed, supervised, and staffed by New Delhi and the Indian National Congress party. "These programs also provided the central political leadership with new and vast patronage resources to be disbursed... throughout the country."[17] Scholars and historians now agree as to the extent of the failure of Garibi Hatao in alleviating poverty – only about 4% of all funds allocated for economic development went to the three main anti-poverty programs, and precious few of these ever reached the 'poorest of the poor' – and the empty sloganeering of the program was mainly used instead to engender populist support for Gandhi's re-election.
Verdict on electoral malpractice[link]
On 12 June 1975 the High Court of Allahabad declared Indira Gandhi's election to the Lok Sabha void on grounds of electoral malpractice. In an election petition filed by Raj Narain (who later on defeated her in 1977 parliamentary election from Rae Bareily), he had alleged several major as well as minor instances of using government resources for campaigning.[18] The court thus ordered her to be removed from her seat in Parliament and banned from running in elections for six years. The Prime Minister must be a member of either the Lok Sabha (Lower house in the Parliament of India) or the Rajya Sabha (the Higher house of the Parliament). Thus, this decision effectively removed her from office. Mrs Gandhi had asked one of India's best legal minds and also one of her colleagues in government, Mr Ashoke Kumar Sen to defend her in court. It has been written that Mrs Gandhi was told she would only win if Mr Sen appeared for her[citation needed].
But Gandhi rejected calls to resign and announced plans to appeal to the Supreme Court. The verdict was delivered by Mr Justice Jagmohanlal Sinha at Allahabad High Court. It came almost four years after the case was brought by Raj Narain, the premier's defeated opponent in the 1971 parliamentary election. Gandhi, who gave evidence in her defence during the trial, was found guilty of dishonest election practices, excessive election expenditure, and of using government machinery and officials for party purposes.[19] The judge rejected more serious charges of bribery against her.
Indira insisted the conviction did not undermine her position, despite having been unseated from the lower house of parliament, Lok Sabha, by order of the High Court. She said: "There is a lot of talk about our government not being clean, but from our experience the situation was very much worse when [opposition] parties were forming governments". And she dismissed criticism of the way her Congress Party raised election campaign money, saying all parties used the same methods. The prime minister retained the support of her party, which issued a statement backing her. After news of the verdict spread, hundreds of supporters demonstrated outside her house, pledging their loyalty. Indian High Commissioner BK Nehru said Gandhi's conviction would not harm her political career. "Mrs Gandhi has still today overwhelming support in the country," he said. "I believe the prime minister of India will continue in office until the electorate of India decides otherwise".
State of Emergency (1975–1977)[link]
Main article: Indian Emergency (1975-1977)
Gandhi moved to restore order by ordering the arrest of most of the opposition participating in the unrest. Her Cabinet and government then recommended that President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed declare a state of emergency, because of the disorder and lawlessness following the Allahabad High Court decision. Accordingly, Ahmed declared a State of Emergency caused by internal disorder, based on the provisions of Article 352 of the Constitution, on 26 June 1975.
Rule by decree[link]
Within a few months, President's Rule was imposed on the two opposition party ruled states of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu thereby bringing the entire country under direct Central rule or by governments led by the ruling Congress party.[20] Police were granted powers to impose curfews and indefinitely detain citizens and all publications were subjected to substantial censorship by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Finally, impending legislative assembly elections were indefinitely postponed, with all opposition-controlled state governments being removed by virtue of the constitutional provision allowing for a dismissal of a state government on recommendation of the state's governor.
Indira Gandhi used the emergency provisions to change conflicting party members.
"Unlike her father Jawaharlal Nehru, who preferred to deal with strong chief ministers in control of their legislative parties and state party organizations, Mrs. Gandhi set out to remove every Congress chief minister who had an independent base and to replace each of them with ministers personally loyal to her...Even so, stability could not be maintained in the states..."[21]
President Ahmed issued a ordinances that did not need to be debated in the Parliament, allowing her to rule by decree.
Elections[link]
After extending the state of emergency twice, in 1977 Indira Gandhi called elections, to give the electorate a chance to vindicate her rule. Gandhi may have grossly misjudged her popularity[citation needed] by reading what the heavily censored press wrote about her. In any case, she was opposed by the Janata Party. Janata, led by her long-time rival, Desai and with Jai Prakash Narayan as its spiritual guide, claimed the elections were the last chance for India to choose between "democracy and dictatorship." Indira's Congress party was crushed soundly in the elections which followed. Indira and Sanjay Gandhi both lost their seats, and Congress was cut down to 153 seats (compared with 350 in the previous Lok Sabha), 92 of which were in the south.
Removal, arrest, and return[link]
The Congress Party split during the election campaign of 1977: veteran Gandhi supporters like Jagjivan Ram and her most loyal Bahuguna and Nandini Satpathy, the three were compelled to part ways and form a new political entity CFD (Congress for Democracy) primarily due to intra party politicking and also due to circumstances created by Sanjay Gandhi.The prevailing rumour was that Sanjay had intentions of dislodging Indira and the trio stood between that.
The Janata Party came into power after the State of Emergency was lifted. The leader of the Janata Party was Jayaprakash Narayan. The other party leaders of the Janata Party were Morarji Desai, Charan Singh, Raj Narain and Atal Bihari Vajpayee. The Janata government's Home Minister, Choudhary Charan Singh, ordered the arrest of Indira and Sanjay Gandhi on several charges, none of which would be easy to prove in an Indian court. The arrest meant that Indira was automatically expelled from Parliament. These allegations included that Indira Gandhi “‘had planned or thought of killing all opposition leaders in jail during the Emergency’”.[22] However, this strategy backfired disastrously. Her arrest and long-running trial, however, gained her great sympathy from many people. The Janata coalition was only united by its hatred of Indira (or "that woman" as some called her). With so little in common, the government was bogged down by infighting. Jayaprakash Narayan died on 8 October 1979, which broke the unity of the Janata Party and Desai took his place. Desai resigned in June 1979, and Charan Singh was appointed Prime Minister by Reddy after Gandhi promised that Congress would support his government from outside.
After a short interval, Congress withdrew support and President Reddy dissolved Parliament in the winter of 1979. In elections held the following January, Congress was returned to power with a landslide majority.
Currency crisis[link]
During the early 1980s, there was a 40 percent fall in the value of the Indian Rupee from 7 to 12 against the US Dollar. The Reserve Bank of India had decided to devalue the rupee to make Indian exports more competitive.[citation needed]
Operation Blue Star[link]
Main articles: Operation Blue Star and 1984 anti-Sikh riots
In July 1982, Sant Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale, the head of the Sikh religious institution the Damdami Taksal based in the northern Indian state of Punjab, led a campaign for the implementation of the Anandpur Sahib Resolution for greater rights to the Sikhs. In response to this, Indira Gandhi ordered the Indian army to attack the Bhindrawale. The State of Punjab was closed to international media, its phone and communication lines shut. To this day the events remain controversial with a disputed number of victims; Sikhs seeing the attack as unjustified and Bhindrawale being declared the greatest sikh martyr of the 21st century by Akal Takht (Sikh Political Authority) in 2003.
Assassination[link]
The day before her death Mrs Indira Gandhi was in visit of Orissa on 30 October 1984 where she gave her last speech for all the Indians.
I am alive today I may not be there tomorrow I shall continue to serve till my last breath and when I die every drop of my blood will strengthen India and keep a united India alive
On 31 October 1984, two of Gandhi's Sikh bodyguards, Satwant Singh and Beant Singh, shot her with their service weapons in the garden of the Prime Minister's residence at 1 Safdarjung Road, New Delhi as she was walking past a wicket gate guarded by Satwant and Beant. She was to be interviewed by the British actor Peter Ustinov, who was filming a documentary for Irish television. According to information immediately following the incident, Beant Singh shot her three times using his side-arm, and Satwant Singh fired 30 rounds.[24] Beant Singh and Satwant Singh dropped their weapons and surrendered. Afterwards they were taken away by other guards into a closed room where Beant Singh was shot dead. Kehar Singh was later arrested for conspiracy in the attack. Both Satwant and Kehar were sentenced to death and hanged in Delhi's Tihar jail.
Indira Gandhi was brought at 9.30 AM to the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, where doctors operated on her. She was declared dead at 2.20 PM. The postmortem examination was conducted by team of Doctors headed by Dr. T D Dogra. He stated that as many as 30 bullets wounds were sustained by Indira Gandhi, from two sources, an SLR and a Pistol. The assailants had fired 31 bullets at her, of which 30 had hit; 23 had passed through her body while 7 were trapped inside her. Dr. T D Dogra extricated bullets to establish the identity of the weapons and to correlate each weapon with the bullets recovered by ballistic examination. The bullets were matched with respective weapons at CFSL Delhi. Subsequently Dr. Dogra appeared in the court of Shri Mahesh Chandra as an expert witness (PW-5), and his testimony lasted several sessions. The cross examination was conducted by Shri P N Lekhi, the defense counsel.[25]
Gandhi was cremated on 3 November near Raj Ghat. Her funeral was televised live on domestic and international stations, including the BBC. Following her cremation, millions of Sikhs were rendered homeless and thousands burnt alive (5000 by government estimate)[citation needed] in anti-Sikh riots. Rajiv Gandhi on a live TV show said of the carnage, "When a big tree falls, the earth shakes."
Family and personal life[link]
Initially, her younger son Sanjay had been her chosen heir; but after his death in a flying accident in June 1980, his mother persuaded a reluctant elder son Rajiv Gandhi to quit his job as a pilot and enter politics in February 1981. Over a decade later, Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated.
Indira's yoga guru, Dhirendra Brahmachari, helped her in making certain decisions and also executed certain top level political tasks on her behalf, especially from 1975 to 1977 when Gandhi "dissolved Parliament, declared a state of emergency and suspended civil liberties."[26][27]
Legacy[link]
Indira Gandhi is associated with fostering a culture of nepotism in Indian politics and in India's institutions.[28][29]
The Indira Awaas Yojana, a central government low-cost housing programme for the rural poor, is named after her. The international airport at New Delhi is named Indira Gandhi International Airport in her honour. The Indira Gandhi National Open University, the largest university in the world, is also named after her.
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ "Oxford University's famous south Asian graduates#Indira Gandhi". BBC News. 5 May 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/oxford/hi/people_and_places/arts_and_culture/newsid_8661000/8661776.stm.
- ^ Agrawal, Meena (2005). Indira Gandhi. New Delhi: Diamond Pocket Books. p. 11. ISBN 81-288-0901-6.
- ^ Gandhi, Indira Priyadarshini(nee Nehru). S9.com (1942-03-26). Retrieved on 18 June 2011.
- ^ Katherine Frank, p.116: Indira got her results and learned that she had failed, with a particularly bad performance in Latin.
- ^ "Indira was uncomfortable around educated people". http://www.rediff.com/news/2004/oct/27inter1.htm.
- ^ http://www.indianexpress.com/oldStory/82389/
- ^ Gandhi, Indira. (1982) My Truth
- ^ Katherine Frank, p. 303. Also lists other put-downs commonly used to describe the forty-year-old Indira Gandhi, both in the press and by her Congress colleagues. Lyndon Johnson referred to her as 'this girl'.
- ^ U.S. Consulate (Dacco) Cable, Sitrep: Army Terror Campaign Continues in Dacca; Evidence Military Faces Some Difficulties Elsewhere, March 13, 1971, Confidential
- ^ East Pakistan: Even the Skies Weep, Time Magazine, 25 October 1971.
- ^ a b Nixon's dislike of 'witch' Indira, BBC News, 29 June 2005. BBC News (2005-06-29). Retrieved on 18 June 2011.
- ^ "India's Green Revolution". Indiaonestop.com. http://indiaonestop.com/Greenrevolution.htm. Retrieved 31 October 2008.
- ^ Katherine Frank, p. 295
- ^ Farmer, B.H., Perspectives on the 'Green Revolution' Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 20 No.1 (February, 1986) p. 177
- ^ http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AmHmS1pj57AC&pg=PA284&dq=indira+gandhi+bank+nationalisation+1969&hl=en&sa=X&ei=NRabT_PzBMem0QW51_3yDg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=indira%20gandhi%20bank%20nationalisation%201969&f=false
- ^ Questioning Globalization by Kavaljit Singh
- ^ Rath, Nilakantha (1985). "'Garibi Hatao': Can IRDP Do It?". Economic and Political Weekly 20 (6): 238–246. JSTOR 4374060.
- ^ Katherine Frank, p. 372
- ^ "1975: Gandhi found guilty of corruption". BBC News. 12 June 1975. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/12/newsid_2511000/2511691.stm.
- ^ Kochanek, Stanely, Mrs. Gandhi's Pyramid: The New Congress, (Westview Press, Boulder, CO 1976) p. 98
- ^ Brass, Paul R., The Politics of India Since Independence, (Cambridge University Press, England 1995) p. 40
- ^ Malhotra, Inder. Indira Gandhi. New York: Coronet Books, 1991.
- ^ http://www.indiastudychannel.com/resources/142182-Last-speech-Indira-Gandhi-at-Bhubaneswar.aspx
- ^ html[dead link]
- ^ Dr. T D Dogra's Expert Evidence in trial of assassination of Late Mrs Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister of India (Witness No. PW 5) Raina Anupuma, Lalwani Sanjeev, Dogra TD, Dept. of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology, AIIMS, N. Delhi. Indian Internet Journal of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology, Year : 2009, Volume : 7, Issue : 4
- ^ Dhirendra Brahmachari, Yoga Master, 7, NY times, 10 June 1994
- ^ Mrs G's String of Beaus, Outlook India, 26 March 2001
- ^ Adina Campu (2009). "History as a marker of otherness in Rohinton Mistry's "A fine balance"". Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov. Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies 2 (51): 47. http://but.unitbv.ro/BU2009/BULETIN2009/Series%20IV/BULETIN%20IV%20PDF/08_Campu_A.pdf.
- ^ Vijay Sanghvi (1 January 2006). The Congress, Indira to Sonia Gandhi. Gyan Publishing House. pp. 24–. ISBN 978-81-7835-340-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=npdqD_TXucQC&pg=PA24. Retrieved 18 June 2011.
Further reading[link]
- Ved Mehta, A Family Affair: India Under Three Prime Ministers (1982) ISBN 0-19-503118-0
- Pupul Jayakar, Indira Gandhi: An Intimate Biography (1992) ISBN 978-0-679-42479-6
- Katherine Frank, Indira: the life of Indira Nehru Gandhi (2002) ISBN 0-395-73097-X
- Ramachandra Guha, India after Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy (2007) ISBN 978-0-06-019881-7
- Inder Malhotra, Indira Gandhi: A personal and political biography (1991) ISBN 0-340-53548-2
- Indira Gandhi - Iron Lady of India by Dr Sulakshi Thelikorala
External links[link]
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| Persondata | |
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| Name | Gāndhī, Indira Priyadarśinī |
| Alternative names | इन्दिरा प्रियदर्शिनी गान्धी (Devanāgarī) |
| Short description | Prime Minister of India |
| Date of birth | (1917-11-19)19 November 1917 |
| Place of birth | Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India |
| Date of death | 31 October 1984(1984-10-31) |
| Place of death | New Delhi, India |
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| Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Born | (1869-10-02)2 October 1869 Porbandar, Kathiawar Agency, British India[1] |
| Died | 30 January 1948(1948-01-30) (aged 78) New Delhi, Dominion of India |
| Cause of death | Assassination by shooting |
| Resting place | Cremated at Rajghat, Delhi. 28°38′29″N 77°14′54″E / 28.6415°N 77.2483°E / 28.6415; 77.2483 |
| Nationality | Indian |
| Other names | Mahatma Gandhi, Bapu, Gandhiji |
| Alma mater | Samaldas College, Bhavnagar, Inner Temple, London |
| Known for | Prominent figure of Indian independence movement, propounding the philosophy of Satyagraha and Ahimsa advocating non-violence, pacifism |
| Religion | Hinduism |
| Spouse | Kasturba Gandhi |
| Children | Harilal Manilal Ramdas Devdas Child who died in infancy |
| Parents | Putlibai Gandhi (Mother) Karamchand Gandhi (Father) |
| Signature |  |
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (pronounced: [ˈmoːɦənd̪aːs ˈkərəmtʃənd̪ ˈɡaːnd̪ʱi]; 2 October 1869[1] – 30 January 1948), commonly known as Mahatma Gandhi, was the preeminent leader of Indian nationalism in British-ruled India. Employing non-violent civil disobedience, Gandhi led India to independence and inspired movements for non-violence, civil rights and freedom across the world.[2][3]
Son of a senior government official, Gandhi was born and raised in a Hindu Bania community in coastal Gujarat, and trained in law in London. Gandhi became famous by fighting for the civil rights of Muslim and Hindu Indians in South Africa, using the new techniques of non-violent civil disobedience that he developed. Returning to India in 1915, he set about organising peasants to protest excessive land-taxes. A lifelong opponent of "communalism" (i.e. basing politics on religion) he reached out widely to all religious groups. He became a leader of Muslims protesting the declining status of the Caliphate. Assuming leadership of the Indian National Congress in 1921, Gandhi led nationwide campaigns for easing poverty, expanding women's rights, building religious and ethnic amity, ending untouchability, increasing economic self-reliance, and above all for achieving Swaraj—the independence of India from British domination.
Gandhi led Indians in protesting the national salt tax with the 400 km (250 mi) Dandi Salt March in 1930, and later in demanding the British to immediately Quit India in 1942, during World War II. He was imprisoned for that and for numerous other political offenses over the years. Gandhi sought to practice non-violence and truth in all situations, and advocated that others do the same. He saw the villages as the core of the true India and promoted self sufficiency; he did not support the industrialization programs of his disciple Jawaharlal Nehru. He lived modestly in a self-sufficient residential community and wore the traditional Indian dhoti and shawl, woven with yarn he had hand spun on a charkha. His political enemy Winston Churchill ridiculed him as a "half-naked fakir."[4] He was a dedicated vegetarian, and undertook long fasts as means of both self-purification and political mobilization.
In his last year, unhappy at the partition of India, Gandhi worked to stop the carnage between Muslims on the one hand and Hindus and Sikhs that raged in the border area between India and Pakistan. He was assassinated on 30 January 1948 by a Hindu nationalist who thought Gandhi was too sympathetic to India's Muslims. 30 January is observed as Martyrs' Day in India. The honourific Mahatma (Sanskrit: mahāt̪mā or "Great Soul", was applied to him by 1914.[5] In India he was also called Bapu (Gujarati: bāpuː or "Father"). He is known in India as the Father of the Nation;[6] his birthday, 2 October, is commemorated there as Gandhi Jayanti, a national holiday, and world-wide as the International Day of Non-Violence. Gandhi's philosophy was not theoretical but one of pragmatism, that is, practicing his principles in real time. Asked to give a message to the people, he would respond, "My life is my message."[7]
Contents
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Early life and background[link]
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi[8] was born on 2 October 1869[1] in Porbandar, a coastal town which was then part of the Bombay Presidency, British India.[9] He was born in his ancestral home, now known as Kirti Mandir.[10] His father, Karamchand Gandhi (1822–1885), who belonged to the Hindu Modh community, served as the diwan (a high official) of Porbander state, a small princely state in the Kathiawar Agency of British India.[10][11] His grandfather was Uttamchand Gandhi, also called Utta Gandhi.[10] His mother, Putlibai, who came from the Pranami Vaishnava community, was Karamchand's fourth wife, the first three wives having apparently died in childbirth.[12] Jain ideas and practices powerfully influenced Gandhi particularly through his mother who was a devout Jain.[13][14]
The Indian classics, especially the stories of Shravana and king Harishchandra, had a great impact on Gandhi in his childhood. In his autobiography, he admits that they left an indelible impression on his mind. He writes: "It haunted me and I must have acted Harishchandra to myself times without number." Gandhi's early self-identification with truth and love as supreme values is traceable to these epic characters.[15][16]
In May 1883, the 13-year-old Mohandas was married to 14-year-old Kasturbai Makhanji (her first name was usually shortened to "Kasturba", and affectionately to "Ba") in an arranged child marriage, according to the custom of the region.[17] In the process, he lost a year at school.[18] Recalling the day of their marriage, he once said, "As we didn't know much about marriage, for us it meant only wearing new clothes, eating sweets and playing with relatives." However, as was prevailing tradition, the adolescent bride was to spend much time at her parents' house, and away from her husband.[19] In 1885, when Gandhi was 15, the couple's first child was born, but survived only a few days. Gandhi's father, Karamchand Gandhi, had also died earlier that year.[20]
Mohandas and Kasturba had four more children, all sons: Harilal, born in 1888; Manilal, born in 1892; Ramdas, born in 1897; and Devdas, born in 1900.[17] At his middle school in Porbandar and high school in Rajkot, Gandhi remained a mediocre student. He shone neither in the classroom nor on the playing field. One of the terminal reports rated him as "good at English, fair in Arithmetic and weak in Geography; conduct very good, bad handwriting." He passed the matriculation exam at Samaldas College in Bhavnagar, Gujarat, with some difficulty. Gandhi's family wanted him to be a barrister as it would increase the prospects of succeeding to his father's post.[21] In 1926 Manilal Gandhi expressed his desire to marry Fatima Gool daughter of a Muslim Businessman in South Africa. Gandhi strongly advised against it, warning it would be a highly contentious move that would seriously damage Manilal's career. The son dropped the idea.[22]
English barrister[link]
In 1888, Gandhi travelled to London, England, to study law at University College London where he studied Indian law and jurisprudence and to train as a barrister at the Inner Temple. His time in London, was influenced by a vow he had made to his mother upon leaving India, in the presence of a Jain monk, to observe the Hindu precepts of abstinence from meat and alcohol as well as of promiscuity.[23] Gandhi tried to adopt "English" customs, including taking dancing lessons for example. However, he could not appreciate the bland vegetarian food offered by his landlady and was frequently hungry until he found one of London's few vegetarian restaurants. Influenced by Henry Salt's writing, he joined the Vegetarian Society, was elected to its executive committee,[24] and started a local Bayswater chapter.[12] Some of the vegetarians he met were members of the Theosophical Society, which had been founded in 1875 to further universal brotherhood, and which was devoted to the study of Buddhist and Hindu literature. They encouraged Gandhi to join them in reading the Bhagavad Gita both in translation as well as in the original.[24] Not having shown interest in religion before, he became interested in religious thought.
Gandhi was called to the bar in June 1891 and then left London for India, where he learned that his mother had died while he was in London and that his family had kept the news from him.[24] His attempts at establishing a law practice in Bombay failed because he was too shy to speak up in court. He returned to Rajkot to make a modest living drafting petitions for litigants but was forced to close it when he ran afoul of a British officer.[12][24] In 1893, he accepted a year-long contract from Dada Abdulla & Co., an Indian firm, to a post in the Colony of Natal, South Africa, then part of the British Empire.[12]
Civil rights movement in South Africa (1893–1914)[link]
Main article: Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi in South Africa
Gandhi spent 21 years in South Africa, where he developed his political views, ethics and political leadership skills. Indians in South Africa were led by wealthy Muslims, who employed Gandhi as a lawyer, and by impoverished Hindu indentured laborers with very limited rights. Gandhi considered them all to be Indians, taking a lifetime view that "Indianness" transcended religion and caste. He believed he could bridge historic differences, especially regarding religion, and he took that belief back to India where he tried to implement it. The South African experience exposed handicaps to Gandhi that he had not known about. He realised he was out of contact with the enormous complexities of religious and cultural life in India, and believed he understood India by getting to know and leading Indians in South Africa.[25]
In South Africa, Gandhi faced the discrimination directed at all coloured people. He was thrown off a train at Pietermaritzburg after refusing to move from the first-class. He protested and was allowed on first class the next day.[26] Travelling farther on by stagecoach, he was beaten by a driver for refusing to move to make room for a European passenger.[27] He suffered other hardships on the journey as well, including being barred from several hotels. In another incident, the magistrate of a Durban court ordered Gandhi to remove his turban, which he refused to do.[28]
These events were a turning point in Gandhi's life and shaped his social activism and awakened him to social injustice. After witnessing racism, prejudice and injustice against Indians in South Africa, Gandhi began to question his place in society and his people's standing in the British Empire.[29]
Gandhi extended his original period of stay in South Africa to assist Indians in opposing a bill to deny them the right to vote. Though unable to halt the bill's passage, his campaign was successful in drawing attention to the grievances of Indians in South Africa. He helped found the Natal Indian Congress in 1894,[12][26] and through this organisation, he moulded the Indian community of South Africa into a unified political force. In January 1897, when Gandhi landed in Durban, a mob of white settlers attacked him and he escaped only through the efforts of the wife of the police superintendent. He, however, refused to press charges against any member of the mob, stating it was one of his principles not to seek redress for a personal wrong in a court of law.[12]
In 1906, the Transvaal government promulgated a new Act compelling registration of the colony's Indian population. At a mass protest meeting held in Johannesburg on 11 September that year, Gandhi adopted his still evolving methodology of Satyagraha (devotion to the truth), or non-violent protest, for the first time.[30] He urged Indians to defy the new law and to suffer the punishments for doing so. The community adopted this plan, and during the ensuing seven-year struggle, thousands of Indians were jailed, flogged, or shot for striking, refusing to register, for burning their registration cards or engaging in other forms of non-violent resistance. The government successfully repressed the Indian protesters, but the public outcry over the harsh treatment of peaceful Indian protesters by the South African government forced South African leader Jan Christiaan Smuts, himself a philosopher, to negotiate a compromise with Gandhi. Gandhi's ideas took shape, and the concept of Satyagraha matured during this struggle.
Reactions to blacks[link]
File:Gandhi Boer War 1899.jpg
M.K. Gandhi while serving in the Ambulance Corps during the Second Boer War (1899)
After the black majority came to power in South Africa, Gandhi was proclaimed a national hero with numerous monuments.[31] Gandhi focused his attention on Indians in South Africa, but historians have also examined his changing ideas on the proper role for blacks. White rule enforced strict segregation among all races and generated conflict between these communities. At first Gandhi shared racial notions prevalent in the 1890s. Bhana and Vahed argue that Gandhi's experiences in jail sensitized him to the plight of blacks. "His negative views in the Johannesburg jail were reserved for hardened African prisoners rather than Africans generally."[32]
In 1906, the British declared war against the Zulu kingdom in Natal. Gandhi actively encouraged the British to recruit Indians. He argued that Indians should support the war efforts in order to legitimise their claims to full citizenship. The British accepted Gandhi's offer to let a detachment of 20 Indians volunteer as a stretcher-bearer corps to treat wounded British soldiers. This corps was commanded by Gandhi and operated for less than two months.[33] The experience taught him it was hopeless to directly challenge the overwhelming military power of the British army—he decided it could only be resisted in non-violent fashion by the pure of heart.[34]
Struggle for Indian Independence (1915–47)[link]
See also: Indian independence movement
In 1915, Gandhi returned to India permanently. He brought an international reputation as a leading Indian nationalist, theorist and organizer. He joined the Indian National Congress and was introduced to Indian issues, politics and the Indian people primarily by Gopal Krishna Gokhale. Gokhale was a key leader of the Congress Party best known for his restraint and moderation, and his insistence on working inside the system. Gandhi took Gokhale's liberal approach based on British Whiggish traditions and transformed it to make it look wholly Indian.[35]
Gandhi took leadership of Congress in 1920 and began a steady escalation of demands (with Intermittent compromises or pauses) until on 26 January 1930 the Indian National Congress declared the independence of India. The British did not recognize that and more negotiations ensued, with Congress taking a role in provincial government in the late 1930s. Gandhi and Congress withdrew their support of the Raj when the Viceroy declared war on Germany in September 1939 without consulting anyone. Tensions escalated until Gandhi demanded immediate independence in 1942 and the British responded by imprisoning him and tens of thousands of Congress leaders for the duration. Meanwhile the Muslim League did cooperate with Britain and moved, against Gandhi's strong opposition, to demands for a totally separate Muslim state of Pakistan. In August 1947 the British partitioned the land, with India and Pakistan each achieving independence on terms Gandhi disapproved.[36]
Role in World War I[link]
See also: The role of India in World War I
In April 1918, during the latter part of World War I, the Viceroy invited Gandhi to a War Conference in Delhi.[37] Perhaps to show his support for the Empire and help his case for India's independence,[38] Gandhi agreed to actively recruit Indians for the war effort.[39] In contrast to the Zulu War of 1906 and the outbreak of World War I in 1914, when he recruited volunteers for the Ambulance Corps, this time Gandhi attempted to recruit combatants. In a June 1918 leaflet entitled "Appeal for Enlistment", Gandhi wrote "To bring about such a state of things we should have the ability to defend ourselves, that is, the ability to bear arms and to use them...If we want to learn the use of arms with the greatest possible despatch, it is our duty to enlist ourselves in the army."[40] He did, however, stipulate in a letter to the Viceroy's private secretary that he "personally will not kill or injure anybody, friend or foe."[41]
Gandhi's war recruitment campaign brought into question his consistency on nonviolence as his friend Charlie Andrews confirms, "Personally I have never been able to reconcile this with his own conduct in other respects, and it is one of the points where I have found myself in painful disagreement."[42] Gandhi's private secretary also had acknowledged that "The question of the consistency between his creed of 'Ahimsa' (non-violence) and his recruiting campaign was raised not only then but has been discussed ever since."[39]
Champaran and Kheda[link]
Main article: Champaran and Kheda Satyagraha
Gandhi's first major achievements came in 1918 with the Champaran and Kheda agitations of Bihar and Gujarat. The Champaran agitation pitted the local peasantry against their largely British landlords who were backed by the local administration. The peasantry was forced to grow Indigo, a cash crop whose demand had been declining over two decades, and were forced to sell their crops to the planters at a fixed price. Unhappy wIth this, the peasantry appealed to Gandhi at his ashram in Ahmedabad. Pursuing a strategy of non-violent protest, Gandhi took the administration by surprise and won concessions from the authorities.[43]
In 1918, Kheda was hit by floods and famine and the peasantry was demanding relief from taxes. Gandhi moved his headquarters to Nadiad,[44] organising scores of supporters and fresh volunteers from the region, the most notable being Vallabhbhai Patel.[45] Using non-cooperation as a technique, Gandhi initiated a signature campaign where peasants pledged non-payment of revenue even under the threat of confiscation of land. A social boycott of mamlatdars and talatdars (revenue officials within the district) accompanied the agitation. Gandhi worked hard to win public support for the agitation across the country. For five months, the administration refused but finally in end-May 1918, the Government gave way on important provisions and relaxed the conditions of payment of revenue tax until the famine ended. In Kheda, Vallabhbhai Patel represented the farmers in negotiations with the British, who suspended revenue collection and released all the prisoners.[46]
Khilafat movement[link]
In 1919 Gandhi, with his weak position in Congress, decided to broaden his base by an appeal to Muslims. The opportunity came from the Khilafat movement, a worldwide protest by Muslims against the collapsing status of the Caliph, the leader of their religion. The Ottoman Empire had lost the World War and was dismembered, as Muslims feared for the safety of the holy places and the prestige of their religion.[47] Although Gandhi did not originate the All-India Muslim Conference,[48] which directed the movement in India, he soon became its most prominent spokesman and attracted a strong base of Muslim support with local chapters in all Muslim centers in India.[49] His success made him India's first national leader with a multicultural base and facilitated his rise to power within Congress, which had previously been unable to reach many Muslims. In 1920 Gandhi became a major leader in Congress.[50][51] By the end of 1922 the Khilafat movement had collapsed.[52] Muslim support for Gandhi and Congress generally fell off, with the proportion of Muslims among delegates to Congress plunging from 11% in 1921 to under 4% in 1923.[53]
Non-cooperation[link]
Main article: Non-cooperation movement
With Congress now behind him in 1920, Gandhi had the base to employ non-cooperation, non-violence and peaceful resistance as his "weapons" in the struggle against the British Raj. His wide popularity among both Hindus and Muslims made his leadership possible; he even convinced the extreme faction of Muslims to support peaceful non-cooperation.[54] The spark that ignited a national protest was overwhelming anger at the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (or Amritsar massacre) of hundreds of peaceful civilians by British troops in Punjab. Many Britons celebrated the action as needed to prevent another Mutiny like 1857, an attitude that caused many Indian leaders to decide the Raj was controlled by their enemies, and was more an obstacle than a pathway. Gandhi criticised both the actions of the British Raj and the retaliatory violence of Indians. He authored the resolution offering condolences to British civilian victims and condemning the riots which, after initial opposition in the party, was accepted following Gandhi's emotional speech advocating his principle that all violence was evil and could not be justified.[55]
After the massacre and subsequent violence, Gandhi began to focus on winning complete self-government and control of all Indian government institutions, maturing soon into Swaraj or complete individual, spiritual, political independence.[56] During this period, Gandhi claimed to be a "highly orthodox Hindu" and in January 1921 during a speech at a temple in Vadtal, he spoke of the relevance of non-cooperation to Hindu Dharma, "At this holy place, I declare, if you want to protect your 'Hindu Dharma', non-cooperation is first as well as the last lesson you must learn up.".[57]
In December 1921, Gandhi was invested with executive authority on behalf of the Indian National Congress. Under his leadership, the Congress was reorganised with a new constitution, with the goal of Swaraj. Membership in the party was opened to anyone prepared to pay a token fee. A hierarchy of committees was set up to improve discipline, transforming the party from an elite organisation to one of mass national appeal. Gandhi expanded his non-violence platform to include the swadeshi policy—the boycott of foreign-made goods, especially British goods. Linked to this was his advocacy that khadi (homespun cloth) be worn by all Indians instead of British-made textiles. Gandhi exhorted Indian men and women, rich or poor, to spend time each day spinning khadi in support of the independence movement.[58]
Gandhi even invented a small, portable spinning wheel that could be folded into the size of a small typewriter.[59] This was a strategy to inculcate discipline and dedication to weeding out the unwilling and ambitious and to include women in the movement at a time when many thought that such activities were not respectable activities for women. In addition to boycotting British products, Gandhi urged the people to boycott British educational institutions and law courts, to resign from government employment, and to forsake British titles and honours.[60]
"Non-cooperation" enjoyed widespread appeal and success, increasing excitement and participation from all strata of Indian society. Yet, just as the movement reached its apex, it ended abruptly as a result of a violent clash in the town of Chauri Chaura, Uttar Pradesh, in February 1922. Fearing that the movement was about to take a turn towards violence, and convinced that this would be the undoing of all his work, Gandhi called off the campaign of mass civil disobedience.[61] This was the third time that Gandhi had called off a major campaign.[62] Gandhi was arrested on 10 March 1922, tried for sedition, and sentenced to six years' imprisonment. He began his sentence on 18 March 1922. He was released in February 1924 for an appendicitis operation, having served only 2 years.[63]
Without Gandhi's unifying personality, the Indian National Congress began to splinter during his years in prison, splitting into two factions, one led by Chitta Ranjan Das and Motilal Nehru favouring party participation in the legislatures, and the other led by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, opposing this move. Furthermore, cooperation among Hindus and Muslims, which had been strong at the height of the non-violence campaign, was breaking down. Gandhi attempted to bridge these differences through many means, including a three-week fast in the autumn of 1924, but with limited success.[64] In this year, Gandhi was persuaded to preside over the Congress session to be held in Belgaum. Gandhi agreed to become president of the session on one condition that Congressmen should take to wearing khadi (made of homespun cloth). In his long political career, this was the only time when he presided over a Congress session.[65]
Salt Satyagraha (Salt March)[link]
Main article: Salt Satyagraha
Gandhi stayed out of active politics and, as such, the limelight for most of the 1920s. He focused instead on resolving the wedge between the Swaraj Party and the Indian National Congress, and expanding initiatives against untouchability, alcoholism, ignorance and poverty. He returned to the fore in 1928. In the preceding year, the British government had appointed a new constitutional reform commission under Sir John Simon, which did not include any Indian as its member. The result was a boycott of the commission by Indian political parties. Gandhi pushed through a resolution at the Calcutta Congress in December 1928 calling on the British government to grant India dominion status or face a new campaign of non-cooperation with complete independence for the country as its goal. Gandhi had not only moderated the views of younger men like Subhas Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru, who sought a demand for immediate independence, but also reduced his own call to a one year wait, instead of two.[66]
The British did not respond. On 31 December 1929, the flag of India was unfurled in Lahore. 26 January 1930 was celebrated as India's Independence Day by the Indian National Congress meeting in Lahore. This day was commemorated by almost every other Indian organisation. Gandhi then launched a new Satyagraha against the tax on salt in March 1930. This was highlighted by the famous Salt March to Dandi from 12 March to 6 April, where he marched 388 kilometres (241 mi) from Ahmedabad to Dandi, Gujarat to make salt himself. Thousands of Indians joined him on this march to the sea. This campaign was one of his most successful at upsetting British hold on India; Britain responded by imprisoning over 60,000 people.[67]
Women[link]
Salt as a household necessity was of special interest to women. Gandhi strongly favoured the emancipation of women, and he went so far as to say that "the women have come to look upon me as one of themselves." He opposed purdah, child marriage, untouchability, and the extreme oppression of Hindu widows, up to and including sati. He especially recruited women to participate in the salt tax campaigns and the boycott of foreign products.[68] Sarma concludes that Gandhi's success in enlisting women in his campaigns, including the salt tax campaign, anti-untouchability campaign and the peasant movement, gave many women a new self-confidence and dignity in the mainstream of Indian public life.[69]
Gandhi as folk hero[link]
Congress in the 1920s appealed to peasants by portraying Gandhi as a sort of messiah (the long-awaited savior of an entire people), a strategy that succeeded in incorporating radical forces within the peasantry into the nonviolent resistance movement. In thousands of villages plays were performed that presented Gandhi as the reincarnation of earlier Indian nationalist leaders, or even as a demigod. The plays built support among illiterate peasants steeped in traditional Hindu culture. Similar messianic imagery appeared in popular songs and poems, and in Congress-sponsored religious pageants and celebrations. The result was that Gandhi became not only a folk hero but the Congress was widely seen in the villages as his sacred instrument.[70]
Negotiations[link]
The government, represented by Lord Edward Irwin, decided to negotiate with Gandhi. The Gandhi–Irwin Pact was signed in March 1931. The British Government agreed to free all political prisoners, in return for the suspension of the civil disobedience movement. Also as a result of the pact, Gandhi was invited to attend the Round Table Conference in London as the sole representative of the Indian National Congress. The conference was a disappointment to Gandhi and the nationalists, because it focused on the Indian princes and Indian minorities rather than on a transfer of power. Lord Irwin's successor, Lord Willingdon, taking a hard line against nationalism, began a new campaign of controlling and subduing the nationalist movement. Gandhi was again arrested, and the government tried and failed to negate his influence by completely isolating him from his followers.[71]
In 1932, through the campaigning of the Dalit leader B. R. Ambedkar, the government granted untouchables separate electorates under the new constitution. In protest, Gandhi embarked on a six-day fast in September 1932. The resulting public outcry successfully forced the government to adopt an equitable arrangement through negotiations mediated by Palwankar Baloo. This was the start of a new campaign by Gandhi to improve the lives of the untouchables, whom he named Harijans, the children of God.[72]
On 8 May 1933, Gandhi began a 21-day fast of self-purification to help the Harijan movement.[73] This new campaign was not universally embraced within the Dalit community, as prominent leader B. R. Ambedkar condemned Gandhi's use of the term Harijans as saying that Dalits were socially immature, and that privileged caste Indians played a paternalistic role. Ambedkar and his allies also felt Gandhi was undermining Dalit political rights. Gandhi had also refused to support the untouchables in 1924–25 when they were campaigning for the right to pray in temples. Because of Gandhi's actions, Ambedkar described him as "devious and untrustworthy".[62] Gandhi, although born into the Vaishya caste, insisted that he was able to speak on behalf of Dalits, despite the presence of Dalit activists such as Ambedkar.[74]
In the summer of 1934, three attempts were made on Gandhi's life.[75][76]
When the Congress Party chose to contest elections and accept power under the Federation scheme, Gandhi resigned from party membership. He did not disagree with the party's move, but felt that if he resigned, his popularity with Indians would cease to stifle the party's membership, which actually varied, including communists, socialists, trade unionists, students, religious conservatives, and those with pro-business convictions, and that these various voices would get a chance to make themselves heard. Gandhi also wanted to avoid being a target for Raj propaganda by leading a party that had temporarily accepted political accommodation with the Raj.[77]
Gandhi returned to active politics again in 1936, with the Nehru presidency and the Lucknow session of the Congress. Although Gandhi wanted a total focus on the task of winning independence and not speculation about India's future, he did not restrain the Congress from adopting socialism as its goal. Gandhi had a clash with Subhas Chandra Bose, who had been elected president in 1938, and who had previously expressed a lack of faith in non-violence as a means of protest.[78] Despite Gandhi's opposition, Bose won a second term as Congress President, against Gandhi's nominee, Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramayya; but left the Congress when the All-India leaders resigned en masse in protest of his abandonment of the principles introduced by Gandhi.[79][80] Gandhi declared that Sitaramayya's defeat was his defeat.[81]
[edit] World War II and Quit India
Main article: Quit India Movement
Gandhi initially favoured offering "non-violent moral support" to the British effort when World War II broke out in 1939, but the Congressional leaders were offended by the unilateral inclusion of India in the war without consultation of the people's representatives. All Congressmen resigned from office.[82] After long deliberations, Gandhi declared that India could not be party to a war ostensibly being fought for democratic freedom while that freedom was denied to India itself. As the war progressed, Gandhi intensified his demand for independence, calling for the British to Quit India in a speech at Gowalia Tank Maidan. This was Gandhi's and the Congress Party's most definitive revolt aimed at securing the British exit from India.[83]
Gandhi was criticised by some Congress party members and other Indian political groups, both pro-British and anti-British. Some felt that not supporting Britain more in its struggle against Nazi Germany was unethical. Others felt that Gandhi's refusal for India to participate in the war was insufficient and more direct opposition should be taken, while Britain fought against Nazism yet continued to contradict itself by refusing to grant India Independence. Quit India became the most forceful movement in the history of the struggle, with mass arrests and violence on an unprecedented scale.[84]
Thousands of freedom fighters were killed or injured by police gunfire, and hundreds of thousands were arrested. Gandhi and his supporters made it clear they would not support the war effort unless India were granted immediate independence. He even clarified that this time the movement would not be stopped if individual acts of violence were committed, saying that the "ordered anarchy" around him was "worse than real anarchy." He called on all Congressmen and Indians to maintain discipline via ahimsa, and Karo ya maro ("Do or die") in the cause of ultimate freedom.[85]
Gandhi and the entire Congress Working Committee were arrested in Bombay by the British on 9 August 1942. Gandhi was held for two years in the Aga Khan Palace in Pune. It was here that Gandhi suffered two terrible blows in his personal life. His 50-year old secretary Mahadev Desai died of a heart attack 6 days later and his wife Kasturba died after 18 months imprisonment on 22 February 1944; six weeks later Gandhi suffered a severe malaria attack. He was released before the end of the war on 6 May 1944 because of his failing health and necessary surgery; the Raj did not want him to die in prison and enrage the nation. He came out of detention to an altered political scene—the Muslim League for example, which a few years earlier had appeared marginal, "now occupied the centre of the political stage"[86] and the topic of Jinnah's campaign for Pakistan was a major talking point. Gandhi met Jinnah in September 1944 in Bombay but Jinnah rejected, on the grounds that it fell short of a fully independent Pakistan, his proposal of the right of Muslim provinces to opt out of substantial parts of the forthcoming political union.[87][88]
While the leaders of Congress languished in jail, the other parties supported the war and gained organizational strength. Underground publications flailed at the ruthless suppression of Congress, but it had little control over events.[89] brought order to India by the end of 1943. At the end of the war, the British gave clear indications that power would be transferred to Indian hands. At this point Gandhi called off the struggle, and around 100,000 political prisoners were released, including the Congress's leadership.[60]
Partition and independence, 1947[link]
See also: Partition of India
As a rule, Gandhi was opposed to the concept of partition as it contradicted his vision of religious unity.[90] Concerning the partition of India to create Pakistan, while the Indian National Congress and Gandhi called for the British to quit India, the Muslim League passed a resolution for them to divide and quit, in 1943.[91] Gandhi suggested an agreement which required the Congress and Muslim League to cooperate and attain independence under a provisional government, thereafter, the question of partition could be resolved by a plebiscite in the districts with a Muslim majority.[92] When Jinnah called for Direct Action, on 16 August 1946, Gandhi was infuriated and visited the most riot prone areas to stop the massacres, personally.[93] He made strong efforts to unite the Indian Hindus, Muslims and Christians and struggled for the emancipation of the "untouchables" in Hindu society.[94]
On 14 and 15 August 1947 the Indian Independence Act was invoked. In border areas some 10—12 million people moved from one side to another and upwards of a half million were killed in communal riots pitting Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs.[95] But for his teachings, the efforts of his followers, and his own presence, there perhaps could have been much more bloodshed during the partition, according to prominent Norwegian historian, Jens Arup Seip.[96]
Stanley Wolpert has argued, The "plan to carve up British India was never approved of or accepted by Gandhi...who realised too late that his closest comrades and disciples were more interested in power than principle, and that his own vision had long been clouded by the illusion that the struggle he led for India's freedom was a nonviolent one."[97]
Assassination[link]
On 30 January 1948, Gandhi was shot while he was walking to a platform from which he was to address a prayer meeting. The assassin, Nathuram Godse, was a Hindu nationalist with links to the extremist Hindu Mahasabha, who held Gandhi responsible for weakening India by insisting upon a payment to Pakistan.[98] Godse and his co-conspirator Narayan Apte were later tried and convicted; they were executed on 15 November 1949. Gandhi's memorial (or Samādhi) at Rāj Ghāt, New Delhi, bears the epigraph "Hē Ram", (Devanagari: हे ! राम or, He Rām), which may be translated as "Oh God". These are widely believed to be Gandhi's last words after he was shot, though the veracity of this statement has been disputed.[99] Jawaharlal Nehru addressed the nation through radio:[100]
"Friends and comrades, the light has gone out of our lives, and there is darkness everywhere, and I do not quite know what to tell you or how to say it. Our beloved leader, Bapu as we called him, the father of the nation, is no more. Perhaps I am wrong to say that; nevertheless, we will not see him again, as we have seen him for these many years, we will not run to him for advice or seek solace from him, and that is a terrible blow, not only for me, but for millions and millions in this country."—Jawaharlal Nehru's address to Gandhi[101]
Gandhi's death was mourned nationwide. Over 2 million people joined the 5 mile long funeral procession that took over 5 hours to reach Raj Ghat from Birla house, where he was assassinated. Gandhi's body was transported on a weapons carrier, whose chassis was dismantled overnight to allow a high-floor to be installed so that people could catch a glimpse of his body. The engine of the vehicle was not used, instead 4 drag-ropes manned by 50 people each pulled the vehicle.[102] All Indian owned establishments in London remained closed in mourning as thousands of people from all faiths and denominations and Indians from all over Britain converged at India House in London.[103]
Professor Yasmin Khan argues that Gandhi's death and funeral helped consolidate the authority of the new Indian state. With Nehru and Patel in charge, the government made sure everyone knew the guilty party was not a Muslim. Congress tightly controlled the epic public displays of grief over a two-week period—the funeral, mortuary rituals and distribution of the martyr's ashes—as millions participated and hundreds of millions watched. The goal was to assert the power of the government and legitimize the Congress Party's control. This move built upon the massive outpouring of Hindu expressions of grief. The government suppressed the RSS, the Muslim National Guards, and the Khaksars, with some 200,000 arrests. Gandhi's death and funeral linked the distant state with the Indian people and made more understand the need to suppress religious parties during the transition to independence for the Indian people.[104]
Ashes[link]
By Hindu tradition the ashes were to be spread on a river. Gandhi's ashes were poured into urns which were sent across India for memorial services[105]. Most were immersed at the Sangam at Allahabad on 12 February 1948, but some were secretly taken away. In 1997, Tushar Gandhi immersed the contents of one urn, found in a bank vault and reclaimed through the courts, at the Sangam at Allahabad.[106] [107] Some of Gandhi's ashes were scattered at the source of the Nile River near Jinja, Uganda, and a memorial plaque marks the event. On 30 January 2008, the contents of another urn were immersed at Girgaum Chowpatty. Another urn is at the palace of the Aga Khan in Pune[106] (where he had been imprisoned from 1942 to 1944) and another in the Self-Realization Fellowship Lake Shrine in Los Angeles.[108]
Principles, practices and beliefs[link]
Main article: Gandhism
Gandhism designates the ideas and principles Gandhi promoted. Of central importance is nonviolent resistance. A Gandhian can mean either an individual who follows, or a specific philosophy which is attributed to, Gandhism.[43] M.M.Sankhdher argues that Gandhism is not a systematic position in metaphysics or in political philosophy. Rather, it is a political creed, an economic doctrine, a religious outlook, a moral precept, and especially, a humanitarian world view. It is an effort not to systematize wisdom but to transform society and is based on an undying faith in the goodness of human nature.[109] However Gandhi himself did not approve of the notion of "Gandhism". He explained in 1936:
There is no such thing as "Gandhism," and I do not want to leave any sect after me. I do not claim to have originated any new principle or doctrine. I have simply tried in my own way to apply the eternal truths to our daily life and problems...The opinions I have formed and the conclusions I have arrived at are not final. I may change them tomorrow. I have nothing new to teach the world. Truth and non-violence are as old as the hills.[110]
Influences[link]
Historian R.B. Cribb argues that Gandhi's thought evolved over time, with his early ideas becoming the core or scaffolding for his mature philosophy. In London he committed himself to truthfulness, temperance, chastity, and vegetarianism. His return to India to work as a lawyer was a failure, so he went to South Africa for a quarter century, where he absorbed ideas from many sources, most of them non-Indian.[111] While Gandhi was born a Hindu, he grew up in an eclectic religious atmosphere and throughout his life searched for insights from many religious traditions.[112] He was exposed to Jain ideas through his mother who was a devout Jain and was in contact with Jain leaders. Themes from Jainism that Gandhi absorbed included asceticism; compassion for all forms of life; the importance of vows for self discipline; vegetarianism; fasting for self-purification; mutual tolerance among people of different creeds; and "syadvad," the idea that all views of truth are partial, a doctrine that lies at the root of Satyagraha.[14][113]
Gandhi's London experience provided a solid philosophical base focused on truthfulness, temperance, chastity, and vegetarianism. When he returned to India in 1891, his outlook was parochial and he could not make a living as a lawyer. This challenged his belief that practicality and morality necessarily coincided. By moving in 1893 to South Africa he found a solution to this problem and developed the central concepts of his mature philosophy.[114] N. A. Toothi[115] felt that Gandhi was influenced by the reforms and teachings of Swaminarayan, stating "Close parallels do exist in programs of social reform based on to non-violence, truth-telling, cleanliness, temperance and upliftment of the masses."[116] Vallabhbhai Patel, who grew up in a Swaminarayan household was attracted to Gandhi due to this aspect of Gandhi's doctrine.[117]
Gandhi's ethical thinking was heavily influenced by a handful of books, which he repeatedly meditated upon. They included especially Plato's Apology, (which he translated into his native Gujarati); William Salter's Ethical Religion (1889); Henry David Thoreau's On the Duty of Civil Disobedience (1847); Leo Tolstoy's The Kingdom of God Is Within You (1893); and John Ruskin's Unto this Last (1862), which he also translated into Gujarati . Ruskin inspired his decision to live an austere life on a commune, at first on the Phoenix Farm in Natal and then on the Tolstoy Farm just outside Johannesburg, South Africa.[25]
Balkrishna Gokhale argues that Gandhi took his philosophy of history from Hinduism and Jainism, supplemented by selected Christian traditions and ideas of Tolstoy and Ruskin. Hinduism provided central concepts of God's role in history, of man as the battleground of forces of virtue and sin, and of the potential of love as an historical force. From Jainism, Gandhi took the idea of applying nonviolence to human situations and the theory that Absolute Reality can be comprehended only relatively in human affairs.[118]
Historian Howard Spodek argues for the importance of the culture of Gujarat in shaping Gandhi's methods. Spodek finds that some of Gandhi's most effective methods such as fasting, noncooperation and appeals to the justice and compassion of the rulers were learned as a youth in Gujarat. Later on, the financial, cultural, organizational and geographical support needed to bring his campaigns to a national audience were drawn from Ahmedabad and Gujarat, his Indian residence 1915–1930.[119]
Tolstoy[link]
In 1908 Leo Tolstoy wrote A Letter to a Hindu, which said that only by using love as a weapon through passive resistance could the Indian people overthrow colonial rule. In 1909, Gandhi wrote to Tolstoy seeking advice and permission to republish A Letter to a Hindu in Gujarati. Tolstoy responded and the two continued a correspondence until Tolstoy's death in 1910. The letters concern practical and theological applications of non-violence.[120] Gandhi saw himself a disciple of Tolstoy, for they agreed regarding opposition to state authority and colonialism; both hated violence and preached non-resistance. However, they differed sharply on political strategy. Gandhi called for political involvement; he was a nationalist and was prepared to use nonviolent force. He was also willing to compromise.[121] It was at Tolstoy Farm where Gandhi and Hermann Kallenbach systematically trained their disciples in the philosophy of nonviolence.[122]
Truth and Satyagraha[link]
Gandhi dedicated his life to the wider purpose of discovering truth, or Satya. He tried to achieve this by learning from his own mistakes and conducting experiments on himself. He called his autobiography The Story of My Experiments with Truth.[123]
Bruce Watson argues that Gandhi based Satyagraha on the Vedantic ideal of self-realization, and notes it also contains Jain and Buddhist notions of nonviolence, vegetarianism, the avoidance of killing, and 'agape' (universal love). Gandhi also borrowed Christian-Islamic ideas of equality, the brotherhood of man, and the concept of turning the other cheek.[124]
Gandhi stated that the most important battle to fight was overcoming his own demons, fears, and insecurities. Gandhi summarised his beliefs first when he said "God is Truth". He would later change this statement to "Truth is God". Thus, satya (truth) in Gandhi's philosophy is "God".[125]
The essence of Satyagraha (a name Gandhi invented meaning "adherence to truth"[126]) is that it seeks to eliminate antagonisms without harming the antagonists themselves and seeks to transform or "purify" it to a higher level. A euphemism sometimes used for Satyagraha is that it is a "silent force" or a "soul force" (a term also used by Martin Luther King Jr. during his famous "I Have a Dream" speech). It arms the individual with moral power rather than physical power. Satyagraha is also termed a "universal force," as it essentially "makes no distinction between kinsmen and strangers, young and old, man and woman, friend and foe."[127]
Gandiji wrote: "There must be no impatience, no barbarity, no insolence, no undue pressure. If we want to cultivate a true spirit of democracy, we cannot afford to be intolerant. Intolerance betrays want of faith in one's cause."[128] Civil disobedience and non-cooperation as practised under Satyagraha are based on the "law of suffering",[129] a doctrine that the endurance of suffering is a means to an end. This end usually implies a moral upliftment or progress of an individual or society. Therefore, non-cooperation in Satyagraha is in fact a means to secure the cooperation of the opponent consistently with truth and justice.[130]
Nonviolence[link]
Although Gandhi was not the originator of the principle of non-violence, he was the first to apply it in the political field on a large scale.[131] The concept of nonviolence (ahimsa) and nonresistance has a long history in Indian religious thought and has had many revivals in Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, Jewish and Christian contexts. Gandhi explains his philosophy and way of life in his autobiography The Story of My Experiments with Truth. Some of his remarks were widely quoted, such as "An eye for an eye makes the whole world blind."[132] "There are many causes that I am prepared to die for but no causes that I am prepared to kill for."[133] Gandhi realized later that this level of nonviolence required incredible faith and courage, which he believed everyone did not possess. He therefore advised that everyone need not keep to nonviolence, especially if it were used as a cover for cowardice, saying, "where there is only a choice between cowardice and violence, I would advise violence."[134]
Gandhi thus came under some political fire for his criticism of those who attempted to achieve independence through more violent means. His refusal to protest against the hanging of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Udham Singh and Rajguru were sources of condemnation among some parties.[135][136]
Of this criticism, Gandhi stated, "There was a time when people listened to me because I showed them how to give fight to the British without arms when they had no arms [...] but today I am told that my non-violence can be of no avail against the [Hindu–Moslem riots] and, therefore, people should arm themselves for self-defense."[137]
Gandhi's views came under heavy criticism in Britain when it was under attack from Nazi Germany, and later when the Holocaust was revealed. He told the British people in 1940, "I would like you to lay down the arms you have as being useless for saving you or humanity. You will invite Herr Hitler and Signor Mussolini to take what they want of the countries you call your possessions... If these gentlemen choose to occupy your homes, you will vacate them. If they do not give you free passage out, you will allow yourselves, man, woman, and child, to be slaughtered, but you will refuse to owe allegiance to them."[138]
In a post-war interview in 1946, he said, "Hitler killed five million Jews. It is the greatest crime of our time. But the Jews should have offered themselves to the butcher’s knife. They should have thrown themselves into the sea from cliffs... It would have aroused the world and the people of Germany... As it is they succumbed anyway in their millions."[139]
Intervention in Palestine[link]
One of Gandhi major strategies first in South Africa and then in India was uniting Muslims and Hindus to work together in opposition to British imperialism.[140] In 1919-22 he won strong Muslim support for his leadership in the Khilafat Movement to support the historic Ottoman Caliphate.[140] The root cause of this intervention was "for the sake of Indian Muslims only."[140][141] In 1931, he suggested that while he could understand the desire of European Jews to emigrate to Palestine, this movement should support neither British colonialism nor violence.[142][143] Muslims throughout India and the Middle East strongly opposed the Zionist plan for a Jewish state in Palestine, and Gandhi (and Congress) supported the Muslims in this regard. By the 1930s all major political groups in India opposed a Jewish state in Palestine.[144]
This led to discussions concerning the persecution of the Jews in Germany and the emigration of Jews from Europe to Palestine, which Gandhi framed through the lens of Satyagraha.[142][143][145][146][147][148][149] In 1938, Gandhi stated that his "sympathies are all with the Jews. I have known them intimately in South Africa. Some of them became life-long companions"[147] In 1937, Gandhi discussed Zionism with his close friend Hermann Kallenbach.[140][145] He "did not, however, regard Zionism as the right answer to the Jewish problem"[150][151] and instead responded through his vision of Satyagraha.[143] Gandhi thought the Zionists in Palestine represented European imperialism and used violence to achieve its goals; he argued that "the Jews should disclaim any intention of realizing their aspiration under the protection of arms and should rely wholly on the goodwill of Arabs. No exception can possibly be taken to the natural desire of the Jews to found a home in Palestine. But they must wait for its fulfillment till Arab opinion is ripe for it."[145] Philosopher Martin Buber was extremely critical of Gandhi's approach and in 1939 wrote an open letter to him on the subject.[145][147] Gandhi reiterated his stance on the use of Satyagraha in Palestine in 1947.[143][148]
Vegetarianism and fasting[link]
Stephen Hay argues that Gandhi in London looked into numerous religious and intellectual currents. He especially appreciated how the theosophical movement encouraged a religious eclecticism and an antipathy to atheism. Hay says the vegetarian movement had the greatest impact for it was Gandhi's point of entry into other reformist agendas of the time.[152] The idea of vegetarianism is deeply ingrained in Hindu and Jain traditions in India, especially in his native Gujarat.[153] Gandhi was close to the chairman of the London Vegetarian Society, Dr. Josiah Oldfield, and corresponded with Henry Stephens Salt, a vegetarian campaigner. Gandhi became a strict vegetarian. He wrote the book The Moral Basis of Vegetarianism and wrote for the London Vegetarian Society's publication.[154]
Gandhi used fasting as a political device, often threatening suicide unless demands were met. Gandhi noted in his autobiography that vegetarianism was the beginning of his deep commitment to Brahmacharya; without total control of the palate, his success in Brahmacharya would likely falter. "You wish to know what the marks of a man are who wants to realize Truth which is God," he wrote. "He must reduce himself to zero and have perfect control over all his senses-beginning with the palate or tongue."[155][156]
Congress publicized the fasts as a political action that generated widespread sympathy. In response the government tried to manipulate news coverage to minimize his challenge to the Raj. He fasted in 1932 to protest the voting scheme for separate political representation for Dalits; Gandhi did not want them segregated. The government stopped the London press from showing photographs of his emaciated body, because it would elicit sympathy. Gandhi's 1943 hunger strike took place during a two-year prison term for the anticolonial Quit India movement. The government called on nutritional experts to demystify his action, and again no photos were allowed. However his final fast in 1948, after India was independent, was lauded by the British press and this time did include full-length photos.[157]
Alter argues that Gandhi's fixation on diet and celibacy were much deeper than exercises in self-discipline. Rather, his beliefs regarding health offered a critique of both the traditional Hindu system of ayurvedic medicine and Western concepts. This challenge was integral to his deeper challenge to tradition and modernity, as health and nonviolence became part of the same ethics.[158]
Celibacy[link]
A core Gandhian value that came in for much bantering and ribald music hall humour in Britain was his nakedness—Churchill publicly called him a "half-naked fakir"[159] – and his experiments in "brahmacharya" or the elimination of all desire in the face of temptation.[160] In 1906 Gandhi, although married and a father, vowed to abstain from sexual relations. In the 1940s, in his mid-seventies, he brought his grandniece Manubehn to sleep naked in his bed as part of a spiritual experiment in which Gandhi could test himself as a "brahmachari." Two other women also sometimes shared his bed. Gandhi discussed his experiment with friends and relations; most disagreed and the experiment ceased in 1947.[161]
Nai Talim, Basic Education[link]
Main article: Nai Talim
Gandhi's educational policies reflected Nai Talim ('Basic Education for all'), a spiritual principle which states that knowledge and work are not separate. It was a reaction against the British educational system and colonialism in general, which had the negative effect of making Indian children alienated and career-based; it promoted disdain for manual work, the development of a new elite class, and the increasing problems of industrialisation and urbanisation. The three pillars of Gandhi's pedagogy were its focus on the life-long character of education, its social character and its form as a holistic process. For Gandhi, education is 'the moral development of the person', a process that is by definition 'life-long'.[162]
Nai Talim evolved out of the spiritually oriented education program at Tolstoy Farm in South Africa, and Gandhi's work at the ashram at Sevagram after 1937.[163] After 1947 the Nehru government's vision of an industrialized, centrally planned economy had scant place for Gandhi's village-oriented approach.[164]
Swaraj, Self-Rule[link]
Main article: Swaraj
Rudolph argues that after a false start in trying to emulate the English in an attempt to overcome his timidity, Gandhi discovered the inner courage he was seeking by helping his countrymen in South Africa. The new courage consisted of observing the traditional Bengali way of "self-suffering" and, in finding his own courage, he was enabled also to point out the way of 'Satyagraha' and 'ahimsa' to the whole of India.[165]
Gandhi was a self-described philosophical anarchist,[166] and his vision of India meant an India without an underlying government.[167] He once said that "the ideally nonviolent state would be an ordered anarchy."[168] While political systems are largely hierarchical, with each layer of authority from the individual to the central government have increasing levels of authority over the layer below, Gandhi believed that society should be the exact opposite, where nothing is done without the consent of anyone, down to the individual. His idea was that true self-rule in a country means that every person rules his or herself and that there is no state which enforces laws upon the people.[169]
This would be achieved over time with nonviolent conflict mediation, as power is divested from layers of hierarchical authorities, ultimately to the individual, which would come to embody the ethic of nonviolence. Rather than a system where rights are enforced by a higher authority, people are self-governed by mutual responsibilities. On returning from South Africa, when Gandhi received a letter asking for his participation in writing a world charter for human rights, he responded saying, "in my experience, it is far more important to have a charter for human duties."[170]
A free India did not mean merely transferring the established British administrative structure into Indian hands. He warned, "you would make India English. And when it becomes English, it will be called not Hindustan but Englishtan. This is not the Swaraj I want."[171] Tewari argues that Gandhi saw democracy as more than a system of government; it meant promoting both individuality and the self-discipline of the community. Democracy was a moral system that distributed power and assisted the development of every social class, especially the lowest. It meant settling disputes in a nonviolent manner; it required freedom of thought and expression. For Gandhi, democracy was a way of life.[172]
Gandhian economics[link]
A free India for Gandhi meant the flourishing of thousands of self-sufficient small communities (an idea possibly from Tolstoy) who rule themselves without hindering others. Gandhian economics focused on the need for economic self-sufficiency at the village level. His policy of "sarvodaya"[173] called for ending poverty through improved agriculture and small-scale cottage industries in every village.[174] Gandhi challenged Nehru and the modernizers in the late 1930s who called for rapid industrialization on the Soviet model; Gandhi denounced that as dehumanizing and contrary to the needs of the villages where the great majority of the people lived.[175] After Gandhi's death Nehru led India to large-scale planning that emphasized modernization and heavy industry, while modernizing agriculture through irrigation. Historian Kuruvila Pandikattu says "it was Nehru's vision, not Gandhi's, that was eventually preferred by the Indian State."[176] After Gandhi's death activists inspired by his vision promoted their opposition to industrialization through the teachings of Gandhian economics.
Literary works[link]
Gandhi was a prolific writer. One of Gandhi's earliest publications, Hind Swaraj, published in Gujarati in 1909, is recognised[by whom?] as the intellectual blueprint of India's freedom movement. The book was translated into English the next year, with a copyright legend that read "No Rights Reserved".[177] For decades he edited several newspapers including Harijan in Gujarati, in Hindi and in the English language; Indian Opinion while in South Africa and, Young India, in English, and Navajivan, a Gujarati monthly, on his return to India. Later, Navajivan was also published in Hindi. In addition, he wrote letters almost every day to individuals and newspapers.[178]
Gandhi also wrote several books including his autobiography, The Story of My Experiments with Truth (Gujarātī "સત્યના પ્રયોગો અથવા આત્મકથા"), of which he bought the entire first edition to make sure it was reprinted.[62] His other autobiographies included: Satyagraha in South Africa about his struggle there, Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule, a political pamphlet, and a paraphrase in Gujarati of John Ruskin's Unto This Last.[179] This last essay can be considered his programme on economics. He also wrote extensively on vegetarianism, diet and health, religion, social reforms, etc. Gandhi usually wrote in Gujarati, though he also revised the Hindi and English translations of his books.[180]
Gandhi's complete works were published by the Indian government under the name The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi in the 1960s. The writings comprise about 50,000 pages published in about a hundred volumes. In 2000, a revised edition of the complete works sparked a controversy, as it constituted large number of errors and omissions.[181] The Indian government later withdrew the revised edition.[182]
Legacy and depictions in popular culture[link]
The word Mahatma, while often mistaken for Gandhi's given name in the West, is taken from the Sanskrit words maha (meaning Great) and atma (meaning Soul). Rabindranath Tagore is said to have accorded the title to Gandhi.[183] In his autobiography, Gandhi nevertheless explains that he never valued the title, and was often pained by it.[184]
Followers and international influence[link]
| “ | Christ gave us the goals and Mahatma Gandhi the tactics. | ” |
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—Martin Luther King Jr, 1955[185] |
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Gandhi influenced important leaders and political movements. Leaders of the civil rights movement in the United States, including Martin Luther King and James Lawson, drew from the writings of Gandhi in the development of their own theories about non-violence.[186][187][188] Anti-apartheid activist and former President of South Africa, Nelson Mandela, was inspired by Gandhi.[189] Others include Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan,[190] Steve Biko, and Aung San Suu Kyi.[191]
In his early years, the former President of South Africa Nelson Mandela was a follower of the non-violent resistance philosophy of Gandhi.[189] Bhana and Vahed commented on these events as "Gandhi inspired succeeding generations of South African activists seeking to end White rule. This legacy connects him to Nelson Mandela...in a sense Mandela completed what Gandhi started."[32]
Gandhi's life and teachings inspired many who specifically referred to Gandhi as their mentor or who dedicated their lives to spreading Gandhi's ideas. In Europe, Romain Rolland was the first to discuss Gandhi in his 1924 book Mahatma Gandhi, and Brazilian anarchist and feminist Maria Lacerda de Moura wrote about Gandhi in her work on pacifism. In 1931, notable European physicist Albert Einstein exchanged written letters with Gandhi, and called him "a role model for the generations to come" in a later writing about him.[192] Einstein said of Gandhi:
Mahatma Gandhi's life achievement stands unique in political history. He has invented a completely new and humane means for the liberation war of an oppressed country, and practised it with greatest energy and devotion. The moral influence he had on the consciously thinking human being of the entire civilized world will probably be much more lasting than it seems in our time with its overestimation of brutal violent forces. Because lasting will only be the work of such statesmen who wake up and strengthen the moral power of their people through their example and educational works.We may all be happy and grateful that destiny gifted us with such an enlightened contemporary, a role model for the generations to come.
Generations to come will scarce believe that such a one as this walked the earth in flesh and blood.[193]
Lanza del Vasto went to India in 1936 intending to live with Gandhi; he later returned to Europe to spread Gandhi's philosophy and founded the Community of the Ark in 1948 (modelled after Gandhi's ashrams). Madeleine Slade (known as "Mirabehn") was the daughter of a British admiral who spent much of her adult life in India as a devotee of Gandhi.[194][195]
In addition, the British musician John Lennon referred to Gandhi when discussing his views on non-violence.[196] At the Cannes Lions International Advertising Festival in 2007, former U.S. Vice-President and environmentalist Al Gore spoke of Gandhi's influence on him.[197]
President of the United States Barack Obama in an address to a Joint Session of the Parliament of India said that:
"I am mindful that I might not be standing before you today, as President of the United States, had it not been for Gandhi and the message he shared with America and the world."—Barack Obama in an address to a Joint Session of the Parliament of India, 2010[198]
Obama in September 2009 said that his biggest inspiration came from Mahatma Gandhi. His reply was in response to the question 'Who was the one person, dead or live, that you would choose to dine with?'. He continued that "He's somebody I find a lot of inspiration in. He inspired Dr. King with his message of nonviolence. He ended up doing so much and changed the world just by the power of his ethics."[199]
Time Magazine named The 14th Dalai Lama, Lech Wałęsa, Martin Luther King, Cesar Chavez, Aung San Suu Kyi, Benigno Aquino, Jr., Desmond Tutu, and Nelson Mandela as Children of Gandhi and his spiritual heirs to non-violence.[200] The Mahatma Gandhi District in Houston, Texas, United States, an ethnic Indian enclave, is officially named after Gandhi.[201]
Global holidays[link]
In 2007, the United Nations General Assembly declared Gandhi's birthday 2 October as "the International Day of Non-Violence."[202] First proposed by UNESCO in 1948, as the School Day of Non-violence and Peace (DENIP in Spanish),[203] 30 January of every year is observed the School Day of Non-violence and Peace in schools of many countries[204] In countries with a Southern Hemisphere school calendar, it is observed on 30 March.[204]
Awards[link]
Time magazine named Gandhi the Man of the Year in 1930. Gandhi was also the runner-up to Albert Einstein as "Person of the Century"[205] at the end of 1999.The Government of India awards the annual Gandhi Peace Prize to distinguished social workers, world leaders and citizens. Nelson Mandela, the leader of South Africa's struggle to eradicate racial discrimination and segregation, is a prominent non-Indian recipient. In 2011, Time magazine named Gandhi as one of the top 25 political icons of all time.[206]
Gandhi did not receive the Nobel Peace Prize, although he was nominated five times between 1937 and 1948, including the first-ever nomination by the American Friends Service Committee,[207] though he made the short list only twice, in 1937 and 1947.[94] Decades later, the Nobel Committee publicly declared its regret for the omission, and admitted to deeply divided nationalistic opinion denying the award.[94] Gandhi was nominated in 1948 but was assassinated before nominations closed. That year, the committee chose not to award the peace prize stating that "there was no suitable living candidate" and later research shows that the possibility of awarding the prize posthumously to Gandhi was discussed and that the reference to no suitable living candidate was to Gandhi.[94] When the 14th Dalai Lama was awarded the Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was "in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi."[94]
Film and literature[link]
Mahatma Gandhi has been portrayed in film, literature, and in the theatre. Ben Kingsley portrayed Gandhi in the 1982 film Gandhi, which won the Academy Award for Best Picture. The 2007 film, Gandhi, My Father explores the relationship between Gandhi and his son Harilal. Gandhi is also a central figure in the 2006 Bollywood comedy Lage Raho Munna Bhai. The 1996 film, The Making of the Mahatma, documents Gandhi's time in South Africa and his transformation from an inexperienced barrister to recognised political leader.[208]
Several biographers have undertaken the task of describing Gandhi's life. Among them are: D. G. Tendulkar with his Mahatma. Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi in eight volumes, and Pyarelal and Sushila Nayyar with their Mahatma Gandhi in 10 volumes. There is also another documentary, titled Mahatma: Life of Gandhi, 1869–1948, which is 14 chapters and 6 hours long.[209]
The April 2010 biography, Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle With India by Joseph Lelyveld contained controversial material speculating about Gandhi's sexual life.[210] Because of this material, the book was banned in the Indian state of Gujarat, Gandhi's birthplace.[211] Lelyveld, however, stated that the press coverage "grossly distort[s]" the overall message of the book.[212]
Current impact within India[link]
India, with its rapid economic modernization and urbanization, has rejected Gandhi's economics[214] but accepted much of his politics and continues to revere his memory. Reporter Jim Yardley notes that, "modern India is hardly a Gandhian nation, if it ever was one. His vision of a village-dominated economy was shunted aside during his lifetime as rural romanticism, and his call for a national ethos of personal austerity and nonviolence has proved antithetical to the goals of an aspiring economic and military power." By contrast Gandhi is "given full credit for India’s political identity as a tolerant, secular democracy."[215]
Gandhi's birthday, 2 October, is a national holiday in India, Gandhi Jayanti. Gandhi's image also appears on paper currency of all denominations issued by Reserve Bank of India, except for the one rupee note.[216] Gandhi's date of death, 30 January, is commemorated as a Martyrs' Day in India.[217]
There are two temples in India dedicated to Gandhi.[218] One is located at Sambalpur in Orissa and the other at Nidaghatta village near Kadur in Chikmagalur district of Karnataka.[218] The Gandhi Memorial in Kanyakumari resembles central Indian Hindu temples and the Tamukkam or Summer Palace in Madurai now houses the Mahatma Gandhi Museum.[219]
Citations[link]
- ^ a b c Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006), pg 1-3.
- ^ Pilisuk & Nagler (2011), pg 306-307.
- ^ "Mohandas Gandhi (1869 - 1948)". http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/gandhi_mohandas.shtml.
- ^ Richard Toye (2010). Churchill's Empire: The World That Made Him and the World He Made. Macmillan. p. 176-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ca4DNx1iuRgC&pg=PA176.
- ^ Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006), Gandhi: the man, his people, and the empire, University of California Press, p. 172, http://books.google.com/books?id=FauJL7LKXmkC&pg=PA172 Quote: "Addresses in Durban and Verulam referred to Gandhi as a 'Mahatma', 'great soul'. He was seen as a great soul because he had taken up the poor's cause. (p 172)"
- ^ Markovits, Claude (2006). Un-Gandhian Gandhi. Permanent Black. p. 59. ISBN 978-81-7824-155-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=30e_maQ2vYQC&pg=PA59.
- ^ Douglas Allen (2008). The Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi for the Twenty-First Century. Lexington Books. p. 34. http://books.google.com/books?id=bc53Vcr1eRYC&pg=PA34.
- ^ Todd & Marty (2012), pg 8. The name Gandhi means "grocer", although Mohandas's father and grandfather were politicians not grocers.
- ^ Miller (2002), pg 9.
- ^ a b c Majumudar (2005), pg 27, 28.
- ^ Schouten (2008), pg 132.
- ^ a b c d e f Tendulkar (1951).
- ^ Singh, Savita; Misra, Bharati (2005). Gandhian Alternative (vol. 2 : Nonviolence-In-Action). Concept Publishing Company. p. 110. ISBN 978-81-8069-124-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=AF8dWNDBGIQC.
- ^ a b Sannuti (2010).
- ^ Sorokin (2002), pg 169.
- ^ Rudolph & Rudolph (1983), pg 48.
- ^ a b Mohanty (2011).
- ^ Gandhi, (1940). Chapter "At the High School".
- ^ Gandhi, (1940). Chapter "Playing the Husband".
- ^ Gandhi, (1940). Chapter "My Father's Death and My Double Shame".
- ^ Gandhi, (1940). Chapter "Preparation for England".
- ^ Gandhi (1990) p 304-5
- ^ Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006), pp 20-21.
- ^ a b c d Brown, (1991).
- ^ a b Parekh, (2001).
- ^ a b Fischer, (2002).
- ^ Gandhi, (1940). Chapter "More Hardships".
- ^ Gandhi, (1940). Chapter "Some Experiences".
- ^ Allen, Jeremiah (2011). Sleeping with Strangers: A Vagabond's Journey Tramping the Globe. Other Places Publishing. p. 273. ISBN 978-1-935850-01-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=vyl8f54UToQC&pg=PT273.
- ^ Rai, Ajay Shanker (2000). Gandhian Satyagraha: An Analytical And Critical Approach. Concept Publishing Company. p. 35. ISBN 978-81-7022-799-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z9ZSLa6cy-8C&pg=PA35.
- ^ Smith, (2006).
- ^ a b Bhana & Vahed, (2005). Pg 44–45, 149.
- ^ Herman, (2010). Pg 137.
- ^ Gandhi, Rajmohan (2006), pg 108-109.
- ^ Prashad, (1966).
- ^ Claude Markovits (2004). A History of Modern India, 1480-1950. Anthem Press. pp. 367–86. http://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C.
- ^ Chronology of Mahatma Gandhi's Life:India 1918 in WikiSource based on the Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. Based on public domain volumes.
- ^ Gandhi,(1940). Chapter "Recruiting Campaign".
- ^ a b Desai, (1930).
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- ^ a b c d e Tønnesson, Øyvind (1 December 1999). "Mahatma Gandhi, the Missing Laureate". Nobelprize.org. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/articles/gandhi/. Retrieved 16 January 2012.
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- ^ Stanley Wolpert, Gandhi's Passion p 7
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- ^ R. B. Cribb, "The Early Political Philosophy of M. K. Gandhi, 1869-1893," Asian Profile, (1985) 13#4 pp 353-360
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- ^ Crib, (1985).
- ^ Meller, Helen Elizabeth (1994). Patrick Geddes: social evolutionist and city planner. Routledge. pp. 159. ISBN 0-415-10393-2.
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- ^ Murthy, B. Srinivasa, ed. (1987). Mahatma Gandhi and Leo Tolstoy: Letters. Long Beach, California: Long Beach Publications. ISBN 0-941910-03-2. http://bsmurthy.com/download/Mahatma_Gandhi_Leostoy_Letters_by_BSM.pdf. Retrieved 14 January 2012.
- ^ Green, Martin Burgess (1986). The origins of nonviolence: Tolstoy and Gandhi in their historical settings. Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-0-271-00414-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=D0luAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
- ^ Bhana, Surendra (1979). "Tolstoy Farm, A Satyagrahi's Battle Ground". Journal of Indian History 57 (2/3): 431–440.
- ^ Johnson, Richard L. (2006). Gandhi's Experiments With Truth: Essential Writings By And About Mahatma Gandhi. Lexington Books. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-7391-1143-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=dRQcKsx-YgQC&pg=PR11. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
- ^ Watson, I. Bruce (1977). "Satyagraha: The Gandhian Synthesis". Journal of Indian History 55 (1/2): 325–335.
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- ^ Uma Majmudar (2005). Gandhi's pilgrimage of faith: from darkness to light. SUNY Press. p. 138. http://books.google.com/books?id=xM4paHEq5oQC&pg=PA138.
- ^ Gandhi, M.K. "Some Rules of Satyagraha" Young India (Navajivan) 23 February 1930 (The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi vol. 48, p. 340)
- ^ R. K. Prabhu & U. R. Rao, editors; from section "Power of Satyagraha," of the book The Mind of Mahatma Gandhi, Ahemadabad, India, Revised Edition, 1967.
- ^ Gandhi, M. K. (1982) [Young India, 16 June 1920]. "156. The Law of Suffering". Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. 20 (electronic ed.). New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India. pp. 396–399. http://www.gandhiserve.org/cwmg/VOL020.PDF. Retrieved 14 January 2012.
- ^ Sharma, Jai Narain (2008). Satyagraha: Gandhi's approach to conflict resolution. Concept Publishing Company. p. 17. ISBN 978-81-8069-480-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=XxJvoBWTAXoC&pg=PA17. Retrieved 26 January 2012.
- ^ Asirvatham, Eddy. Political Theory. S.chand. ISBN 81-219-0346-7.
- ^ Mary Ellen Snodgrass, Encyclopedia of the Literature of Empire (2009) p 316
- ^ James Geary, Geary's Guide to the World's Great Aphorists (2007) p 87
- ^ William Borman (1986). Gandhi and non-violence. SUNY Press. p. 253. http://books.google.com/books?id=U6DE9OUvrTEC&pg=PA253.
- ^ Mahatama Gandhi on Bhagat Singh.
- ^ Rai, Raghunath. Themes in Indian History. FK Publications. p. 282. http://books.google.com/books?id=zYhgvAsKGLsC&pg=PA282.
- ^ reprinted in Louis Fischer, ed. The Essential Gandhi: An Anthology of His Writings on His Life, Work, and Ideas 2002 (reprint edition) p. 311.
- ^ Stanley Wolpert. Gandhi's passion: the life and legacy of Mahatma Gandhi. Oxford University Press. p. 197. http://books.google.com/books?id=ih1VCqkUr4gC&pg=PA197.
- ^ Louis Fischer (1950). The life of Mahatma Gandhi. Harper. p. 348. http://books.google.com/?id=pHcGAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA348&q=%22cliffs%22.
- ^ a b c d Panter-Brick, Simone. "Gandhi's Dream of Hindu-Muslim Unity and its two Offshoots in the Middle East." Durham Anthropology Journal, Volume 16(2) 2009: PP. 54-66.
- ^ P. R. Kumaraswamy, "Mahatma Gandhi and the Jewish National Home: An Assessment," Asian and African studies: Journal of the Israel Oriental Society, (1992) 26#1 pp 1-13
- ^ a b Mishra, Pankaj. "The west will not prevent a Palestinian state's eventual birth." The Guardian, 14 September 2011.
- ^ a b c d Guha, Ramachandra. "Gandhi and Palestine." The Hindu, 2 January 2004.
- ^ Birendra Prasad, "Indian Opinion and the Peel Commission on Palestine," Indian Journal of Politics, vol. 11, no. 3 (December 1977), pp 223-228.
- ^ a b c d Lelyveld, Joseph. Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle With India. New York: Knopf, 2011. PP. 278 - 281.
- ^ Panter-Brick, Simone. Gandhi And The Middle East: Jews, Arabs and Imperial Interests. London:I.B. Tauris, 2008.
- ^ a b c Murti, Ramana V.V. "Buber's Dialogue and Gandhi's Satyagraha." Journal of the History of Ideas. Vol. 29, NO. 4 (Oct-Dec, 1968), pp. 605-613. in JSTOR
- ^ a b "Gandhi Praises British Decision." The St. Petersburg Times, 7 May 1947, P. 27.
- ^ Reddy, E.S. (ed). "Gandhi, The Jews And Palestine: A Collection of Articles, Speeches, Letters and Interviews." GandhiServe Foundation:Mahatma Gandhi Research and Media Service.
- ^ Jack, Homer. The Gandhi Reader. New York: Grove Press, 1956. P. 317
- ^ Segev, Tom. One Palestine Complete: Jews and Arabs under the British Mandate. New York: Metropolitan Books: 2000. P. 435.
- ^ Stephen Hay, "The Making of a Late-Victorian Hindu: M.K. Gandhi in London, 1888–1891," Victorian Studies, (Aut. 1989) 33#1 pp 75–98 in JSTOR
- ^ Chitrita Banerji, Eating India: an odyssey into the food and culture of the land of spices (2007) p. 169
- ^ Wolpert, Gandhi's passion p. 22
- ^ Cited in Mohit Chakrabarti, Gandhian Socio-Aesthetics (1997) p. 24
- ^ See also Carol Becker, "Gandhi's Body and Further Representations of War and Peace," Art Journal 65#4 (2006) pp 79+
- ^ Tim Pratt and James Vernon, "'Appeal from this fiery bed . . .': The Colonial Politics of Gandhi's Fasts and Their Metropolitan Reception," Journal of British Studies, Jan 2005, 44#1 pp 92–114
- ^ Joseph S. Alter, "Gandhi's body, Gandhi's truth: Nonviolence and the biomoral imperative of public health," Journal of Asian Studies, (May 1996) 35#2 pp 301–22 in JSTOR
- ^ Tariq Ali, An Indian dynasty: the story of the Nehru-Gandhi family (1985) p 36
- ^ Gandhi (1990) pp 572–78
- ^ Vinay Lal, "Nakedness, Nonviolence, and Brahmacharya: Gandhi's Experiments in Celibate Sexuality," Journal of the History of Sexuality, (Jan/Apr 2000), Vol. 9 Issue 1/2, pp 105–36
- ^ Dinabandhu Dehury: Mahatma Gandhi's Contribution to Education
- ^ Thomas Weber (2004). Gandhi As Disciple And Mentor. Cambridge U. Press. p. 80. http://books.google.com/books?id=P8nC80pG4GIC&pg=PA80.
- ^ David Yencken; John Fien; Helen Sykes (2000). Environment, Education, and Society in the Asia-Pacific: Local Traditions and Global Discourses. Psychology Press. p. 107. http://books.google.com/books?id=tpE3W2MhC78C&pg=PA107.
- ^ Susanne Hoeber Rudolph, "The New Courage: An Essay on Gandhi's Psychology," World Politics, (1963) 16#1, pp. 98–117 in JSTOR
- ^ Snow, Edgar. The Message of Gandhi. SEP 27 March 1948. "Like Marx, Gandhi hated the state and wished to eliminate it, and he told me he considered himself 'a philosophical anarchist.'"
- ^ Jesudasan, Ignatius. A Gandhian theology of liberation. Gujarat Sahitya Prakash: Ananda India, 1987, pp 236–237
- ^ Bidyut Chakrabarty (2006). Social and political thought of Mahatma Gandhi. Routledge. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-415-36096-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=4x34We-mY40C&pg=PA138. Retrieved 25 January 2012.
- ^ Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand; Tolstoy, Leo (September 1987). B. Srinivasa Murthy. ed. Mahatma Gandhi and Leo Tolstoy letters. Long Beach Publications.
- ^ Easwaran, Eknath. Gandhi the Man. Nilgiri Press, 1998. p. 33.
- ^ Paul Gillen; Devleena Ghosh (2007). Colonialism and Modernity. UNSW Press. p. 130. http://books.google.com/books?id=bnQk28Du5poC&pg=PA130.
- ^ S. M. Tewari, "The Concept of Democracy in the Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi," Indian Political Science Review (1971) 6#2 pp 225-251
- ^ V. V. Bhatt, "Development Problem, Strategy, and Technology Choice: Sarvodaya and Socialist Approaches in India," Economic Development and Cultural Change (1982) 31#1 pp. 85-99 in JSTOR
- ^ Kenneth Rivett, "The Economic Thought of Mahatma Gandhi," British Journal of Sociology (1959) 10#1 pp. 1-15 in JSTOR
- ^ Bidyut Chakrabarty, "Jawaharlal Nehru and Planning, 1938-1941: India at the Crossroads," Modern Asian Studies (March 1992) 26#2 pp 275-287
- ^ Kuruvila Pandikattu (2001). Gandhi: the meaning of Mahatma for the millennium. CRVP. p. 237. ISBN 978-1-56518-156-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=YrGadHsc1bUC&pg=PA237.
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- ^ Peerless Communicator by V.N. Narayanan. Life Positive Plus, October–December 2002
- ^ Gandhi, M. K. (in English; trans. from Gujarati) (PDF). Unto this Last: A paraphrase. Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House. ISBN 81-7229-076-4. http://wikilivres.info/wiki/Unto_This_Last_%E2%80%94_M._K._Gandhi.
- ^ Pareku, Bhikhu. Gandhi. Oxford University Press. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-19-160667-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=0chB4q7XeHcC&pg=PT159. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
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- ^ Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi (CWMG) Controversy
- ^ Tagore, Rabindranath (15 December 1998). Dutta, Krishna. ed. Rabindranath Tagore: an anthology. Robinson, Andrew. Macmillan. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-312-20079-4.
- ^ Desai, Mahadev H. (1983). Autobiography: the story of my experiments with truth. Mineola, N.Y: Dover. p. viii. ISBN 0-486-24593-4. http://books.google.com/?id=OXoRs7Kxs_YC&pg=PR1.
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- ^ a b Nelson Mandela, The Sacred Warrior: The liberator of South Africa looks at the seminal work of the liberator of India, Time Magazine, 3 January 2000.
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- ^ "In the company of Bapu". The Telegraph (Calcutta). 3 October 2004. http://www.telegraphindia.com/1041003/asp/look/story_3824566.asp. Retrieved 26 January 2012.
- ^ Gilmore, Mikal (5 December 2005). "Lennon Lives Forever". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on 28 May 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070528225215/http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/8898300/lennon_lives_forever. Retrieved 24 January 2012.
- ^ Kar, Kalyan (23 June 2007). "Of Gandhigiri and Green Lion, Al Gore wins hearts at Cannes". Cannes Lions 2007. exchange4media. http://www.exchange4media.com/Cannes/2007/fullstory2007.asp?section_id=13&news_id=26524&tag=21387&pict=2. Retrieved 24 January 2012.
- ^ "Remarks by the President to the Joint Session of the Indian Parliament in New Delhi, India, Parliament House, New Delhi, India". The White House. 8 November 2010. http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2010/11/08/remarks-president-joint-session-indian-parliament-new-delhi-india. Retrieved 24 January 2012.
- ^ "Obama steers clear of politics in school pep talk". msnbc.msn.com. Associated Press (msnbc.com). 8 September 2009. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/32723625/ns/politics-white_house/t/obama-steers-clear-politics-school-pep-talk/#.Tx5wvqWyaOw. Retrieved 24 January 2012.
- ^ Unattributed (31 December 1999). "The Children Of Gandhi" (excerpt). Time Magazine. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,993026,00.html.
- ^ Moreno, Jenalia (16 January 2010). "Houston community celebrates district named for Gandhi". Chron.com. Houston Chronicle. http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/metropolitan/6818599.html. Retrieved 24 January 2012.
- ^ "UN declares 2 October, Gandhi’s birthday, as International Day of Non-Violence". UN News Centre. 15. http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=22926&Cr=non&Cr1=violence. Retrieved 2 April 2012.
- ^ Unattributed (30 January 2009). "School Day Of Non-Violence And Peace". Letter of Peace addressed to the UN. cartadelapaz.org. http://www.cartadelapaz.org/portal_cp/anoticies_detall.php?id=682. Retrieved 9 January 2012.
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- ^ Rushdie, Salman (13 April 1998). "The Time 100". Time Magazine Online. http://www.time.com/time/time100/leaders/profile/gandhi.html. Retrieved 3 March 2009.
- ^ "Top 25 Political Icons". Time Magazine Online. 4 February 2011. http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2046285_2045996_2045906,00.html. Retrieved 9 February 2011.
- ^ "Nobel Peace Prize Nominations". American Friends Service Committee. http://www.afsc.org/about/nobel/past-nominations.htm. Retrieved 30 January 2012.
- ^ Melvani, Lavina (February 1997). "Making of the Mahatma". Hinduism Today. hinduismtoday.com. http://www.hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=4798. Retrieved 26 January 2012.
- ^ Unattributed. "Mahatma: Life of Gandhi, 1869–1948 (1968)". IMDb. Amazon.com. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0318415/. Retrieved 26 January 2012.
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- ^ Agence France-Presse (29 March 2011). "US author slams Gandhi gay claim". The Australian. News Limited. http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/breaking-news/us-author-slams-gandhi-gay-claim/story-fn3dxity-1226030279549. Retrieved 26 January 2012.
- ^ "Gandhi Mandapam". http://www.chennainetwork.com/. http://www.chennainetwork.com/chennai/gandhimandapam.html. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
- ^ B. N. Ghosh (2001). Contemporary issues in development economics. Psychology Press. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-415-25136-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=aM18jLPbhj8C&pg=PA211.
- ^ Yardley, Jim (6 November 2010). "Obama Invokes Gandhi, Whose Ideal Eludes India". Asia-Pacific (New York Times). http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/07/world/asia/07gandhi.html. Retrieved 22 January 2012.
- ^ "Reserve Bank of India – Bank Notes". Rbi.org.in. http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/ic_banknotes.aspx. Retrieved 2011-11-05.
- ^ Chatterjee, Sailen. "Martyrs’ Day". Features. Press Information Bureau. http://pib.nic.in/feature/feyr2000/fjan2000/f270120001.html. Retrieved 30 January 2012.
- ^ a b Kaggere, Niranjan (2 October 2010). "Here, Gandhi is God". www.BangaloreMirror.com. http://www.bangaloremirror.com/article/10/201010022010100204445248420e2db29/Here-Gandhi-is-god.html. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
- ^ Abram, David; Edwards, Nick (27 November 2003). The Rough Guide to South India. Rough Guides. p. 506. ISBN 978-1-84353-103-6. http://books.google.com/?id=sEhJBfbhTAAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Rough+Guide+to+South+India+%282003%29#v=onepage&q=The%20Rough%20Guide%20to%20South%20India%20%282003%29&f=false. Retrieved 21 January 2012.
References[link]
Books[link]
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Primary sources[link]
- Andrews, C. F. (2008) [1930]. "VII – The Teaching of Ahimsa". Mahatma Gandhi's Ideas Including Selections from His Writings. Pierides Press. ISBN 978-1-4437-3309-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=3EAV6JhQmgkC.
- Dalton, Dennis, ed. (1996). Mahatma Gandhi: selected political writings. Hackett Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87220-330-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=afqmUWX5yeoC.
- Duncan, Ronald, ed. (May 2011). Selected Writings of Mahatma Gandhi. Literary Licensing, LLC. ISBN 978-1-258-00907-6. http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=54615149.
- Gandhi, M. K.; Fischer, Louis (2002). Louis Fischer. ed. The essential Gandhi: an anthology of his writings on his life, work and ideas. Vintage Books. ISBN 978-1-4000-3050-7.
- Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1928) (in Gujarati) (paperback). Satyagraha in South Africa (1 ed.). Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House. "Translated by Valji G. Desai" Free online access at Wikilivres.ca (1/e). Pdfs from Gandhiserve (3/e) & Yann Forget (hosted by Arvind Gupta) (1/e).
- Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1994). The collected works of Mahatma Gandhi. Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India. ISBN 978-81-230-0239-2. (100 volumes). Free online access from Gandhiserve.
- Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1940). An Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments With Truth (2 ed.). Ahmedabad: Navajivan Publishing House. ISBN 0-8070-5909-9. Also available at Wikisource.
- Jack, Homer A., ed. (1994). The Gandhi reader: a source book of his life and writings. Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-3161-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=pjN3jZQ74AoC.
- Johnson, Richard L.; Gandhi, M. K. (2006). Gandhi's experiments with truth: essential writings by and about Mahatma Gandhi. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-1143-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=dRQcKsx-YgQC.
- Parel, Anthony J., ed. (2009). Gandhi: 'Hind Swaraj' and Other Writings Centenary Edition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-14602-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=oc47gUOPZfcC.
Web sites[link]
- Keen, Shirin (Spring, 1998). "The Partition of India". Emory University. http://www.english.emory.edu/Bahri/Part.html. Retrieved 16 January 2012.
- Sannuti, Arun (6 April 2010). "Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869–1948) – Vegetarianism: The Road to Satyagraha". International Vegetarian Union (IVU). http://www.ivu.org/history/gandhi/road.html. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
- Smith, Colleen (1 October 2006). "Mbeki: Mahatma Gandhi Satyagraha 100th Anniversary (01/10/2006)". Speeches. http://www.polity.org.za. http://www.polity.org.za/article/mbeki-mahatma-gandhi-satyagraha-100th-anniversary-01102006-2006-10-01. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
Journal articles[link]
- Cribb, R. B. (August 1985). "The Early Political Philosophy of M. K. Gandhi, 1869-1893". Asian Profile 13 (4): 353–360.
- Hardiman, David (April 2001). "Champaran and Gandhi: Planters, Peasants and Gandhian Politics by Jacques Pouchepadass (Review)". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 11 (1): 99–101. JSTOR 25188108.
- Khan, Yasmin (January 2011). "Performing Peace: Gandhi's assassination as a critical moment in the consolidation of the Nehruvian state" (abstract). Modern Asian Studies 45 (1): 57–80. DOI:10.1017/S0026749X10000223. http://journals.cambridge.org/abstract_S0026749X10000223. Retrieved 21 January 2012.
- Mohanty, Rekha (2011). "From Satya to Sadbhavna". Orissa Review (January 2011): 45–49. http://orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/2011/Jan/engpdf/january.pdf#page=58. Retrieved 23 February 2012.
- Murali, Atlury (January 1985). "Non-Cooperation in Andhra in 1920–22: Nationalist Intelligentsia and the Mobilization of Peasantry". Indian Historical Review 12 (1/2): 188–217. ISSN 0376-9836.
- Norvell, Lyn (1997). "Gandhi and the Indian Women's Movement". British Library Journal 23 (1): 12–27. ISSN 0305-5167.
- Prashad, Ganesh (September 1966). "Whiggism in India". Political Science Quarterly 81 (3): 412–431. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2147642.
- Sarkar, Jayabrata (18 April 2006). "Power, Hegemony and Politics: Leadership Struggle in Congress in the 1930s". Modern Asian Studies 40 (2): 333–370. DOI:10.1017/S0026749X0600179X.
- Sarma, Bina Kumari (January 1994). "Gandhian Movement and Women's Awakening in Orissa". Indian Historical Review 21 (1/2): 78–79. ISSN 0376-9836.
- Spodek, Howard (February 1971). "On the Origins of Gandhi's Political Methodology: The Heritage of Kathiawad and Gujarat". The Journal of Asian Studies 30 (2): 361–372. JSTOR 2942919.
News reports[link]
- Ferrell, David (27 September 2001). "A Little Serenity in a City of Madness" (Abstract). Los Angeles Times: pp. B 2. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/82514621.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Sep+27%2C+2001&author=DAVID+FERRELL&pub=Los+Angeles+Times&edition=&startpage=B.2&desc=Surroundings%3A+Lake+Shrine%3B+%27A+Little+Serenity+in+a+City+of+Madness%27%3B+Meditation+Gardens+in+Pacific+Palisades+Are+a+Place+to+Walk%2C+Think+and+Pray. Retrieved 14 January 2012.
- Ramesh, Randeep (16 January 2008). "Gandhi's ashes to rest at sea, not in a museum". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/jan/16/india.international. Retrieved 14 January 2012.
- Roberts, Andrew (26 March 2011). "Among the Hagiographers (A book review of "Great Soul: Mahatma Gandhi and His Struggle With India" by Joseph Lelyveld)". BookShelf (Wall Street Journal). http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703529004576160371482469358.html. Retrieved 14 January 2012.
- Unattributed (31 January 1948). "Of all faiths and races, together they shed their silent tears". The Indian Express: p. 5 (top centre). http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=4cU-AAAAIBAJ&sjid=nkwMAAAAIBAJ&pg=2964%2C2759742. Retrieved 19 January 2012.
- Unattributed (1 February 1948). "Over a million get last darshan". The Indian Express: p. 1 (bottom left). http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=4cU-AAAAIBAJ&sjid=nkwMAAAAIBAJ&pg=2273%2C2717510. Retrieved 19 January 2012.
External links[link]
| Find more about Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
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Images and media from Commons |
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Quotations from Wikiquote |
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Source texts from Wikisource |
- Gandhi Smriti — Government of India website
- Mani Bhavan Gandhi Sangrahalaya Gandhi Museum & Library
- Gandhi Research Foundation - One-Stop info on Gandhi
- Works by or about Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand |
| Alternative names | Gandhi, Mahatma |
| Short description | Non-violent political leader during Indian independence and Hindu reformer |
| Date of birth | 2 October 1869 |
| Place of birth | Porbandar, Gujarat, India |
| Date of death | 30 January 1948 |
| Place of death | Birla House, New Delhi, India |
http://wn.com/Mohandas_Karamchand_Gandhi
Related pages:
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http://es.wn.com/Mahatma Gandhi
http://ru.wn.com/Махатма Ганди
http://cs.wn.com/Mahátma Gándhí
http://pt.wn.com/Mahatma Gandhi
http://pl.wn.com/Mahatma Gandhi
http://hi.wn.com/महात्मा गांधी
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http://id.wn.com/Mahatma Gandhi
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohandas_Karamchand_Gandhi
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
For other people named Rakesh Sharma, see Rakesh Sharma (disambiguation).
| Rakesh Sharma | |
|---|---|
 Rakesh Sharma |
|
| Intercosmos Research Cosmonaut | |
| Nationality | Indian |
| Status | Retired |
| Born | (1949-01-13) January 13, 1949 (age 63) Jaipur, Rajasthan, India |
| Other occupation | Test Pilot |
| Rank | Wing Commander, Indian Air Force |
| Time in space | 7d 21h 40m |
| Missions | Soyuz T-11 / Soyuz T-10 |
| Mission insignia |  |
| Awards |  Ashok Chakra Hero of the Soviet Union |
Wing Commander Rakesh Sharma, AC, Hero of the Soviet Union, (born January 13, 1949) is a former Indian Air Force test pilot, and Cosmonaut aboard Soyuz T-11 as part of an Intercosmos Research Team. Sharma was the first Indian to travel in space.[1][2]
Contents |
Education and Early Career[link]
Rakesh Sharma was born in 1949 in [[Patiala], Punjab, India in a Hindu gaur Brahmin family and was schooled at St. George's Grammar School (Hyderabad) & Kendriya Vidyalaya Tirumalagiri, Hyderabad. He joined the NDA as an Air Force cadet in July 1966. He was commissioned into the Indian Air Force as a Pilot Officer in 1970. In 1971 operations against Pakistan, he flew various missions in his MiG aircraft with distinction.[3]
Spaceflight[link]
 |
This biographical section of an article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (April 2011) |
Sharma joined the Indian Air Force and progressed rapidly through the ranks. Sharma, then a Squadron Leader and pilot with the Indian Air Force embarked on a historic mission in 1984 as part of a joint space program between the Indian Space Research Organisation and the Soviet Intercosmos space program, and spent eight days in space aboard the Salyut 7 space station. Launched along with two Soviet cosmonauts aboard Soyuz T-11 on the 3 April 1984, was 35-year-old Sharma. During the flight, Sharma conducted multi-spectral photography of northern India in anticipation of the construction of hydroelectric power stations in the Himalayas. In a famous conversation, he was asked by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi how India looked from space, to which he replied, ''Main binaa jhijhak ke keh sakta hoon.., Sare Jahan Se Achcha" (a reference to an iconic poem used in India's freedom struggle, usually referred to as 'Saare jahaan se achha Hindustan haamara, ' our land of Hindustan, is the Best in the world').
He was conferred with the honour of Hero of Soviet Union upon his return from space. The Government of India conferred its highest gallantry award (during peace time), the Ashoka Chakra on him and the other two Soviet members of his mission.
Post Spaceflight[link]
Sharma and his backup, Wing Commander Ravish Malhotra, also prepared an elaborate series of zero-gravity Yoga exercises which the former had practised aboard the Salyut 7. Retiring with the rank of Wing Commander, Rakesh Sharma joined Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) as a test pilot at its Nashik Division. He was later based at the National Flight Test Center (NFTC) in Bangalore and worked on the indigenous Light Combat Aircraft program, among others.
References[link]
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Rakesh Sharma |
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Soyuz T-10 |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Sharma, Rakesh |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | 1949-01-13 |
| Place of birth | Jaipur, Rajasthan, India |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Rakesh_Sharma
Related pages:
http://ru.wn.com/Шарма, Ракеш
http://fr.wn.com/Rakesh Sharma
http://pt.wn.com/Rakesh Sharma
http://de.wn.com/Rakesh Sharma
http://it.wn.com/Rakesh Sharma
http://hi.wn.com/राकेश शर्मा
http://cs.wn.com/Rákeš Šarma
http://es.wn.com/Rakesh Sharma
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakesh_Sharma
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
