Native name	''Rheinprovinz''
Conventional long name	Rhine Province
Common name	Rhine Province
Subdivision	Province
Nation	Prussia
Year start	1822
Year end	1946
P1	Grand Duchy of the Lower Rhine
P2	Province of Jülich-Cleves-Berg
S1	Saar (League of Nations)
Flag s1	Flag of Saar 1920-1935.svg
S2	North Rhine-Westphalia
Flag s2	Flag of North Rhine-Westphalia (state).svg
S3	Rhineland-Palatinate
Flag s3	Flag of Rhineland-Palatinate.svg
S4	Hesse
Flag s4	Flag of Hesse.svg
Today	North Rhine-Westphalia Rhineland-Palatinate Saarland Hesse Eupen-Malmedy
Image coat	Wappen Preußische Provinzen - Rheinland.png
Image map caption	The Rhine Province (red), within the Kingdom of Prussia, within the German Empire
Capital	Koblenz
Event1	Loss of Saar
Date event1	1920
Stat pop1	6435778
Stat year1	1905
Stat area2	24477
Stat year2	1939
Stat pop2	7931942
Political subdiv	Aachen Cologne Düsseldorf Koblenz Trier }}

The Rhine Province (), also known as Rhenish Prussia (''Rheinpreußen'') or synonymous to the Rhineland (''Rheinland''), was the westernmost province of the Kingdom of Prussia and the Free State of Prussia, within the German Reich, from 1822-1946. It was created from the provinces of the Lower Rhine and Jülich-Cleves-Berg. Its capital was Koblenz and in 1939 it had 8.0 million inhabitants. The Province of Hohenzollern was militarily associated with the Oberpräsident of the Rhine Province.

The Rhine Province bounded on the north by the Netherlands, on the east by the Prussian provinces of Westphalia and Hesse-Nassau, and the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the southeast by the Electoral Palatinate, on the south and southwest by Lorraine, and on the west by Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands.

The small district of Wetzlar in the midst of the province of Hesse also belonged to the Rhine Province, which, on the other hand, surrounded the Oldenburg principality of Birkenfeld.

In 1911, the extent of the province was 10,423 km²; its extreme length, from north to south, was nearly 200 km, and its greatest breadth was just under 90 km. It included about 200 km. of the course of the Rhine, which formed the eastern frontier of the province from Bingen to Coblenz, and then flowed through this eastern frontier in a north-westerly direction.

Demographics

The population of the Rhine province in 1905 was 6,435,778, including 4,472,058 Roman Catholics, 1,877,582 Protestants and 55,408 Jews. The left bank was predominately Roman Catholic, while on the right bank about half the population was Protestant. The great bulk of the population was German, although the northern part (Province of Jülich-Cleves-Berg) was more closely related to the Netherlands. On the western and southern frontiers resided smaller French-speaking communities.

The Rhine province was the most densely populated part of Prussia, the general average being 617 persons per sq. m. The province contains a greater number of large towns than any other province in Prussia. Upwards of half the population were supported by industrial and commercial pursuits, and barely a quarter by agriculture. There was the university at Bonn, and elementary education was especially successful.

Government

For purposes of administration the province was divided into the five districts of Coblenz, Düsseldorf, Cologne, Aachen and Trier. Coblenz was the official capital, though Cologne was the largest and most important city. Being a frontier province the Rhineland was strongly garrisoned, and the Rhine was guarded by the three strong fortresses of Cologne with Deutz, Coblenz with Ehrenbreitstein, and Wesel. The province sent 35 members to the German Reichstag and 62 to the Prussian house of representatives.

Economy

Agriculture

Of the total area of the Rhine province about 45% was occupied by arable land, 16% by meadows and pastures, and 31% by forests. Little except oats and potatoes could be raised on the high-lying plateaus in the south of the province, but the river-valleys and the northern lowlands were extremely fertile. The great bulk of the soil was in the hands of small proprietors, and this is alleged to have had the effect of somewhat retarding the progress of scientific agriculture. The usual cereal crops were, however, all grown with success, and tobacco, hops, flax, hemp and beetroot (for sugar) were cultivated for commercial purposes. Large quantities of fruit were also produced.

The vine-culture occupied a space of about , about half of which was in the valley of the Mosel, a third in that of the Rhine itself, and the rest mainly on the Nahe and the Ahr. In the hilly districts more than half the surface was sometimes occupied by forests, and large plantations of oak are formed for the use of the bark in tanning.

Considerable herds of cattle were reared on the rich pastures of the lower Rhine, but the number of sheep in the province was comparatively small, not greatly in excess of that of the goats. The wooded hills were well stocked with deer, and a stray wolf occasionally found its way from the forests of the Ardennes into those of the Hunsrück.

The salmon fishery of the Rhine was very productive, and trout abound in the mountain streams.

Mineral resources

The great mineral wealth of the Rhine province furnished its most substantial claim to the title of the “richest jewel in the crown of Prussia.”

Besides parts of the carboniferous measures of the Saar and the Ruhr, it also contains important deposits of coal near Aachen. Iron ore was found in abundance near Coblenz, the Bleiberg in the Eifel possessed an apparently inexhaustible supply of lead, and zinc was found near Cologne and Aachen. The mineral products of the district also included lignite, copper, manganese, vitriol, lime, gypsum, volcanic stones (used for millstones) and slates. By far the most important item was coal.

Of the numerous mineral springs the best known were those of Aachen and Kreuznach.

Industries

The mineral resources of the Prussian Rhine province, coupled with its favourable situation and the facilities of transit afforded by its great waterway, made it the most important manufacturing district in Germany.

The industry was mainly concentrated round two chief centres, Aachen and Düsseldorf (with the valley of the Wupper), while there were naturally few manufactures in the hilly districts of the south or the marshy flats of the north. The largest iron and steel works were at Essen, Oberhausen, Duisburg, Düsseldorf and Cologne, while cutlery and other small metallic wares were extensively made at Solingen, Remscheid and Aachen.

The cloth of Aachen and the silk of Krefeld formed important articles of export. The chief industries of Elberfeld-Barmen and the valley of the Wupper were cotton-weaving, calico-printing and the manufacture of turkey red and other dyes. Linen was largely made at Gladbach, leather at Malmedy, glass in the Saar district and beetroot sugar near Cologne.

Though the Rhineland was par excellence the country of the vine, beer was produced in quantities, distilleries were also numerous, and large quantities of sparkling Moselle were made at Coblenz, chiefly for exportation to England.

Commerce was greatly aided by the navigable rivers, a very extensive network of railways, and the excellent roads constructed during the French régime. The imports consist mainly of raw material for working up in the factories of the district, while the principal exports are coal, fruit, wine, dyes, cloth, silk and other manufactured articles of various descriptions.

History

Prussia established the Rhine Province in 1824 by joining the provinces of Lower Rhine and Jülich-Cleves-Berg. Its capital was Koblenz; it had 8.0 million inhabitants by 1939. In 1920, the Saar was separated from the Rhine Province and administered by the League of Nations until a plebiscite in 1935, when the region was returned to Germany. At the same time, in 1920, the districts of Eupen and Malmedy were transferred to Belgium (see German-Speaking Community of Belgium). In 1946, the Rhine Province was divided up between the newly-founded states of North Rhine-Westphalia and Rhineland-Palatinate. The town of Wetzlar became part of Hesse.

Following World War I

Following the Armistice of 1918, Allied forces occupied the Rhineland as far east as the river with some small bridgeheads on the east bank at places like Cologne. Under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles of 1919 the occupation was continued and the Inter-Allied Rhineland High Commission was set up to supervise affairs. The treaty specified three occupation Zones, which were due to be evacuated by Allied troops five, ten and finally 15 years after the formal ratification of the treaty, which took place in 1920, thus the occupation was intended to last until 1935. In fact, the last Allied troops left Germany five years prior to that date in 1930 in a good-will reaction to the Weimar Republic's policy of reconciliation in the era of Gustav Stresemann and the Locarno Pact.

Sections of the Rhineland, that had once belonged to the Habsburg Netherlands Duchy of Limburg, were annexed by Belgium in the Treaty of Versailles. The cantons of Eupen, Malmedy and Sankt Vith though, with the exception of Malmedy, German in culture and language became the East Cantons of Belgium against the will of the population. Today German is the third official language, along with French and Dutch.

During the occupation (1919–1930) the French encouraged the establishment of an independent Rhenish Republic, banking on traditional anti-Prussian resentments (see: history of Palatinate). In the end, the separatists failed to gain any decisive support among the population.

The Treaty of Versailles also specified the de-militarization of the entire area to provide a buffer between Germany on one side and France, Belgium and Luxembourg (and to a lesser extent, the Netherlands) on the other side, which meant that no German forces were allowed there after the Allied forces had withdrawn. Furthermore (and quite unbearably from the German perspective) the treaty entitled the Allies to reoccupy the Rhineland at their will, if the Allies unilaterally found the German side responsible for any violation of the treaty.

In violation of the Treaty of Versailles and the spirit of the Locarno Pact, Nazi Germany remilitarized the Rhineland on Saturday, March 7, 1936. The occupation was done with very little military force, the troops entering on tractors, and no effort was made to stop it (see Appeasement of Hitler), even though the French had an overwhelming force nearby. France could not act due to political instability at the time, and, since the remilitarization occurred at a weekend, the British Government could not find out or discuss actions to be taken until the following Monday. As a result of this, the governments were inclined to see the remilitarization as a ''fait accompli''.

Hitler took a risk when he sent his troops to the Rhineland. He told them to "turn back and not to resist" if they were stopped by the French Army. The French, however, did not try to stop them because they were currently holding elections and the president did not want to start a war with Germany.

The British government did not oppose the act in principle, feeling with Lord Lothian that "the Germans are after all only going into their own back garden" but rejected the Nazi manner of accomplishing the act. Winston Churchill, however, advocated military action through cooperation by the British and French. The remilitarization of the Rhineland was favoured by some of the local population, because of a resurgence of German nationalism and harboured bitterness over the Allied occupation of the Rhineland until 1930 (Saarland until 1935).

A side-effect of the French occupations was the offspring of French soldiers and German woman. These children, who were seen as the continuing French pollution of German culture, were shunned by the broader German society and were known as ''Rhineland Bastards''. Children fathered by French colonial troops of African ancestry were especially despised and became targets of Nazi sterilisation programmes in the 1930s. The American poet Charles Bukowski was born in 1920 in Andernach as the son of a German mother and a Polish-American U.S. soldier, serving among the occupation troops and soldiers.

1944–1945 military campaigns

Two different military campaigns were fought in the Rhineland.

U.S. Army

The first operation of the campaign was the Allied Operation Market Garden that sought to allow the Second British Army to advance past the northern flank of the Siegfried Line and enter the Ruhr industrial area. After the failure of that operation for five months, from September 1944 until February 1945, the First United States Army fought a costly battle to capture the Hürtgen Forest. The heavily forested and ravined terrain of the Hürtgen negated Allied combined arms advantages (close air support, armor, artillery) and favoured German defenders. The U.S. Army lost 24,000 troops. The military necessity of their sacrifice has been debated by military historians.

Canadian Army

In early 1945, after a long winter stalemate, military operations by most Allied armies in Northwest Europe resumed with the goal of reaching the Rhine. From their winter positions in The Netherlands, the First Canadian Army under General Henry Crerar reinforced by elements of the British Second Army under General Miles Dempsey, drove through the Rhineland beginning in the first week of February 1945.

Operation ''Veritable'' lasted several weeks, with the end result of clearing all German forces from the west side of the Rhine river. The supporting operation by the First US Army, Operation ''Grenade'', was planned to coincide from the River Roer, in the south. This was delayed for two weeks however, by German flooding of the Roer valley.

Other actions

On March 7, 1945 a company of armoured infantry of the U.S. 9th Armored Division captured the last intact bridge over the Rhine at Remagen. General George Patton's Third US Army also made a crossing of the river the day before the much anticipated Rhine crossings by the 21st Army Group (First Canadian Army and the British Second Army) under Field Marshal Montgomery in the third week of March 1945.

Operation ''Varsity'' was a massive airborne operation in conjunction with Operation ''Plunder'', the amphibious crossings. By early April, the Rhine had been crossed by all the Allied armies operating west of the river, and the battles for the Rhineland were over.

Battle honours

In the official histories of the British and Canadian armies, the term Rhineland refers only to fighting west of the river in February and March 1945, with subsequent operations on the river and to the east known as "Rhine Crossing". Both terms are official Battle Honours in the Commonwealth forces.

In 1946, the Rhine Province was divided into the newly-founded states of Hesse, North Rhine-Westphalia and Rhineland-Palatinate.

References

Category:1946 disestablishments Rhine Province Category:History of Baden-Württemberg Category:History of Hesse Category:History of North Rhine-Westphalia Category:History of Rhineland-Palatinate Category:History of Saarland Category:History of the Rhineland

da:Rhinprovinsen de:Rheinprovinz es:Provincia del Rin fr:Rhénanie prussienne it:Provincia del Reno mk:Рајнска Провинција nl:Rijnprovincie no:Rhinprovinsen pt:Província do Reno ru:Рейнская провинция zh:莱茵省

name	Gil Shaham
background	non_vocal_instrumentalist
birth name	Gil Shaham
born	February 19, 1971Urbana, Illinois
origin	American
instrument	Violin
genre	Classical
occupation	violinist
years active	1981-
label	Canary Classics
notable instruments	"Comtesse de Polignac", 1699 Stradivarius violin }}

Gil Shaham (born February 19, 1971) is an Israeli-American violinist.

Biography

Gil Shaham was born in Urbana, Illinois, while his parents, Israeli scientists, were on an academic fellowship at the University of Illinois. His father Jacob was an astrophysicist, and his mother, Meira Diskin, was a cytogeneticist. His sister is the pianist Orli Shaham. He is a graduate of the Horace Mann School in Riverdale, New York. The family returned to Jerusalem when Gil was two. At the age of seven, Shaham began taking violin lessons from Samuel Bernstein at the Rubin Academy of Music in Jerusalem. In 1980, when Shaham was nine years old, he played for Isaac Stern, Nathan Milstein and Henryk Szeryng, and attended the Aspen Music School in Colorado, studying with Dorothy DeLay (the teacher of many other leading artists, including Itzhak Perlman and Sarah Chang) and Jens Ellerman.

Shaham is married to the Australian-born violinist Adele Anthony. They have two children, Elijah and Ella Mei.

Music career

At age 10, Shaham debuted as soloist with the Jerusalem Symphony, conducted by the violinist Alexander Schneider. Less than a year later Shaham performed with Israel's foremost orchestra, the Israel Philharmonic, which was conducted by Zubin Mehta. At age 11, in 1982, Shaham won first prize in the Claremont Competition and was admitted to the Juilliard School in New York, where he studied with Dorothy DeLay and Hyo Kang. In addition, both he and his younger sister, the pianist Orli Shaham, attended Columbia University.

Shaham's career took off in 1989 when he was called to replace an ailing Itzhak Perlman for a series of concerts with Michael Tilson Thomas and the London Symphony Orchestra. Flying to London at short notice, having had to take time out from his studies at the Horace Mann School where he was a senior, he played both the Bruch and the Sibelius concertos to glowing reviews.

In 1990 he received the Avery Fisher Career Grant. In 1992 he was awarded the Premio Internazionale of the Accademia Chigiana in Siena.

Shaham has performed with many of the world's leading orchestras, among them the New York Philharmonic, Berlin Philharmonic, Toronto Symphony Orchestra, Vienna Philharmonic, Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, Chicago Symphony Orchestra, Boston Symphony Orchestra, Russian National Orchestra, Academy of St. Martin in the Fields, San Francisco Symphony Orchestra and Philadelphia Orchestra.

Recordings

Shaham's recordings have won the Grammy Award, Grand Prix du Disques, Cannes Classical Award, Ritmo Prize and others. He has more than twenty recordings on the Deutsche Grammophon label. He founded his own label, Canary, in association with Vanguard, for which he has recorded works by Fauré and works by Prokofiev with his sister Orli, with whom he has also performed violin sonatas by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Other recordings include Beethoven's Triple Concerto and Septet with David Zinman, Truls Mørk and Yefim Bronfman for Arte Nova, Shaham with the Singapore Symphony Orchestra, playing the Butterfly Lovers' Concerto by Chen Gang and He Zhanhao, and the Concerto in D by Tchaikovsky, his second recording of the work. In 2000, he recorded an album entitled ''Devil's Dance'' with pianist Jonathan Feldman, and he was guest artist alongside cellist Julian Lloyd Webber and soprano Renee Fleming on the album Two Worlds with Dave Grusin and Lee Ritenour.

Shaham plays a Stradivarius violin from the "long pattern" period, the "Comtesse de Polignac" of 1699. It was offered to Shaham on loan, in 1989, by the Stradivarius Society of Chicago.

Awards

Avery Fisher Career Grant (1990)

Premio Internazionale of the Accademia Chigiana in Siena (1992)

Grammy Award for Best Chamber Music Performance: Andre Previn & Gil Shaham for ''American Scenes (Works of Copland, Previn, Barber, Gershwin) (1999)

Avery Fisher Award (2008) Presented by his dear friend Gustavo Dudamel at a Live from Lincoln Center private presentation of the music of Pablo de Sarasate in the Stanley H. Kaplan Penthouse.

References

External links

Canary Classics (Gil Shaham's Record Label)

Gil Shaham in Conversation from WGBH Radio Boston

Category:Israeli classical violinists Category:Jewish classical musicians Category:Jewish violinists Category:1971 births Category:Living people Category:Columbia University alumni Category:Grammy Award winners Category:Juilliard School alumni Category:Horace Mann School alumni Category:American Jews Category:People from Urbana, Illinois Category:American classical violinists Category:American people of Israeli descent

de:Gil Shaham es:Gil Shaham eu:Gil Shaham fr:Gil Shaham he:גיל שחם ja:ギル・シャハム pt:Gil Shaham fi:Gil Shaham

Conflict	Battle of the Teutoburg Forest
Partof	the Roman-Germanic wars
Battle name	Battle of the Teutoburg Wald
Date	September, 9 CE. Exact date unknowable.
Place	Osnabrück County, Lower Saxony
Result	Decisive Germanic victoryRoman Empire's strategic withdrawal from Magna Germania
Combatant1	Germanic tribes (Cherusci, Marsi, Chatti, Bructeri, Chauci and Sicambri).
Combatant2	Roman Empire
Commander1	Arminius
Commander2	Publius Quinctilius Varus
Strength1	Unknown, but estimates range from 12,000 - 32,000
Strength2	20,000 - max. 36,000:3 Roman legions (XVII, XVIII/XIIX, and XIX/XVIIII),3 alae and6 auxiliary cohorts
Casualties1	unknown
Casualties2	20,000 deadseveral enslaved }}

The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest (described as ''clades Variana'', the Varian disaster by Roman historians) (, ''Hermannsschlacht'' or ''Varusschlacht'') took place in 9 CE, when an alliance of Germanic tribes led by Arminius () (also known as "Hermann"), the son of Segimerus ( or ''Sigimer'') of the Cherusci, ambushed and destroyed three Roman legions, along with their auxiliaries, led by Publius Quinctilius Varus.

Despite numerous successful campaigns and raids by the Roman army over the Rhine in the years after the battle, the Romans were to make no more concerted attempts to conquer and permanently hold Germania beyond the river.

Background

The Roman force was led by Publius Quinctilius Varus, a noble from a patrician family related to the Imperial family and an experienced administrative official, who was assigned to consolidate the new province of Germania in the autumn of 6 CE. In early 6 CE, before Varus was commander on the Rhine, it was ''Legatus'' Gaius Sentius Saturninus and Consul ''Legatus'' Marcus Aemilius Lepidus under Tiberius who led an army of 65,000 heavy infantry legionaries, 10,000–20,000 cavalrymen, archers, 10,000–20,000 civilians (13 legions & entourage, probably about 100,000+ men) and was planning a major attack on Maroboduus, the king of the Marcomanni, a tribe of the Suebi who had fled the attacks of Drusus I in 9 BCE into the territory of the Boii, where they formed a powerful tribal alliance with the Hermunduri, Quadi, Semnones, Lugians, Zumi, Butones, Mugilones, Sibini and Langobards.

In 4 CE, Tiberius entered Germania and subjugated the Cananefates in Germania Inferior, the Chatti near the upper Weser River, and the Bructeri south of the Teutoburg Forest and led his army across the Weser. But in 6 CE a major rebellion broke out in the province of Illyricum (later divided into Pannonia and Dalmatia). Led by Bato the Daesitiate, Bato the Breucian, Pinnes of Pannonia, and elements of the Marcomanni and known as the ''Bellum Batonianum'', it lasted nearly 4 years. Tiberius was forced to stop his campaign against Maroboduus and recognize him as king and to send his eight legions (VIII ''Augustan'', XV ''Apollonian'', XX ''Victorious Valerian'', XXI ''Predator'', XIII ''Twin'', XIV ''Twin'', XVI ''Gallic'' and an unknown unit) to crush the rebellion in the Balkans.

Nearly half of all Roman legions had to be pulled together to end the revolt, which was triggered by neglect, endemic food shortages (since 22 BCE, following a political crisis in 23 BCE and riots in 22, 21 and 19 BCE, ended after 8 CE), high taxes and harsh behavior of the tax collectors. This campaign, led by Tiberius and ''Quaestor'' ''Legatus'' Germanicus under Emperor Augustus, was one of the hardest and most critical for the Roman Empire. During the start of the rebellion in the southern part of Illyricum, Varus was named ''Legatus Augusti pro praetore'' and had only three legions available.

Varus' name and deeds were well known beyond the borders of the empire because of his ruthlessness and crucifixion of insurgents. The people of the provinces feared his punishment and rumors of his arrival on the Rhine spread like wildfire. While feared by the people, he was highly respected by the Roman senate. He was probably the fourth most important person of his time after Augustus, Tiberius and Germanicus. On the Rhine (probably camp ''castra'' ''Vetera'' near Xanten or ''castra'' ''Novaesium'' near Neuss) he was in command of the legions XVII, XVIII (also XIIX) and XIX (also XVIIII), previously led by General Gaius Sentius Saturninus, who was sent back to Rome and had been given an ''ornamenta triumphalia''. The other 2 legions in the winter-quarters of the army at ''castrum'' ''Moguntiacum'' (I ''Germanica'', V ''Larks'' ) were led by Varus' nephew Second consul Lucius Nonius Asprenas and perhaps Second consul Lucius Arruntius.

Varus' opponent, Arminius, was handed over to the Romans along with his brother Flavus, as tribute by his father and chieftain of the noblest house in the tribe of the Cherusci, Segimerus the Conqueror, as result of the attacks of Drusus I in 11–9 BCE. Arminius had lived in Rome as a hostage in his youth, where he had received a military education, and even been given the rank of Equestrian.

During his absence Segimerus was declared a coward by other Germanic chieftains because he had bowed down to Roman rule – a crime punishable by death under Germanic law. Between 11 BCE and 4 CE the hostility and suspicion between the Germanic tribes deepened. Trade and politics between the Germanic warlords deteriorated. According to German philologist Maximilian Ihm (1863–1909), Tacitus writes that the Chatti were hostile and subjugated the Cherusci but were "pacified" between 4 and 6 CE. According to ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', the Cherusci were defeated by the Chatti but this also gives no date. Velleius Paterculus reported that in the years 1–4 CE there was unrest in Germania (''immensum bellum'', immense war).

After his return from Rome Arminius became a trusted advisor to Varus. But in secret he forged an alliance of Germanic tribes that had traditionally been enemies (the Cherusci, Marsi, Chatti, Bructeri, Chauci, Sicambri, and remaining elements of the Suebi, who had been defeated by Caesar in the Battle of Vosges), but whom he was able to unite due to outrage over Varus' tyrannous insolence and wanton cruelty to the conquered and who had hitherto submitted in sullen hatred to the Roman dominion.

"... Stratagem was, therefore, indispensable; and it was necessary to blind Varus to their schemes until a favorable opportunity should arrive for striking a decisive blow..." ''British historian Edward Shepherd Creasy (1812–1878)''

While Varus was on his way from his summer camp somewhere west of the Weser river to the winter headquarters near the Rhine, he heard reports of a local rebellion, fabricated by Arminius. (Despite recent finds indicating a Roman presence near the modern city of Minden, its location remains disputed; other sites near Minden or Rinteln have been suggested by the historian Hans Delbrück (1848–1929) and the military writer Kurt Pastenaci (1894–1961), respectively.)

"... This was represented to Varus as an occasion which required his prompt attendance at the spot; but he was kept in studied ignorance of its being part of a concerted national rising; and he still looked on Arminius as his submissive vassal..." ''Edward Shepherd Creasy''

Varus decided to quell this uprising immediately and take a detour through territory unfamiliar to the Romans. Arminius, who accompanied Varus, probably directed him along a route that would facilitate an ambush. Another Cheruscan nobleman, Segestes, brother of Segimerus, father of Arminius' wife, and opposed to the marriage, warned Varus the night before the departure of the Roman forces, allegedly even suggesting that Varus apprehend Arminius along with several other Germanic leaders whom he identified as covert participants in the planned uprising. But his warning was dismissed as the result of a personal feud. Arminius then left under the pretext of drumming up Germanic forces to support the Roman campaign, but instead led his troops, who must have been waiting in the vicinity, in attacks on surrounding Roman garrisons.

Recent archaeological finds place the battle at Kalkriese Hill in Osnabrück County, Lower Saxony. On the basis of Roman accounts, the Romans must at this time have been marching northwestward from the area that is now the city of Detmold, passing east of Osnabrück; they must then have camped in this area prior to being attacked.

Battles

Varus' forces included three legions (Legio XVII, Legio XVIII, and Legio XIX), six cohorts of auxiliary troops (non-citizens or allied troops) and three squadrons of cavalry (''alae''), most of which lacked combat experience with Germanic fighters under local conditions. The Roman forces were not marching in combat formation, and were interspersed with large numbers of camp-followers. As they entered the forest (probably just northeast of Osnabrück ), they found the track narrow and muddy; according to Dio Cassius a violent storm had also arisen. He also writes that Varus neglected to send out advance reconnaissance parties.

The line of march was now stretched out perilously long — estimates are that it surpassed 15 km (9 miles), and was perhaps as long as 20 km (12 miles). It was then suddenly attacked by Germanic warriors armed with light swords, large lances and narrow-bladed short spears called ''fremae''. The Germanic warriors surrounded the entire Roman army and rained down javelins on the intruders. Arminius, who had grown up in Rome as a citizen and become a Roman soldier, understood Roman tactics very well and could direct his troops to counter them effectively, using locally superior numbers against the dispersed Roman legions. The Romans managed to set up a fortified night camp, and the next morning broke out into the open country north of the Wiehen Hills, near the modern town of Ostercappeln. The break-out cost them heavy losses, as did a further attempt to escape by marching through another forested area, with the torrential rains continuing. The rain prevented them from using their bows because sinew strings become slack when wet, and rendered them virtually defenseless as their shields also became waterlogged. The Romans then undertook a night march to escape, but marched into another trap that Arminius had set, at the foot of Kalkriese Hill (near Osnabrück). There, the sandy, open strip on which the Romans could march easily was constricted by the hill, so that there was a gap of only about 100 m between the woods and the swampland at the edge of the Great Bog. Moreover, the road was blocked by a trench, and, towards the forest, an earthen wall had been built along the roadside, permitting the Germanic tribesmen to attack the Romans from cover. The Romans made a desperate attempt to storm the wall, but failed, and the highest-ranking officer next to Varus, ''Legatus'' Numonius Vala, abandoned the troops by riding off with the cavalry; however, he too was overtaken by the Germanic cavalry and killed, according to Velleius Paterculus. The Germanic warriors then stormed the field and slaughtered the disintegrating Roman forces; Varus committed suicide. Velleius reports that one commander, ''Praefectus'' Ceionius, shamefully surrendered and later took his own life, while his colleague ''Praefectus'' Eggius heroically died leading his doomed troops.

Around 15,000–20,000 Roman soldiers must have died; not only Varus, but also many of his officers are said to have taken their own lives by falling on their swords in the approved manner. Tacitus wrote that many officers were sacrificed by the Germanic forces as part of their indigenous religious ceremonies, cooked in pots and their bones used for rituals. However, others were ransomed, and some of the common soldiers appear to have been enslaved.

All Roman accounts stress the completeness of the Roman defeat. The finds at Kalkriese, where, along with 6,000 pieces (largely scraps) of Roman equipment, there is only one single item — part of a spur — that is clearly Germanic would seem to indicate minimal Germanic losses. However it must be taken into account that the Germanic victors would have removed the bodies of their fallen, and their practice of burying their own dead warriors' battle gear with them must have contributed to the lack of Germanic relics. Additionally, several thousand Germanic soldiers were deserting militiamen who wore Roman armour (which would thus show up as "Roman" in the archaeological digs); and in fact the Germanic tribes wore less metal and more perishable organic material.

The victory over the legions was followed by a clean sweep of all Roman forts, garrisons and cities — of which there were at least two — east of the Rhine; the remaining two Roman legions, commanded by Varus' nephew Lucius Nonius Asprenas, were content to try to hold that river. One fort (or possibly city), Aliso, fended off the Germanic tribes for many weeks, perhaps a few months, before the garrison, which included survivors of the Teutoburg Forest, successfully broke out under their commander Lucius Caedicius and reached the Rhine.

Aftermath

Upon hearing of the defeat, the Emperor Augustus, according to the Roman historian Suetonius in his work ''De vita Caesarum ("On the Life of the Caesars")'', was so shaken by the news that he stood butting his head against the walls of his palace, repeatedly shouting:

"''“ ('Quintilius Varus, give me back my legions!')

The three legion numbers were never used again by the Romans after this defeat, unlike other legions that were restructured – a case unique in Roman history except for the XXII ''Deiotariana'' legion, which may have been disbanded after heavy losses against the Jewish rebels in the Bar Kokba revolt (132–136) in Israel.

The battle abruptly ended the period of triumphant Roman expansion that had followed the end of the Civil Wars 40 years earlier. Augustus' stepson Tiberius took effective control, and prepared for the continuation of the war. Legio ''II Augusta'', ''XX Valeria Victrix'', and ''XIII Gemina'' were sent to the Rhine to replace the lost legions.

Arminius immediately sent Varus' severed head to Maroboduus, king of the Marcomanni, the other most powerful Germanic ruler with the offer of an anti-Roman alliance. Marbod declined the offer, sending the head on to Rome for burial, and remained neutral throughout the ensuing war. Only thereafter did a brief, inconclusive war break out between the two Germanic leaders.

Roman retaliation

Germanicus' campaign against the Germans

Though the shock at the slaughter was enormous, the Romans immediately began a slow, systematic process of preparing for the reconquest of the country. In 14 CE, just after Augustus' death and the accession of his heir and stepson Tiberius, a massive raid was conducted by the new emperor's nephew Germanicus. He attacked the Marsi in a surprise attack. The Bructeri, Tubanti, and Usipeti were roused by the attack and ambushed Germanicus on the way to the winter-quarters, but were defeated with heavy losses.

The next year was marked by two major campaigns and several smaller battles with a large army estimated at 55,000–70,000 men, backed by naval forces. In spring 15 CE, ''Legatus'' Caecina Severus invaded the Marsi a second time with about 25,000–30,000 men, causing great havoc. Meanwhile, Germanicus' troops had built a fort on Mount Taunus from where he marched with about 30,000–35,000 men against the Chatti. Many of the men fled across a river and dispersed themselves in the forests. Germanicus next marched on Mattium and burned the city down. After initial successful skirmishes in summer 15 CE, including the capture of Arminius' wife Thusnelda, the army visited the site of the first battle. According to Tacitus, they found heaps of bleached bones and severed skulls nailed to trees, which they buried, "...looking on all as kinsfolk and of their own blood...".

Under Germanicus, the Romans marched another army, along with allied Germanic auxiliaries, into Germania again in 16 CE. He forced a crossing of the Weser near modern Minden, suffering some losses to a Germanic skirmishing force, and forced Arminius' army to stand in open battle at Idistaviso in the Battle of the Weser River. Germanicus' legions inflicted huge casualties on the allied Germanic armies while sustaining only minor losses. One final battle was fought at the Angivarian Wall west of modern Hanover, repeating the pattern of high Germanic fatalities, which forced them to flee. In summer 16 CE, Caius Silius marched against the Chatti with 33,000 men. Germanicus invaded the Marsi the third time and devastated their land.

With his main objectives reached and winter approaching, Germanicus ordered his army back to their winter camps, with the fleet incurring some damage from a storm in the North Sea. After a few more raids across the Rhine, which resulted in the recovery of two of the three legions' eagles lost in 9 CE, Tiberius ordered the Roman forces to halt and withdraw across the Rhine. Germanicus was recalled to Rome and informed by Tiberius that he would be given a triumph and reassigned to a new command.

Germanicus' campaign had been taken to avenge the Teutoburg slaughter and also partially in reaction to indications of mutinous intent amongst his troops. In addition, Arminius, who had been instrumental in the Teutoburg ambush, and who had been considered a very real threat to stability by Rome, was now defeated. Once his allied Germanic coalition had been broken and honour avenged, the huge cost and risk of keeping the Roman army operating beyond the Rhine was simply not worth any likely benefit to be gained.

Later campaigns

The third legionary standard was recovered in 41 CE by Publius Gabinius from the Chauci during the reign of Claudius, brother to Germanicus, according to Cassius Dio in Roman History Book LX {Book 60} Chapter 8. Possibly the recovered ''aquilae'' were placed within the Temple of Mars Ultor ("Mars the Avenger"), the ruins of which stand today in the Forum of Augustus by the Via dei Fori Imperiali in Rome.

The last chapter of this story is recounted by the historian Tacitus. Around 50 CE, bands of Chatti invaded Roman territory in Germania Superior, possibly an area in Hesse east of the Rhine which the Romans appear to have still held, and began to plunder. The Roman commander, Publius Pomponius Secundus, along with a legionary force supported by Roman cavalry, recruited auxiliaries from the Vangiones and Nemetes. They attacked the Chatti from both sides and defeated them, and joyfully found and liberated Roman prisoners, including some from Varus' legions who had been held by the Chatti for 40 years.

The impact on Roman Expansion

From the time of the rediscovery of Roman sources in the 15th century, the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest has been seen as a pivotal clash which ended Roman expansion into northern Europe. This notion became especially prevalent in the 19th century, where it formed an integral part of the mythology of German nationalism.

However, more recently, scholars have begun to question this interpretation and have pointed out reasons why the Rhine was a much more practical boundary for the Roman Empire than any other river in Germania. Logistically, armies on the Rhine could be supplied from the Mediterranean via the Rhone and Mosel, with a brief stretch of portage. Armies on the Elbe, on the other hand, would have to have been supplied either by extensive overland routes or ships travelling the hazardous Atlantic seas. Economically, the Rhine was already supporting towns and sizeable villages at the time of the Gallic conquest. Northern Germania, however, was far less developed, possessed fewer villages, and had little food surplus. Thus the Rhine was both significantly more accessible from Rome and better equipped to supply sizeable garrisons than the regions beyond, and there were practical reasons to fall back from the limits of Augustus' expansionism in this region.

After Arminius was finally defeated and dead, Rome would try to control Germania east of the Rhine and north of the Danube indirectly, by appointing client kings. So Italicus, a nephew of Arminius, was appointed king of the Cherusci; Vangio and Sido became vassal princes of the powerful Suebi, and so on.

Site of the battle

For almost 2,000 years, the site of the battle was unidentified. The main clue to its location was an allusion to the ''saltus Teutoburgiensis'' in section i.60–62 of Tacitus' ''Annals'', an area "not far" from the land between the upper reaches of the Lippe and Ems Rivers in central Westphalia.

During the 19th century, theories as to the true site of the battle abounded, and the followers of one theory successfully argued for the area of a long wooded ridge called the Osning, around Bielefeld. This was then renamed the Teutoburg Forest, a name that remains today despite later discoveries proving its inappropriateness, and became the site of the Detmold Memorial.

Late 20th-century research and excavations were sparked by finds by British amateur archaeologist Major Tony Clunn, who was casually prospecting at Kalkriese Hill () with a metal detector in hopes of finding "the odd Roman coin". He discovered coins from the reign of Augustus (and none minted later), and some ovoid leaden Roman sling shot. Kalkriese is a village administratively part of the city of Bramsche, on the north slope fringes of the Wiehengebirge, a ridge-like range of hills in Lower Saxony, north of Osnabrück. The site, some 70 km from Detmold, was first suggested by 19th-century historian Theodor Mommsen, one of the "founding fathers" of modern research into ancient history.

The initial systematic excavations were done by the archaeological team of the ''Kulturhistorisches Museum Osnabrück'' under the direction of Prof. Wolfgang Schlüter from 1987 onward. Once the dimensions of the project had become apparent, a foundation was created to organise future excavations. It was also charged with building and operating a new museum on the site, and to centralise publicity work and documentation. Since 1990 the excavations have been directed by Susanne Wilbers-Rost.

Excavations have revealed battle debris along a corridor almost 15 miles from east to west and little more than a mile wide. A long zig-zagging wall constructed of peat turves and packed sand apparently had been constructed beforehand: concentrations of battle debris before it, and a dearth of finds behind it, testify to the Romans' inability to breach the Germans' strong defense. Human remains found here appear to corroborate Tacitus' account of their later burial. Coins minted with the countermark VAR, distributed by Varus, also support the identification of the site. As a result, Kalkriese is now perceived to be the actual site of part of the battle, probably its conclusive phase.

The ''Varusschlacht Museum and Park Kalkriese'' includes a large outdoor area with trails leading to a re-creation of part of the earthen wall from the battle, and other outdoor exhibits. An observation tower, which also holds most of the indoor exhibits, allows visitors to get an overview of the battle site. A second building includes the ticket center, museum store and a restaurant. The museum houses a large number of artifacts found at the site, which include fragments of studded sandals legionaries lost, spearheads, and a Roman officer's ceremonial face-mask, which was originally silver-plated.

Alternate theories on the battle's location

Although the majority of evidence has the 3-day battle taking place in the area east and north of Osnabrück and end at Kalkriese Hill, some scholars and others adhere to older theories. Moreover, there is controversy among "Kalkriese-adherents" as to the details.

The German historians Peter Kehne and Reinhard Wolters believe that the battle was probably in the Detmold area after all, and that Kalkriese is the site of one of the battles in 15 CE. This theory is, however, in contradiction to Tacitus' account.

A large body of opinion, including the scholars at the Kalkriese Museum (Susanne Wilbers-Rost, Günther Moosbauer; also Historian Ralf Jahn and British author Adrian Murdoch, see below), believe that the Roman army did not approach Kalkriese from the south of the Wiehen Mountains (i.e., from Detmold), but rather from roughly due east, from Minden, Westphalia. This would have involved a march along the northern edge of the Wiehen mountains, and would have passed through flat, open country, devoid of the dense forests and ravines described by Cassius Dio. Historians such as Gustav-Adolf Lehmann and Boris Dreyer counter that the description is too detailed and differentiated to be thus dismissed.

Tony Clunn (see below), the discoverer of the battlefield, and a "southern-approach" proponent, believes that the battered Roman Army regrouped north of Ostercappeln, where Varus committed suicide, and that the remnants were finally overcome at the Kalkriese Gap.

Peter Oppitz argues for a site in Paderborn. Based on a reinterpretation of Tacitus, Paterculus and Florus' writings, together with a new analysis of Dio Cassius' writings, he proposes that an ambush took place in Varus' summer camp during a peaceful meeting between the Roman commanders and the Germans.

Portrayal in fiction

The battle and its aftermath are featured in both the novel and television series ''I, Claudius''. In the novel, Cassius Chaerea is portrayed as being one of the few Roman survivors of the battle.

The battle, or more specifically, a Jewish student's report about the battle, is a central aspect of ''Die Geschwister Oppermann'' (''The Oppermanns''), a 1933 novel by Lion Feuchtwanger.

A movie named ''Die Hermannsschlacht'' / ''The Hermann Battle'' was released between 1993 and 1995. The first public screening of this work took place in Düsseldorf in May 1995. In 1996 it was honoured by an international jury in Kiel, where it was presented during an archaeological film festival. ''The Hermann Battle'' was successfully shown in arthouse-cinemas throughout Germany. The actors speak German and Latin, with German subtitles. Famous English artist Tony Cragg has a brief role as a Roman citizen in the palace of Augustus.

The Battle of Teutoburg Forest is also a historical battle that can be played in the video game ''Rome: Total War''. However, it is not an entirely accurate depiction of the historical battle. The scenario is difficult because the Roman troops are heavily outnumbered, not due to the superior position of Germanic Forces.

A 1955 novel, ''The Lost Eagles'', written by Ralph Graves, gave a fictitious account of a Varus relation, Severus Varus, working to recover the lost eagles of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, as well as the family's honor. The story follows the historical recovery of the Eagles in the campaigns of Germanicus.

The 1992 detective novel (with a 2007 radio play adaptation), ''The Iron Hand of Mars'' by English historical novelist Lindsey Davis, uses the battle and its aftermath as extensive backstory to her character, Marcus Didius Falco's adventures on the Limes Germanicus in 71 CE. The battle, its consequences to Rome and to the local tribes and the ongoing local trade in "memorabilia" from the disaster are all used as plot devices.

The 2009 novel ''Give Me Back My Legions!'' by Harry Turtledove covers the battle as well as the events leading up to it.

In the same year another historico-fictional novel, 'Arminius; a German romance', was published by English historic novelist Lorna Pearson. This covers events from the approach to the battle until Arminius' death twelve years later, using subsequent German myth from Siegfried to the Thousand Year Reich as a filter.

German nationalism

The legacy of the Germanic victory was resurrected with the recovery of the histories of Tacitus in the 15th century, when the figure of Arminius, now known as "Hermann" (This change of name has often been incorrectly attributed to Martin Luther), became a nationalistic symbol of ''Pan-Germanism''. From the time of the rediscovery of Roman sources in the 15th century, the Battle of Teutoburg Forest has been seen as a pivotal clash which ended Roman expansion into northern Europe. This notion became especially prevalent in the 19th century, where it formed an integral part of the mythology of German nationalism.

In 1808 the German Heinrich von Kleist's play ''Die Hermannsschlacht'' aroused anti-Napoleonic sentiment, even though it could not be performed under occupation. In 1847, Josef Viktor von Scheffel wrote a lengthy song, "Als die Römer frech geworden" ("When the Romans got cheeky"), relating the tale of the battle with somewhat gloating humour. Copies of the text are still found on many souvenirs available at the Detmold monument.

The battle (called Varusschlacht, Schlacht im Teutoburger Wald or Hermannsschlacht in German) had a profound effect on 19th century German nationalism along with the histories of Tacitus; the Germans, at that time still divided into many German states, identified with the Germanic tribes as shared ancestors of one "German people" and came to associate the imperialistic Napoleonic French and Austro-Hungarian forces with the morally bankrupt Romans who were destined for defeat.

As a symbol of unified Romantic nationalism, the ''Hermannsdenkmal'' (''Hermann's monument''), a statue in a forested area near Detmold (believed to be the site of the actual battle at that time) paid for largely out of private funds, was completed in 1875 to commemorate the battle. The monument remained unfinished for decades, until after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71 unified the country. The completed monument was then a symbol of conservative German nationalism. The battle and the Hermannsdenkmal monument are also commemorated by the similar Hermann Heights Monument in New Ulm, Minnesota, USA. Hermann, Missouri, USA, claims Hermann (Arminius) as its namesake and a statue of Hermann was dedicated in a ceremony September 24, 2009, celebrating the 2,000th anniversary of the battle in the Teutoburg Forest. Arminium was also commemorated by the Sons of Hermann, a support organization for German immigrants to the United States.

However, in Germany itself, where since the end of World War II there has been a strong aversion to celebrating the country's militaristic past, widespread celebration of the battle's 2,000th anniversary was avoided.

Paintings of the 19th century

Research literature

Ancient sources

The following is a list of all known references to the battle from the literary sources of classical antiquity. Though the account provided in the ''Roman History'' is the most detailed of these, Dio Cassius' almost two century removal from the time of the event, as well as his use of detail mentioned by no earlier author, render it much more likely to be a literary re-imagining of the battle than a reliable historical record.

Ovid, ''Tristia (Sorrows)'', poetic verses written in 10 and 11 CE

Marcus Manilius, ''Astronomica'', poem written in early 1st Century

Strabo, ''Geographia'' 7:1.4, geographic-themed history written in perhaps 18 CE

Marcus Velleius Paterculus, ''Roman History'' 2:117–120, history written 30 CE

Tacitus, ''Annals'' 1.3, 1.10, 1.43, 1.55–71, 2.7, 2.41, 2.45, history written 109 CE

Suetonius, ''Lives of the Twelve Caesars: Augustus'' 23, ''Tiberius'' 17–18, biographies written 121 CE

Florus, ''Epitome de T. Livio Bellorum omnium annorum DCC Libri duo'' 2:30, history/panegyric written in early 2nd century

Dio Cassius, ''Roman History'' 56:18–24, history written in the first half of 3rd century

Seneca the Younger, "Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium," reference in Letter 47, Section 10

21st century

''Ancient Warfare'' special "The Varian Disaster", June 2009 (essays by various authors, including Clunn and Murdoch)

Fergus M. Bordewich, "The ambush that changed history" in ''Smithsonian Magazine'', September 2005, pp. 74–81.

Wilm Brepohl, ''Neue Überlegungen zur Varusschlacht''. Aschendorff, Münster 2004, ISBN 3-402-03502-2 (Reconsidering the Varus Battle.)

Tony Clunn, ''The Quest for the Lost Roman Legions'', Savas Beatie LLC, Spellmount, 2005, 371 pp. ISBN 978-0-9544190-0-4 Combination of the account of the discovery and his theory about the course of the battle, recounted in fictional style.

Boris Dreyer, ''Arminius und der Untergang des Varus. Warum die Germanen keine Römer wurden''. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-608-94510-2 (Arminius and the downfall of Varus. Why the Teutons did not become Romans.)

Adrian Goldsworthy, ''In The Name of Rome: The Men Who Won The Roman Empire''. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London, 2004.

Joachim Harnecker, ''Arminius, Varus und das Schlachtfeld von Kalkriese. Eine Einführung in die archäologischen Arbeiten und ihre Ergebnisse''. 2nd ed. Rasch, Bramsche 2002 ISBN 3-934005-40-3 (Arminius, Varus and the battlefield of Kalkriese. An introduction to the archaeological work and its results.) Ralf Günter Jahn, ''Der Römisch-Germanische Krieg (9–16 n. Chr.).'' Dissertation, Bonn 2001 (The Roman-Germanic war (9–16 CE).) Johann-Sebastian Kühlborn, "Auf dem Marsch in die Germania Magna. Roms Krieg gegen die Germanen". In: Martin Müller, Hans-Joahim Schalles und Norbert Zieling (Eds.), ''Colonia Ulpia Traiana. Xanten und sein Umland in römischer Zeit.'' Zabern, Mainz 2008, ISBN 978-3-8053-3953-7, S. 67–91. ("On the march into Germania Magna. Rome's war against the Germanic tribes".) Fabian Link, ''Die Zeitdetektive. Die Falle im Teutoburger Wald: Ein Krimi aus der Römerzeit''. Ravensburger, 2010, ISBN 978-3473345359. (The time detectives. The events in the Teutoburg Forest: a crime story of Roman times.) (youth fiction) Ralf-Peter Märtin, ''Die Varusschlacht. Rom und die Germanen''. S. Fischer Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2008, ISBN 978-3-10-050612-2 (The Varus Battle. Rome and the Germanic tribes.) Günther Moosbauer, ''Die Varusschlacht''. Beck'sche Reihe, Verlag C. H. Beck Wissen, München 2009, ISBN 978-3-406-56257-0 (The Varus Battle.)

Adrian Murdoch, ''Rome's Greatest Defeat: Massacre in the Teutoburg Forest''. Sutton Publishing, Stroud, 2006, ISBN 0-7509-4015-8 (review) Account of the battle, "eastern approach" to Kalkriese

Paweł Rochala, ''Las Teutoburski 9 rok n.e.'' Bellona, Warszawa, 2005. Michael Sommer, ''Die Arminiusschlacht. Spurensuche im Teutoburger Wald''. Stuttgart 2009 (The Arminius Battle. Search for traces in the Teutoburg Forest.) Dieter Timpe, ''Römisch-germanische Begegnung in der späten Republik und frühen Kaiserzeit. Voraussetzungen – Konfrontationen – Wirkungen. Gesammelte Studien''. Saur, München & Leipzig, 2006, ISBN 3-598-77845-7 (Roman-Germanic encounter in the late Republic and early Empire. Conditions – Confrontations – Effects. Collected Studies.) Peter S. Wells, ''The Battle That Stopped Rome: Emperor Augustus, Arminius, and the Slaughter of the Legions in the Teutoburg Forest'', W.W. Norton & Company, New York, NY 2003, ISBN 0-393-02028-2 Strong on archaeology; controversial "Florus"-based theory. Peter Oppitz, ''Das Geheimnis der Varusschlacht''. Zadara-Verlag, 2006, ISBN 3-00-019973-X (The mystery of the Varus Battle.) Paderborn would have been the site of the battle. Rainer Wiegels (Ed.), ''Die Varusschlacht. Wendepunkt der Geschichte?'' Theiss, Stuttgart 2007, ISBN 978-3-8062-1760-5 (The Varus Battle. Turning point of history?) Reinhard Wolters, ''Die Römer in Germanien''. 5th ed. Verlag C.H. Beck, München 2006, ISBN 3-406-44736-8 (The Romans in Germania.) Reinhard Wolters, ''Die Schlacht im Teutoburger Wald. Arminius, Varus und das römische Germanien''. München 2008, ISBN 978-3-406-57674-4 (The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Arminius, Varus and Roman Germania.)

20th century

Gesa von Essen, ''Hermannsschlachten. Germanen- und Römerbilder in der Literatur des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts''. Wallstein Verlag, Göttingen 1998, ISBN 3-89244-312-2 (Hermann Battles. Images of Teutons and Romans in the literature of the 18th and 19th centuries.) Wolfgang Schlüter (Ed.), ''Römer im Osnabrücker Land. Die archäologischen Untersuchungen in der Kalkrieser-Niewedder Senke''. Rasch, Bramsche 1991, ISBN 3-922469-57-4 (Romans in the Osnabrück District. The archaeological excavations in the Kalkriese-Niewedde depression.)

19th century

Edward Shepherd Creasy, ''Germans under Arminius Revolt Against Rome'' in ''The Great Events by Famous Historians, Vol. 2'', compilation of historical essays published in 1905

Documentary

arte.tv : ''Battle for Germania – The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest'', Director: Christian Twente, Germany 2009, 90 min. watch youtube video arte.tv : ''The Germans – Barbarians against Rome'', Directors: Alexander Hogh and Judith Voelker, Germany 2009, four-part documentary on life and culture of the Teutons. Part 1. arte.tv : ''The Germans – The Varus Battle'', Directors: Alexander Hogh and Judith Voelker, Germany 2009, four-part documentary on life and culture of the Teutons. Part 2. arte.tv : ''The Germans – Decision on the Limes'', Directors: Alexander Hogh and Judith Voelker, Germany 2009, four-part documentary on life and culture of the Teutons. Part 3. arte.tv : ''The Germans – Under the Sign of the Cross'', Directors: Alexander Hogh and Judith Voelker, Germany 2009, four-part documentary on life and culture of the Teutons. Part 4.

See also

Clades Lolliana

Chiefdom

Sibb

List of confederations of Germanic tribes

List of Germanic peoples

Die Sendung mit der Maus (Re-enactment for children's television program, using Playmobil toys to represent the Roman legions)

References

External links

Fergus M. Bordewich: ''"The Ambush That Changed History"'' Smithsonian Magazine, September 2005

Official site of the Kalkriese foundation

Jona Lendering, The Battle in the Teutoburg Forest at livius.org

Arminius / Varus. Die Varusschlacht im Jahre 9 n. Chr., Internet-Portal „Westfälische Geschichte“, LWL-Institut für westfälische Regionalgeschichte, Münster Student project site by Universität Osnabrück Varusbattle in Netherland

Category:9 Category:1st-century conflicts Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty Category:Battles involving the Roman Empire Category:Germanic paganism Category:History of the Germanic peoples Category:History of Germany Category:Military history of Germany Category:Wiehen Hills

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