World map indicating literacy by country (2011 Human Development Report) Grey = no data

World illiteracy halved between 1970 and 2005.

Literacy has been described as the ability to read for knowledge and write coherently and think critically about the written word. Literacy can also include the ability to understand all forms of communication, be it body language, pictures, video or sound (reading, speaking, listening and viewing). Evolving definitions of literacy often include all the symbol systems relevant to a particular community. Literacy encompasses a complex set of abilities to understand and use the dominant symbol systems of a culture for personal and community development. In a technological society, the concept of literacy is expanding to include the media and electronic text, in addition to alphabetic and number systems. These abilities vary in different social and cultural contexts according to need and demand.

Literacy represents the lifelong, intellectual process of gaining meaning from print. Key to all literacy is reading development, which involves a progression of skills that begins with the ability to understand spoken words and decode written words, and culminates in the deep understanding of text. Reading development involves a range of complex language underpinnings including awareness of speech sounds (phonology), spelling patterns (orthography), word meaning (semantics), grammar (syntax) and patterns of word formation (morphology), all of which provide a necessary platform for reading fluency and comprehension. Once these skills are acquired the reader can attain full language literacy, which includes the abilities to approach printed material with critical analysis, inference and synthesis; to write with accuracy and coherence; and to use information and insights from text as the basis for informed decisions and creative thought.^[1]

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) defines literacy as the "ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate and compute, using printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. Literacy involves a continuum of learning in enabling individuals to achieve their goals, to develop their knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in their community and wider society."^[2]

History[link]

Illiteracy rate in France in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Literacy in Europe[link]

In 12th and 13th century England, the ability to sit a particular passage from the Bible entitled a common law defendant to the so-called benefit of clergy provision, which entitled a person to be tried before an ecclesiastical court, where sentences were more lenient, instead of a secular one, where hanging was a likely sentence. This opened the door to literate lay defendants also claiming the right to the benefit of clergy provision, and because the Biblical passage used for the literacy test was always Psalm 51 (Miserere mei, Deus... - "O God, have mercy upon me...") - an illiterate person who had memorized the appropriate verse could also claim the benefit of clergy provision.^[3]

By the mid-18th century, the ability to read and comprehend translated scripture led to Wales having one of the highest literacy rates. This was the result of a Griffith Jones's system of circulating schools, which aimed to enable everyone to read the Bible in Welsh. Similarly, at least half the population of 18th century New England was literate, perhaps as a consequence of the Puritan belief in the importance of Bible reading. By the time of the American Revolution, literacy in New England is suggested to have been around 90%.

The ability to read did not necessarily imply the ability to write. The 1686 church law (kyrkolagen) of the Kingdom of Sweden (which at the time included all of modern Sweden, Finland, and Estonia) enforced literacy on the people and by the end of the 18th century, the ability to read was close to 100%. But as late as the 19th century, many Swedes, especially women, could not write. That said, the situation in England was far worse than in Scandinavia, France and Prussia: as late as 1841, 33% of all Englishmen and 44% of Englishwomen signed marriage certificates with their mark as they were unable to write (government-financed public education was not available in England until 1870 and, even then, on a limited basis).

The historian Ernest Gellner argues that Continental European countries were far more successful in implementing educational reform precisely because those governments were more willing to invest in the population as a whole.^[4] The view that public education contributes to rising literacy levels is shared by the majority of historians.

Although the present-day concepts of literacy have much to do with the 15th century invention of the movable type printing press, it was not until the Industrial Revolution of the mid-19th century that paper and books became financially affordable to all classes of industrialized society. Until then, only a small percentage of the population were literate as only wealthy individuals and institutions could afford the prohibitively expensive materials. Even today^[update], the dearth of cheap paper and books is a barrier to universal literacy in some less-industrialized nations.

From another perspective, the historian Harvey Graff has argued that the introduction of mass schooling was in part an effort to control the type of literacy that the working class had access to. According to Graff, literacy learning was increasing outside of formal settings (such as schools) and this uncontrolled, potentially critical reading could lead to increased radicalization of the populace. In his view, mass schooling was meant to temper and control literacy, not spread it.^[5] Graff also points out, using the example of Sweden, that mass literacy can be achieved without formal schooling or instruction in writing.^[6]

Literacy in North America[link]

Canada[link]

This article may require copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling. You can assist by editing it. (April 2012)

The literacy rate of Canada, being almost 99% in 2003, has declined, and will be under world's average literacy rates for adults in the next two decades, depending on the rate of declining.^[7]

United States[link]

In 1820 20 percent of the entire adult population was illiterate, and 80 percent of the black population was illiterate. By 1900 the situation had improved somewhat, but still 44 percent of black people remained illiterate. The statistical data show significant improvements for black and other races in the early portion of the 20th century as the former slaves who had no educational opportunities in their youth were replaced by younger individuals who grew up in the post Civil War period and often had some chance to obtain a basic education. The gap in illiteracy between white and black adults continued to narrow through the 20th century, and in 1979 the rates were about the same.^[8]

Full prose proficiency, as measured by the ability to process complex and challenging material such as would be encountered in everyday life there, is achieved by about 13% of the general, 17% of the white, and 2% of the black population.^[9][10] However 86% of the general population had basic or higher prose proficiency as of 2003, with a decrease distributed across all groups in the full proficiency group vs. 1992 of more than 10%, consistent with a general decline.^[11]

Literacy in South America[link]

In 1964 in Brazil, Paulo Freire was arrested and exiled for teaching the Brazilian peasants to read.^[12]

Since democracy returned to Brazil, however, there has been a steady increase in the percentage of literate people.

Literacy in Africa[link]

Africa is the continent with the lowest literacy rate in the world.

Algeria[link]

The literacy rate of Algeria is around the 70% mark, which is attributed to the fact that education is compulsory and free in Algeria up to age of 17.

Botswana[link]

Botswana has among the highest literacy rates in the developing world with around 85% of its population being literate.

Egypt[link]

Egypt has a relative high literacy rate in proportion to its population size. Education is compulsory from the ages six to 15 and free for all children to attend. 93% of children enter primary school today, compared with 87% in 1994. Major universities include Cairo University (100,000 students), Alexandria University, and the 1,000-year-old Al-Azhar University, one of the world's major centers of Islamic learning. ^[13]

Ethiopia[link]

In Ethiopia, a national literacy campaign introduced in 1978 increased literacy rates to between 37% (unofficial) and 63% (official) by 1984.^[14]

Kenya[link]

The literacy rate of Kenya is well over 70% due to fact that the first 8 years of primary school are provided tuition-free by the government. In January 2008, the government began offering a program of free secondary education, subject to some restrictions.

Literacy in Asia[link]

China[link]

The PRC conducts standardized testing to assess proficiency in Putonghua but it is primarily for foreigners or those needing to demonstrate professional proficiency in the Beijing dialect. Literacy in logographic languages like Chinese has been graded on the number of characters in the speaker's lexicon, with a few thousand considered the minimum for practical literacy. Similar tests exist in other countries where Chinese is an official language. Chinese can be expressed phonetically and alphabetically but Chinese speakers prefer the Chinese logographic system.

India[link]

Laos[link]

Three Laotian girls sit outside their school, each absorbed in reading a book they received at a rural school book party.

Obstacles to literacy vary by country and culture. Writing systems, quality of education, availability of written material, competition from other sources (television, video games, cell phones, and family work obligations) and cultural influences all influence literacy levels.

In Laos, which has a phonetic alphabet, the mechanics of reading are relatively easy to learn. It is easier than in English, where spelling and pronunciation rules are filled with exceptions, and far easier than Chinese, with thousands of symbols to be memorized. But a lack of books and other written materials has hindered functional literacy. Many children and adults are able to read, but do it so haltingly that the skill is of no real benefit. For this and other reasons, Laos has the lowest level of adult literacy of any Southeast-Asian nation except for East Timor.^[15]

A literacy project in Laos addresses this by using what it calls "books that make literacy fun!" The project, Big Brother Mouse, publishes colorful, easy-to-read books, then delivers them by holding book parties at rural schools. Some of the books are modeled on successful western books by authors such as Dr. Seuss. The most popular titles, however, are traditional Lao fairy tales. Two popular collections of folktales were written by Siphone Vouthisakdee, who comes from a village where only five children finished primary school.^[16]

Big Brother Mouse has also created village reading rooms, and published books for adult readers about subjects such as Buddhism, health, and baby care.^[17]

Pakistan[link]

In Pakistan, the National Commission for Human Development (NCHD) aims to bring literacy to adults, especially women.

Philippines[link]

In the Philippines, the DepEd, CHED, and other academic institutions encourage children to improve literacy skills and knowledge. The government has a program of literacy teaching starting in kindergarten.

Literacy in the 21st century[link]

This idea has forever changed the landscape of information access, and is integral in an understanding of Literacy as a practice, in the 21st Century. It is no longer sufficient to consider whether a student can 'read' (decoding text) and 'write' (encoding text), and it is necessary to consider more meaningful aspects of literacy in education and in society as a whole, if we are to complete the transition we are in, from a society in which communication was never possible on the level of 'many to many', to one in which it is.^[18]

Economic impact[link]

Many policy analysts consider literacy rates as a crucial measure to enhance a region's human capital. This claim is made on the grounds that literate people can be trained less expensively than illiterate people, generally have a higher socio-economic status^[19] and enjoy better health and employment prospects. Policy makers also argue that literacy increases job opportunities and access to higher education.

In Kerala, India, for example, female and child mortality rates declined dramatically in the 1960s, when girls schooled according to the education reforms after 1948 began to raise families. In addition to the potential for literacy to increase wealth, wealth may promote literacy, through cultural norms and easier access to schools and tutoring services.^{[citation needed]}

In 2009, the National Adult Literacy agency (NALA) commissioned an economist to do a cost benefit analysis of adult literacy training in Ireland. He reported that there were economic gains for the individuals, the companies they worked for, the Exchequer, as well as the economy, for example, increased GDP, and society at large. The annual income gain per person per level increase on the Irish ten level National Qualifications Framework being €3,810 and the gain to the Exchequer, in terms of reduced social welfare transfers and increased tax payments, being €1,531 per annum.^[20]

Broader and complementary definitions[link]

Traditionally considered the ability to use written language actively and passively, some definitions of literacy consider it the ability to "read, write, spell, listen, and speak."^[21] Since the 1980s, some have argued that literacy is ideological, which means that literacy always exists in a context, in tandem with the values associated with that context.^[22][23] Prior work viewed literacy as existing autonomously.^{[24][25][26][27]}

Some have argued that the definition of literacy should be expanded. For example, in the United States, the National Council of Teachers of English and the International Reading Association have added "visually representing" to the traditional list of competencies. Similarly, in Scotland, literacy has been defined as: "The ability to read, write and use numeracy, to handle information, to express ideas and opinions, to make decisions and solve problems, as family members, workers, citizens and lifelong learners."^[28]

A basic literacy standard in many societies is the ability to read the newspaper. Increasingly, communication in commerce or society in general requires the ability to use computers and other digital technologies.^[29] Since the 1990s, when the Internet came into wide use in the United States, some have asserted that the definition of literacy should include the ability to use tools such as web browsers, word processing programs, and text messages. Similar expanded skill sets have been called multimedia literacy, computer literacy, information literacy, and technological literacy.^[30][31] Some scholars propose the idea multiliteracies which includes Functional Literacy, Critical Literacy, and Rhetorical Literacy.^[32]

"Arts literacy" programs exist in some places in the United States.^[33]

Other genres under study by academia include critical literacy, media literacy, ecological literacy and health literacy^[34] With the increasing emphasis on evidence-based decision making, and the use of statistical graphics and information, statistical literacy is becoming a very important aspect of literacy in general. The International Statistical Literacy Project is dedicated to the promotion of statistical literacy among all members of society.

It is argued that literacy includes the cultural, political, and historical contexts of the community in which communication takes place.^[35]

Taking account of the fact that a large part of the benefits of literacy obtain from having access to a literate person in the household, a recent literature in economics, starting with the work of Kaushik Basu and James Foster, distinguishes between a 'proximate illiterate' and an 'isolated illiterate'. The former refers to an illiterate person who lives in a household with other literates and the latter to an illiterate who lives in a household of all illiterates. What is of concern is that many people in poor nations are not just illiterates but isolated illiterates.

Teaching literacy[link]

The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (April 2011)

Teaching English literacy in the United States is dominated at present by a conception of literacy that focuses on a set of discrete decoding skills. From this perspective, literacy - or, rather, reading - comprises a number of subskills that can be taught to students. These skill sets include: phonological awareness, phonics (decoding), fluency, comprehension, and vocabulary. Mastering each of these sets of subskills is necessary for students to become proficient readers.^[36]

From this same perspective, readers of alphabetic languages must understand the alphabetic principle in order to master basic reading skills. A writing system is said to be alphabetic if it uses symbols to represent individual language sounds,^[37] though the degree of correspondence between letters and sounds varies across alphabetic languages. Syllabic writing systems (such as Japanese kana) use a symbol to represent a single syllable, and logographic writing systems (such as Chinese) use a symbol to represent a morpheme.^[38]

There are any number of approaches to teaching literacy; each is shaped by its informing assumptions about what literacy is and how it is best learned by students. Phonics instruction, for example, focuses on reading at the level of the word.^[37] It teaches readers to attend to the letters or groups of letters that make up words. A common method of teaching phonics is synthetic phonics, in which a novice reader pronounces each individual sound and "blends" them to pronounce the whole word.^[37] Another approach to phonics instruction is embedded phonics instruction, used more often in whole language reading instruction, in which novice readers learn about the individual letters in words on a just-in-time, just-in-place basis that is tailored to meet each student's reading and writing learning needs.^[37] That is, teachers provide phonics instruction opportunistically, within the context of stories or student writing that feature many instances of a particular letter or group of letters. Embedded instruction combines letter-sound knowledge with the use of meaningful context to read new and difficult words.^[39] Techniques such as directed listening and thinking activities can be used to aid children in learning how to read and reading comprehension.

Public library efforts to promote literacy[link]

The public library has long been a proponent for literacy in its communities.^[40] The release of the National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL) report in 2005 revealed that approximately 14 percent of adults function at the lowest level of literacy and 29 percent of adults function at the basic functional literacy level, meaning they are not able to help their children with homework beyond the first few grades^[41] The lack of reading skills hinders adults from reaching their full potential. They might have difficulty getting and maintaining a job, providing for their families, or even reading a story to their children. For adults, the library might be the only source of a literacy program.^[42]

United States[link]

Programs have been instituted in public libraries across the United States in an attempt to improve the literacy rates in this country. Some example of various literacy programs across the country are listed below.

The READ/Orange County program, initiated in 1992 by the Orange County Public Library in California is an example of a flourishing community literacy program. The organization builds on what people have already learned through experiences as well as previous education, rather than trying to make up for what has not been learned. The organization then provides the student with the skills to continue learning in the future.^[42] The program operates on the belief that an adult who learns to read creates a ripple effect in the community. An adult who learns to read impacts not just himself but the whole community; he becomes an example to his children and grandchildren, and can then better serve his community.^[42] The mission of READ/Orange County is to "create a more literate community by providing diversified services of the highest quality to all who seek them." Potential tutors train during an extensive twenty-three hour Tutor Training Workshop in which they learn the philosophy, techniques and tools they will need to work with adult learns^[42] After completing the training, the tutors invest at least fifty hours a year to tutoring their student.

Another successful literacy program is the BoulderReads! program in Boulder, Colorado. The program recognized the difficulty that students had in obtaining child care while attending tutoring sessions, and joined with the University of Colorado to provide reading buddies to the children of students. Reading Buddies matches children of adult literacy students with college students who meet with them once a week throughout the semester for an hour and a half. The college students receive course credit, ensuring the quality and reliability of their time^[43]

Each Reading Buddies session focuses primarily on the college student reading aloud with the child. This helps the child gain interest in books and feel comfortable reading aloud. Time is also spent on word games, writing letters, or searching for books in the library. Throughout the semester the pair work on writing and illustrating a book together. The college student’s grade is partly dependent on the completion of the book. Although Reading Buddies began primarily as an answer to the lack of child care for literacy students, it has evolved into another aspect of the literacy program.^[43] While the children are not participants in the tutoring program, they do show marked improvement in their reading and writing skills throughout the semester, due in part to the admiration and respect they gain for their college reading buddy.

The Hillsborough Literacy Council, operating under The Florida Literacy Coalition, a statewide literacy organization, strives to improve the literacy ability of adults in Hillsborough County, Florida. Working since 1986, the HLC is "committed to improving literacy by empowering adults through education"^[44] The HLC also provides tutoring for English-speakers of other languages (ESOL). Approximately 120,000 adults in Hillsborough County are considered illiterate, or read below the fourth grade level. Through one on one tutoring the organization works to help adult students reach at least the fifth grade level. 95,000 adults living in Hillsborough County do not speak English; volunteers in the organization typically work with small groups of non-English speaking students to help practice their English conversation skills.

See also[link]

• List of countries by literacy rate

References[link]

External links[link]

Look up literacy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• UNESCO Literacy Portal
• UNESCO Effective Literacy Practice Database
• Literacy at the Open Directory Project
• Literacy Assessment
• The National Strategies for Primary Literacy
• The Digital Archive of Literacy Narratives
• National Literacy Trust
• List of countries by literacy rate List of Countries by literacy rate.

Rahul Kumar is an Indian football player who plays as a Defender for I-League team Salgaocar S.C.. A Punjab lad, Kumar was one of the original players of Pune F.C. in 2007.

Kumar began playing the game at the age of 14 beginning with Sanjay Public School where he played for two years. During this time he played the school nationals in Kolkata in 2001 and the next edition of the tournament the next year in Chandigarh. He also played the U-21 nationals and later went on to play for the Punjab senior team in 2005.

One of the earliest influences on his game was his coach at the start of his career at school, Ranjit Singh Rana, who not only encouraged him but was one of the coaches who also extended financial help to wards who needed it. Another coach he credits is Jaghir Singh of JCT Academy.

After school he joined the JCT Academy and followed that by a stint at the Punjab Electricity Board before making his way to PFC.

His height and built meant that he played as a defender since the beginning of his footballing days at school. Kumar is a very good player in the air which is a required skill for a defender in the centre of the field. He also backs that up with speed and with long range shooting, rounding off his skill set nicely.

Kumar’s brightest moment to date has been playing the Santosh Trophy for Punjab against Kerala. Kumar, who played left back in that game, was the junior most member of that 2005 Punjab side and he learnt a lot because everyone was eager to help the up and coming youngster.

Amongst the current lot of players, Kumar favours Baichung Bhutia amongst the forwards and the practical and sensible Mahesh Gawli of Dempo S.C amongst the defenders. Amongst players across the world he likes John Terry and Thierry Henry. Kumar loves to listen to music when he is not playing, especially Punjabi pop, his favourite artistes being Babbu Mann and Sukhwinder Singh.

External links[link]

• http://goal.com/en-india/people/india/21748/k-rahul
• http://www.indianfootball.com/en/statistic/player/detail/playerId/585

This biographical article related to Indian association football is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e

Pervez Musharraf پرویز مشرّف
President of Pakistan
In office 20 June 2001 – 18 August 2008
Prime Minister	Zafarullah Khan Jamali Chaudhry Shujaat Hussain Shaukat Aziz Muhammad Mian Soomro Yousaf Raza Gillani
Preceded by	Muhammad Rafiq Tarar
Succeeded by	Asif Ali Zardari
Chief Executive of Pakistan
In office 12 October 1999 – 21 November 2002
President	Muhammad Rafiq Tarar
Preceded by	Nawaz Sharif (Prime Minister)
Succeeded by	Zafarullah Khan Jamali (Prime Minister)
Minister of Defence
In office 12 October 1999 – 23 November 2002
Preceded by	Nawaz Sharif
Succeeded by	Rao Sikandar Iqbal
Chief of Army Staff
In office 6 October 1998 – 28 November 2007
Preceded by	Jehangir Karamat
Succeeded by	Ashfaq Parvez Kayani
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee
In office 8 October 1998 – 7 October 2001
Preceded by	Jehangir Karamat
Succeeded by	Aziz Khan
Personal details
Born	(1943-08-11) 11 August 1943 (age 68) Delhi, British India
Political party	Pakistan Muslim League- Quaid (Before 2010) All Pakistan Muslim League (2010–present)
Spouse(s)	Sehba Musharraf
Alma mater	Forman Christian College Pakistan Military Academy Command and Staff College National Defence University Royal College of Defence Studies
Military service
Nickname(s)	Cowboy, Mush
Allegiance	Pakistan
Service/branch	Pakistan Army
Years of service	1964–2007
Rank	General
Unit	Army Regiment of Artillery
Commands	I Corps Special Services Group XII Corps
Battles/wars	Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 Siachen conflict Kargil War Civil war in Afghanistan (1996–2001) 1999 Pakistani coup d'état 2001–2002 India-Pakistan standoff War in North-West Pakistan
Awards	Nishan-e-Imtiaz Imtiazi Sanad

This article contains Urdu text, written from right to left with some letters joined. Without proper rendering support, you may see unjoined letters or other symbols instead of Urdu script.

Pervez Musharraf (Urdu: پرویز مشرف, born 11 August 1943) is a retired four-star general who served as the 13th Chief of Army Staff and tenth President of Pakistan as well as tenth Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee. Musharraf headed and led an administrative military government from October 1999 till August 2007. He ruled Pakistan as Chief Executive from 1999 to 2001 and as President from 2001 to 2008. Facing impeachment, he preferred to resign on 18 August 2008.

After years of military service, he rose to prominence when Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif appointed him as the Chief of Army Staff in October 1998. Musharraf was the mastermind behind the controversial and internationally condemned Kargil infiltration, which derailed peace negotiations with Pakistan's long standing enemy India. He previously also played a vital role in the Afghanistan civil war (1996–2001) both in peace negotiations and in trying to end the bloodshed. After months of contentious relations with Sharif, Musharraf was brought to power through a bloodless military coup. Subsequently Nawaz Sharif was placed under a house-arrest, later shifting him to Adiala Jail.

As Pakistan's head of state, he was a U.S. ally in the War on Terror. He was credited with the development of Pakistan's economy during the early years of his rule. He is also credited to be the first president of Pakistan who accepted supreme court rulings and who organized free and fair elections. The last two years of his rule were marred by controversies, including the suspension of the Supreme Court Chief Justice and the Lal Masjid siege. Ian Kershaw, a professor of modern history at Sheffield University, described Musharraf as Pakistan's Paul von Hindenburg.^[1]

In February 2011, a Pakistani court issued an arrest warrant for him because of his alleged involvement in the assassination of Benazir Bhutto. As of June 2011, he lives in self-exile in London but has vowed to return for the next election.

Early life[link]

India[link]

He was born on 11 August 1943 in Delhi, British India, four years before the partition of India.^[2][3][4] He is the son of Syed and Zarin Musharraf.^[5][6] Syed graduated from Aligarh Muslim University and was a civil servant for the British.^[7] Zarin was born in the early 1920s.^[3]

Musharraf's first childhood home was called neharwali haveli, literally "mansion by the canal".^[8] The house, located at the epicenter of India's ruling Mughal elite, is so large that in 2001 it housed eight different families.^[8] Syed Ahmed Khan's family lived adjacent to the home.^[8] The home's title deeds were written entirely in Urdu except for his father's English signature.^[8]

Pakistan and Turkey[link]

Musharraf and his family left for Pakistan on one of the last safe trains in August 1947, a few days before the partition of India took effect.^[5][8][9] His father began to work for the new Pakistani government and eventually joined the Foreign Ministry.^[5] In his autobiography Line of Fire, Musharraf elaborates on his first experience with death, after falling out of a mango tree.^[10]

Musharraf's family moved to Ankara in 1949, when his father became part of a diplomatic deputation from Pakistan to Turkey.^[7][11] He learned to speak Turkish.^[12][13] He had a dog named Whiskey that gave him a "lifelong love for dogs".^[7] He often played sports in his youth.^[5][14] He left Turkey in 1956.^[7][11]

He returned to Pakistan in 1957.^[12] He attended Saint Patrick's School in Karachi and Forman Christian College in Lahore.^[7][15][16]

Initial military career[link]

In 1961, at age of 18^[17], Musharraf entered the prestigious Pakistan Military Academy at Kakul.^[14][18] He joined the Pakistan Army in 1964 and was placed in an artillery regiment.^[19][20] During his college years in PMA and initial joint military testings, Musharraf shared a room with PQ Mehdi of PAF and Abdul Aziz Mirza of Navy (both reached to four-star assignments and served with Musharraf later on) and after giving the exams and entranace interviews, all three cadets went to watch a world-acclaimed Urdu film, Savera (lit. Dawn), with his inter-services and college friends, Musharraf recalls, "In the Line of Fire" published in 2006.^[17] With his friends, Musharraf passed the standardize, physical, psychological, and officer-training exams, he also took discussions involving the socioeconomics issues; all three were interviewed by joint military officers who were designated as Commandants.^[17] The next day, Musharraf along with PQ Mehdi and Mirza reported to PMA and were selected for their respected training in their arms of commission.^[17]

Finally in 1964, Musharraf graduated with a 29th PMA Long Course together with Ali Kuli Khan and his life-long friend Abdul Aziz Mirza (later four-star admiral).^[20] During this time, Musharraf maintained his friendship and contact with Mirza through letters and telephones even in difficult times when Mirza, after joining the Navy Special Service Group, was stationed in East-Pakistan as a military advisor to East Pakistan Army.^[17]

Indo-Pakistani conflicts (1965–1971)[link]

His first battlefield experience was with his artillery regiment in the intense fighting for Khemkaran sector in the Second Kashmir War.^[21] He also participated in the Lahore and Sialkot war zones during the conflict.^[13] During the war, Musharraf developed a reputation for sticking to his post under shellfire.^[9] He received the Imtiazi Sanad medal for gallantry.^[11][14]

Shortly after the end of the War of 1965, he joined the elite Special Service Group (SSG) and trained together with then-lieutenant Shahid Karimullah (later four-star admiral) in a joint operations.^[12][20] He served in the SSG from 1966–1972.^[12][22] He was promoted to captain and to major during this period.^[12] During the war, he also was a company commander of a commando battalion.^[13]

Various military posts (1972–1990)[link]

Musharraf was a lieutenant colonel in 1974^[12] and a colonel in 1978.^[23] As staff officer in the 1980s, he studied and taught at Command and Staff College and National Defense University.^[19][20][22] One of his professor at NDU was general Jehangir Karamat who served Musharraf's guidance counselor and instructor who had significant influence on Musharraf's philosophy and critical thinking.^[24] He did not play any significant role in Pakistan's proxy war in the 1979–89 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.^[22] In 1987, he became a brigade commander of a new division of the SSG near Siachen Glacier.^[4] He was personally chosen by then-President and chief of army staff general Zia-ul-Haq for this assignment due to Musharraf's wide experience in mountain and arctic warfare.^[25] In September 1987, an assault was launched under the command of Musharraf at Bilafond La before being pushed back.^[4] In 1990-91, he studied at the Royal College of Defense Studies (RCDS) in Britain.^[13] His course-mate included Major-generals B.S. Malik and Ashok Mehta^[25] of Indian Army, and Ali Kuli Khan of Pakistan Army.^[25] In his course studies, Musharraf performed extremely well comparing to other his classmates, and submit his master's degree thesis, entitling "Impact of Arm Race in the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent", and earned well remarks.^[25] He submitted his thesis to Commandant General Anthony Walker who regarded Musharraf as one of his finest students he had seen entire his career.^[25] At one point, Walker described Musharraf: "A capable, articulate and extremely personable officer, who made a valuable impact at RCDS. His country is fortunate to have the services of a man of his undeniable quality".^[25] He graduated with a master's degree from RCDS and returned to Pakistan soon after.^[25]

While in the Army, he earned the nickname "Cowboy" for his westernized ways.^[22][23]

Director-General (1991–1995)[link]

Earlier in 1988-89, (as Brigadier) Musharraf proposed a Kargil infiltration to Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto but she rebuffed the plan.^[26] In 1991-93, he secured a two-star promotion, elevating to a rank of major general and held a command of 40th Army Division as its GOC, stationed in Okara Military District in Punjab Province.^[25] In 1993-95, Major-General Musharraf worked closely with the Chief of Army Staff as Director-General of Pakistan Army's Directorate General for the Military Operations (DGMO).^[23] During this time, Musharraf became close to engineering officer and director-general of ISI lieutenant-general Javed Nasir and had worked with him while directing operations in Bosnian war.^[25][27] After the collapse of the fractious Afghan government, Musharraf assisted General Babar and the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) in devising a policy of supporting the newly-formed Taliban in the Afghan civil war against the Northern Alliance government.^[22] On policy matter issues, Musharraf befriended with senior justice of the Supreme Court of Pakistan Justice Rafiq Tarar (later president) and held common beliefs with the latter.^[25]

His last military field operations posting was at the Mangla region of the Kashmir Province in 1995 when Benazir Bhutto approved the promotion of Musharraf to three-star rank, Lieutenant-General.^[25] In 1995-98, Lieutenant-General Musharraf was the corps commander (CC-I) of I Strike Corps stationed in Mangla, Mangla Military District.^[20]

Chief of Army Staff[link]

Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff[link]

Musharraf in four-star uniform, PA.

Although both Nawaz Sharif and general Jehangir Karamat were educated and hold common beliefs concerning the national security, but problems arose with chairman joint chiefs and chief of army staff general Karamat on October 1998.^[28] While addressing the officers and cadets at the Naval War College, general Karamat stressed the creation of National Security Council^[20] which would be backed by a "team of civil-military experts"^[28] for devising policies to seek resolution ongoing problems relating the civil-military issues; also recommended a "neutral but competent bureaucracy and administration of at federal level and the establishment of Local governments in four provinces.^[28] This proposal was met with hostility, and it succeeded all in accomplishing was pricking the Prime minister's highly inflated altered ego.^[28] Nawaz Sharif's dismissal of general Karamat^[20], plummeted his mandate in the public circles and criticism he received from Leader of the Opposition Benazir Bhutto was rogue.^[28]