SS Edmund Fitzgerald, the most recent freighter lost on the Lakes.

Lake freighters, or Lakers, are bulk carrier vessels that ply the Great Lakes. One of the best known was the SS Edmund Fitzgerald, the most recent and largest major vessel to be wrecked on the Lakes. These vessels are traditionally called boats, although classified as ships.

Lakers carry bulk cargoes of materials such as limestone, iron ore, grain, coal or salt from the mines and fields to the highly populated industrial areas down the lakes. The 63 commercial ports handled 173 million tons of cargo in 2006.^[1] Because of winter ice on the lakes, the navigation season is not usually year-round. The Soo Locks and Welland Canal close from mid-January to late March and most boats are laid up for those months for maintenance and repair. Crewmembers spend these months ashore.

Depending on their application, lakers may also be referred to by their type, such as oreboats (primarily for iron ore), straight deckers (no self-unloading gear), bulkers (carry bulk cargo), sternenders (all cabins aft), self unloaders (with self unloading gear), longboats (due to their slender appearance), or lakeboats, among others.

A modern laker, Earl W. (now Manitowoc), passes the Renaissance Center in Detroit, Michigan.

In the mid-20th century, 300 lakers worked the Lakes, but by the early 21st century there were fewer than 140 active lakers.^[2]

Lakers vs. Salties[link]

Due to the Saint Lawrence Seaway, Lakers have access to the ocean, and ocean-going vessels have access to the Lakes. Visiting ocean-going vessels are called "salties."

Due to their additional beam, very large salties are never seen inland of the Saint Lawrence Seaway. Because the smallest of the Soo Locks is larger than any Seaway lock, salties that can pass through the Seaway may travel anywhere in the Great Lakes. Similarly, the largest Lakers are confined to the Upper Lakes (Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie) because they are too large to use the Seaway locks, beginning at the Welland Canal that bypasses the Niagara River.

Because of their deeper draft and the lower buoyancy of fresh water, salties may accept partial loads on the Great Lakes, "topping off" upon exiting the Seaway.

Cargo[link]

Lakers are generally bulk carriers; that is, they carry cargoes of rock, ore, salt or grain in large contiguous holds, not packed in containers. The earlier ships required unloading machinery at the docks,^[3] but modern Lakers are self unloaders, allowing them to unload faster and in more ports.

The most common cargoes on the Great Lakes are taconite (a type of iron ore), limestone, grain, salt, coal, cement, gypsum, sand, slag and potash. Much of the cargo supplies the steel mills of the auto industry, centered around the Great Lakes because of the ease of transport. Other destinations include coal-fired power plants, highway department salt domes and stone docks, where limestone is unloaded for the construction industry. US-flag freighters carried the largest portion of the trade, accounting for two-thirds of all cargo by weight. US boats carried most of the iron, limestone and cement while Canadian boats carried most of the potash and almost all of the salt and grain moved on the lakes.

Destination harbors, boat sizes and legal restrictions greatly affect the pattern of haulage. US boats hauled almost all of the iron ore on the lakes (79%) - from US mines to US mills on large US ships. This reflects the requirement of the Jones Act, as well as the industry using large volumes of material while being concentrated in a few large harbor locations. Salt and Canadian grain can be hauled to numerous smaller ports of either country on smaller, mostly Canadian, boats which can also enter the St. Lawrence Seaway with the Canadian ports of Montreal and Quebec City.

Size[link]

1000-footer George A. Stinson (now American Spirit) pounds through Lake Huron waves.

The largest vessels on the lake are the 1000-footers (300 m). These vessels are between 1000 and 1013.5 feet (305 and 309 m) long, 105 feet (32 m) wide and of 56 feet (17 m) hull depth. They can carry as much 78,850 long tons of bulk cargo although their loading is dependent on lake water levels especially in the channels and ports. A dozen of these giant ships were built, all constructed between 1976 and 1981, and all are still in service today. The most powerful of these, the Edwin H. Gott,^[4] carries two Enterprise DMRV-16-4 diesel engines driving twin propellers and is rated at 19,500 brake horsepower, making the Gott the most powerful lake boat on the seaway. (14.5 MW). This allows a top speed of 16.7 mph (27 km/h). The MV Paul R. Tregurtha is the largest boat on the lakes, at 1013'6" and 68,000 gross ton capacity. The Stewart J. Cort, which is not only the first 1000-footer to be put into service on the Lakes, but also the only one built in the traditional wheelhouse-forward Great Lakes style (although all accommodations are forward, and the stern deckhouse is occupied by self unloading equipment and the engines), is another notable vessel. The Cort started life in Mississippi, and was sailed as a much smaller vessel consisting of only the bow and stern sections (appropriately nicknamed "Stubby"), to Erie, Pennsylvania, where she was cut in half and an additional 800+ feet of hull were added. Another interesting 1000-footer is the Presque Isle, an integrated tug and barge combination. The Presque Isle is the largest tug / barge composite in the world.

All of the 1000-footers are United States vessels. The Canadian fleet needs to travel to and from its major cities along the St. Lawrence Seaway, so the standard length for the Canadian vessels is around 730 feet (Seawaymax-size). The reason for this standard length is the Welland Canal, which bypasses Niagara Falls. The locks here are only about 800 feet (240 m) long, and for safety reasons, the vessels must be at most 730 feet (220 m). Because of the Jones Act, Canadian ships cannot carry ore from American mines to American mills; this ore is the usual cargo of the largest ships.

More common are lake boats in the 600 and 700 foot (183 and 213 m) classes, due to the limitations of the Welland Canal. These vessels vary greatly in configuration and cargo capacity, being capable of hauling between 10,000 and 40,000 tons per trip depending on the individual boat. The latest major vessel built for bulk cargoes on the lakes is the articulated tug/barge combo Ken Boothe Sr./Lakes Contender. The 740' barge Lakes Contender and the 135' tug Ken Boothe Sr. will enter service in 2012.

Self-unloading freighter discharging bulk cargo at Duluth, Minnesota.

List of 1000-footers on the Lakes[link]

• Bulk freighters (self unloaders)
  • American Integrity (1000′×105′)
  • American Spirit (1004′×105′)
  • American Century (1000′×105′)
  • Edgar B. Speer (1004′×105′)
  • Edwin H. Gott (1004′×105′)
  • James R. Barker (1004′×105′) 1st standard construction 1000-footer
  • Mesabi Miner (1004′×105′)
  • Paul R. Tregurtha (1013′6″×105′) Largest vessel on Great Lakes
  • Stewart J. Cort (1000′×105′) First 1000 ft boat on the Lakes
  • Burns Harbor (1000′×105′)
  • Indiana Harbor (1000′×105′)
  • Walter J. McCarthy Jr. (1000′×105′)
• Tug/barge combination (ITB)
  • Presque Isle (1000′×104′7″) Only 1000 foot tug/barge unit

Design[link]

MV John B. Aird, a newer Laker (1983) with a single aft superstructure.

Because these vessels must traverse the locks of the Great Lakes Waterway, they all have features in common, and their appearance differs from similarly sized ocean-going freighters. For instance, they are narrower and generally longer. An early variation of the type (designed by Alexander McDougall and built from 1887 through 1898) was the "whaleback" design, which featured significant tumblehome in the sides of the hull and a rounded bow, looking rather like the back of a whale. Where the superstructure of an ordinary freighter used to have the bridge in the center of the vessel, lake freighters typically have the bridge and associated superstructure on the bow. Traditionally they had a second island, over the engine room in the stern. These dual cabined boats were constructed between 1869 and 1974. The R. J. Hackett premiered the style and the second Algosoo was the final vessel designed this way. More recently built lakers, like the CSL Niagara, have a single large superstructure island right astern.

A Lake freighter just leaving the Soo Locks (bottom right). Michigan on right foreground, Ontario left and background.

Lakers differ from most salties in having bluff bows instead of raked or clipper bows and in rarely having bulbous bow extensions, although a few Canadian Lakers are fitted with ice-breaking bulbous bows.^{[citation needed]} The narrow, raked bow of a saltie allows it more speed, while a bluff bow allows for more cargo capacity at a given draft, while pushing more water. Vessel speeds are not as important on the Lakes as on the ocean. Ports are often closer together than in ocean trade, so cargo capacity is more important than speed. Lake vessels are designed with the greatest box coefficient to maximize the vessels size in the many locks within the Great Lakes/St Lawrence Seaway system. Therefore, ship designers have favored bluff bows over streamlined bows. After World War II, several ocean freighters and tankers were transported to the Great Lakes and converted to bulk carriers as a way to acquire ships cheaply. Several of them served well in the role and continue to sail today (American Victory (fmr. Middletown), Lee A. Tregurtha, and a few others).

Another distinguishing feature of Lake vessels versus Ocean vessels is the cargo hatch configuration. On the Lake vessels, the hatches are traditionally spaced 24 feet (7.8m) apart. This configuration was needed to match the hatches to the loading facilities. At the turn of the 19th century, most ore loading facilities had loading chutes spaced every 12 feet (3.8m). The ship designers used this pattern for their hatch configuration. This pattern continues today, even with modern Lake vessels. A Lake vessel has many more hatches than an Ocean vessel of equal length.

The largest deep lock at the Soo is the Poe Lock which is 1,200 feet (370 m) long and 110 feet (34 m) wide. Because of size restrictions, thirty vessels on the lakes can only pass between Lake Superior and Lake Huron using the Poe lock although none approaches the lock's size. Many Lakers are restricted to the Lakes, being unable to navigate the St Lawrence Seaway whose locks allow a maximum vessel size of 740 feet (226 m) in length or 78 feet (24 m) in breadth. The shallow draft imposed by the rivers (typically dredged to about 28 feet (8.5m) by the United States Army Corps of Engineers) restricts the cargo capacity of Lakers, but that is partially recovered by their extra length and box design. Since Great Lakes waves never achieve the great length or period of ocean waves, particularly compared to the waves' height, ships are in less danger of being suspended between two waves and breaking, so the ratio between the ship's length, beam and its depth can be a bit larger than that of an ocean-going ship. The Lake vessels generally have a 10:1 length to beam ratio, whereas the Ocean Vessels are typically 7:1. The dimension of locks is the determining factor in Lake vessel construction.

Lifespan[link]

In 2006, the J. B. Ford (left) in use for cement storage at age 102 with J. A. W. Iglehart (right) in her last month of a 70-year sailing career, which included surviving a U-boat attack in the Atlantic during World War II.

Since the freshwater lakes are less corrosive to ships than the salt water of the oceans, many of the Lakers remain in service for long periods and the fleet has a much higher average age than the ocean-going fleet.^[5] The average lifespan of a laker is 40–50 years.^[6] Boats older than 50 years are not unusual. The St. Mary's Challenger, built in 1906 as the William P. Snyder (552 ft), is currently the oldest boat in active duty on the Lakes. She is managed by HMC Ship Management, LTD. and owned by St. Mary's Cement, a subsidiary of Votorantim Cimentos. The E. M. Ford had one of the longest careers, having been built in 1898 (as the Presque Isle - 428 feet) and still sailing the lakes 98 years later in 1996. In 2007 she was still afloat as a stationary transfer vessel at a riverside cement silo in Saginaw. She went to the scrap yard in November 2010 at Pervis Marine, yet still awaits possible preservation. The J. B. Ford, built in 1904, last sailed in 1985 and in 2007 served in the same capacity as the E. M. at a different cement silo in Superior, Wisconsin. Several decorated World War II veteran ships are still in active, although civilian, use such as the tankers Chiwawa and Neshanic, now the bulk freighters Lee A. Tregurtha and American Victory, respectively, and the Landing Craft Tank 203, now the working vessel Outer Island.

Newest freighters[link]

Some shipping companies are building new freighters to ply the waters of the Great Lakes. The following are new freighters in use or will be launched for use in the Great Lakes:

• Algoma Mariner - built by Chengxi Shipyard of Jiangyin, China, and schedule for delivery in August 2011 for Algoma Central Corporation.^[7][8]

• Equinox Class - a new class of lake freighter^{[clarification needed]} (5 ordered from Mingde Shipyard of Nantong, China) and expected to enter service in 2013-2014 for Seaway Marine Transport.^[7] The ships will be used as dry-bulk lake freighters (two gearless bulk freighter and three self-unloading vessel).^[8]

• Trillium Class - a new class of lake freighter on order by Canada Steamship Lines for delivery in 2012 and 2013.

Ship losses and accidents[link]

The Great Lakes have a long history of shipwreck, groundings, storms and collisions. From the 1679 sinking of Le Griffon with its cargo of furs to the 1975 loss of the Edmund Fitzgerald, thousands of ships and thousands of lives have been lost; many of these losses involved vessels in the cargo trade. The Great Lakes Shipwreck Museum uses the approximate figures of 6,000 ships and 30,000 lives lost.^[9] David D. Swayze has compiled a list which details over 4,750 well-documented shipwrecks, mostly of commercial vessels and a list of known names of over 5,000 victims of those sinkings.^[10] Maritime historian Mark Thompson reports that based on nautical records, nearly 6,000 shipwrecks on the Great Lakes occurred between 1878 and 1994, with about a quarter of those being listed as total losses with a total of 1,166 lives lost.^[11]

The most recent losses of modern lakers were (with their causes):

• SS Henry Steinbrenner, May 11, 1953, Lake Superior, 14 of 31 crew died, (flooded after cargo hatch covers lost during storm)
• SS Carl D. Bradley, November 18, 1958, Lake Michigan, 33 of 35 crew died, (split in half due to hogging during storm)^[12]
• SS Cedarville, May 7, 1965, Straits of Mackinac, 10 of 35 crew died, (collision with the saltie Topdalsfjord)
• SS Daniel J. Morrell, November 29, 1966, Lake Huron, 28 of 29 crew died, (split in half due to hogging during storm)
• SS Edmund Fitzgerald, November 10, 1975, Lake Superior, 29 of 29 crew died, (unknown cause during storm)

The salties Prins Willem V and Monrovia also sank in the Great Lakes during the 1950s; both in collisions with other ships. The saltie Nordmeer grounded on Thunder Bay Island Shoal in November 1966 but before it could be refloated was further damaged in the same storm that sank the Morrell and it was declared a total loss.

Cedarglen beset in ice during a December trip until freed by two US Coast Guard icebreakers.

Ships on the Lakes have been involved in many lesser incidents. Lakers have been subject to frequent groundings in port and canals due to varying lake levels and silting, collisions with objects (such as the 1993 collision of the Indiana Harbor with the Lansing Shoal Lighthouse^[13]), icing in during winter trips and shipboard fires (including the unusual case in 2001 where a drawbridge ran into the Canadian grain carrier Windoc causing a fire). To prevent collisions and groundings, the Great Lakes are well-served with lighthouses and lights, and floating navigation aids. The U.S. Coast Guard and Canadian Coast Guard maintain stations around the Great Lakes including icebreakers and rescue helicopters. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and other agencies maintain the harbors and seaways to limit groundings by dredging and seawalling.^[14]

November was the traditional last month of shipping before the winter layup (and lake freeze-up). This month sees much of the worst weather of the navigation season and has seen a disproportionate number of accidents. Dana Bowen mentions that over half of all strandings and one-third of all vessels lost to foundering between 1900-1950 were lost during November.^[15]

Famous vessels[link]

Edward L. Ryerson

The most famous laker was the SS Edmund Fitzgerald (popularized by Gordon Lightfoot's song "The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald" in 1976), which sank on Lake Superior on November 10, 1975. The Fitz was the first boat with a length of 729 feet (222 m) and the flagship of the Columbia Steamship Division of Oglebay Norton Co. The MV Stewart J. Cort was the first of the 1,000-foot (300 m) oreboats.

The first laker with self-unloading equipment was the Hennepin (formerly the George H. Dyer) a small wooden laker that was refitted with the equipment in 1902. The first laker built as a self-unloader was the Wyandotte launched in 1908. Before these, all boats were unloaded with shoreside equipment. Self-unloading equipment worked well for cargoes that could "flow" out of the holds onto belts, such as coal and limestone. It did not work well for grain, which flowed too readily and would spill off the conveyors, or iron ore, which wouldn't flow well and would hang up in the hold. Because the predominant cargo for lakers was iron ore, self-unloaders did not become common until higher grade ores were depleted and taconite pellets were developed in the 1970s. Steam power first appeared in the 1860s and became the standard source of power for over a century. The Canadian grainboat Feux Follets of 1967 was the last laker to be built with a steam turbine and thus was the last steamer built on the lakes. Ford Motor Company's Henry Ford 2nd and Benson Ford of 1924 were the first lakeboats with diesel engines. Diesel powerplants did not become standard until the 1970s. The last active ships of 1920s vintage, and the oldest ships still operating in non-specialized bulk trades is the motor vessels Maumee of Lower Lakes Transportation. She was built as the William G Clyde for US Steel. The S. T. Crapo, inactive since 1996, was built to haul cement for Huron Cement Co. back in 1927 and was the second ship of that design, the first being the John G Boardman of the same company. The Crapo was the last coal burning freighter on the Great Lakes.

The classic design of cabins fore-and-aft with open decks over the hold started with the 208-foot (63 m) long R. J. Hackett, designed and built by Elihu Peck in 1869. The first iron-hulled laker was the Brunswick, launched at Detroit in 1881. The Brunswick sank after a collision later that year and was apparently little known. Many follow the lead of the contemporary Cleveland press and credit the Onoko as the first iron-hulled laker, launched in 1882. The Onoko’s higher center section did become a standard for later lakers. At 302 feet (92 m), the Onoko was the first bulk carrier to hold the unofficial title of Queen of the Lakes (longest vessel on the lakes). The SS Carl D. Bradley (1927 – 640 feet) held the title for 22 years, longer than any other laker of the classic design. The Bradley is also known for breaking her back and foundering in a Lake Michigan storm in 1958. There were only two survivors.

MV Paul R. Tregurtha on winter lay-up in Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin, on February 19, 2008.

Currently that title is held by the modern stern-ender Paul R. Tregurtha. Launched in 1981 as the William J. Delancy, and measuring 1,013.5 feet (308.9 m), the Paul R. Tregurtha has held the title since her launch. The Wilfred Sykes (1949 – 678 feet) is considered to be the first of the modern lakers, and when converted to a self-unloader in 1975 was the first to have the equipment mounted aft. Since then all self-unloading equipment has been mounted aft. The Algoisle (formerly the Silver Isle) (1962 – 715.9 feet) was the first modern laker built with all cabins aft (a “stern-ender”), following the lead of ocean-going bulk carriers and reprising a century old form used by little river steam barges and the whalebacks. The Stewart Cort (1971) was the first 1,000 footer and the only “footer” built in the classic cabins-fore-and-aft style. The Algosoo (1974 – 730 feet) was the last laker built in the classic style.

Also of note is the steamer Edward L. Ryerson, widely known for her artistic design and being the only remaining straight-decked (without self unloading machinery) freighter still in active service on the US side of the Great Lakes (the only other US straight decker still listed is the John Sherwin, has not sailed since 1981 and is currently docked in Detour, Michigan after conversion to a self unloader and repowering was halted in November 2008).^[16] In the summer of 2006, the Ryerson was fitted out and put into service following a long-term lay-up that began in 1998. The Ryerson has been meticulously maintained, and was often used as a museum boat for tours. She was put back into service due to a lack of reliable hulls on the Lakes, and a need for more tonnage. (The Canadian fleet retains a number of active straight-deckers for use in transporting grain, which is not well suited for self-unloading equipment. Most US grain is currently transported by rail.)

In film, the W. W. Holloway (since scrapped) is famous for being the lake freighter that the Blues Brothers jump their 1974 Dodge over when Elwood jumps the open 95th Street Draw Bridge.

Museum ships and boats, surviving hulls[link]

Cleveland, Ohio[link]

The William G. Mather, a laker built in 1925 and a former flagship for the Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Company, has been turned into a maritime museum and is open to the public in Cleveland, Ohio in the North Coast Harbor.

MV Maumee, one of the oldest active bulk freighters on the Lakes, unloads in Holland, Michigan.

Duluth-Superior, Minnesota-Wisconsin[link]

The William A. Irvin was named for the president of U.S. Steel at the time of its launching and served as the flagship of US Steel's Great Lakes fleet from her launch in 1938 to 1975. It was the first laker to incorporate welding in its design and is open for tours at the Great Lakes Floating Maritime Museum in Duluth, Minnesota. Another museum ship, the Meteor, is the last surviving ship of the whaleback design, and is a museum in Superior, Wisconsin, which was the location of the American Steel Barge Company, where the whalebacks were built.

Kewaunee, Wisconsin[link]

Former Army Corps of Engineer tugboat Ludington. Built as an Army tug in 1943, it partook in the D-Day Invasion at Normandy.

Kingston, Ontario[link]

Former Canadian Coast Guard icebreaker CCGS Alexander Henry resides at the Marine Museum of the Great Lakes as a display and as a bed & breakfast. Launched in 1958, it and the former USCGC Mackinaw serve as the Great Lakes two surviving large red hulled icebreakers.

Mackinaw City, Michigan[link]

The SS Mackinaw is a 290-foot (88 m) vessel specifically designed for ice breaking duties on the Great Lakes. LR number: 6119534

The Mackinaw was homeported in Cheboygan, Michigan, during active service. Due to the Mackinaw's age and expensive upkeep, the cutter was decommissioned and replaced with a smaller multipurpose cutter USCGC Mackinaw, which was commissioned in Cheboygan the same day.

The old Mackinaw moved under its own power on June 21, 2006, from the port of its decommissioning to a permanent berth at the SS Chief Wawatam dock at the ship's namesake port, Mackinaw City, Michigan where she now serves as the Icebreaker Mackinaw Maritime Museum.

Manistee, Michigan[link]

The SS City of Milwaukee was a railroad ferry of the Grand Trunk Milwaukee Car Ferry Company. Built in 1931 to replace a previous ferry, the SS Milwaukee, lost in 1929 with all hands. She sailed for this company for 40 years and another 5 for the Ann Arbor Railroad before laying up in Frankfort in 1982. She sat there until being sold for a museum. Later moved to her present berth in Manistee, she is open for tours as the last unmodified classic railroad ferry. The older paddlewheel steam railroad ferries Lansdowne, built in 1884, was modified to support a restaurant in antique railcars in Erie, Pennsylvania; and the Huron, built in 1875, was stripped of her cabins and sank at a pier in Detroit. The hull of the Landowne was raised and towed to Buffalo. The mayor and daily newspaper have inveighed against the Lansdowne, calling it an eyesore. She has since been scrapped. The former USCGC Acacia is also a museum ship here.

Manitoulin Island, Ontario[link]

The SS Norisle is a museum ship berthed permanently at the Manitowaning Heritage Complex. It is one of three surviving running mates, the others being the Norgoma and the Normac. It was built in 1946, the first ship built in post-WW II Canada, using engines intended for a Royal Canadian destroyer. Norisle ran until 1974 when it was replaced by the MS Chi-Cheemaun. Plans call for sinking the Norisle as a tourist dive site. A group, Friends of The Norisle, some 200 strong, has formed to lobby against this loss of history.

Muskegon, Michigan[link]

The Milwaukee Clipper, another passenger steamer. Built in 1904, she served as a passenger/package freighter for the Pennsylvania Railroad marine division called the Anchor Line as the Stmr. Juniata. In 1940, after several years in layup, she was sold and converted to an excursion steamer between Muskegon & Milwaukee. Laid up in the 1970s, she lingered for 30 years before returning to Muskegon as a museum. Also in Muskegon is the USCGC McLane, a 1920s vintage Coast Guard cutter used to combat the rum-runners in Detroit during Prohibition. Located alongside the McLane is the USS Silversides, a Gato-class World War II submarine and museum. The sub is known as the most decorated World War II sub still in existence. Additionally, the USS LST 393, a World War II tank landing ship launched in 1943, is available for tours at West Michigan Dock & Market in downtown Muskegon. Sporting the camouflage livery she wore at the end of the war, the ship worked as an automobile ferry between 1947 and 1973, under the name MV Highway 16 (after US Route 16 which was bridged by the ship between Muskegon and Milwaukee, Wisconsin).

Saugatuck, Michigan[link]

The SS Keewatin, a former Canadian Pacific passenger liner. Built in Scotland in 1907, the boat steamed between Fort William, Ontario, and Port McNicoll for over 50 years until being sold for scrap in 1967. Saved from the wrecker's torch, the Keewatin was towed to Saugatuck, Michigan use as a museum in 1968. She is the last unmodified Great Lakes passenger liner in existence and a wonderful example of Edwardian luxury. Keewatin is one of the world's last coal-fired steamships. A Toronto Star article (June 24, 2007) documents a Canadian effort to see the venerable steamer returned to Dominion waters as a museum ship at Port McNicoll.

Penetanguishene, Ontario[link]

Georgian Queen, ex-Canadian Coast Guard icebreaking cutter converted into a tour boat.^[17]

Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan[link]

The Valley Camp was built in 1917 and served the National Steel Corporation, the Republic Steel Corporation, and Wilson Transit Co. during her 1917-1966 working life. She became a museum ship on the waterfront of the 'American Soo', east of the Soo Locks, in 1968. She holds many relics of the sinking of the SS Edmund Fitzgerald including two of the Fitz's mauled lifeboats.

Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario[link]

The MS Norgoma, berthed in the Canadian Soo, was built as a steamer carrying freight and passengers in 1950. She ran from Owen Sound to Sault Ste. Marie from 1950 to 1963 on the so-called Turkey Trail. In 1963, the Norgoma was converted to a car ferry, her former role taken over by trucks, buses and automobiles. She ran between Tobermory to Manitoulin Island. At this time, the Norgoma was converted to diesel power. She became a museum ship in 1977.^[18]

Thunder Bay, Ontario[link]

The 1905 icebreaking tugboat James Whalen serves as a popular photo shoot at Kaministiquia Park. It was rescued in 1977 after it was slated for scrapping.^[19]

Toledo, Ohio[link]

Willis B. Boyer and the Buckeye in the Maumee River, Toledo. The Buckeye currently sails as the barge Lewis J. Kuber

The Col. James M. Schoonmaker is a former Cleveland-Cliffs Iron Company vessel that sailed from 1911 to 1980. She was originally owned by the Shenango Furnace Company, but renamed the Willis B. Boyer under Cleveland Cliffs ownership. The Schoonmaker was the largest bulk freighter in the world when commissioned. In one of the most ambitious Great Lakes ship restorations to date, the Schoonmaker was re-christened July 1, 2011, on the 100th anniversary of the ship's launching in Toledo.^[20] She is open to the public as a museum at International Park in Toledo, Ohio.

Two Harbors, Minnesota[link]

The steam tugboat Edna G is in retirement as a floating display. Built in 1896, it was one of the last operating steam tugboats on the Great Lakes. It is on the National Register of Historic Places.

Toronto, Ontario[link]

The side-wheel steam ferry Trillium (1910) was reactivated in 1976 calls Toronto home. Several vintage 1930s screw ferries serve along side her. The steamtug Ned Hanlan has been preserved ashore as a static display on the grounds of the Canadian National Exhibition. Launched in 1932, the tug is one of three preserved steamtugs on the Great Lakes, the other being the James Whalen and the Edna G.

Other surviving hulls and interesting partial ships of note[link]

DeTour, Michigan[link]

The Lewis G. Harriman's bow and bow superstructure are preserved here. The Harriman, launched as the purpose-built cement steamer John W. Board, was scrapped but the bow was saved as a DeTour residence. Recently restored to the Boardman colors.

Put-In-Bay, Ohio[link]

The Benson Ford was named after Henry Ford's grandson, and was the flagship of the Ford Motor Company (1924). The Pilot house is now donning a cliff on Put-In-Bay, Ohio. It is a private museum residence owned by Bryan Kasper of Sandusky, Ohio. It has been featured in many magazines and national television shows such as HGtv's Extreme Homes and Travel Channel's Extreme Vacation Homes. The pagoda-style cabin of the Ford provides a glimpse of what one of the grandest freighters on the lakes looked like.

Missasauga, Ontario[link]

The SS Ridgetown was sunk as a breakwater (with stack and cabins intact) near Toronto at Port Credit. It was built in 1905 and is one of the oldest surviving hulls on the lake. Its stark silhouette provides an example of the appearance of early 1900s lake freighters.

Failed museum attempts, ships scrapped[link]

Several other lakers nearly became museums, but due to funding, political opposition or other causes, were scrapped.

• Lewis G. Harriman - a 1923 purpose-built cement carrier, the first of her kind, that sailed from her launch until 1980. Used as a storage barge until 2003, a group tried to save her but bad communications within the company saw the ship sold in 2004 and scrapped in Sault Ste. Marie by Purvis Marine. The majority of the hull was fed to the Algoma Steel Mill but the fo'c'sle was saved as a summer cottage at Detour, Michigan.

• SS Niagara - 1897 built freighter, later converted to a sand-sucker. Scrapped in 1997 by Liberty Iron & Metal of Erie, Pennsylvania, after a failed attempt to convert her into a museum in Erie. She had been saved from the scrapyard 11 years earlier.

• John Ericsson - The second-to-last whaleback freighter. The Ericsson was scrapped in 1969 in the city of Hamilton, Ontario. Politics, as was the case with the Canadiana, played a central role in the loss of the ship.

• Three-masted schooner J. T. Wing - Last commercial sailing ship on the Great Lakes, used briefly in the lumber trade on the Great Lakes. She served as a training vessel before being grounded on Belle Isle in 1949 as a static museum ship, before being burned before a crowd of 6000 in 1956.

• Three masted schooner Alvin Clark - Built in 1846 for the lumber trade, she sank in Green Bay in 1864. She was raised in 1965 and taken to Menominee as a museum. After being severely neglected for a number of years, she was dismantled in 1998.

• SS Seaway Queen - The Canadian straight decker Seaway Queen, formerly owned by Upper Lakes Shipping was involved in an attempt to save her as a museum. In the end, the company failed to locate an organization that was capable and willing to preserve her and she was sold and scrapped in Alang, India, in 2004.

• Lansdowne – The paddlewheel steam railroad ferry Lansdowne, built in 1884, was modified to support a restaurant in antique railcars and the Huron, built in 1875, sank at a pier in Erie, Pennsylvania. The hull was raised but little other information as to the future of the vessel has been forthcoming. The hulk was towed to Buffalo, New York, in July 2006. The mayor of Buffalo in the winter of 2008 called it an eyesore and called for its removal. The Lansdowne was scrapped in July 2008.

• Chief Wawatam - One of the world's most historic icebreakers and the last hand-fired coal steamer on the Great Lakes. The Wawatam was cut down to a barge, and finally scrapped by its owner Purvis Marine of Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.

• Alabama - Famous Goodrich Transit Line steamer later cut down as a barge, scrapped in 2009.

• wrecking tug Favorite - The Great Lakes most famous salvage tug, likened to the role played by the SS Foundation Franklin in the Canadian Maritimes. An attempt to save it at Sault Ste. Marie next to the SS Valley Camp failed when state monies failed to materialize and the riveted hull began to leak. Broken up at Detour, Michigan.

Future museum potential[link]

• Normac - 1902 built fire tug converted into passenger/packet steamer for the Owen Sound Transportation Company Ltd. Larger running mates Norisle and Norgoma have been converted into museum ships. After a stint as a floating restaurant in Toronto that was terminated when accidentally rammed by a ferry, the Normac was towed to Port Dalhousie, Ontario, where she serves as the floating cocktail lounge.

• Imperial Sarnia - 1948 built steam tanker. The Imperial Sarnia is ending her days as the dead bunkering vessel Provmar Terminal II in Hamilton, Ontario. While some freighters, such as Great Lakes bulk carriers, Liberty and Victory ships, have survived as museum ships, no conventional tankers have. The tanker museum ships that do exist, the Falls of Clyde and the Meteor, are known for being examples of unique vessel designs: an iron sailing ship and a whaleback, respectively.

• Cement Steamers - The cement fleet of steamers is rapidly being supplanted by tug/barge combinations like the Integrity and Innovation. Historic cement steamers include the E. M. Ford (1898), the J. B. Ford (1904), the St. Marys Challenger (1906), S. T. Crapo (1927), the J. A. W. Iglehart (1936), Alpena (1942) and the Paul H. Townsend (1945).

The SS Arthur M. Anderson unloading at Huron, Ohio, in 2008. This boat was following and in contact with the ill-fated SS Edmund Fitzgerald on the night of November 10, 1975, and issued first distress call.

• SS Arthur M. Anderson launched in 1952, is still running. She is famous for having had the last contact with the Edmund Fitzgerald before the latter sank. She was also the first would-be rescue vessel to search for the Fitzgerald.

Museum or historic ships at risk[link]

A number of historic museum ships face uncertain futures.

• The coast guard cutter Bramble, a former museum ship, has been put up for sale by its owner, the Port Huron Museum.^[21] The city of Saint Clair, Michigan, rejected an option to host the Bramble as a museum ship in the summer of 2011.^[22]

• The aforementioned E. M. Ford, a cement steamer, is as of August 2008, slated for scrapping at the end of the year or the beginning of 2009 according to press reports. She will face the same fate as the lost Lewis G Harriman.

• There is a campaign to draw the public's attention to the need to renovate the whaleback tanker ship Meteor in Superior, Wisconsin.

• SS Norisle at Manitoulin Island. Plans call for the ship to be towed and scuttled as a dive site. The "Friends of the Norisle" have formed to oppose this loss. Supportive articles and letters to the editor have appeared in the Manitoulin Expositor newspaper.

See also[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Lake freighter

• Great Lakes Maritime Academy, training center for merchant mariners on the Great Lakes
• Great Lakes Storm of 1913

References[link]

1. ^ Welcome to Great Lakes Shipping, quoting the US Army Corps of Engineers.
2. ^ "Ship fans mourn scrapping of the Calumet", http://blog.mlive.com/grpress/2007/12/port_colborne_ontario_killer.html, Jim Nichols, Press News Service, December 30, 2007, accessed July 7, 2008.
3. ^ "Giant Jaws Upload Ore Ship." Popular Mechanics, May 1953, pp. 74-77.
4. ^ http://www.boatnerd.com/pictures/fleet/gott.htm
5. ^ International Maritime Organization (September 1999). "IMO and the safety of bulk carriers" (PDF). Focus on IMO. pp. 6. http://www.imo.org/includes/blastDataOnly.asp/data_id%3D7987/BULK99.FIN.pdf. Retrieved 2007-04-09. 
6. ^ Welcome to Great Lakes Shipping, Know Your Ships.
7. ^ ^{a b} http://www.seawaymarinetransport-new.com/index.php?title=Fleet_Renewal
8. ^ ^{a b} http://www.seawaymarinetransport.com/images/TheCurrent71.pdf
9. ^ Great Lakes Shipwreck Museum, accessed Feb 28, 2009
10. ^ The Great Lakes Shipwreck File, David D. Swayze, October 3, 2008.
11. ^ Thompson, Mark L. (2000). Graveyard of the Lakes. Google Books; Original Wayne State University Press, Detroit.. http://books.google.com/books?id=Tog_ll_MYrkC&dq=Graveyard+of+the+Lakes+by+Mark+L.+Thompson&printsec=frontcover&source=bn&hl=en&ei=x_MOSs_NEY-CmQernajHBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4#PPA17,M1. Retrieved 2009-04-16. , 17, 18.
12. ^ Wreck of the Carl D., Michael Schumacher, Bloomsbury, 2008, ISBN 978-1-59691-484-1.
13. ^ Graveyard of the Lakes, Mark L. Thompson, Wayne State University Press, 2006
14. ^ Dredging on the Great Lakes, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, July 31, 2006.
15. ^ "Shipwrecks of the Lakes", Dana T. Bowen, Freshwater Press, January 1, 1952, quoted in the U.S. Coast Guard's Board of Inquiry report on the foundering of the SS Carl D. Bradley, published 1958.
16. ^ "Economy dampens plan for freighter's future", http://www.greenbaypressgazette.com/article/20081111/GPG03/811110557/1247
17. ^ BayCruises, Georgian. "MS Georgian Queen". http://www.georgianbaycruises.com/index.html. Retrieved August 11, 2011. 
18. ^ "MS Norgoma:The Vessel". norgoma.org. 2011. http://www.norgoma.org/history6.html. Retrieved June 24, 2011. 
19. ^ Roberts, J. "The ice-breaker James Whalen". Thunder Bay Public Library. http://images.ourontario.ca/gateway/56203/data. Retrieved 1922. 
20. ^ http://www.toledoblade.com/local/2011/07/02/Schoonmaker-rechristened.html
21. ^ http://www.freep.com/apps/pbcs.dll/gallery?Site=C4&Date=20110520&Category=NEWS&ArtNo=105200806&Ref=PH
22. ^ http://www.voicenews.com/articles/2011/07/01/news/doc4e0b40cd20a76960669635.txt

External links[link]

• Boatnerd website
• Willis B. Boyer website
• William G. Mather website
• Valley Camp website
• Norisle website
• Great Lakes Naval Memorial & Museum – USS Silversides & USCGC McLane

This article is an orphan, as few or no other articles link to it. Please introduce links to this page from related articles; suggestions may be available. (August 2010)

This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (April 2010)

James R. Barker is the professor of Organizational Theory and Strategy in the Department of Strategy and Human Resource Management at the Waikato Management School, Waikato University, Hamilton, New Zealand,^[1] and editor-in-chief of Management Communication Quarterly.^[2]

Barker received his doctorate from the University of Colorado, his master's degree from Purdue University, and his undergraduate degree from the University of Central Arkansas. He has previously held faculty positions at Marquette University, the University of New Mexico, and the U.S. Air Force Academy. During his tenure at the Air Force Academy, Professor Barker served as the chair of the Academy's Institutional Review Board and President of its Senior Faculty Forum. Professor Barker also served in the US military and worked as operations and sales manager for Schneider National Inc., a large U.S. transportation company. At his current position with the Waikato Management School, Barker's responsibilities include co-leading the School's Socially and Culturally Sustainable Bio-Technology project.

References[link]