Sovereign states in Europe

A sovereign state (or simply state) is classically defined as a state with a defined territory on which it exercises internal and external sovereignty,^[1] a permanent population, a government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other sovereign states.^[2] It is also normally understood to be a state which is neither dependent on nor subject to any other power or state.^[3] The existence or disappearance of a state is a question of fact.^[4] While according to the declaratory theory of state recognition a sovereign state can exist without being recognised by other sovereign states, unrecognised states will often find it hard to exercise full treaty-making powers and engage in diplomatic relations with other sovereign states.

The word "country" is often colloquially used to refer to sovereign states, although it means, originally, only a geographic region, and subsequently its meaning became extended to the sovereign polity which controls the geographic region.

Definition[link]

Sovereignty is a term that is frequently misused.^[5] Up until the 19th century, the radicalised concept of a "standard of civilisation" was routinely deployed to determine that certain peoples in the world were "uncivilised", and lacking organised societies. That position was reflected and constituted in the notion that their "sovereignty" was either completely lacking, or at least of an inferior character when compared to that of "civilised" people."^[6] Lassa Oppenheim said "There exists perhaps no conception the meaning of which is more controversial than that of sovereignty. It is an indisputable fact that this conception, from the moment when it was introduced into political science until the present day, has never had a meaning which was universally agreed upon."^[7] In the opinion of Justice Evatt of the High Court of Australia "sovereignty is neither a question of fact, nor a question of law, but a question that does not arise at all." ^[8]

Sovereignty has taken on a different meaning with the development of the principle of self-determination and the prohibition against the threat or use of force as jus cogens norms of modern international law. The United Nations Charter, the Declaration on Rights and Duties of States, and the charters of regional international organisations express the view that all states are juridically equal and enjoy the same rights and duties based upon the mere fact of their existence as persons under international law.^[9][10] The right of nations to determine their own political status and exercise permanent sovereignty within the limits of their territorial jurisdictions is widely recognised.^[11][12][13]

In political science, sovereignty is usually defined as the most essential attribute of the state in the form of its complete self-sufficiency in the frames of a certain territory, that is its supremacy in the domestic policy and independence in the foreign one.^[14]

In casual usage, the terms "country", "nation", and "state" are often used as if they were synonymous; but in a more strict usage they can be distinguished:^{[citation needed]}

• Nation denotes a people who are believed to or deemed to share common customs, religion, language, origins, ancestry or history. However, the adjectives national and international are frequently used to refer to matters pertaining to what are strictly sovereign states, as in national capital, international law.

• State refers to the set of governing and supportive institutions that have sovereignty over a definite territory and population. Sovereign states are legal persons.

Recognition[link]

State recognition signifies the decision of a sovereign state to treat another entity as also being a sovereign state.^[15] Recognition can be either express or implied and is usually retroactive in its effects. It doesn't necessarily signify a desire to establish or maintain diplomatic relations.

There is no definition that is binding on all the members of the community of nations on the criteria for statehood. In actual practice, the criteria are mainly political, not legal.^[16] L.C. Green cited the recognition of the unborn Polish and Czech states in World War I and explained that "since recognition of statehood is a matter of discretion, it is open to any existing State to accept as a state any entity it wishes, regardless of the existence of territory or of an established government."^[17]

In international law, however, there are several theories of when a state should be recognized as sovereign.^[18]

Constitutive theory[link]

The constitutive theory of statehood defines a state as a person of international law if, and only if, it is recognized as sovereign by other states. This theory of recognition was developed in the 19th century. Under it, a state was sovereign if another sovereign state recognized it as such. Because of this, new states could not immediately become part of the international community or be bound by international law, and recognized nations did not have to respect international law in their dealings with them.^[19] In 1815 at the Congress of Vienna the Final Act only recognised 39 sovereign states in the European diplomatic system, and as a result it was firmly established that in future new states would have to be recognized by other states, and that meant in practice recognition by one or more of the great powers.^[20]

One of the major criticisms of this law is the confusion caused when some states recognize a new entity, but other states do not. Hersch Lauterpacht, one of the theory's main proponents, suggested that it is a state's duty to grant recognition as a possible solution. However, a state may use any criteria when judging if they should give recognition and they have no obligation to use such criteria. Many states may only recognize another state if it is to their advantage.^[19]

In 1912, L. F. L. Oppenheim had the following to say on constitutive theory:

...International Law does not say that a State is not in existence as long as it is not recognised, but it takes no notice of it before its recognition. Through recognition only and exclusively a State becomes an International Person and a subject of International Law.^[21]

Declarative theory[link]

By contrast, the "declarative" theory defines a state as a person in international law if it meets the following criteria: 1) a defined territory; 2) a permanent population; 3) a government and 4) a capacity to enter into relations with other states. According to declarative theory, an entity's statehood is independent of its recognition by other states. The declarative model was most famously expressed in the 1933 Montevideo Convention.

Article 3 of the Convention declares that statehood is independent of recognition by other states. In contrast, recognition is considered a requirement for statehood by the constitutive theory of statehood.

A similar opinion about "the conditions on which an entity constitutes a state" is expressed by the European Economic Community Opinions of the Badinter Arbitration Committee, which found that a state was defined by having a territory, a population, and a political authority.

State practice[link]

State practice relating the recognition states typically falls somewhere between the declaratory and constitutive approaches.^[22] International law does not require a state to recognise other states.^[23]

Recognition is often withheld when a new state is seen as illegitimate or has come about in breach of international law. Almost universal non-recognition by the international community of Rhodesia and Northern Cyprus are good examples of this. In the former case, recognition was widely withheld when the white minority seized power and attempted to form a state along the lines of Apartheid South Africa, a move that the United Nations Security Council described as the creation of an "illegal racist minority régime".^[24] In the latter case, recognition was widely withheld from a state created in Northern Cyprus on land illegally invaded by Turkey in 1974.^[25]

De facto and de jure states[link]

Most sovereign states are states de jure and de facto (i.e. they exist both in law and in reality). However, sometimes states exist only as de jure states in that an organisation is recognised as having sovereignty over and being the legitimate government of a territory over which they have no actual control. Many continental European states maintained governments-in-exile during the Second World War which continued to enjoy diplomatic relations with the Allies, notwithstanding that their countries were under Nazi occupation. A present day example is the State of Palestine, which is recognized by multiple states, but doesn't have control over any of its claimed territory in Palestine^[26][40] and possess only extraterritorial areas (i.e. embassies and consulates). Other states may have sovereignty over a territory but lack international recognition; these are considered by the international community to be only de facto states (they are considered de jure states only according to their own Law and by states that recognize them). Somaliland is commonly considered to be such a state.^{[41][42][43][44]} For a list of entities that wish to be universally recognized as sovereign states, but do not have complete worldwide diplomatic recognition, see the list of states with limited recognition.

See also[link]

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Chen, Ti-chiang. The International Law of Recognition, with Special Reference to Practice in Great Britain and the United States. London, 1951.
• Crawford, James. The Creation of States in International Law. Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-19-825402-4, pp. 15–24.
• Lauterpacht, Sir Hersch. Recognition in International Law. Cambridge, U.K., 1947.
• Raič, D. Statehood and the Law of Self-determination. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2002. ISBN 978-90-411-1890-5. p 29 (with reference to Oppenheim in International Law Vol. 1 1905 p110)

External links[link]

• Opinions of the Badinter Arbitration Committee at the European Journal of International Law
• A Brief Primer on International Law With cases and commentary. Nathaniel Burney, 2007.
• What constitutes the sovereign state? by Michael Ross Fowler and Julie Marie Bunck

Sam Rohrer
Member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives from the 128th district
In office January 5, 1993[1] – November 30, 2010
Preceded by	James Gallen
Succeeded by	Mark Gillen
Personal details
Born	Samuel E. Rohrer (1955-08-11) August 11, 1955 (age 56) Dover, Ohio
Political party	Republican
Spouse(s)	Ruth Ann Rohrer
Residence	Robeson Township, Pennsylvania
Alma mater	Bob Jones University
Religion	Christian
Website	Sam Rohrer for U.S. Senate

Samuel E. "Sam" Rohrer (born August 11, 1955) is an American businessman and politician. A member of the Republican Party, he served as a member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives from the 128th District.

Before entering politics, Rohrer managed a radio station and worked in marketing for Graco. In 2010, he ran for Governor of Pennsylvania, losing in the primary election to Tom Corbett. Rohrer ran for the United States Senate in 2012 to challenge incumbent Democratic incumbent Bob Casey, Jr., but was defeated in the primary by Tom Smith.^[2]

Early life, education, and radio career[link]

Rohrer was born in Dover, Ohio, and is an alumnus of Tuscarawas Valley High School. After earning a degree in Business Administration from Bob Jones University in 1977, he managed a radio station for several years before becoming director of marketing for Graco, based in Elverson, Pennsylvania.^[3]

Pennsylvania House of Representatives[link]

Elections[link]

Rohrer was elected to the State House in November of 1992, succeeding retiring Republican Jim Gallen.^[4] He typically won re-election with over 60% of the vote. However, he faced difficult contests in his last two elections. In 2006, he defeated Democrat Russell Hummel 55%-45%.^[5] In 2008, he defeated Democrat John Woodward 52%-48%.^[6]

Tenure[link]

He introduced legislation that would eliminate school property taxes in Pennsylvania.^[7] He was a strong opponent of the REAL ID Act.^[8] He authored the historic Education Improvement Tax Credit (EITC) scholarship. Today over 150,000 students have earned the scholarship to go to private schools.

Committee assignments[link]

• House Finance Committee (Chairman)^[9]
• House Agriculture and Rural Affairs Committee (Chairman)
• House Game and Fisheries Committee
• House Appropriations Committee^[10]

2010 gubernatorial campaign[link]

In November 2009, Rohrer announced that he would not seek re-election to the State House, and would instead seek the Republican nomination for governor.^[11] His campaign team, which was headed by Jeff Coleman, a former colleague of Rohrer's in the State House, received praise for its innovative and effective use of technology, including social media.^[12] Rohrer's primary opponent, State Attorney General Tom Corbett, was endorsed by the Republican State Committee of Pennsylvania on February 13, 2010, but that endorsement also generated support for Rohrer from members of the Tea Party movement. Rohrer and his supporters organized a day-long rally entitled "Mobilize for Liberty", which included seminars and a speech from Rohrer, that took place down the hall from the main ballroom in which the State Committee was announcing its endorsement of Corbett.^[13] Following its endorsement of Corbett, the State Committee sent-out mailers attacking Rohrer's vote in favor of the 2005 legislative pay raise, as well as his 2001 vote in favor of a plan to increase lawmaker pensions by upwards of 50 percent.^[12]

Ultimately, Corbett defeated Rohrer 69%-31%.^[14] Rohrer only won two counties in the state: Lancaster County (52%) and Berks County (80%). He nearly won Clinton and Lycoming Counties^[15] During the following summer, supporters initiated a write-in campaign for the November election. Rohrer did not endorse nor denounce the ultimately unsuccessful campaign.^[16]

Between campaigns[link]

In February 2011 Rohrer became Pennsylvania state director for Americans for Prosperity.^[17] Rohrer resigned from the position in November, in preparation for a run for the United States Senate.^[18]

2012 U.S. Senate election[link]

On Friday, November 4, 2011, Jeff Coleman, who again signed-on to advise Rohrer's campaign, told the Associated Press^[19] that Rohrer was considering a run for the United States Senate seat currently held by Democrat Bob Casey Jr., and would likely officially announce his candidacy later in the month.^[19] Rohrer officially announced his candidacy at rally near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania on November 21.^[20] He also released a web video announcing his enterance to the race.^[21]

A poll taken shortly after his entrance into the race found Rohrer ahead of the rest of the primary field, besting his closest competitor by ten percentage points.^[22][23] In a Pittsburgh Tribune Review/WPXI-TV poll taken February 2-6, 2012, Rohrer continued to lead his opponents, albeit by a slighter margin; businessman Tom Smith had the support of 8% of those polled to Rohrer's 10%.^[24] A later poll conducted by Franklin & Marshall College on March 20-25 placed Rohrer slightly behind Smith, with 7% and 9% support, respectively, with 81% of those surveyed remaining undecided.^[25]

Rohrer was endorsed by former 2012 Presidential candidates Michele Bachmann and Herman Cain.^[26]

Rohrer was defeated in the primary by fellow Republican Tom Smith on April 24, 2012.^[2]

Personal life[link]

Rohrer and his wife, Ruth Ann, have six children and five grandchildren.^[17]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Sam Rohrer for U.S. Senate official senatorial campaign website
• Biography, voting record, and interest group ratings at Project Vote Smart

Jim Lehrer
Lehrer at the 2007 Texas Book Festival
Born	James Charles Lehrer (1934-05-19) May 19, 1934 (age 78) Wichita, Kansas, USA
Education	Victoria College (Texas) University of Missouri
Occupation	Journalist, news anchor, author
Notable credit(s)	PBS NewsHour The Dallas Morning News The Dallas Times Herald
Spouse	Kate Lehrer (1960-present)

James Charles "Jim" Lehrer ( /ˈlɛrə/; born May 19, 1934) is an American journalist and the executive editor and former news anchor for PBS NewsHour on PBS, known for his role as a frequent debate moderator during elections. Lehrer is an author of non-fiction and fiction, drawing from his experiences and interests in history and politics.

Early years[link]

Lehrer was born in Wichita, Kansas, the son of Lois Catherine (née Chapman), a bank clerk, and Harry Frederick Lehrer, a bus station manager.^[1] He attended middle school in Beaumont, Texas, and graduated from Thomas Jefferson High School (San Antonio, TX), where he was one of the three sports editors at the Jefferson Declaration. He also graduated from Victoria College in Texas and the Missouri School of Journalism at the University of Missouri. Lehrer joined the United States Marine Corps^[2] and attributes his service and travels with helping him to look past himself and feel a connection to the world that he would not have otherwise experienced.^[3]

Career[link]

Lehrer began his career in journalism at The Dallas Morning News and the Dallas Times-Herald, where he covered the assassination of John F. Kennedy in 1963. From 1970 to 1973, Lehrer anchored the local single-story news show, Newsroom on KERA-TV, the local Public Broadcasting affiliate station in Dallas. Lehrer began working with PBS network in 1973, and in 1975 developed and co-anchored The MacNeil/Lehrer Report with Robert MacNeil. The news show was later renamed The MacNeil/Lehrer NewsHour, and after MacNeil's departure in 1995 was named The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer and finally PBS NewsHour in 2009.

Nicknamed the "Dean of Moderators" by CNN's Bernard Shaw, Lehrer has moderated eleven presidential candidate debates,^[4] with the most recent being the presidential debate between senators Barack Obama and John McCain on September 26, 2008.

Lehrer underwent a heart valve surgery in April 2008, and, while he recuperated, Ray Suarez anchored in his stead until his return on June 28, 2008.^[5]

On May 12, 2011, Lehrer announced he would be stepping down as anchor of PBS NewsHour on June 6, 2011, but would continue to moderate the Friday news analysis segments, and would continue to be involved with the show's production company, MacNeil/Lehrer Productions.^[6]

Personal life[link]

Lehrer is a bus enthusiast. His father was a bus driver and also briefly operated a bus company. As a college student in the 1950s, he worked as a Trailways ticket agent in Victoria, Texas. He is a supporter of the Pacific Bus Museum in Williams, California and the Museum of Bus Transportation in Hershey, Pennsylvania. He is a collector of bus memorabilia, including depot signs, driver caps, and antique toy buses.

Lehrer is married to the novelist Kate Lehrer. They have three daughters and six grandchildren.

Honors and awards[link]

• American Academy of Arts and Sciences Fellow (1991)
• University of Missouri School of Journalism's Medal of Honor
• William Allen White Foundation Award for Journalistic Merit
• George Foster Peabody Award
• Fred Friendly First Amendment Award,
• Emmy Award
• National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences Silver Circle (1999)
• Television Hall of Fame (1999)
• National Humanities Medal (1999)

Bibliography[link]

Novels (One-Eyed Mack Series)

• Lehrer, Jim (1988). Kick the Can. New York: Putnam. ISBN 0-399-13350-X. 
• Lehrer, Jim (1989). Crown Oklahoma. New York: Putnam. ISBN 0-399-13434-4. 
• Lehrer, Jim (1990). The Sooner Spy. New York: Putnam. ISBN 0-399-13536-7. 
• Lehrer, Jim (1991). Lost and Found. New York: Putnam. ISBN 0-399-13601-0. 
• Lehrer, Jim (1992). Short List. New York: Putnam. ISBN 0-399-13665-7. 
• Lehrer, Jim (1994). Fine Lines. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-517-16435-3. 

Novels (Charlie Henderson Series)

• Lehrer, Jim (1993). Blue Hearts. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-679-42216-1. 
• Lehrer, Jim (1998). Purple Dots. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-679-45237-0. 

Novels (Stand-alone)

• Lehrer, Jim (1966). Viva Max!. New York: Duell, Sloan & Pearce. ASIN B001TNUMVE. 
• Lehrer, Jim (1995). The Last Debate. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-517-17761-7. 
• Lehrer, Jim (1996). White Widow. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-679-45236-2. 
• Lehrer, Jim (2000). The Special Prisoner. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-375-50371-4. 
• Lehrer, Jim (2002). No Certain Rest. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-375-50372-2. 
• Lehrer, Jim (2004). Flying Crows: A Novel. New York: Random House. ISBN 1-4000-6197-0. 
• Lehrer, Jim (2005). The Franklin Affair. New York: Random House. ISBN 1-4000-6198-9. 
• Lehrer, Jim (2005). False Moves. New York: Random House. ISBN 1-4000-6198-9. 
• Lehrer, Jim (2006). The Phony Marine. New York: Random House. ISBN 1-4000-6486-4. 
• Lehrer, Jim (2007). Eureka. New York: Random House. ISBN 1-4000-6487-2. 
• Lehrer, Jim (2009). Oh, Johnny. New York: Random House. ISBN 1-4000-6762-6. 
• Lehrer, Jim (2010). Super. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-6763-3. 

Memoirs

• Lehrer, Jim (1975). We Were Dreamers. New York: Atheneum. ISBN 0-689-10693-9. 
• Lehrer, Jim (1992). A Bus of My Own. New York: Putnam. ISBN 0-399-13765-3. 

Screenplays

• White Widow screenplay is currently^[when?] being written by Luke Wilson
• Viva Max! (1970) writing credit with Elliott Baker

Plays

• The Will and Bart Show
• Church Key Charlie Blue
• Chili Queen

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Art at Our Doorstep: San Antonio Writers and Artists featuring Jim Lehrer. Edited by Nan Cuba and Riley Robinson (Trinity University Press, 2008).

External links[link]

United States Marine Corps portal

Wikisource has original works written by or about: Jim Lehrer

• Biography on PBS NewsHour
• Appearances on C-SPAN
• Jim Lehrer on Charlie Rose
• Jim Lehrer at the Internet Movie Database
• Works by or about Jim Lehrer in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
• 1998 UW Commencement Speech
• Write TV Public Television Interview with Jim Lehrer
• Archive of American Television interview
• A conversation with Jim Lehrer, on The Media Report, 10 May 2007
• Jim Lehrer discusses his novel, The Phony Marine (video)