"Hill myna" redirects here. In aviculture, this often refers to the Common Hill Myna (G. religiosa) specifically.

Gracula
Diversity and distribution within the genus
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Order:	Passeriformes
Family:	Sturnidae
Genus:	Gracula Linnaeus, 1758
Diversity
4-5 species
Synonyms
Eulabes

Gracula is a genus of mynas, tropical members of the starling family of birds. Until recently only two species were recognised, G. religiosa and G. ptilogenys; earlier still all Gracula were considered to belong to a very variable species commonly called Hill Myna. But three additional subspecies of G. religiosa are increasingly being considered distinct species.

This genus has representatives in tropical southern Asia from India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka east to Indonesia, and the Common Hill Myna, a popular cage bird, has been introduced to the USA.

The hill mynas are resident breeders typically found in forest and cultivation. The nest is built in a hole and the usual clutch is two or three eggs.

These 25–30 cm long birds have glossy black plumage and large white wing patches which are obvious in flight. The bill and strong legs are bright yellow or orange, and there are yellow wattles on the head, the shape and position of which vary with species. The sexes are similar, but juveniles have a duller bill.

Like most starlings, the hill mynas are fairly omnivorous, eating fruit, nectar and insects.

Species[link]

Traditionally, the Sri Lankan Myna was considered a subspecies of the Common Hill Myna, but today all major authorities recognise them as separate. Comparably, the Enggano, Nias and Southern Hill Mynas have traditionally been treated as subspecies of the Common Hill Myna; a treatment still preferred by some authorities.

• Common Hill Myna, Gracula religiosa
  • Southern Hill Myna, Gracula (religiosa) indica
• Enggano Myna, Gracula enganensis.
• Nias Myna, Gracula robusta
• Sri Lanka Myna, Gracula ptilogenys

References[link]

• Birds of India by Grimmett, Inskipp and Inskipp, ISBN 0-691-04910-6
• Feare, Chris; Craig, Adrian (1999). Starlings and Mynas. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-7136-3961-X. 

External links[link]

Media related to Gracula at Wikimedia Commons

• Russian page with identification drawings of hill myna taxa

A hill is a landform that extends above the surrounding terrain. Hills often have a distinct summit, although in areas with scarp/dip topography a hill may refer to a particular section of flat terrain without a massive summit (e.g. Box Hill, Surrey).

The panoramic view from Connors Hill, near Swifts Creek, Victoria

Terminology[link]

A Khulan (Mongolian Wild Ass) on a hill in the Gobi of Mongolia at sunset.

The distinction between a hill and a mountain is unclear and largely subjective, but a hill is generally somewhat lower and less steep than a mountain. In the United Kingdom geographers historically regarded mountains as hills greater than 1,000 feet (300 m) above sea level, which formed the basis of the plot of the 1995 film The Englishman Who Went Up a Hill But Came Down a Mountain. In contrast, hillwalkers have tended to regard mountains as peaks 2,000 feet (610 m) above sea level: the Oxford English Dictionary also suggests a limit of 2,000 feet (610 m). This has led to Cavanal Hill in Poteau, Oklahoma, receive billing as the "World's Tallest Hill" due to its height of 1,999 feet (609 m). Mountains in Scotland are frequently referred to as "hills" no matter what their height, as reflected in names such as the Cuillin Hills and the Torridon Hills. In Wales, the distinction is more a term of land use and appearance and has nothing to do with height.

A hillock is a small hill. Other words include knoll and (in Scotland, Northern Ireland and northern England) its variant, knowe.^[1]

Artificial hills may be referred to by a variety of technical names, including mound and tumulus.

Hills of the Judean Desert.

Hills may form through a number of geomorphic phenomena: faulting, erosion of larger landforms, such as mountains and movement and deposition of sediment by glaciers (e.g. moraines and drumlins, or by erosion exposing solid rock which then weathers down into a hill. The rounded peaks of hills results from the diffusive movement of soil and regolith covering the hill, a process known as downhill creep.

Areas that would otherwise have hills do not because of glacier cover during the Ice Age. The hills that existed before the ice age were worn down by the ice (and the rocks they carry) and/or the surrounding valleys and hollows were filled in with glacial drift, therefore leaving a level topography. The contrast between the flat plains of northern Indiana, once covered by ice, and the rugged hills of southern Indiana, where the ice never reached, is a result of this. Another example is the Driftless Zone, an island of hilly country that the ice sheets missed, surrounded by glacial plains, also in the American Midwest.

There are various specific names used to describe particular types of hill, based on appearance and method of formation. Many such names originated in one geographical region to describe a type of hill formation peculiar to that region, though the names are often adopted by geologists and used in a wider geographical context. These include:

• Drumlin – an elongated whale-shaped hill formed by glacial action.
• Butte – an isolated hill with steep sides and a small flat top, formed by weathering.
• Tor – a rock formation found on a hilltop; also used to refer to the hill itself, especially in South West England.
• Puy – used especially in the Auvergne, France, to describe a conical volcanic hill.
• Pingo – a mound of earth-covered ice found in the Arctic and Antarctica.

Historical significance[link]

Clouds over hills

Hills have played an important role in history.

Many settlements were originally built on hills, either to avoid or curb floods, particularly if they were near a large body of water, or for defence, since they offer a good view of the surrounding land and require would-be attackers to fight uphill. For example, Ancient Rome was built on seven hills, protecting it from invaders.

In northern Europe, many ancient monuments are sited in heaps. Some of these are defensive structures (such as the hill-forts of the Iron Age), but others appear to have hardly any significance. In Britain, many churches at the tops of hills are thought to have been built on the sites of earlier pagan holy places. The National Cathedral in Washington, DC has followed this tradition and was built on the highest hill in that city.

Military significance[link]

The Battle of Bunker Hill

Hills provide a major advantage to an army, giving them an elevated firing position and forcing an opposing army to charge uphill to attack them. They may also conceal forces behind them, allowing a force to lay in wait on the crest of a hill, using that crest for cover, and firing on unsuspecting attackers as they broach the hilltop.

As a result, conventional military strategies often demand possession of high ground. Hills have become sites for many noted battles, such as the first recorded military conflict in Scotland known as the battle of Mons Graupius. Modern conflicts include the Battle of Bunker Hill (which was actually fought on Breed's Hill) in the American War for Independence and Cemetery Hill and Culp's Hill in the Battle of Gettysburg, the turning point of the American Civil War. The Battle of San Juan Hill in the Spanish-American War won Americans control of Santiago. The Battle of Alesia was also fought from a hilltop fort. Fighting on Mamayev Kurgan during the Battle of Stalingrad and the Umurbrogol Pocket in the Battle of Peleliu were also examples of bloody fighting for high ground. Another recent example is the Kargil War between India and Pakistan.

The Great Wall in China is also an example of an advantage provider; it is built on mountain tops, and was meant to defend against invaders from the north, and among others, Mongolians.

Sports and games[link]

Hillwalkers on Beinn Dearg, Scotland

An example of a golf course in England that has hills

Hillwalking is a British English term for a form of hiking which involves the ascent of hills. The activity is usually distinguished from mountaineering as it does not involve ropes or technically difficult rock climbing, although the terms mountain and hill are often used interchangeably in Britain. Hillwalking is popular in mountainous areas such as the English Peak District or the Scottish Highlands. Many hills are categorised according to relative height or other criteria and feature on lists named after mountaineers, such as Munros (Scotland) or Wainwrights (England). Specific locating activities such as "peak bagging" (or "Munro bagging") involve climbing hills on these lists with the aim of completing (or "compleating") the list.

In golf, the terrain on golf courses is often made more rugged and hilly to make the holes harder to play. For example, the hole may be located at the top of a hill, and the course is designed specifically to make it almost impossible to allow the golf ball to rest near the top; it would roll down, and the player would have to try again.

Cheese rolling is an annual event in the West Country of England which involves rolling a wheel of cheese down a hill. Contestants stand at the top and chase the wheel of cheese to the bottom. The winner, the one who catches the cheese, gets to keep the wheel of cheese as a prize.

Largest man-made[link]

• Blackstrap Ski Hill (45 m (148 ft))^[2]
• Silbury Hill (40 m (130 ft))
• Grizzly Peak (Disneyland Resort) (34 m (112 ft))
• Mount Manisty 100ft
• Monks Mound (30 m (98 ft))
• Mount Gushmore (27 m (89 ft))

Gallery[link]

• 

  Cerro Paranal in Chile is a privileged place for astronomical observation.^[3], and home of ESO's telescopes.

• 

  A coffee plantation on a conical hill near Orosí, Costa Rica.

• 

  Some hills can be quite small, such as this Ant-hill

See also[link]

Look up hill in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: hills

References[link]

This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (September 2009)

• Earth Sculpture; Or, The Origin of Land-forms
• The International Geography