Branches of Mathematics

Pure mathematics

• Algebra
• Calculus
• Geometry
• Topology
• Trignometry
• Combinatorics
• Logic
• Number theory

Applied mathematics

• Dynamical systems and differential equations
• Mathematical physics
• Computing
• Information theory and signal processing
• Probability and statistics
• Game theory
• Operations research

Related Topics

• Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Linear Equations
• Applied Physics
• Nano Technology
• Engineering Sciences
• Mathematical Medicine
• Fluid dynamics
• Computational Mathematics
• Gamma Ray Optics
• Onfrared Optics
• Relative Velocity
• Iciam
• Intelligent Imaging Neuroscience
• Biomedical Engineering
• Neuroscience Research
• Quantum Cosmology
• Brain Research

• Abner Shimony
• Adam Helfer
• Alain Aspect
• Albert Einstein
• Albert Fert
• Albert J. Libchaber
• Algorithm
• Alma mater
• Andrew Hodges
• Anthony Zee
• Anton Zeilinger
• Arne Bjerhammar
• ArXiv
• Asghar Qadir
• Atheist
• Authority control
• Benoit Mandelbrot
• Bertrand Halperin
• Bibcode
• Big Bang
• BKL conjecture
• Black hole
• Brian W. Aldiss
• Bruno Rossi
• Charles Seife
• Chien-Shiung Wu
• Claude LeBrun
• CMB
• Colchester
• Consciousness
• Conyers Herring
• Copley Medal
• Dan Shechtman
• Daniel Kleppner
• David J. Thouless
• David Kellogg Lewis
• De Morgan Medal
• Demographer
• Dirac Prize
• Doctor of Philosophy
• Doctoral advisor
• Doctrine
• Duncan Stone
• E. H. Moore
• Eddington Medal
• Edmund F. Robertson
• Emeritus
• English people
• Erwin Hahn
• Essex
• Event horizon
• Fellow
• Formal logic
• François Englert
• Freeman Dyson
• Gel
• General relativity
• Geographer
• George Boolos
• George Sparling
• Gerard 't Hooft
• Giuseppe Occhialini
• Grandmaster (chess)
• Halting problem
• Harald Rose
• Harry Kroto
• Herbert Friedman
• Hilary Putnam
• Honoris Causa
• Illumination problem
• Institute of Physics
• J. A. Todd
• Jacob Bekenstein
• Jacques Miller
• John A. Smolin
• John Clauser
• John Gurdon
• John Pople
• Jonathan Penrose
• K. Paul Tod
• Kenneth G. Wilson
• Knight Bachelor
• Knut Urban
• Lane P. Hughston
• Leo Kadanoff
• Leon M. Lederman
• Lionel Penrose
• Liquid
• Loop quantum gravity
• M. C. Escher
• Martin Davis
• Martin Evans
• Martin Lewis Perl
• Marvin Minsky
• Masatoshi Koshiba
• Mathematical physics
• Mathematical science
• Mathematics
• Matthew Ginsberg
• Maurice Goldhaber
• Max Tegmark
• Maximilian Haider
• Michael Atiyah
• Michael Fisher
• Microtubule
• Minkowski space
• Mitchell Feigenbaum
• Multiverse
• Naylor Prize
• Oliver Penrose
• Orch-OR
• Paul Nurse
• Penrose diagram
• Penrose stairs
• Penrose tiling
• Penrose triangle
• Peter Grünberg
• Peter Higgs
• Peter Hirsch
• Peter Law physicist
• Philippe Nozières
• Philosopher
• Physical cosmology
• Physical law
• Physical Review
• Physical Review E
• Portal Physics
• Princeton University
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• PubMed Identifier
• Quantum decoherence
• Quantum mechanics
• Quantum mind
• Quasicrystal
• Raymond Davis, Jr.
• Rhombus
• Riccardo Giacconi
• Richard Jozsa
• Richard S. Ward
• Robert Brout
• Roger Penrose
• Roland Penrose
• Ross Moore
• Royal Medal
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• Sam Harris (author)
• Shadows of the Mind
• Singularity theory
• Solomon Feferman
• Spacetime
• Spin network
• Star
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• Syracuse University
• Terrell rotation
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• Twistor Theory
• United Kingdom
• University of Bath
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• Valentine Telegdi
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• Wadham College
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• Wikipedia Persondata
• William Hodge
• WMAP
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• World War II
• Yakir Aharonov
• Yoichiro Nambu
• 
  

• 
  Colchester
  Coordinates: 51°53′30″N 0°54′11″E / 51.8917°N 0.903°E / 51.8917; 0.903
  Colchester ⁱ/ˈkoʊltʃɛstə/ is an historic town and the largest settlement within the borough of Colchester in Essex, England.
  At the time of the census in 2001, it had a population of 104,390. However, the population is rapidly increasing, and has been named as one of Britain's fastest growing towns. As the oldest recorded Roman town in Britain, Colchester claims to be the oldest town in Britain. It was for a time the capital of Roman Britain and also claims to have the United Kingdom's oldest recorded market. The town is a member of the Most Ancient European Towns Network.
  Colchester is 60 miles (97 km) northeast of London. It is connected to the capital by the A12 road and the Great Eastern Main Line. It is seen as a popular town for commuters, and is less than 30 miles away from Stansted Airport.
  Colchester is home to Colchester Castle and Colchester United Football Club. It has a Liberal Democrat Member of Parliament.
  
  wn.com/Colchester
• 
  Princeton University
  Princeton University is a private research university located in Princeton, New Jersey, United States.
  It is one of the eight universities of the Ivy League, and one of the nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution. Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences and engineering. Princeton does not have schools of medicine, law, divinity, or business, but it does offer professional degrees through the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, the Princeton University School of Engineering and Applied Science and the School of Architecture.
  Founded in 1746 in Elizabeth, New Jersey, as the College of New Jersey, the university moved to Newark in 1747, then to Princeton in 1756 and was renamed Princeton University in 1896. The present-day College of New Jersey in nearby Ewing, New Jersey, is an unrelated institution. Princeton was the fourth chartered institution of higher education in the American colonies. Princeton had close ties to the Presbyterian Church, but has never been affiliated with any denomination and today imposes no religious requirements on its students.
  
  wn.com/Princeton_University
• 
  Syracuse University
  Syracuse University, commonly referred to as Syracuse, 'Cuse, or SU, is a private research university located in Syracuse, New York, United States. Its roots can be traced back to Genesee Wesleyan Seminary, founded by the Methodist Episcopal Church in 1832, which also later founded Genesee College. Following several years of debate over relocating the college to Syracuse, the university was founded independent of the college in 1870. Since 1920, the university has identified itself as nonsectarian, although it maintains a relationship with The United Methodist Church. Syracuse was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1966 but withdrew its membership in 2011 due to diverging views in evaluating criteria between the University and the AAU.
  The campus is located in the University Hill neighborhood of Syracuse, east and southeast of downtown, on one of the larger hills. Its large campus features an eclectic mix of buildings, ranging from nineteenth-century Romanesque structures to contemporary buildings. SU is organized into 13 schools and colleges, with nationally recognized programs in information studies and library science, architecture, communications, business administration, public administration, engineering and the College of Arts and Sciences.
  
  wn.com/Syracuse_University
• 
  United Kingdom
  The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a sovereign state located off the north-western coast of continental Europe. The country includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea.
  The United Kingdom is a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system, with its seat of government in the capital city of London. It is a country in its own right and consists of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There are three devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in Belfast, Edinburgh and Cardiff, the capitals of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Associated with the UK, but not constitutionally part of it, are three Crown Dependencies. The United Kingdom has fourteen overseas territories. These are remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in 1922, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's land surface and was the largest empire in history. British influence can still be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former territories.
  
  wn.com/United_Kingdom
• 
  University of Oxford
  Coordinates: 51°45′40″N 1°15′12″W / 51.7611°N 1.2534°W / 51.7611; -1.2534
  The University of Oxford (informally Oxford University or Oxford) is a university located in Oxford, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest surviving university in the world and the oldest in the English-speaking world. Although its exact date of foundation is unclear, there is evidence of teaching as far back as 1096. The University grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris. In post-nominals, the University of Oxford was historically abbreviated as Oxon. (from the Latin Oxoniensis), although Oxf is now used in official university publications.
  After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge, where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient English universities have many common features and are often jointly referred to as Oxbridge. In addition to their cultural and practical associations, as a historic part of British society, they have a long history of rivalry with each other.
  
  wn.com/University_of_Oxford
• 
  University of York
  The University of York (informally York University, or simply York, abbreviated as Ebor. for post-nominals), is a plate glass university located in the city of York, England. Established in 1963, the campus university has expanded to more than thirty departments and centres, covering a wide range of subjects. Despite its relatively young age, the university has quickly built a reputation in less than half a century. York has been named the 8th best young university in the world, and is 1st within the UK, building a "reputation to rival Oxford and Cambridge". The university also places among the top 10 in the country, top 20 universities in Europe, and ranked 96th in the world, according to the 2011 QS World University Rankings. This places York in the top 1% of all higher education insitutions across the globe.
  In the last Research Assessment Exercise in 2008, York was also named as the 8th best research institution in the United Kingdom. The university was named Sunday Times university of the year in 2003 and Times Higher Education university of the year in 2010. In 2012, The University of York was invited to join the Russell Group in recognition of the institution's world-leading research and outstanding teaching.
  
  wn.com/University_of_York
• 
  Warsaw University
  The University of Warsaw (Polish: Uniwersytet Warszawski) is the largest university in Poland and one of the most prestigious, ranked by Perspektywy magazine as best Polish university in 2010 and 2011 .. Positioned byTimes Higher Education Supplement,QS World University Rankings and ARWU as the second-best Polish university among the world's top 500.
  The Royal University of Warsaw was established in 1816, when the partitions of Poland separated Warsaw from the oldest and most influential Polish academic center, Jagiellonian University in Kraków. The first to be established in Congress Poland were the Law School and the Medical School. In 1816 Tsar Alexander I permitted the Polish authorities to create a university, comprising five departments: Law and Administration, Medicine, Philosophy, Theology, and Art and Humanities. The university soon grew to 800 students and 50 professors.
  After most of the students and professors took part in the November 1830 Uprising the university was closed down.
  
  wn.com/Warsaw_University

• Abner Shimony
  Abner Shimony (born 1928, Columbus, Ohio) is an American physicist and philosopher of science specializing in quantum theory.
  Shimony obtained his BA in Mathematics and Philosophy from Yale University in 1948, and an MA in Philosophy from the University of Chicago in 1950. He obtained his Ph.D. in philosophy from Yale University in 1953, and in physics from Princeton University in 1962, under the supervision of Eugene Wigner. He served in the U. S. Army Signal Corps from 1953 to 1955. He is currently Prof. Emeritus at Boston University, where he taught for several decades as a faculty member in both the physics and philosophy departments.
  Shimony is best known for his work in developing the CHSH inequality, an empirically testable form of the Bell inequality, also known as Bell's theorem. Since 1992, he proposed a geometric measure of quantum entanglement and, along with Gregg Jaeger and Michael Horne, discovered two novel complementarity relations involving interferometric visibility in multiparticle quantum interferometry.
  
  wn.com/Abner_Shimony
• 
  Alain Aspect
  Alain Aspect (French pronunciation:  [aspɛ] (help·info); born 15 June 1947 in Agen) is a French physicist noted for his experimental work on quantum entanglement.
  Aspect is a graduate of the École Normale Supérieure de Cachan (ENS Cachan). He passed the 'agrégation' in physics in 1969 and received his master's degree from Université d'Orsay. He then did his national service, teaching for three years in Cameroon.
  In the early 1980s, while working on his PhD thesis from the lesser academic rank of lecturer, he performed the elusive "Bell test experiments" that showed that Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen's reductio ad absurdum of quantum mechanics, namely that it implied 'ghostly action at a distance', did in fact appear to be realised when two particles were separated by an arbitrarily large distance (see EPR paradox). A correlation between their wave functions remained, as they were once part of the same wave-function that was not disturbed before one of the child particles was measured.
  
  wn.com/Alain_Aspect
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  Albert Einstein
  Albert Einstein ( /ˈælbərt ˈaɪnstaɪn/; German: [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪnʃtaɪn] ( listen); 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German theoretical physicist who developed the theory of general relativity, effecting a revolution in physics. For this achievement, Einstein is often regarded as the father of modern physics. While best known for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc² (which has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation"), he received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". The latter was pivotal in establishing quantum theory within physics.
  Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led to the development of his special theory of relativity. He realized, however, that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields, and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on the general theory of relativity. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole.
  
  wn.com/Albert_Einstein
• Albert J. Libchaber
  Albert J. Libchaber (born 23 October 1934, Paris) is a Detlev W. Bronk Professor at Rockefeller University. He won the Wolf Prize in Physics in 1986.
  Albert J. Libchaber graduated with a bachelor degree in mathematics from the University of Paris in 1956 and an Ingénieur des Telecommunications from the Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Telecommunications in 1958. He earned a master of science degree in physics from the University of Illinois in 1959 and his doctoral degree from the École Normale Supérieure in 1965.
  Libchaber was a professor at the University of Chicago from 1983 to 1991. He left Chicago and became a professor of physics at Princeton University in 1991. In the same year, the NEC Research Institute in Princeton named him a fellow and, in 1993, he became the James S. McDonnell Distinguished University Professor at Princeton. He joined the faculty at The Rockefeller University in 1994.
  Professor Libchaber made a major contributions in experimental condensed matter physics.
  He made the first experimental observation of the bifurcation cascade that leads to chaos and turbulence in convective Rayleigh–Bénard systems. Using microbolometers engraved in the convective cell he was able to observe temperature fluctuations without perturbing the environment. In that way, he clearly observed the bifurcations that lead to chaos: period doubling, possibly accompanied by locking of several incommensurate frequencies. The theoretical predictions of Mitchell Feigenbaum were thus entirely confirmed. His first work was done on 4He; later he used mercury, in which an applied magnetic field provides an additional degree of freedom. The experiment is so perfect that it can measure quantitatively the Feigenbaum critical exponents that characterize the cascade to chaos.
  
  wn.com/Albert_J._Libchaber
• Andrew Hodges
  Andrew Hodges (born in London, 1949) is a mathematician, an author and a pioneer of the gay liberation movement of the 1970s.
  For the past decades (since 1972), Hodges has focused his research activities on the twistor theory — the new approach to the problems of fundamental physics pioneered by the mathematician Roger Penrose.
  Hodges is perhaps best known as the author of Alan Turing: The Enigma, the story of the British computer pioneer and codebreaker Alan Turing. The book was chosen by Michael Holroyd as part of a list of 50 'essential' books (that were currently available in print) in The Guardian, 1 June 2002. He is also the author of works that popularize science and mathematics.
  He is a Tutorial Fellow in mathematics at Wadham College, Oxford University. Having taught at Wadham since 1986, Hodges was elected a Fellow in 2007, and was appointed Dean from start of the 2011/2012 academic year.
  
  wn.com/Andrew_Hodges
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  Anthony Zee
  Anthony Zee (徐一鸿) (Zee is a dialect pronunciation of 徐) (born in Kunming in China) is a Chinese American physicist, writer, and currently a professor at the Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics and the physics department of the University of California, Santa Barbara.
  Zee obtained his Ph.D. from Harvard in 1970, supervised by Sidney Coleman. During 1970-72 and 1977–78, he was at the Institute for Advanced Study. From 1973 to 1978, he was an Alfred P. Sloan Fellow. In his first year as assistant professor at Princeton, Zee had Ed Witten as his teaching assistant and grader.
  Professor Zee has authored or co-authored more than 200 scientific publications and several books. He has written on particle physics, condensed matter physics, anomalies in physics, random matrix theory, superconductivity, the quantum Hall effect, and other topics in theoretical physics and evolutionary biology, as well as their various interrelations. His scientific publications have been cited more than 10,000 times, and his h-index is 54 as of 2006.
  
  wn.com/Anthony_Zee
• 
  Anton Zeilinger
  Anton Zeilinger (born on 20 May 1945 in Ried im Innkreis, Austria) is an Austrian quantum physicist. He is currently professor of physics at the University of Vienna, previously University of Innsbruck. He is also the director of the Vienna branch of the Institute for Quantum Optics and Quantum Information IQOQI at the Austrian Academy of Sciences. Zeilinger has been called a pioneer in the new field of quantum information and is renowned for his realization of quantum teleportation with photons.
  Anton Zeilinger, born 1945 in Austria, has held positions at the University of Innsbruck, the Technical University of Munich, the Technical University of Vienna and at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and distinguished visiting positions at Humboldt University in Berlin, Merton College of Oxford University and the Collège de France in Paris. Zeilinger received many awards for his scientific work, among the most recent being the King Faisal Prize (2005), and the first Newton Prize of the IOP (2007). He is a member of six Scientific Academies. Anton Zeilinger is currently Professor of Physics at the University of Vienna and Scientific Director of the Institute of Quantum Optics and Quantum Information of the Austrian Academy of Sciences. Since 2006, Zeilinger is the vice chairman of the board of trustees of the Institute of Science and Technology Austria, an ambitious project initiated by Zeilinger's proposal. He is a fan of the Hitchhiker's Guide To The Galaxy by Douglas Adams, going so far as to name his sailboat 42.
  
  wn.com/Anton_Zeilinger
• Arne Bjerhammar
  Arne Bjerhammar (September 15, 1917 – February 6, 2011) was a Swedish geodesist. He was professor at Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in Stockholm. He was born in Båstad, Scania in the south of Sweden.
  His research covered many fields of geodesy. As a result of his doctor’s dissertation “A contribution to the methods of optical distance measuring, specially with regard to the problems of automatic plotting“ and for his refinement of the modulation system of the Swedish EDM instrument Geodimeter he became one in the record of Swedish inventors. However, many geodesists (and mathematicians) know him for the first time for his new matrix algebra with generalized matrix inverses, published in 1955 (in Swedish) and 1957 (in English). Seven years later, fascinated by M.S. Molodensky’s new approach to solve the basic problems of physical geodesy, he presented his original idea of analytical downward continuation of the gravity anomaly to an internal sphere (“the Bjerhammar sphere”). Among other areas of interest are his original proposals of recovering the Earth’s gravity field by using the energy integral for satellites (1967) and by the theory of general relativity using atomic clocks (1975 and 1985) as well as his studies on the correlation between the gravity field and the Fennoscandian land uplift phenomenon in the 1970-ties. He is the author of about 200 scientific articles, including 2 textbooks, many of the articles published as internal KTH reports. He chaired the IAG study group on Statistical Methods in Geodesy (1963–1967).
  
  wn.com/Arne_Bjerhammar
• Asghar Qadir
  Asghar Qadir (Urdu: اصغر قادر; July 23, 1946), HI, SI, FPAS, is a renowned Pakistani mathematician and a prominent cosmologist, specialized in Mathematical physics and Physical cosmology. He is considered as one of the top mathematicians in Pakistan. He is the Chairman of the Mathematics Department, and the director of Centre for Advanced Mathematics and Physics (CAMP) at the National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST).
  He is a distinguished student of English mathematical physicist Dr. Roger Penrose. He made extraordinary efforts and published numerous papers in the fields of Mathematical physics, Cosmology and Mathematics. Qadir has made important and significant contributions to the fields of differential equations, theoretical cosmology and the mathematical physics. He has written and edited a number of books, mainly focusing on mathematical sciences and mathematical physics.
  He is author of the book "Relativity: An Introduction to the Special Theory" which has been translated in several different languages and is widely read by science students in colleges throughout Asia. He has attended more than 100 International and National Conferences and Seminars in the fields of Mathematics, Physics, Economics and the History and Philosophy of Science. He has supervised two Master of science programs, twenty-nine M. Phil, twelve Ph.Ds and two-joint Ph.D. students during his career. He has published more than 140 research papers. He is the author of 12 books, 22 research level articles, 7 teaching journal papers, 32 popular articles, and 48 research preprints. He is renowned for his work in mathematics and mathematical physics, in particular his contributions to general relativity and cosmology.
  
  wn.com/Asghar_Qadir
• 
  Benoit Mandelbrot
  Benoît B. Mandelbrot (20 November 1924 – 14 October 2010) was a French American mathematician. Born in Poland, he moved to France with his family when he was a child. Mandelbrot spent much of his life living and working in the United States, and he acquired dual French and American citizenship.
  Mandelbrot worked on a wide range of mathematical problems, including mathematical physics and quantitative finance, but is best known as the father of fractal geometry. He coined the term fractal and described the Mandelbrot set. Mandelbrot also wrote books and gave lectures aimed at the general public.
  Mandelbrot spent most of his career at IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center, and was appointed as an IBM Fellow. He later became a Sterling Professor of Mathematical Sciences at Yale University, where he was the oldest professor in Yale's history to receive tenure. Mandelbrot also held positions at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Université Lille Nord de France, Institute for Advanced Study and Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.
  
  wn.com/Benoit_Mandelbrot
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  Bertrand Halperin
  Bertrand I. Halperin is the Hollis Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy at the physics department of Harvard University.
  He grew up in Crown Heights, Brooklyn. He attended Harvard University (class of 1961), and did his graduate work at Berkeley with John J. Hopfield (PhD 1965). In the 1970s, he, together with David R. Nelson, worked out a theory of two-dimensional melting, predicting the hexatic phase before it was experimentally observed by Pindak et al. In the 1980s, he made seminal contributions to the theory of the Integral and Fractional Quantum Hall Effect. His recent interests lie in the area of strongly interacting low dimensional electron systems. In 2001, he was awarded the Lars Onsager Prize. In 2003, he and Anthony J. Leggett were awarded the Wolf Prize in physics.
  
  wn.com/Bertrand_Halperin
• 
  Brian W. Aldiss
  Brian Wilson Aldiss, OBE (born 18 August 1925) is an English author of both general fiction and science fiction. His byline reads either Brian W. Aldiss or simply Brian Aldiss. Greatly influenced by science fiction pioneer H. G. Wells, Aldiss is a vice-president of the international H. G. Wells Society. He is also (with Harry Harrison) co-president of the Birmingham Science Fiction Group. Aldiss was named a Grand Master by the Science Fiction Writers of America in 2000, and has received two Hugo Awards, one Nebula Award, and one John W. Campbell Memorial Award. His influential works include the short story "Super-Toys Last All Summer Long", the basis for the Stanley Kubrick-developed Steven Spielberg film A.I. Artificial Intelligence.
  Aldiss's father ran a department store that his grandfather had established, and the family lived above it. At the age of 6, Brian was sent to board at West Buckland School in Devon, which he attended until his late teens. In 1943, he joined the Royal Signals regiment, and saw action in Burma; his Army experience inspired the Horatio Stubbs second and third books^{[citation needed]}.
  
  wn.com/Brian_W._Aldiss
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  Bruno Rossi
  Bruno Benedetto Rossi (April 13, 1905 – November 21, 1993) was a leading Italian-American experimental physicist. He made major contributions to cosmic ray and particle physics from 1930 through the 1950s, and pioneered X-ray astronomy and space plasma physics in the 1960s.
  Rossi was born in Venice, Italy. After receiving the doctorate degree from the University of Bologna, he began his career in 1928 as assistant at the Physics Institute of the University of Florence where he made his first discoveries regarding the nature of cosmic rays. In 1932 he was called to the University of Padua as professor of experimental physics. There, in addition to teaching and research, Rossi planned the new Physics Institute of the University and oversaw its construction. In the fall of 1938 he was expelled from his position as a result of the racial decrees of the fascist state. Rossi was Jewish and so was his wife, Nora Lombroso (granddaughter of anthropologist, Cesare Lombroso), so they had to leave Italy and traveled to America with brief stays in Copenhagen, Denmark and Manchester, England.
  
  wn.com/Bruno_Rossi
• Charles Seife
  Charles Seife is an American author, journalist and professor.
  His first published book was Zero: The Biography of a Dangerous Idea. He had written within the scientific community for years before this, having done freelance work for New Scientist, Scientific American, The Economist, Science, Wired UK and The Sciences, among others.
  Prior to his career in Journalism he received an undergraduate degree from Princeton University, an M.S. in mathematics from Yale University and a M.S. in journalism from Columbia University.
  He has written five books to date:
  
  He is currently an associate professor in New York University's Journalism Department.
  He is a member of PEN, the National Association of Science Writers, and the D.C. Science Writers Association.
  Seife is among a small number of people with a defined Erdős–Bacon number, 7.
  
  
  
  wn.com/Charles_Seife
• 
  Chien-Shiung Wu
  Chien-Shiung Wu (simplified Chinese: 吴健雄; traditional Chinese: 吳健雄; pinyin: Wú Jiànxíong, May 31, 1912 – February 16, 1997) was a Chinese-American physicist with expertise in the techniques of experimental physics and radioactivity. Wu worked on the Manhattan Project (she helped to develop the process for separating uranium metal into the U-235 and U-238 isotopes by gaseous diffusion). She later performed experiments that contradicted the "Law of Conservation of Parity" and which confirmed the theories of colleagues. Her honorary nicknames include the "First Lady of Physics", the "Chinese Marie Curie", and "Madame Wu".
  Wu was born on May 31, 1912, in her ancestral hometown in Taicang, Jiangsu Province, China. Wu was the only child. She was raised in Liuhe, a small town in Taicang about 40 miles from Shanghai. Her father, Wu Zhongyi (吳仲裔), was a proponent of gender equality, and he founded the Mingde Women's Vocational Continuing School. Wu left her hometown at the age of 11 to go to the Suzhou Women's Normal School No. 2.
  
  wn.com/Chien-Shiung_Wu
• Conyers Herring
  Conyers Herring (November 15, 1914-July 23, 2009) was an American physicist. He was Professor of Applied Physics at Stanford University and the Wolf Prize in Physics recipient in 1984/5.
  Conyers Herring completed his Ph.D in Physics from Princeton University in 1937. In 1946, he joined the technical staff of Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey, where he remained until 1978. Then, he joined the faculty at Stanford University.
  Conyers Herring played a major role in the development of solid state physics.
  He laid the foundations of band structure calculations of metals and semiconductors, culminating in the discovery of the Orthogonalized Plane Wave Method (O.P.W.). He was years ahead of his time in this contribution. A great deal of modern solid state physics as produced today stems from this original and early paper.
  His influence on the development of solid state physics extends to a deep understanding of many facets such as surface physics, of thermionic emission, of transport phenomena in semiconductors and of collective excitations in solids such as spin waves.
  
  wn.com/Conyers_Herring
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  Dan Shechtman
  Dan Shechtman (Hebrew: דן שכטמן; born January 24, 1941 in Tel Aviv) is the Philip Tobias Professor of Materials Science at the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, an Associate of the US Department of Energy's Ames Laboratory, and Professor of Materials Science at Iowa State University. On April 8, 1982, while on sabbatical at the U.S. National Bureau of Standards in Washington, D.C., Shechtman discovered the icosahedral phase, which opened the new field of quasiperiodic crystals. He was awarded the 2011 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for "the discovery of quasicrystals". Shechtman is the fourth Israeli to win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in under a decade.
  Dan Shechtman was born in Tel Aviv, British Mandate of Palestine. He is married to Prof. Tzipora Shechtman, Head of the Department of Counseling and Human Development at Haifa University, and author of two books on psychotherapy. They have a son Yoav Shechtman (a PhD student in physics) and three daughters: Tamar Finkelstein (an organizational psychologist at the Israeli police leadership center), Ella Shechtman-Cory (a PhD in clinical psychology), and Ruth Dougoud-Nevo (also a PhD in clinical psychology).
  
  wn.com/Dan_Shechtman
• Daniel Kleppner
  Daniel Kleppner, born 1932, is the Lester Wolfe Professor Emeritus of Physics at MIT and co-director of the MIT-Harvard Center for Ultracold Atoms. He is the winner of the 2005 Wolf Prize in Physics [1], and the 2007 Frederic Ives Medal. Prof. Kleppner has also been awarded the National Medal of Science (2006). Together with Robert J. Kolenkow, he authored a popular introductory mechanics textbook for advanced students. Kleppner graduated from Williams College with a B.A. in 1953, Cambridge University with a B.A. in 1955, and Harvard University with a Ph.D. in 1959.
  
  
  
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• David J. Thouless
  David James Thouless (born in 1934 in Bearsden, Scotland) is a condensed matter physicist and Wolf Prize winner.
  Thouless earned his PhD at Cornell University under Hans Bethe. He was a professor of mathematical physics at Birmingham University in the United Kingdom before becoming a professor of physics at the University of Washington in Seattle in 1980. Thouless has made many theoretical contributions to the understanding of extended systems of atoms and electrons, and of nucleons. Areas that his work has impacted include superconductivity phenomena, properties of nuclear matter, and excited collective motions within nuclei.
  Thouless is a Fellow of the Royal Society, Fellow of the American Physical Society, Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences. Among his many awards are the Wolf Prize for Physics (1990), the Paul Dirac Medal of the Institute of Physics (1993), and the Lars Onsager Prize of the American Physical Society (2000).
  
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• 
  David Kellogg Lewis
  David Kellogg Lewis (September 28, 1941 – October 14, 2001) was an American philosopher. Lewis taught briefly at UCLA and then at Princeton from 1970 until his death. He is also closely associated with Australia, whose philosophical community he visited almost annually for more than thirty years. He has made contributions in philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, metaphysics, epistemology, and philosophical logic. He is probably best known for his controversial modal realist stance: that (i) possible worlds exist, (ii) every possible world is a concrete entity, (iii) any possible world is causally and spatiotemporally isolated from any other possible world, and (iv) our world is among the possible worlds. This view has a wide variety of uses in providing a framework for philosophical thought, including providing a non-modal analysis of necessity and possibility. A recent poll conducted among philosophers ranked Lewis the thirteenth most important philosopher of the past 200 years.
  
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• 
  E. H. Moore
  Eliakim Hastings Moore (January 26, 1862 – December 30, 1932) was an American mathematician.
  Moore, the son of a Methodist minister and grandson of US Congressman Eliakim H. Moore, discovered mathematics through a summer job at the Cincinnati Observatory while in high school. He learned mathematics at Yale University, where he was a member of Skull and Bones and obtained a B.A. in 1883 and the Ph.D. in 1885 with a thesis, supervised by Hubert Anson Newton, on some work of William Kingdon Clifford and Arthur Cayley. Newton encouraged Moore to study in Germany, and thus he spent an academic year at the University of Berlin, attending lectures by Kronecker and Weierstrass.
  On his return to the United States, Moore taught at Yale and at Northwestern University. When the University of Chicago opened its doors in 1892, Moore was the first head of its mathematics department, a position he retained until his death in 1931. His first two colleagues were Bolza and Maschke. The resulting department was the second research-oriented mathematics department in American history, after Johns Hopkins University.
  
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• Edmund F. Robertson
  Edmund Frederick Robertson FRSE B.Sc M.Sc Ph.D., born on 1 June 1943, St Andrews, Scotland, is a Professor emeritus of pure mathematics at the University of St Andrews.
  He is one of the creators of the noted MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive along with John J. O'Connor. He has written over one hundred research articles, mainly in the theory of groups and semigroups. He is the author or co-author of seventeen textbooks.
  In 1998 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
  He lives at home with his wife Helena, and his two sons Colin and David.
  
  
  
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• 
  English people
  The English (from Old English: Englisc) are a nation and ethnic group native to England, who speak English. The English identity is of early mediaeval origin, when they were known in Old English as the Anglecynn. England is now a country of the United Kingdom, and the majority of English people in England are British Citizens. Their ethnonym is derived from the Angles, a Germanic people originally from Northern Germany who migrated to Britain.
  Historically, the English population is descended from several genetically similar peoples—the earlier Britons (or Brythons), the Germanic tribes that settled in the area, including Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, collectively known as the Anglo-Saxons, who founded what was to become England (from the Old English Englaland), and the later Danes, Normans and other groups. Following the Act of Union in 1707, in which the Kingdom of England became part of the Kingdom of Great Britain, English customs and identity became closely aligned with British customs and identity.
  
  wn.com/English_people
• Erwin Hahn
  Erwin L. Hahn (born 1921) is a U.S. physicist, best known for his work on nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). In 1950 he discovered the spin echo.
  He received his B.S. in Physics from Juniata College and his M.S. and Ph.D. from The University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He has been Professor Emeritus at the University of California, Berkeley since 1991 and was professor of physics, 1955-91. In 1999 Hahn was awarded the Comstock Prize in Physics from the National Academy of Sciences.
  
  
  
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• 
  François Englert
  François Englert (born 6 November 1932) is a Belgian theoretical physicist. He was awarded the 2010 J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics (with Gerry Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, Tom Kibble, Peter Higgs, and Robert Brout), the Wolf Prize in Physics in 2004 (with Brout and Higgs) and the High Energy and Particle Prize of the European Physical Society (with Brout and Higgs) in 1997 for the mechanism which unifies short and long range interactions by generating massive gauge vector bosons. He has made contributions in statistical physics, quantum field theory, cosmology, string theory and supergravity.
  He graduated as electrical-mechanical engineer in 1955 from the Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB) where he got his PhD in physical sciences in 1959. From 1959 until 1961, he worked at Cornell University, first as research associate of Robert Brout and then as assistant professor. He then returned to the ULB where he became a university professor and was joined there by Robert Brout. From 1980 they coheaded the theoretical physics group. In 1998 Englert became emeritus.
  
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• 
  Freeman Dyson
  Freeman John Dyson FRS (born December 15, 1923) is a British-born American theoretical physicist and mathematician, famous for his work in quantum electrodynamics, solid-state physics, astronomy and nuclear engineering. Dyson is a member of the Board of Sponsors of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Dyson has lived in Princeton, New Jersey, for over fifty years.
  Dyson's father was the English composer Sir George Dyson; his mother was trained as a lawyer but after Dyson was born worked as a social worker. Despite sharing a last name, he is not related to the early 20th century astronomer Frank Watson Dyson, but as a small boy Freeman Dyson was aware of Frank Watson Dyson. Freeman credits the popularity of an astronomer with the same last name as having inadvertently helped to spark his interest in science.^{[citation needed]}
  Dyson has six children, two of them (Esther and George) with his first wife, mathematician Verena Huber-Dyson, and the other four with his second wife, Imme Dyson, a masters runner who married him in 1958. Due to issues with some of his children not being recognized as British citizens he abjured his allegiance to Britain, and became a naturalized American citizen.
  
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• George Boolos
  George Stephen Boolos (September 4, 1940, New York City – May 27, 1996) was a philosopher and a mathematical logician who taught at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
  Boolos graduated from Princeton University in 1961 with an A.B. in mathematics. Oxford University awarded him the B.Phil in 1963. In 1966, he obtained the first Ph.D. in philosophy ever awarded by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, under the direction of Hilary Putnam. After teaching three years at Columbia University, he returned to MIT in 1969, where he spent the rest of his career until his death from cancer.
  A charismatic speaker well known for his clarity and wit, he once delivered a lecture (1994b) giving an account of Gödel's second incompleteness theorem, employing only words of one syllable. At the end of his viva, Hilary Putnam asked him, "And tell us, Mr. Boolos, what does the analytical hierarchy have to do with the real world?" Without hesitating Boolos replied, "It's part of it".
  An expert on puzzles of all kinds, in 1993 Boolos reached the London Regional Final of The Times crossword competition. His score was one of the highest ever recorded by an American. He wrote a paper on "the hardest logic puzzle ever"—one of many puzzles created by Raymond Smullyan.
  
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• 
  Gerard 't Hooft
  Gerardus (Gerard) 't Hooft (Dutch pronunciation: [ˌɣɪːrɑrt ət ˈɦoːft]) (born July 5, 1946, Den Helder, Netherlands) is a Dutch theoretical physicist and professor at Utrecht University, the Netherlands. He shared the 1999 Nobel Prize in Physics with his thesis advisor Martinus J. G. Veltman "for elucidating the quantum structure of electroweak interactions".
  His work concentrates on gauge theory, black holes, quantum gravity and fundamental aspects of quantum mechanics. His contributions to physics include a proof that gauge theories are renormalizible, dimensional regularization, and the holographic principle.
  He is married to Albertha Schik (Betteke) and has two daughters, Saskia and Ellen. Saskia has translated one of her father's popular Dutch fiction books 'Planetenbiljart' into English. The book's title is 'Playing with Planets' and was launched in Singapore in November 2008.
  Gerard 't Hooft was born in Den Helder on July 5, 1946, but grew up in The Hague, the seat of government of the Netherlands. He was the middle child of a family of three. He comes from a family of scholars. His grandmother was a sister of Nobel prize laureate Fritz Zernike, and was married to Pieter Nicolaas van Kampen, who was a well-known professor of zoology at Leiden university. His uncle Nico van Kampen is an (emeritus) professor of theoretical physics at Utrecht University, and while his mother did not opt for a scientific career because she was a girl, she did marry a maritime engineer. Following his family's footsteps, he showed interest in science at an early age. When his primary school teacher asked him what he wanted to be when he grew up, he boldly declared, "a man who knew everything."
  
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• Giuseppe Occhialini
  Giuseppe Paolo Stanislao "Beppo" Occhialini ForMemRS (December 5, 1907 in Fossombrone, Pesaro, Italy – December 30, 1993 in Paris) was an Italian physicist, who contributed to the discovery of the pion or pi-meson decay in 1947, with César Lattes and Cecil Frank Powell (Nobel Prize for Physics). At the time of this discovery, they were all working at the H. H. Wills Laboratory of the University of Bristol.
  The X-ray satellite SAX was named BeppoSAX in his honour after its launch in 1996.
  His father was the physicist Raffaele Augusto Occhialini (1878–1951), pioneer in the fields of spectroscopy and electronics theory. Giuseppe Paolo Stanislao Occhialini graduated at Florence in 1929. In 1932, he collaborated in the discovery of the positron in cosmic rays at the Cavendish Laboratory of Cambridge, under the leadership of Patrick Blackett, using cloud chambers. From 1937 to the 1944 he worked, on invitation of Gleb Wataghin, at the institute of physics of São Paulo, in Brazil. He returned to Italy, in 1944, taught first in Genoa (1950) and then in Milan (1952). In 1947 he contributed to the discovery of the pion or pi-meson decay in collaboration with César Lattes and Cecil Frank Powell. The discovery was made at the Wills Laboratory of Bristol using the technology of the tracks on specialized photographic emulsions. He was a protagonist in cosmic ray research with the nuclear utilization of photographic emulsions exposed to high energy cosmic radiation, work which culminated in 1954 with the European G-Stack collaboration. Later on with the coming of particle accelerators, Occhialini explored that new field of research. He also made outstanding contributions to space physics, importantly contributing to the foundation of the European Space Agency.
  
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  Harry Kroto
  Sir Harold (Harry) Walter Kroto, FRS (born 7 October 1939 as Harold Walter Krotoschiner), is a British chemist and one of the three recipients to share the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Robert Curl and Richard Smalley.
  He is the Francis Eppes Professor of Chemistry at the Florida State University, which he joined in 2004; prior to that he spent a large part of his career at the University of Sussex, where he holds an emeritus professorship.
  Kroto was born in Wisbech, Cambridgeshire, England, to Edith and Heinz Krotoschiner, with his name being of Silesian origin. His father's family came from Bojanowo, Poland, and his mother's from Berlin, Germany. Both his parents were born in Berlin but came to Great Britain in the 1930s as refugees from the Nazis because his father was Jewish.
  He was raised in Bolton, Lancashire, England, and attended Bolton School, where he was a contemporary of the highly acclaimed actor Ian McKellen. In 1955, the family name was shortened to Kroto.
  As a child, he became fascinated by a Meccano set. Kroto credits Meccano — amongst other things — with developing skills useful in scientific research. He developed an interest in chemistry, physics, and mathematics in secondary school, and because his sixth form chemistry teacher (Harry Heaney – who subsequently became a University Professor) felt that the University of Sheffield had the best chemistry department in the United Kingdom, he went to Sheffield.
  
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• Herbert Friedman
  Herbert Friedman (June 21, 1916 – September 9, 2000) was an American pioneer in the application of sounding rockets to solar physics, aeronomy, and astronomy. He was also a statesman and public advocate for science. During his lifetime, he was awarded the Eddington Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society, the National Medal of Science, the Henry Norris Russell Lectureship of the American Astronomical Society, the William Bowie Medal of the American Geophysical Union, the Wolf Foundation Prize in Physics, and the Albert A. Michelson Medal of the Franklin Institute (1972), among others. He was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1960 and of the American Philosophical Society in 1964.
  Friedman was born June 21, 1916 in Brooklyn, New York (USA) the second of three children of Samuel and Rebecca Friedman. His father was an Orthodox Jew who moved to New York City from Evansville, Indiana, and eventually established a successful art framing shop on East Ninth Street in Manhattan. Friedman’s mother was born in eastern Europe. Friedman grew up as an aspiring artist and earned pocket money as a young man from the sale of his sketches. He entered Brooklyn College in 1932 as an art major, but ended up with a degree in physics. He was influenced by his first physics professor, Dr. Bernhard Kurrelmeyer, who eventually helped him get a scholarship to Johns Hopkins.
  
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• 
  Hilary Putnam
  Hilary Whitehall Putnam (born July 31, 1926) is an American philosopher, mathematician and computer scientist, who has been a central figure in analytic philosophy since the 1960s, especially in philosophy of mind, philosophy of language, philosophy of mathematics, and philosophy of science. He is known for his willingness to apply an equal degree of scrutiny to his own philosophical positions as to those of others, subjecting each position to rigorous analysis until he exposes its flaws. As a result, he has acquired a reputation for frequently changing his own position. Putnam is currently Cogan University Professor Emeritus at Harvard University.
  In philosophy of mind, Putnam is known for his argument against the type-identity of mental and physical states based on his hypothesis of the multiple realizability of the mental, and for the concept of functionalism, an influential theory regarding the mind-body problem. In philosophy of language, along with Saul Kripke and others, he developed the causal theory of reference, and formulated an original theory of meaning, inventing the notion of semantic externalism based on a famous thought experiment called Twin Earth.
  
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• J. A. Todd
  
  John Arthur Todd FRS (23 August 1908 – 22 December 1994) was a British geometer. He was born in Liverpool, and went to Trinity College of the University of Cambridge in 1925. He did research under H.F. Baker, and in 1931 took a position at the University of Manchester. He became a lecturer at Cambridge in 1937. He remained at Cambridge for the rest of his working life.
  The Todd class in the theory of the higher-dimensional Riemann–Roch theorem is an example of a characteristic class (or, more accurately, a reciprocal of one) that was discovered by Todd in work published in 1937. It used the methods of the Italian school of algebraic geometry. The Todd–Coxeter process for coset enumeration is a major method of computational algebra, and dates from a collaboration with H.S.M. Coxeter in 1936. In 1953 he and Coxeter discovered the Coxeter–Todd lattice. In 1954 he and G. C. Shephard classified the finite complex reflection groups.
  In March 1948 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.
  
  
  
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• Jacques Miller
  Jacques Francis Albert Pierre Miller AC FRS (born 2 April 1931) is a distinguished research scientist. He is famous for having discovered the function of the thymus and for the identification, in mammalian species of the two major subsets of lymphocytes (T cells and B cells) and their function.
  Miller was born on 2 April 1931, in Nice, France, as J.F.A.P. Meunier, and grew up in France, Switzerland and China, mostly in Shanghai. After the outbreak of World War II, in anticipation of Japan's entry into the war, his family moved in 1941 to Sydney, Australia, and changed their last name to "Miller". He was educated at St Aloysius' College in Sydney, where he met his future colleague, Sir Gustav Nossal.
  Miller studied medicine at the University of Sydney, and had his first experience of laboratory research in the laboratory of Professor Patrick de Burgh where he studied virus infection.
  In 1958, Miller travelled to the United Kingdom on a Gaggin Research Fellowship from the University of Queensland. He was accepted to the Chester Beatty Research Institute of Cancer Research (part of the Institute of Cancer Research, London) and as a PhD student at the University of London. Miller chose to study the pathogenesis of lymphocytic leukemia in mice, expanding on the research of Ludwik Gross into murine leukemia virus. Miller showed that experimental animals without a thymus at birth were incapable of rejecting foreign tissues and resisting many infections, thus demonstrating that the thymus is vital for development and function of the adaptive immune system. Prior to this, the thymus was believed to be a vestigial organ with no function. His discovery has led many to describe Miller as the "world's only living person who can claim to have been the first to have described the functions of a human organ". In 1963, Miller continued his work into the function of the thymus at the National Institutes of Health.
  
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• 
  John A. Smolin
  John A. Smolin (born 1967) is an American physicist and Fellow of the American Physical Society at IBM's Thomas J. Watson Research Center.
  Smolin is best known for his work in quantum information theory, where, with collaborators, he introduced several important techniques, including entanglement distillation, for quantum error-correction and the faithful transmission of quantum information through noisy quantum channels, as well as for entanglement-assisted transmission of classical information. He helped elucidate the complex relations between classical and quantum capacities of various channels as well as phenomena such as data hiding and data unlocking that have no analog in classical information theory. Together with Charles H. Bennett he built the world's first working demonstration of quantum cryptography in 1989, driven by software written by Francois Bessette, Gilles Brassard and Louis Salvail and implementing the BB84 quantum key distribution protocol.
  Smolin coined the term "Church of the Larger Hilbert Space" to describe the habit of regarding every mixed state of a quantum system as a pure entangled state of a larger system, and every irreversible evolution as a reversible (unitary) evolution of a larger system.
  
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  John Gurdon
  Sir John Bertrand Gurdon (JBG), FRS (born 2 October 1933) is a British developmental biologist. He is best known for his pioneering research in nuclear transplantation and cloning. He was recently awarded the Lasker Award.
  
  
  After attending Eton College, Gurdon went up to Christ Church, Oxford, to study classics but switched to zoology. For his PhD he studied nuclear transplantation in the frog Xenopus with Michael Fischberg at Oxford, and then did postdoctoral work at Caltech. His early posts were at the Department of Zoology of the University of Oxford (1962–71).
  Gurdon has spent much of his research career in Cambridge, UK, first at the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology (1971–83) and then at the Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge (1983–date). In 1989, he was a founding member of the Wellcome/CRC Institute for Cell Biology and Cancer (later Wellcome/CR UK) in Cambridge, and was its Chair until 2001. He was a member of the Nuffield Council on Bioethics 1991-1995, and Master of Magdalene College, Cambridge from 1995 to 2002.
  
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• John Pople
  Sir John Anthony Pople, KBE, FRS, (October 31, 1925 – March 15, 2004) was a Nobel-Prize winning theoretical chemist. Born in Burnham-on-Sea, Somerset, England, he attended Bristol Grammar School. He won a scholarship to Trinity College, Cambridge in 1943. He received his B. A. in 1946. Between 1945 and 1947 he worked at the Bristol Aeroplane Company. He then returned to Cambridge University and was awarded his doctorate degree in mathematics in 1951. He moved to the United States of America in 1964, where he lived the rest of his life, though he retained British citizenship. Pople considered himself more of a mathematician than a chemist, but theoretical chemists consider him one of the most important of their number.
  His scientific contributions are in four different areas:
  His early paper on the statistical mechanics of water, according to Michael J. Frisch, "remained the standard for many years. This was his thesis topic for his Ph D at Cambridge supervised by John Lennard-Jones.
  In the early days of nuclear magnetic resonance he studied the underlying theory, and in 1959 he coauthored the text book High Resolution Nuclear Magnetic Resonance with W.G. Schneider and H.J. Bernstein.
  
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• Jonathan Penrose
  Jonathan Penrose, OBE (born 7 October 1933, in Colchester) is an English chess player, emeritus Grandmaster, and International Correspondence Chess Grandmaster (1983) who won the British Chess Championship ten times between 1958 and 1969. He is the son of Lionel Penrose, a world famous professor of genetics, and brother of Roger Penrose and Oliver Penrose. He is a psychologist and university lecturer by profession.
  Learning the game at age four, he was a member of Hampstead Chess Club at twelve and British Boys (Under 18) Champion at just fourteen years of age. Chess was played by the entire Penrose family. His father was a composer of endgame studies and a strong player, as was older brother Oliver.
  By the age of seventeen, he was already acknowledged as a top prospect for British chess. Playing Hastings for the first time in 1950/51, he beat the French champion Nicolas Rossolimo and at Southsea in 1950, defeated both Efim Bogoljubov and Savielly Tartakower.
  Penrose earned the International Master title in 1961 and was the leading British player for several years in the 1960s and early 1970s, surpassing the achievement of Henry Ernest Atkins by winning the British Championship a record number of times. He was widely considered to be of grandmaster (GM) strength, if not world class standard, but did not achieve the GM title in over-the-board play, despite some notable victories. This was mainly due to his choosing to remain amateur and placing his lecturing as a first priority. In effect, it meant that he played few international tournaments and frequently turned down invitations to prestigious tournaments such as Hastings.
  
  wn.com/Jonathan_Penrose
• Kenneth G. Wilson
  Kenneth Geddes Wilson (born June 8, 1936) is an American theoretical physicist and Nobel Prize winner.
  As an undergraduate at Harvard, he was a Putnam Fellow. He earned his PhD from Caltech in 1961, studying under Murray Gell-Mann.
  He joined Cornell University in 1963 in the Department of Physics as a junior faculty member, becoming a full professor in 1970. In 1974, he became the James A. Weeks Professor of Physics at Cornell. He was a co-winner of the Wolf Prize in physics in 1980, together with Michael E. Fisher and Leo Kadanoff. He was awarded the 1982 Nobel Prize in Physics for his seminal approach, combining quantum field theory and the statistical theory of critical phenomena of second-order phase transitions, i.e., for his constructive theory of the renormalization group. In this theory he not only gave important insights into the field of critical statics and dynamics in statistical physics, but also indirectly helped to answer basic questions like: "What is quantum field theory?" and "What does renormalization mean?". He also gave a constructive answer to another important "renormalization" problem from solid-state physics, the Kondo effect.
  
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• Knut Urban
  Knut W. Urban (born 25 June 1941 in Stuttgart) is a German physicist. He has been the Director of the Institute of Microstructure Research at Forschungszentrum Jülich since 1987.
  Knut Urban's research focuses on the field of aberration-corrected transmission electron microscopy (both regarding the further development of instruments and the control software), the examination of structural defects in oxides and the physical properties of complex metallic alloys. He also works on Josephson effects in high-temperature superconductors and the application of these effects in SQUID systems and magnetometers as well as on the application of Hilbert transform spectroscopy in examining the excitation of solids, liquids and gases on the gigahertz and terahertz scale.
  Besides his activities at Forschungszentrum Jülich he is also professor for experimental physics at RWTH Aachen University.
  
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• Lane P. Hughston
  Professor Lane P. Hughston, M.A., D. Phil. (born 24 December 1951) is an American mathematician. Born in Corpus Christi, Texas, and raised in Dallas, Texas, he is the son of Edward Wallace Hughston and the late Joan Lorraine Palmer Hughston. He was awarded a doctoral degree in mathematics by the University of Oxford where he was a Rhodes Scholar and a student of Professor Roger Penrose. Following the completion of his doctorate he held a Junior Research Fellowship at Wolfson College, Oxford, and then was Fellow and Tutor in Applied Mathematics at Lincoln College, Oxford. Later, he worked as a financial engineer and risk manager at Merrill Lynch, London, as Professor of Financial Mathematics at King's College London, and as Professor of Mathematical Finance at Imperial College London. He has, among other areas, carried out work in general relativity, cosmology, twistor theory, quantum mechanics, statistical mechanics, and in various aspects of mathematical finance, including the theory of interest rate derivatives and the theory of information-based asset pricing. Lane P. Hughston is Editor-in-Chief of International Journal of Theoretical and Applied Finance. He is a member of the London Mathematical Society, the Bachelier Finance Society, the American Finance Association, and the American Physical Society. He is a Fellow of the Institute of Mathematics and its Applications, and a lifetime member of the American Mathematical Society and the International Society for General Relativity and Gravitation. He has held visiting professorships at the University of Texas at Austin, King's College London, the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics, and University College London.
  
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  Leo Kadanoff
  Leo Philip Kadanoff (born January 14, 1937) is an American physicist. He is a professor of physics (emeritus as of 2004) at the University of Chicago and a former President of the American Physical Society (APS). He has contributed to the fields of statistical physics, chaos theory, and theoretical condensed matter physics.
  Kadanoff was raised in New York City. He received his undergraduate degree and doctorate in physics from Harvard University. After a post-doctorate at the Niels Bohr Institute in Copenhagen, he joined the physics faculty at the University of Illinois in 1965.
  Kadanoff's early research focused upon superconductivity. In the late 1960s, he studied the organization of matter in phase transitions. Kadanoff demonstrated that sudden changes in material properties (such as the magnetization of a magnet or the boiling of a fluid) could be understood in terms of scaling and universality. With his collaborators, he showed how all the experimental data then available for the changes, called second-order phase transitions, could be understood in terms of these two ideas. These same ideas have now been extended to apply to a broad range of scientific and engineering problems, and have found numerous and important applications in urban planning, computer science, hydrodynamics, biology, applied mathematics and geophysics. In recognition of these achievements, he won the Buckley Prize of the American Physical Society (1977), the Wolf Prize in Physics (1980), the 1989 Boltzmann Medal of the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics, and the 2006 Lorentz Medal.
  
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  Leon M. Lederman
  Leon Max Lederman (born July 15, 1922) is an American experimental physicist and Nobel Prize in Physics laureate for his work with neutrinos. He is Director Emeritus of Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab) in Batavia, Illinois, USA. He founded the Illinois Mathematics and Science Academy, in Aurora, Illinois in 1986, and has served in the capacity of Resident Scholar since 1998.
  Lederman graduated from the James Monroe High School in the South Bronx. He received his bachelor's degree from the City College of New York in 1943, and received a Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1951. He then joined the Columbia faculty and eventually became Eugene Higgins Professor of Physics. He took an extended leave of absence from Columbia in 1979 to become Fermilab's director. He resigned from Columbia and Fermilab in 1989 and taught briefly at the University of Chicago before moving to Illinois Institute of Technology, where he currently serves as the Pritzker Professor of Science. In 1991, Lederman became President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
  
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• Lionel Penrose
  Lionel Sharples Penrose, FRS (11 June 1898 – 12 May 1972) was a British psychiatrist, medical geneticist, mathematician and chess theorist, who carried out pioneering work on the genetics of mental retardation. He was educated at the Quaker Leighton Park School and St. John's College, Cambridge.
  Penrose's "Colchester Survey" of 1938 was the earliest serious attempt to study the genetics of mental retardation. He found that the relatives of patients with severe mental retardation were usually unaffected but some of them were affected with similar severity to the original patient, whereas the relatives of patients with mild mental retardation tended mostly to have mild or borderline disability. Penrose went on to identify and study many of the genetic and chromosomal causes of mental retardation (then called mental deficiency). This body of work culminated in the book, The Biology of Mental Defect (Sidgwick and Jackson, Ltd., London, U.K., 1949).
  Penrose was a central figure in British medical genetics following World War II. From 1945 to 1965 he occupied the Galton Chair at the Galton Laboratory at University College London. He received a number of awards and honors including the 1960 Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research. The Lasker citation read: "Professor Penrose and his associates have been responsible over the years for studies which touch all aspects of human genetics, include genetic analyses of most of the known hereditary diseases, contributions to mathematical genetics, biochemical genetics, the study of gene linkage in man, and theoretical work on the mutagenic effect of ionizing radiations. Most recently their attention has been turned to abnormalities of human chromosomes associated with congenital defects, particularly mongolism (Down syndrome)."
  
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  M. C. Escher
  Maurits Cornelis Escher ( /ˈɛʃər/, Dutch: [ˈmʌurɪts kɔrˈneːlɪs ˈɛʃər] ( listen); 17 June 1898 – 27 March 1972), usually referred to as M. C. Escher, was a Dutch graphic artist. He is known for his often mathematically inspired woodcuts, lithographs, and mezzotints. These feature impossible constructions, explorations of infinity, architecture, and tessellations.
  Maurits Cornelis, nicknamed "Mauk", was born in Leeuwarden, The Netherlands, in a house that forms part of the Princessehof Ceramics Museum today. He was the youngest son of civil engineer George Arnold Escher and his second wife, Sara Gleichman. In 1903, the family moved to Arnhem, where he attended primary school and secondary school until 1918.
  He was a sickly child, and was placed in a special school at the age of seven and failed the second grade. Though he excelled at drawing, his grades were generally poor. He also took carpentry and piano lessons until he was thirteen years old. In 1919, Escher attended the Haarlem School of Architecture and Decorative Arts. He briefly studied architecture, but he failed a number of subjects (partly due to a persistent skin infection) and switched to decorative arts. Here he studied under Samuel Jessurun de Mesquita, with whom he would remain friends for years. In 1922 Escher left the school, having gained experience in drawing and making woodcuts.
  
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  Martin Davis
  Martin David Davis, (born 1928, New York City) is an American mathematician, known for his work on Hilbert's tenth problem (Jackson 2008, p. 560). He received his Ph.D. from Princeton University in 1950, where his adviser was Alonzo Church (Jackson 2008, p. 560). He is Professor Emeritus at New York University. He is the co-inventor of the Davis-Putnam and the DPLL algorithms. He is a co-author, with Ron Sigal and Elaine J. Weyuker, of Computability, Complexity, and Languages, Second Edition: Fundamentals of Theoretical Computer Science, a textbook on the theory of computability. He is also known for his model of Post–Turing machines.
  Davis's parents knew each other in Łódź, Poland, but did not marry until they met again in New York City (Jackson 2008, p. 560). Davis grew up in the Bronx, where his parents encouraged him to obtain a full education (Jackson 2008, p. 561).
  See Criticism of non-standard analysis
  
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• 
  Martin Evans
  Sir Martin John Evans FRS (b. 1 January 1941, Stroud, Gloucestershire) is a British scientist who, with Matthew Kaufman, was the first to culture mice embryonic stem cells and cultivate them in a laboratory in 1981. He is also known, along with Mario Capecchi and Oliver Smithies, for his work in the development of the knockout mouse and the related technology of gene targeting, a method of using embryonic stem cells to create specific gene modifications in mice. In 2007, the three shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in recognition of their discovery and contribution to the efforts to develop new treatments for illnesses in humans.
  He won a major scholarship to Christ's College, University of Cambridge at a time when advances in genetics were occurring there and became interested in biology and biochemistry. He then went to University College London where he learned laboratory skills under Dr Elizabeth Deuchar. In 1978, he moved to the Department of Genetics, at the University of Cambridge, and in 1980 began his collaboration with Matthew Kaufman. They explored the method of using blastocysts for the isolation of embryonic stem cells. After Kaufman left, Evans continued his work, upgrading his laboratory skills to the newest technologies, isolated the embryonic stem cell of the early mouse embryo and established it in a cell culture. He genetically modified and implanted it into adult female mice with the intent of creating genetically modified offspring, work for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2007. Today, genetically modified mice are considered vital for medical research.
  
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  Martin Lewis Perl
  Martin Lewis Perl (born June 24, 1927 in New York) is an American physicist, who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1995 for his discovery of the tau lepton. His parents were Jewish emigrants to the US from the Polish area of Russia.
  Perl is a 1948 chemical engineering graduate of Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute (now known as NYU-Poly) in Brooklyn. He received his Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1955, where his thesis advisor was I.I. Rabi who won the Nobel Prize in Phyics for 1944 . He spent his career at the University of Michigan and then at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC).
  While at Michigan, Perl and Lawrence W. Jones served as co-advisors to Samuel C. C. Ting, who earned the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1976.
  He has currently joined University of Liverpool as a visiting professor. He also serves on the board of advisors of Scientists and Engineers for America, an organization focused on promoting sound science in American government.
  In 2009, Perl received an honorary doctorate from the University of Belgrade.
  
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  Marvin Minsky
  Marvin Lee Minsky (born August 9, 1927) is an American cognitive scientist in the field of artificial intelligence (AI), co-founder of Massachusetts Institute of Technology's AI laboratory, and author of several texts on AI and philosophy.
  Marvin Lee Minsky was born in New York City to a Jewish family, where he attended The Fieldston School and the Bronx High School of Science. He later attended Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts. He served in the US Navy from 1944 to 1945. He holds a BA in Mathematics from Harvard (1950) and a PhD in mathematics from Princeton (1954). He has been on the MIT faculty since 1958. In 1959 he and John McCarthy founded what is now known as the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. He is currently the Toshiba Professor of Media Arts and Sciences, and Professor of electrical engineering and computer science.
  Isaac Asimov described Minsky as one of only two people he would admit were more intelligent than he was, the other being Carl Sagan.Patrick Winston has also described Minsky as the smartest person he has ever met. Ray Kurzweil has referred to Minsky as his mentor.
  
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• Masatoshi Koshiba
  Masatoshi Koshiba (小柴 昌俊, Koshiba Masatoshi^?) (born on September 19, 1926 in Toyohashi, Aichi) is a Japanese physicist. He jointly won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2002.
  He graduated from the University of Tokyo in 1951 and received a Ph.D. in physics at the University of Rochester, New York, in 1955. From July 1955 to February 1958 he was Research Associate, Department of Physics, University of Chicago; from March 1958 to October 1963, he was Associate Professor, Institute of Nuclear Study, University of Tokyo, although from November 1959 to August 1962 he was on leave from the above as Senior Research Associate with the honorary rank of Associate Professor and as the Acting Director, Laboratory of High Energy Physics and Cosmic Radiation, Department of Physics, University of Chicago. At the University of Tokyo he became Associate Professor in March 1963 and then Professor in March 1970 in the Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, and Emeritus Professor there in 1987. From 1987 to 1997, Koshiba taught at Tokai University. In 2002, he jointly won the Nobel Prize in Physics "for pioneering contributions to astrophysics, in particular for the detection of cosmic neutrinos". (The other shares of that year's Prize were awarded to Raymond Davis Jr. & Riccardo Giacconi of the U.S.A.)
  
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  Maurice Goldhaber
  Maurice Goldhaber (April 18, 1911 – May 11, 2011) was an Austrian-born American physicist, who in 1957 (with Lee Grodzins and Andrew Sunyar) established that neutrinos have negative helicity.
  He was born on April 18, 1911 in Lemberg, Austria now called Lviv, Ukraine.
  After beginning his physics studies at the University of Berlin, he earned his doctorate at Cambridge University in 1936.
  In 1934, working at the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge, England he and James Chadwick, through what they called the nuclear photo-electric effect, established that the neutron has a great enough mass over the proton to decay.
  He moved to the University of Illinois in 1938. In the 1940s with his wife Gertrude Scharff-Goldhaber he established that beta particles are identical to electrons.
  He joined Brookhaven National Laboratory in 1950. With Edward Teller he proposed that the so-called "giant-dipole nuclear resonance" was due to the neutrons in a nucleus vibrating as a group against the protons as a group (Goldhaber-Teller model).
  
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  Michael Atiyah
  Sir Michael Francis Atiyah, OM, FRS, FRSE (born 22 April 1929) is a British mathematician working in geometry.
  Atiyah grew up in Sudan and Egypt but spent most of his academic life in the United Kingdom at Oxford and Cambridge, and in the United States at the Institute for Advanced Study. He has been president of the Royal Society (1990–1995), master of Trinity College, Cambridge (1990–1997), chancellor of the University of Leicester (1995–2005), and president of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (2005–2008). He is currently retired, and is an honorary professor at the University of Edinburgh.
  Atiyah's mathematical collaborators include Raoul Bott, Friedrich Hirzebruch and Isadore Singer, and his students include Graeme Segal, Nigel Hitchin and Simon Donaldson. Together with Hirzebruch, he laid the foundations for topological K-theory, an important tool in algebraic topology, which, informally speaking, describes ways in which spaces can be twisted. His best known result, the Atiyah–Singer index theorem, was proved with Singer in 1963 and is widely used in counting the number of independent solutions to differential equations. Some of his more recent work was inspired by theoretical physics, in particular instantons and monopoles, which are responsible for some subtle corrections in quantum field theory. He was awarded the Fields Medal in 1966, the Copley Medal in 1988, and the Abel Prize in 2004.
  
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• Michael Fisher
  Michael Ellis Fisher (born 3 September 1931 in Trinidad) is an English physicist, as well as chemist and mathematician, known for his many seminal contributions to statistical physics, including but not restricted to the theory of phase transitions and critical phenomena.
  Michael E. Fisher received his BSc from King's College London, where he also earned a PhD in physics in 1957. He was appointed to the faculty as a lecturer the following year, becoming a full professor in 1965. In 1966 he moved to Cornell University where he became professor of chemistry, physics, and mathematics, chairing the chemistry department from 1975 to 1978. In 1971, he became a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1973, he and Jack Kiefer were the first two Cornell faculty elected as Horace White Professors. Fisher was elected Secretary of the Cornell University Senate. In 1983, he was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences, chemistry section. Since 1987 he has been at the Institute for Physical Science and Technology at the University of Maryland, College Park.
  
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  Mitchell Feigenbaum
  Mitchell Jay Feigenbaum (born December 19, 1944) is a mathematical physicist whose pioneering studies in chaos theory led to the discovery of the Feigenbaum constants.
  Feigenbaum was born in New York City, to Polish and Ukrainian Jewish immigrants. He attended Samuel J. Tilden High School, in Brooklyn, New York, and the City College of New York. In 1964 he began his graduate studies at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Enrolling for graduate study in electrical engineering, he changed his area to physics. He completed his doctorate in 1970 for a thesis on dispersion relations, under the supervision of Professor Francis E. Low.
  After short positions at Cornell University and the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, he was offered a longer-term post at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico to study turbulence in fluids. Although that group of researchers was ultimately unable to unravel the currently intractable theory of turbulent fluids, his research led him to study chaotic maps.
  
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• Oliver Penrose
  Oliver Penrose FRS, FRSE (born 1929) is a British theoretical physicist.
  He is the son of the scientist Lionel Penrose, brother of the mathematical physicist Roger Penrose, and brother of chess master Jonathan Penrose. He was associated for seventeen years with the Open University, and was a Professor of Mathematics at Heriot-Watt University in Edinburgh from 1986 until his retirement in 1994. He holds the title of Professor Emeritus at Heriot-Watt, and remains active in research there. His areas of interest include statistical mechanics,phase transitions in metals, and physical chemistry of surfactants. He is particularly known for the concept of off-diagonal long-range order, which is central to our present-day understanding of superfluids and superconductors. Other more abstract topics in which he has worked include understanding the physical basis for the direction of time and interpretations of quantum mechanics.
  
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  Paul Nurse
  Sir Paul Maxime Nurse, PRS (born 25 January 1949) is a British geneticist and cell biologist. He was awarded the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Leland H. Hartwell and R. Timothy Hunt for their discoveries of protein molecules that control the division (duplication) of cells in the cell cycle.
  When cells with nuclei divide, they divide in phases called G1 (growth), S (synthesis), G2 (growth), and M (mitosis). Nurse, Hartwell and Hunt together discovered two proteins, cyclin and CDK (cyclin dependent kinase), that control the transition from one stage to another. These proteins are called checkpoints, because they check whether the cell has divided properly. If the cell doesn't divide correctly, other proteins will attempt to repair it, and if unsuccessful, they will destroy the cell. If a cell divides incorrectly and survives, it can cause cancer and other serious diseases.
  Working in yeast, Nurse identified the gene cdc2, which controls the transition from G1 to S, when the cell grows in preparation for the duplication of DNA, and G2 to M, when the cell divides. Nurse also found the corresponding gene, CDK1, in humans. These genes stop and start cyclin dependent kinase (CDK) by adding or removing phosphate groups.
  
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  Peter Higgs
  Peter Ware Higgs, FRS, FRSE, FKC (born 29 May 1929), is a British theoretical physicist and an emeritus professor at the University of Edinburgh.
  He is best known for his 1960s proposal of broken symmetry in electroweak theory, explaining the origin of mass of elementary particles in general and of the W and Z bosons in particular. This so-called Higgs mechanism, which had several inventors besides Higgs at about the same time, predicts the existence of a new particle, the Higgs boson (often described as "the most sought-after particle in modern physics"). Although this particle has not turned up in accelerator experiments so far, the Higgs mechanism is generally accepted as an important ingredient in the Standard Model of particle physics, without which particles would have no mass.
  Prof. Higgs has been honoured with a number of awards in recognition of his work, including the 1997 Dirac Medal and Prize for outstanding contributions to theoretical physics from the Institute of Physics, the 1997 High Energy and Particle Physics Prize by the European Physical Society, the 2004 Wolf Prize in Physics, and the 2010 J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics.
  
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• Philippe Nozières
  Philippe Nozières (1932) is a French physicist working at Institut Laue-Langevin in Grenoble, France.
  Nozières studied at École Normale Supérieure in Paris and conducted research at Princeton University in Princeton, New Jersey. He has served as a professor at the University of Paris and at the University of Grenoble. His research is currently based at the Institut Laue-Langevin in Grenoble.
  Nozières’ work has been concerned with various facets of the many-body problem. He made major contributions to understand the fundamental theory of solids, especially to the behavior of electrons in metals. In a short period, he has contributed profoundly to the concept of quasiparticles and its relation to Fermi liquids, to the dynamics of local systems in metals, to irreversible phenomena in quantum physics. Through his book (N-body problem) and his research, he has established a French school in solid state physics during the last 20 years whose influence extends all over the world. His work currently focuses on crystal growth and surface physics.
  
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  Riccardo Giacconi
  Riccardo Giacconi (born October 6, 1931) is an Italian-born, naturalized American Nobel Prize-winning astrophysicist who laid the foundations of X-ray astronomy. He is currently a professor at the Johns Hopkins University.
  Born in Genoa, Italy he received a degree from the University of Milan before moving to the US to pursue a career in astrophysics research. He became an American citizen.^{[not in citation given]}
  Cosmic X-ray radiation is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, and so space-based telescopes are needed for X-ray astronomy. Giacconi worked on the instrumentation for X-ray astronomy, from rocket-borne detectors in the late 1950s and early 1960s, through to Uhuru, the first orbiting X-ray astronomy satellite, the Einstein Observatory, the first fully imaging X-ray telescope put into space, and the Chandra X-ray Observatory which was launched in 1999 and is still in operation. Giacconi also transferred his expertise to other fields of astronomy, including being the first director of the Space Telescope Science Institute, the science operations center for the Hubble Space Telescope.
  
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• Richard Jozsa
  Richard Jozsa is the holder of the Leigh Trapnell Chair in Quantum Physics at the University of Cambridge. His research area is quantum information science; a pioneer of this field, he is the co-author of the Deutsch-Jozsa quantum algorithm and one of the co-inventors of quantum teleportation. His work was recognised in 2004 by the London Mathematical Society with the award of the Naylor Prize for 'his fundamental contributions to the new field of quantum information science'.
  Jozsa received his DPhil in Mathematics (specifically, twistor theory) at Oxford, under the supervision of Roger Penrose. He has held previous positions at the University of Bristol, the University of Plymouth and the Université de Montréal.
  
  
  
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• Richard S. Ward
  Richard Samuel Ward FRS is a professor of mathematics at Durham University. He is most famous for his extension of Roger Penrose's twistor theory to nonlinear cases (Roger Penrose was Richard Ward's supervisor at university). He has related interests in the theory of monopoles, topological solitons and skyrmions.
  He was elected as a fellow of the Royal Society of London in 2005.
  Ward co-wrote Twistor geometry and field theory with Raymond O. Wells Jr
  
  
  
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• 
  Robert Brout
  Robert Brout (June 14, 1928 in New York City – May 3, 2011) was a Belgian theoretical physicist who has made significant contributions in elementary particle physics. He was a Professor of Physics at Université Libre de Bruxelles.
  In 1964, Robert Brout, in collaboration with François Englert, discovered how mass can be generated for gauge particles in the presence of a local abelian and non-abelian gauge symmetry. This was demonstrated by them, both classically and quantum mechanically, successfully avoiding theorems initiated by J. Goldstone while indicating that the theory would be renormalizable. Similar ideas have been developed in condensed matter physics.
  Peter Higgs and Gerald Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, and Tom Kibble independently came to the same conclusion as Brout and Englert. The three papers written on this boson discovery by Higgs, Brout and Englert, and Guralnik, Hagen, Kibble were each recognized as milestone papers by Physical Review Letters 50th anniversary celebration. While each of these famous papers took similar approaches, the contributions and differences between the 1964 PRL symmetry breaking papers is noteworthy. This work showed that the particles that carry the weak force acquire their mass through interactions with an all-pervasive field that is now known as the Higgs field, and that the interactions occur via particles that are widely known as Higgs bosons. As yet, these Higgs bosons have not been observed experimentally; however, most physicists believe that they exist.
  
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  Roger Penrose
  Sir Roger Penrose OM, FRS (born 8 August 1931) is an English mathematical physicist and Emeritus Rouse Ball Professor of Mathematics at the Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford and Emeritus Fellow of Wadham College. He has received a number of prizes and awards, including the 1988 Wolf Prize for physics which he shared with Stephen Hawking for their contribution to our understanding of the universe. He is renowned for his work in mathematical physics, in particular his contributions to general relativity and cosmology. He is also a recreational mathematician and philosopher.
  He was born in Colchester, Essex, England, Roger Penrose is a son of Lionel S. Penrose and Margaret Leathes. Penrose is the brother of mathematician Oliver Penrose and of chess Grandmaster Jonathan Penrose. Penrose attended University College School and University College, London, where he graduated with a first class degree in mathematics. In 1955, while still a student, Penrose reintroduced the E. H. Moore generalized matrix inverse, also known as the Moore–Penrose inverse, after it had been reinvented by Arne Bjerhammar (1951). Penrose earned his Ph.D. at Cambridge (St John's College) in 1958, writing a thesis on "tensor methods in algebraic geometry" under algebraist and geometer John A. Todd. He devised and popularised the Penrose triangle in the 1950s, describing it as "impossibility in its purest form" and exchanged material with the artist M. C. Escher, whose earlier depictions of impossible objects partly inspired it. Escher's Waterfall, and Ascending and Descending were in turn inspired by Penrose. As reviewer Manjit Kumar puts it:
  
  wn.com/Roger_Penrose
• Roland Penrose
  Sir Roland Algernon Penrose CBE (14 October 1900 – 23 April 1984) was an English artist, historian and poet. He was a major promoter and collector of modern art and an associate of the surrealists in the United Kingdom.
  He was the son of James Doyle Penrose (1862–1932), a successful portrait painter, and Elizabeth Josephine Peckover, the daughter of Baron Peckover, a wealthy Quaker banker. He was the third of four brothers: his older brother was the medical geneticist Lionel Penrose. Roland grew up in a strict Quaker family in Watford and attended Leighton Park School, Reading, Berkshire. After studying architecture at Queens' College, Cambridge, Penrose switched to painting and moved to France where he lived from 1922 and married his first wife the poet Valentine Boué. During this period he became friends with Picasso, Wolfgang Paalen and Max Ernst, who would have the strongest influence on his work and most of the leading Surrealists.
  Penrose returned to London in 1936 and was one of the organisers of the London International Surrealist Exhibition, which led to the establishment of the English surrealist movement. Penrose settled in Hampstead where he was the centre of the community of avant-garde British artist and emigres that had settled there and opened the London Gallery on Cork Street where he promoted the Surrealists as well as friends Henry Moore, Barbara Hepworth, Ben Nicholson and Naum Gabo. Penrose commissioned a sculpture from Moore for his Hampstead House that became the focus of a press campaign against abstract art. In 1938, Penrose organised a tour of Picasso's Guernica that raised funds for the Republican Government in Spain. Penrose and Boué's marriage had broken down in 1934, they divorced in 1937, and by 1939 Penrose had begun his relationship with model and photographer Lee Miller; they finally married in 1947. They lived at 21 Downshire Hill, Hampstead, London, which now bears a blue plaque.
  
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• 
  Sam Harris (author)
  Sam Harris (born 1967) is an American author, public intellectual, and neuroscientist, as well as the co-founder and CEO of Project Reason. He is the author of The End of Faith, which was published in 2004 and appeared on The New York Times best seller list for 33 weeks. The book also won the PEN/Martha Albrand Award in 2005 for nonfiction. In 2006 Harris published his book Letter to a Christian Nation, a response to criticism of The End of Faith. This work was followed by The Moral Landscape published in 2010, his long-form essay Lying in 2011 and the short book Free Will in 2012.
  Harris is a well-known contemporary critic of religion and proponent of scientific skepticism and the "New Atheism." He is also an advocate for the separation of church and state, freedom of religion, and the liberty to criticize religion. Harris has written numerous articles for the Huffington Post, Los Angeles Times, Washington Post, New York Times, Newsweek, and the journal Nature. His articles touch upon a diversity of topics, including religion, morality, neuroscience, free will, and terrorism.
  
  wn.com/Sam_Harris_(author)
• Solomon Feferman
  Solomon Feferman (born 13 December 1928) is an American philosopher and mathematician with major works in mathematical logic. He was born in New York City, New York, and received his Ph.D. in 1957 from the University of California, Berkeley under Alfred Tarski. He is a Stanford University professor.
  Feferman was awarded the Schock Prize in logic and philosophy in 2003 and delivered the Tarski Lectures in 2006.
  Feferman was the editor-in-chief of the Collected Works of Kurt Gödel.
  
  
  
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  Stephen Hawking
  Stephen William Hawking, CH, CBE, FRS, FRSA (born 8 January 1942) is a British theoretical physicist, cosmologist, and author. His key scientific works to date have included providing, with Roger Penrose, theorems regarding gravitational singularities in the framework of general relativity, and the theoretical prediction that black holes should emit radiation, which is today known as Hawking radiation (or sometimes as Bekenstein–Hawking radiation).
  He is an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts, a lifetime member of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, and in 2009 was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian award in the United States. Hawking was the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge between 1979 and 2009. Subsequently, he became research director at the university's Centre for Theoretical Cosmology.
  Hawking has a motor neurone disease related to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, a condition that has progressed over the years. He is now almost completely paralysed and communicates through a speech generating device. He has been married twice and has three children. Hawking has achieved success with works of popular science in which he discusses his own theories and cosmology in general; these include A Brief History of Time, which stayed on the British Sunday Times best-sellers list for a record-breaking 237 weeks.
  
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  Stuart Hameroff
  Stuart Hameroff (Born on July 16, 1947, Buffalo, New York) is an anesthesiologist and professor at the University of Arizona known for his scientific studies of consciousness.
  Hameroff received his BS degree from the University of Pittsburgh and his MD degree from Hahnemann University Hospital, where he studied before it became part of the Drexel University College of Medicine. He took an internship at the Tucson Medical Center in 1973. From 1975 onwards, he has spent the whole of his career at the University of Arizona, becoming professor in the Department of Anesthesiology and Psychology and associate director for the Center for Consciousness Studies, both in 1999, and finally Emeritus professor for Anesthesiology and Psychology in 2003.
  At the very beginning of Dr. Hameroff's career, while he was at Hahnemann, cancer-related research work piqued his interest in the part played by microtubules in cell division, and led him to speculate that they were controlled by some form of computing. It also suggested to him that part of the solution of the problem of consciousness might lie in understanding the operations of microtubules in brain cells, operations at the molecular and supramolecular level^[1].
  
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  Theodore Maiman
  Theodore Harold "Ted" Maiman (July 11, 1927 – May 5, 2007) was an American physicist who made the first laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation). Maiman received many awards and honors for his work, and was the author of a book titled The Laser Odyssey, which describes the events surrounding the creation of the first laser.
  Theodore H. (Harold) Maiman was born in Los Angeles, California, where in his teens, he earned money for college by repairing electrical appliances and radios. He attended the University of Colorado and received a B.S. in engineering physics in 1949 then went on to do graduate work at Stanford University, where he received an M.S. in electrical engineering in 1951 and a Ph.D. in physics in 1955. His doctoral thesis in experimental physics, taken under the direction of Willis Lamb, involved detailed microwave-optical measurements of fine structure splittings in excited helium atoms.
  Maiman's ruby laser, based on a synthetic ruby crystal grown by Dr. Ralph L. Hutcheson, was first operated on May 16, 1960 at Hughes Research Laboratories in Malibu, California.
  
  wn.com/Theodore_Maiman
• Tomas Lindahl
  Tomas Robert Lindahl FRS (born 28 January 1938) is a Swedish scientist specialising in cancer research.
  He is a member of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. He was awarded the Royal Society's Royal Medal in 2007 and the Copley Medal in 2010.
  He earned his PhD in 1967 and a Doctor of Medicine qualification in 1970 from the Karolinska Institutet in Stockholm, followed by postgraduate work at Princeton University and Rockefeller University.
  After moving to the United Kingdom he joined the Imperial Cancer Research Fund (now Cancer Research UK) as a researcher in 1981. He won the Royal Medal for "making fundamental contributions to our understanding of DNA repair. His achievements stand out for their great originality, breadth and lasting influence."
  
  wn.com/Tomas_Lindahl
• Tristan Needham
  Tristan Needham is a mathematician and author of the book Visual Complex Analysis in which he uses a geometric approach to develop complex analysis (which he says was inspired by Isaac Newton's original geometric approach to ordinary calculus).
  He is the son of social anthropologist Rodney Needham, and grew up in Oxford, England. Needham was a student of Roger Penrose at the Mathematical Institute and is currently a professor of mathematics at the University of San Francisco.
  
  
  
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  Vitaly Ginzburg
  Vitaly Lazarevich Ginzburg, ForMemRS (Russian: Вита́лий Ла́заревич Ги́нзбург; October 4, 1916 – November 8, 2009) was a Soviet theoretical physicist, astrophysicist, Nobel laureate, a member of the Soviet and Russian Academies of Sciences and one of the fathers of Soviet hydrogen bomb. He was the successor to Igor Tamm as head of the Department of Theoretical Physics of the Academy's physics institute (FIAN), and an outspoken atheist.
  He was born to a Jewish family in Moscow in 1916, the son of an engineer Lazar Efimovich Ginzburg and a doctor Augusta Felgenauer, and graduated from the Physics Faculty of Moscow State University in 1938. He defended his candidate's (Ph.D.) dissertation in 1940, and his doctor's dissertation in 1942. He worked at the P. N. Lebedev Physical Institute in Moscow from 1940. In 1944, he became a member of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Among his achievements are a partially phenomenological theory of superconductivity, the Ginzburg-Landau theory, developed with Lev Landau in 1950; the theory of electromagnetic wave propagation in plasmas (for example, in the ionosphere); and a theory of the origin of cosmic radiation. He is also known to biologists as being part of the group of scientists that helped bring down the reign of the politically connected anti-Mendelian agronomist Trofim Lysenko, thus allowing modern genetic science to return to the USSR.
  
  wn.com/Vitaly_Ginzburg
• William Hodge
  William Vallance Douglas Hodge FRS (17 June 1903 – 7 July 1975) was a Scottish mathematician, specifically a geometer.
  His discovery of far-reaching topological relations between algebraic geometry and differential geometry—an area now called Hodge theory and pertaining more generally to Kähler manifolds—has been a major influence on subsequent work in geometry.
  He was born in Edinburgh, attended George Watson's College, and studied at Edinburgh University, graduating in 1923. With help from E. T. Whittaker whose son J. M. Whittaker was a college friend, he then took the Cambridge Mathematical Tripos. At Cambridge he fell under the influence of the geometer H. F. Baker.
  In 1926 he took up a teaching position at the University of Bristol, and began work on the interface between the Italian school of algebraic geometry, particularly problems posed by Francesco Severi, and the topological methods of Solomon Lefschetz. This made his reputation, but led to some initial scepticism on the part of Lefschetz. According to Atiyah's memoir, Lefschetz and Hodge in 1931 had a meeting in Max Newman's rooms in Cambridge, to try to resolve issues. In the end Lefschetz was convinced.
  
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  Wolfgang Rindler
  Wolfgang Rindler (born 18 May 1924, Vienna) is a leading physicist working in the field of General Relativity where he is well known for introducing the term "event horizon", Rindler coordinates, and (in collaboration with Roger Penrose) for popularizing the use of spinors in general relativity. He is also a prolific textbook author.
  Rindler was the son of a lawyer. Because of his Jewish ancestry, he fled before the Nazis to England in the course of the so called Kindertransport in 1938. Rindler gained his B.Sc. and M.Sc. from Liverpool University and his Ph.D. from Imperial College London. In 1956 he was at the Cornell University and starting with 1963 at the new founded Southwest Center for Advanced Studies, later called University of Texas at Dallas, where he is still (2012) professor. He was visiting scholar at King's College London (1961/62), at the University La Sapienza in Rome (1968/69), at the University of Vienna (1975, 1987), at the Cambridge University (Churchill College, 1990).
  
  wn.com/Wolfgang_Rindler
• Yakir Aharonov
  Yakir Aharonov (Hebrew: יקיר אהרונוב‎; born 1932 in Haifa, Israel) is an Israeli physicist specializing in quantum physics. He is a Professor of Theoretical Physics and the James J. Farley Professor of Natural Philosophy at Chapman University in California. He is also a distinguished professor in Perimeter Institute. He also serves as a professor emeritus at Tel Aviv University in Israel. He is president of the IYAR, The Israeli Institute for Advanced Research.
  His research interests are nonlocal and topological effects in quantum mechanics, quantum field theories and interpretations of quantum mechanics. In 1959, he and David Bohm proposed the Aharonov–Bohm effect for which he co-received the 1998 Wolf Prize.
  In 1988 Aharonov et al. published their theory of weak measurement, which doesn't disturb the quantum state being observed. This work was motivated by Aharonov's long time quest to experimentally verify his theory that apparently random events in quantum mechanics are caused by events in the future (two-state vector formalism). Verifying a present effect of a future cause requires a measurement, which would ordinarily destroy coherence and ruin the experiment. He and his colleagues were able to make weak measurements and verify the present effect of the future cause.
  
  wn.com/Yakir_Aharonov
• 
  Yoichiro Nambu
  Yoichiro Nambu (南部 陽一郎, Nambu Yōichirō^?, born January 18, 1921) is a Japanese-born American physicist, currently a professor at the University of Chicago. Known for his contributions to the field of theoretical physics, he was awarded a one-half share of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2008 for the discovery of the mechanism of spontaneous broken symmetry in subatomic physics. The other half share was split equally between Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa "for the discovery of the origin of the broken symmetry which predicts the existence of at least three families of quarks in nature."
  Nambu was born in Tokyo, Japan, in 1921. After graduating from the then Fukui Secondary High School in Fukui City, he enrolled in the Tokyo Imperial University and studied physics. He received his B.S. in 1942 and D.Sc. in 1952. In 1949 he was appointed to associate professor at the Osaka City University and promoted to professorship the next year at the age of 29.
  In 1952, he was invited by the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, United States, to study. He moved to the University of Chicago in 1954 and was promoted to professor in 1958. From 1974 to 1977 he was also Chairman of the Department of Physics. He became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1970.
  
  wn.com/Yoichiro_Nambu

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Is there life after death?

The Examiner

05 Dec 2012

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Lots of people believe that there is, so it’s a plausible question, which actually does have a scientific answer ... Consciousness is an emergent property of the functionality of brains ... Brilliant people aren’t safe from harboring these ideas – the physicist Roger Penrose, when outside his day-job of rigorous study, lent his name to a group which seeks out ways to bring a ‘soul’ into believeable existence ... You have to pay attention! ... ....(size: 8.0Kb)

photo: US Navy / Mass Communication Specialist 2nd Class Daniel Barker

Scientists Discuss What Happens To The 'Soul' After Death (VIDEO)

Huffington Post

26 Nov 2012

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“You lose everything ... Stuart Hameroff, who proposed the highly controversial Orch-OR (orchestrated objective reduction) theory of consciousness in 1996 along with Roger Penrose, told the Science channel, “I think the quantum approach to consciousness can, in principle, explain why we’re here and what our purpose is, and also the possibility of life after death, reincarnation and persistence of consciousness after our bodies give up.”....(size: 12.9Kb)

The soul is quantum, scientists say

Independent online (SA)

22 Nov 2012

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London - A near-death experience happens when quantum substances which form the soul leave the nervous system and enter the universe at large, according to a remarkable theory proposed by two eminent scientists ... It is based on a quantum theory of consciousness he and British physicist Sir Roger Penrose have developed which holds that the essence of our soul is contained inside structures called microtubules within brain cells ... He adds....(size: 3.4Kb)

Saving Britain's universities: The brains go into battle

The Daily Telegraph

16 Nov 2012

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Some of the country’s most brilliant and brightest minds set course this week to save our universities from the dead hand of interfering politicians and bureaucrats. Hats off ... Getty Images. By Melvyn Bragg. 7.51PM GMT 16 Nov 2012. Comments ... Sir Paul Nurse, Nobel Prize winner and President of the Royal Society, Prof Sir Roger Penrose, Lord Rees of Ludlow, Prof Marcus du Sautoy, Prof Richard Dawkins, Lord May of Oxford and more ...  ....(size: 19.0Kb)

Near Death Experiences are Real say Scientists

The Examiner

05 Nov 2012

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Related topics. Life after deathnear death experience. Advertisement. I am often asked if I truly believe I had a near death experience (NDE) near Cambridge, Ontario in 1998. I can only reply that it was as real as the fact that I am currently sitting typing on my computer today here in Hamilton ... Dr ... British physicist Sir Roger Penrose shares this “quasi-religious theory” of consciousness ... However, the information they hold survives ... Source....(size: 7.9Kb)

After much soul searching it is now official ... we are eternal

Belfast Telegraph

02 Nov 2012

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I want to talk to you today about your soul. Come back here! Don't worry. I'm not going to jab at it with a stick. Nor am I going to suggest that you don't have one. I'll be deploying the term loosely and, I expect, inaccurately ... All that checking ... The situation is as follows ... Already, with British physicist Sir Roger Penrose, Prof Hameroff has posited that the soul is contained inside structures called microtubules within brain cells ... ....(size: 3.1Kb)

Scientists unveil quantum theory of soul's existence

Zeenews

01 Nov 2012

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London. A near-death experience occurs when quantum substances which form the soul leave the nervous system and enter the universe at large, according to a ground-breaking theory proposed by two eminent scientists ... It is based on a quantum theory of consciousness he and British physicist Sir Roger Penrose have developed which holds that the essence of our soul is contained inside structures called microtubules within brain cells ... PTI ... ....(size: 2.8Kb)

Scientists unveils quantum theory of soul's existence

Zeenews

01 Nov 2012

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London. A near-death experience occurs when quantum substances which form the soul leave the nervous system and enter the universe at large, according to a ground-breaking theory proposed by two eminent scientists ... It is based on a quantum theory of consciousness he and British physicist Sir Roger Penrose have developed which holds that the essence of our soul is contained inside structures called microtubules within brain cells ... PTI ... ....(size: 2.8Kb)

'Near-death experiences occur when soul leaves nervous system'

Zeenews

01 Nov 2012

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London. A near-death experience occurs when quantum substances which form the soul leave the nervous system and enter the universe at large, according to a ground-breaking theory proposed by two eminent scientists ... It is based on a quantum theory of consciousness he and British physicist Sir Roger Penrose have developed which holds that the essence of our soul is contained inside structures called microtubules within brain cells ... PTI ... ....(size: 2.8Kb)

Near-death feeling when soul leaves nervous system

The Siasat Daily

01 Nov 2012

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London, November 01. ... It is based on a quantum theory of consciousness he and British physicist Sir Roger Penrose have developed which holds that the essence of our soul is contained inside structures called microtubules within brain cells. They have argued that our experience of consciousness is the result of quantum gravity effects in these microtubules, a theory which they dubbed orchestrated objective reduction (Orch-OR)....(size: 3.4Kb)

Scientists offer quantum theory of soul's existence

The Australian

31 Oct 2012

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American Dr Stuart Hameroff and British physicist Sir Roger Penrose developed a quantum theory of consciousness asserting that our souls are contained inside structures called microtubules which live within our brain cells ... of the Centre of Consciousness Studies at the University of Arizona, and Sir Roger have been working on the theory since 1996....(size: 2.3Kb)

What happens to 'soul' after death

Newstrack India

30 Oct 2012

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Tweet. Washington, October 30 (ANI). University of Arizona researchers have provided scientific explanation to near-death experiences ... Stuart Hameroff of the University of Arizona shared hypothetical scenarios derived from the Orch-OR (orchestrated objective reduction) theory of consciousness that he and Roger Penrose, mathematician and physicist, proposed in 1996, according to the Huffington Post ... Dr ... According to Dr ... Still, Dr ... (ANI) ... ) .....(size: 3.1Kb)

Scientist Shows What Happens To 'Soul' After Death (VIDEO)

Huffington Post

29 Oct 2012

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In a video that recently aired on “Through the Wormhole” narrated by Morgan Freeman on the TV channel Science, Dr ... Dr. Hameroff goes on to share hypothetical scenarios derived from the Orch-OR (orchestrated objective reduction) theory of consciousness that he and Roger Penrose, mathematician and physicist, proposed in 1996 ... But what exactly is consciousness, where does it come from and can it be scientifically proven? Dr ... Still, Dr ... Like....(size: 13.0Kb)

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