Brest Брэст Брест
Flag Coat of arms
Brest Location in Belarus
Coordinates: 52°08′N 23°40′E / 52.133°N 23.667°E / 52.133; 23.667Coordinates: 52°08′N 23°40′E / 52.133°N 23.667°E / 52.133; 23.667
Country	Belarus
Voblast	Brest Voblast
Raion	Brest Raion
Founded	1019
Government
• Mayor	Alexander Palishenkow
Area
• Total	145 km2 (56 sq mi)
Elevation	280.4 m (919.9 ft)
Population (2010)
• Total	310,800
• Density	2,143/km2 (5,550/sq mi)
Time zone	EET (UTC+2)
• Summer (DST)	EEST (UTC+3)
Postal code	224000
Area code(s)	+375 (0)162
License plate	1
Website	www.brest.gov.by

Brest (Belarusian: Брэст Brest or traditionally Берасце, Bierascie; Russian: Брест Brest; see also alternative names), formerly also Brest-on-the-Bug ("Brześć nad Bugiem" in Polish) and Brest-Litovsk ("Brześć Litewski" in Polish, literally "Lithuanian Brest"), is a city (population 310,800 in 2010) in Belarus at the border with Poland opposite the city of Terespol, where the Bug River and Mukhavets rivers meet. It is the capital city of the Brest voblast.

Being situated on the main railway line connecting Berlin and Moscow, and an intercontinental highway (the European route E30), Brest became a principal border crossing since World War II in Soviet times. Today it links the European Union and the Commonwealth of Independent States. Because of the break-of-gauge at Brest, where the Russian broad gauge meets the European standard gauge, all passenger trains, coming from Poland, must have their bogies replaced here, to travel on across Belarus, and the freight must be transloaded from cars of one gauge to cars of another. Some of the land in the Brest rail yards remains contaminated as a result of the transshipment of radioactive materials here since Soviet days although cleanup operations have been taking place.

City name[link]

There are several theories of the city name origin. The most common are as follows,

• the name of the city comes from the Slavic root beresta meaning birch, bark,
• the name of the city comes from the Slavic root berest meaning elm,
• the name of the city comes from the Lithuanian word brasta meaning ford.^[1]

Once a center of Jewish scholarship, the city's name in Yiddish, is בריסק ("Brisk"), hence the term "Brisker" used to describe followers of the influential Soloveitchik family of rabbis.

The traditional Ukrainian name for the city is Берестя (transliterated Berestia).

Coat of arms[link]

The coat of arms features an arrow pointed upwards and a bow on a sky blue shield. It was adopted on January 26, 1991. Alternative coat of arms has a red shield, the first coat of arms of Brest was given by king Sigismund II Augustus in 1554.

Climate[link]

History[link]

In 1019 Brest was first mentioned in chronicles as Berestye

The city was founded by the Slavs. As a town, Brest – Berestye in Kievan Rus – was first mentioned in the Primary Chronicle in 1019 when the Kievan Rus took the stronghold from the Poles,and is one of the oldest cities in Belarus. It was hotly contested between the Polish rulers (kings, principal dukes and dukes of Masovia) and Kievan Rus princes,laid waste by the Mongols in 1241 (see: Mongol invasion of Europe), and was not rebuilt until 1275, later it became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, .

In 1390 Brest became the first city in the lands that now comprise Belarus to receive Magdeburg rights. Its suburbs were burned by the Teutonic Knights in 1379; and in 1500 the whole town met a similar fate at the hands of the Crimean Tatars. It was renamed Brześć Litewski(Brest-Litovsk) in the 16th century, after it became part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569 (see: Union of Lublin). In 1409 it was a meeting place of King Władysław II Jagiełło, duke Vitautas and Tatar khan under the archbishop Mikołaj Trąba initiative within the preparation of the war with the Teutonic Knights. In 1410 the town mustered a cavalry company (banner) that participated in the victorious for the Polish-Lithuanian union battle of Grunwald. In 1419 it become a seat of the starost in the newly created Trakai Voivodeship. In 1566, following king Sigismund II Augustus decree, a new voivodeship was created - Brest Litovsk Voivodeship.

During the period of the union of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Sweden under king Sigismund III Vasa (Polish–Swedish union), diets were held there; and in 1594 and 1596 it was the meeting-place of two remarkable councils of the Roman-Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church bishops of the region; the 1596 council establishing the Uniate Church (known also as the Belarusian Greek Catholic Church in Belarus and Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church in Ukraine). In 1657, and again in 1706, the town and castle were captured by the Swedes during their invasions of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth; on January 13, 1660 the invading Muscovite Russian army under Ivan Andreyevich Khovansky took the Brest castle in a surprise early morning attack, the town having been captured earlier, and massacred the 1700 defenders and their families (according to captain Rosestein, Austrian observer); on July 23, 1792 a battle was fought between the regiments of Duchy of Lithuanian (part of Polish Army) defending the town and the invading Russian Imperial Army; on September 19, 1794 the area between Brest and Terespol was the scene of a victorious battle won by the invading Russian Imperial army under Suvorov over the Kościuszko Uprising army division under general Karol Sierakowski known in Russian sources as (Battle of Brest). Brest was annexed by Russia when the Poland-Lithuania Commonwealth was partitioned for the third time in 1795 (see: Partitions of Poland). During Russian rule in the 19th century a large fortress was built in and around the city, while the Polish Royal Castle and most of the Old Town were demolished to make room for the fortress.

Brest railway station during World War I, circa 1915

Resurrection Church of Brest, the biggest in Belarus, commemorates the victims of World War II

The town was captured by the German army in 1915, during World War I. In March 1918, in the Brest-Litovsk fortress on the western outskirts of Brest at the confluence of the Bug River and Mukhavets Rivers, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed, ending the war between Soviet Russia and the Central Powers and transferring the city and its surrounding region to the sphere of influence of the German Empire. This treaty was subsequently annulled by the treaties which ended the war and even more so by the events and the developments in Germany and Eastern Europe.

In 1918 the city was declared part of the short-lived Belarusian Democratic Republic. The newly reconstituted Poland took control of Brest in 1919 as part of her heritage as a matter of right. The city changed hands twice during the Polish-Soviet War and eventually stayed inside Polish borders, a development that was formally recognized by the Treaty of Riga in 1921. In the fortress, heavily damaged during World War I, Polish Army troops with the headquarters of the 9th Military District were stationed, and the city itself became a capital of Polesie Voivodeship, in accordance of the pre-1795 tradition. In 1930 Wincenty Witos and some other prominent Polish statesmen were detained here before their notorious trial in Warsaw.

During the Invasion of Poland in 1939 the city was defended by a small garrison of four infantry battalions under General Konstanty Plisowski against the XIX Panzer Corps of General Heinz Guderian. After four days of heavy fighting the Polish forces withdrew southwards on September 17 (more in articles: Battle of Brześć Litewski). Soviet Union's invasion occurred on the same day and as a result the Soviet Red Army occupied the city the end of September 1939 in accordance with the Ribbentrop-Molotov pact's Secret Protocol, and a joint Nazi-Soviet military parade took place. While Belarusians consider it a reunification of the Belarusian nation under one constituency (BSSR at that time), Poles consider it the date when the city was lost. During the Soviet occupation 1939-41 the Polish population was subject to arrests, executions and mass deportations to Siberia and Soviet Republic of Kazakhstan.

The city had a significant Jewish population: 30,000 out of 45,000 total population according to Russian 1897 census, which fell to 21,000 out of 50,000 according to the Polish 1931 census.^[4][5]

On June 22, 1941 the fortress and the city were attacked by Nazi Germany at the beginning of the Soviet-Nazi war, Operation Barbarossa, but held out for six days. Abandoned by the Soviet army nearly all the defenders perished. Brest was transferred to the control of the Reichskommissariat Ukraine. Brest's Jewish community was decimated under Nazi rule in 1942.^[5] The city was taken by the Red Army on July 28, 1944.

Following to the agreements of the Yalta Conference of February 1945, Brest's status as part of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic was officially recognized in spite of Polish protests. The Poles of Brest, after 1000 years of history, were encouraged to emigrate and during the 1940s and 1950s the majority left for Communist Poland. Today, Poles are about 1% of the population.

Sights in Brest[link]

In 2009 a Millennium Monument was erected on Sovietskaya Street

A majestic Soviet-era war memorial was constructed on the site of the 1941 battle, to commemorate the known and unknown defenders of the Hero-Fortress. This war memorial is the largest tourist attraction of the city. The Berestye Archeological Museum of the old city is located on the southern island of the Hero-Fortress. It has objects and huts dating from the 11th – 13th century, that were unearthed during excavations in the 1970s. Brest is proud of its shopping mall, Sovietskaya Street. It was dramatically reconstructed in 2007–2009 to revive the initial view of the old town. In July 2009 the Millennium Monument of Brest was unveiled.

The Museum of Rescued Art Treasures has a nice collection of paintings and icons.

Brest also has the first Belarusian outdoor railway museum.

Earlier in Brest there was a synagogue, which was regarded as the first one in Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

It is also the seat of an Armenian and of a Greek Catholic bishop; the former has jurisdiction over the Armenians throughout the whole country.

A Holocaust memorial commemorates over 34,000 Jews of the Brest ghetto who were killed in 1941–1942. The Jewish Museum tells the interesting story of Brest Jewry.

Brest City Park is 100 years old, but looks quite new after recent reconstruction. Brest is home to two Universities: A.S.Pushkin State University and Brest State Technical University. The local airport (code BQT), is operating flights to the capital city Minsk and to Moscow and Novgorod in Russia on a weekly basis.

Brest lies astride the Mukhavets River, that is known to Bresters as "the river". The river flows west through the city, dividing it into north and south, and meets the Bug River in the Brest Fortress. The river flows slowly and gently. You can hop into a tire innertube and take a relaxing float down this river. Today the river looks quite broad in Brest. The terrain is fairly flat around Brest. The river has an extremely broad floodplain, that is about 2–3 km across. Brest was subject to flooding in the past. One of the worst floods in recorded history occurred in 1974.

A part of the floodplain was reclaimed from the river during the last 3 decades. In the 1980s big cutter-suction dredgers were mining sand and clay from the riverbed, to raise the banks. After the dredging the river became deeper and the riverbanks higher. Today the river does not overflow its banks.

In the 2000s Brest developed new residential areas and sports attractions on the reclaimed land along the river and increased its vitality. The big sports venues on the northern riverside are an indoor track-and-field center, the Ice Palace (Ice Arena) and Belarus' first outdoor baseball stadium. On the opposite riverside is a large rowing course opened in 2007, home of the National Center for Olympic Training in Rowing. It meets international requirements and can host international competitions. It has accommodation and training facilities, favorable location, 3 km away from the border crossing along Warsaw Highway (the European route E30).

Sights around Brest[link]

Belavezhskaya Pushcha National Park, 70 km north of Brest, is a biosphere reserve of world distinction and can be reached by car or bus. This medieval forest is home to rare European bison (wisent). There is a museum and a zoo, available for tourists in the forest, animals can be seen in enclosures all the year round. 2 hotels and some restaurants and bars are there. Excursions can also be taken by horse and cart into the interior of the forest. As a new tourist attraction, the forest features the residence of Grandfather Frost, known as Ded Moroz, the Eastern Slavic Santa Claus, that works all the year round.

Brest also hosts the first Belarusian outdoor railway museum. Brest City Park is old, but looks new after the recent reconstruction.

Kamyanets, Belarus, that lies on the way to the National park from Brest, features an outstanding landmark, the 13th-century tower of Kamyanets. The village of Kosova, where Tadeusz Kościuszko was born, is also in the Brest region and features a 19th-century palace and a nice Roman Catholic church. Brest can easily be reached from Warsaw (Poland) by taking the daily sleeper train to Brest Centralnaya (Brest Central) from the central train station in Warsaw, although visas must be sorted out for EU passport holders before travelling. There are a few hotels in Brest, including "Intourist" Hotel on Prospekt Masherava (Masherov Avenue).

International relations[link]

Twin towns — Sister cities[link]

Brest is twinned with:^[6]

Honours[link]

A minor planet 3232 Brest, discovered by the Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Ivanovna Chernykh in 1974, is named after the city.^[8]

People[link]

See also: Category:People from Brest, Belarus and Category:People from Brest Voblast

Menachem Begin

• Menachem Begin, former Prime Minister of Israel
• Anabela Belikova, fashion model
• Jarosław Dąbrowski, Polish revolutionary and general
• David Dubinsky, head of the International Ladies Garment Workers' Union
• Louis Gruenberg, composer
• Nikolay Karpol, Russian women's volleyball coach
• Jan Lebenstein, Polish painter (pl)
• Pyotr Masherov, secretary of Belarusian committee of the Communist Party of Soviet Union
• Yulia Nesterenko, women's Olympic 100 m champion
• Louis Pizitz, founder of Pizitz department store chain
• The Soloveitchik rabbinical family associated with the Brisk yeshivas, and descendant Rabbi Joseph Soloveitchik
• David B. Steinman, American structural engineer. He was the designer of the Mackinac Bridge even called "Big Mac".
• Ganna Walska, Polish opera singer
• Louis Pozez, co-founder of American retailer PayLess Shoes

See also[link]

A southern stretch of the ring barracks of the Citadel with a projecting semi-tower on the left

• Brest Fortress
• Brest Online travel guide on WikiTravel
• Brisk
• Names of European cities in different languages: B
• Vincas Mickevičius-Kapsukas

Notes[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Brest, Belarus

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Brest-Litovsk.

• Jurkau kutoczak — Юркаў куточак — Yury's Corner. Фартэцыя ў Берасьці 1836-1842 гг.
• BrestOnline.com (Russian)
• Entry in the Encyclopedia of Ukraine
• Jewish Brest-Litovsk (Brisk)- Your Virtual Shtetl (Town)
• Brest Rowing Course
• Streets of Brest
• Brest.the.by (Russian)
• YadYisRoel.com
• FJC.ru, Federation of Jewish Communities of the CIS
• Geschichtswerkstatt Europa Project on the representation of the Brest fortress
• News Brest News Brest
• Map of Brest (Russian)

Images[link]

• Historic images of Brest
• Photos on Radzima.org
• Webcam

v t e Subdivisions of Brest Region, Belarus Districts (raioni) Baranavichy Biaroza Brest Drahichyn Hantsavichy Ivanava Ivatsevichy Kamenets Kobryn Lyakhavichy Luninets Malaryta Pinsk Pruzhany Stolin Zhabinka Cities Belaazyorsk Brest Baranovichi Biaroza Davyd-Haradok Drahichyn Kamyanyets Kobryn Ivatsevichy Kosava Luninets Ivanava Hantsavichy Lyahavichy Malaryta Mikashevichy Pinsk Pruzhany Stolin Vysokaye Zhabinka

v t e Administrative seats of Voblasts of Belarus Brest Gomel Grodno Minsk Mogilev Vitebsk

Republic of Belarus Рэспубліка Беларусь Республика Беларусь
Flag National emblem
Anthem: Дзяржаўны гімн Рэспублікі Беларусь  (Belarusian) Dziaržaŭny himn Respubliki Biełaruś  (transliteration) State Anthem of the Republic of Belarus
Location of  Belarus  (green) in Europe  (dark grey)  —  [Legend]
Capital (and largest city)		Minsk 53°55′N 27°33′E / 53.917°N 27.55°E / 53.917; 27.55
Official language(s)		Belarusian Russian[1]
Ethnic groups (2009)		83.7% Belarusians, 8.3% Russians, 3.1% Poles, 1.7% Ukrainians, 4.2% others and unspecified[2]
Demonym		Belarusian
Government		Presidential republic
-	President	Alexander Lukashenko
-	Prime Minister	Mikhail Myasnikovich
Legislature		National Assembly
-	Upper house	Council of the Republic
-	Lower house	House of Representatives
Independence		from the Soviet Union
-	Declared	27 July 1990
-	Established	25 August 1991
-	Completed	25 December 1991
Area
-	Total	207,595 km2 (85th) 80,155 sq mi
-	Water (%)	negligible (2.830 km2)1
Population
-	2009 census	9,503,807[2] (86th)
-	Density	45.8/km2 (142nd) 120.8/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$141.771 billion[3]
-	Per capita	$15,028[3]
GDP (nominal)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$55.483 billion[3]
-	Per capita	$5,881[3]
Gini (2009)		27.9[4] (low)
HDI (2011)		0.756[5] (high) (65th)
Currency		Belarusian ruble (BYR)
Time zone		FET[6] (UTC+3)
Drives on the		right
ISO 3166 code		BY
Internet TLD		.by
Calling code		375
1	"FAO's Information System on Water and Agriculture". FAO. http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/belarus/index.stm. Retrieved 4 April 2008.

Belarus (ⁱ/bɛləˈruːs/ bel-ə-ROOSS; Belarusian: Беларусь, Russian pronunciation: [bʲɛlaˈrusʲ] Russian: Беларусь, Белоруссия, Belarus', Belorussiya), officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe,^[7] bordered clockwise by Russia to the northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Its capital is Minsk; other major cities include Brest, Grodno (Hrodna), Gomel (Homiel), Mogilev (Mahilyow) and Vitebsk (Vitsebsk). Over forty percent of its 207,600 square kilometres (80,200 sq mi) is forested,^[8] and its strongest economic sectors are agriculture and manufacturing.

Until the 20th century, the lands of modern-day Belarus belonged to several countries, including the Principality of Polotsk, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Russian Empire. In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution, Belarus became a founding constituent republic of the Soviet Union and was renamed as the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR). The borders of Belarus took their modern shape in 1939 when some lands of the Second Polish Republic were incorporated into it after the Soviet invasion of Poland.^{[9][10][11][12][13][14]} The nation and its territory were devastated in World War II, during which Belarus lost about a third of its population and more than half of its economic resources.^[15] The republic was redeveloped in the post-war years. In 1945 the Belorussian SSR became a founding member of the United Nations, along with the Soviet Union and the Ukrainian SSR.

The parliament of the republic declared the sovereignty of Belarus on 27 July 1990, and during the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Belarus declared independence on 25 August 1991.^[16] Alexander Lukashenko has been the country's president since 1994. Despite objections from Western governments, Lukashenko has continued Soviet-era policies, such as state ownership of the economy. According to some organizations and countries, elections have been unfair, and political opponents have been violently suppressed.^[17][18][19] In 2000, Belarus and Russia signed a treaty for greater cooperation, with some hints of forming a Union State.

Over 70% of Belarus's population of 9.49 million reside in the urban areas.^[20] More than 80% of the population are ethnic Belarusians, with sizable minorities of Russians, Poles and Ukrainians. Since a referendum in 1995, the country has had two official languages: Belarusian and Russian. The Constitution of Belarus does not declare an official religion, although the primary religion in the country is Russian Orthodox Christianity. The second most popular, Roman Catholicism, has a much smaller following, but both Orthodox and Catholic Christmas and Easter are celebrated as national holidays. Belarus also has the highest Human Development Index among members of the Commonwealth of Independent States.

Etymology[link]

The name "Belarus" corresponds literally with the term "White Rus'" (White Ruthenia). There are several claims to where the origin of the name "White Rus' " came from.^[21] An ethno-religious theory suggests that the name used to describe the part of old Ruthenian lands within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania that had mostly been populated by early Christianized Slavs, as opposed to Black Ruthenia, which was predominantly inhabited by pagan Balts.^[22] An alternate explanation for the name comments on the white clothing worn by the local Slavic population.^[21][23] A third theory suggests that the old Ruthenian lands that were not conquered by the Tatars (i.e., Polatsk, Vitsiebsk and Mahilyow) had been referred to as "white". Other sources claim that before 1267, the land not conquered by the Mongols was considered "White Rus' ".^[21] In 2008, historian Ales Bely defended his PhD thesis, Localization of the Choronym of White Rus' in the European Written and Map Sources of the 13th to mid-18th Centuries,^[24] which demonstrated that White Rus' originally referred to the area of the Novgorod Republic conquered by the Grand Duchy of Moscow in 1478; in terms of present-day geography, this translates to Eastern Belarus and areas acquired via the westward expansion of Muscovy during the Livonian War in the 17th century.

The names "Ruthenia" and "Rus' " are often conflated with Russia, their modern derivative, and thus White Ruthenia is often referred to as "White Russia". This misinterpretation has been supported by the Moscovite regents after the fall of Kievan Rus'. The Moskovite dukes, starting with Ivan IV, considered themselves to be the rightful successors of the Ruthenian grand ducal dynasty, and their use of the name "Russia" as referring to all former Ruthenian (i.e., east Slavic) lands became a political weapon and a casus belli for claiming the west Ruthenian territories from Lithuania and Poland.^[25] The name first appeared in German and Latin medieval literature; the chronicles of Jan of Czarnków mentions the imprisonment of Lithuanian grand duke Jogaila and his mother at "Albae Russiae, Poloczk dicto" in 1381.^[26] The Latin term "Alba Russia" was used again by Pope Pius VI to establish a Jesuit society in 1783. His official Papal bull exclaimed "Approbo Societatem Jesu in Alba Russia degentem, approbo, approbo."^[27] Historically, this territory was referred to in English as "White Ruthenia". The first known use of "White Russia" to refer to Belarus was in the late-16th century by Englishman Sir Jerome Horsey, who was known for his close contacts with the Russian Royal Court.^[28] During the 17th century, Russian tsars used "White Rus"" to describe the lands captured from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.^[29]

Belarus was formally named "Belorussia" (Russian: Белоруссия; the latter part similar, but spelled and stressed differently from Россия, "Russia") in the days of the Russian Empire, and the Russian tsar was usually styled "Tsar of All the Russias", as "Russia" or the "Russian Empire" was formed by all the Russias – the Great, Little, and White. After the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, the term White Russia caused some confusion as it was also the name of the military force that opposed the red Bolsheviks.^[30] During the period of the Belorussian SSR, the term "Byelorussia" was embraced as part of a national consciousness. In western Belarus under Polish control, "Byelorussia" became commonly used in the regions of Białystok and Grodno during the interwar period.^[31]

The term "Belorussia" (its names in other languages such as English being based on the Russian form) was only used officially until 1991, when the Supreme Soviet of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic decreed by law that the new independent republic should be called "Belarus" (Беларусь) in Russian in order to reflect the correct Belarusian language forms. The use of Byelorussian SSR and any abbreviations thereof were allowed from 1991 to 1993.^[32] Conservative forces in the newly independent Belarus did not support the name change and opposed its inclusion in the 1991 draft of the Constitution of Belarus.^[33]

Accordingly, the name "Belorussia" was replaced by "Belarus" in English^[34] and to some extent in Russian (although the traditional name still persists in that language as well); likewise, the adjective "Belorussian" or "Byelorussian" was replaced by "Belarusian" in English (though Russian has not developed a new adjective). "Belarusian" is closer to the original Russian term of "bielaruski".^[34] Belarusian intelligentsia in the Stalin era attempted to change the name from "Belorussia" to a form of "Krivia" because of the supposed connection with Russia.^[35] Some nationalists also object to the name for the same reason.^[36][37] However, several popular newspapers published locally still retain the old name of the country in Russian in their names, for example Komsomolskaya Pravda v Byelorussii, which is the localized publication of a popular Russian newspaper. Also, those who wish for Belarus to be reunited with Russia continue to use "Belorussia".^[37] Officially, the full name of the country is "Republic of Belarus" (Рэспубліка Беларусь, Республика Беларусь, Respublika Belarus"  listen (help·info)).^[32][38]

History[link]

Prior to First World War[link]

Both Homo erectus and Neanderthal remains have been found in the region. From 5,000 to 2,000 BCE, Bandkeramik cultures predominated. In addition, remains for the Dnieper-Donets culture were found in Belarus and parts of Ukraine.^[39] Cimmerians and other pastoralists roamed through the area by 1,000 BCE, and by 500 BCE, Slavs had taken up residence in the area, which was circumscribed by the Scythians who roamed its outskirts. Various Asiatic barbarian by the Huns and Avars swept through c. 400–600 CE, but were unable to dislodge the Slavic presence.^[40]

Stamp with the Cross of St. Euphrasyne from 1992

The region that is now Belarus was first settled by Slavic tribes in the 6th century. They gradually came into contact with the Varangians, bands of Scandinavian warriors and traders.^[41] Though defeated and briefly exiled by the local population, the Varangians were later asked to return^[41] and helped to form a polity—commonly referred to as the Kievan Rus'—in exchange for tribute. The state of Kievan Rus' originated in 862 in the vicinity of either Kiev^[42] or the present-day city of Novgorod.^[42]

Upon the death of Kievan Rus' ruler Yaroslav I the Wise, the state split into independent principalities.^[43] These Ruthenian principalities were badly affected by a Mongol invasion in the 13th century, and many were later incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.^[44] Of the principalities held by the Duchy, nine were settled by ancestors of the Belarusian people.^[45] During this time the Duchy was involved in several military campaigns, including fighting on the side of Poland against the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410; the joint victory allowed the Duchy to control the northwestern borderlands of Eastern Europe.^[46]

Position of Grand Duchy of Lithuania in Eastern Europe until 1434.

Map of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Belarus was within its borders.

On 2 February 1386, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland were joined in a personal union through a marriage of their rulers.^[47] This union set in motion the developments that eventually resulted in the formation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, created in 1569. The Russians, led by Ivan III of Moscow, began military conquests in 1486 in an attempt to reunite the lands of Kievan Rus', specifically the territories of Belarus and Ukraine.^[48]

The union between Poland and Lithuania ended in 1795 with the partitioning of Poland by Imperial Russia, Prussia, and Austria.^[49] During this time the territories of Belarus were acquired by the Russian Empire under the reign of Catherine II^[50] and held until their occupation by German Empire during World War I.^[51]

Since initial independence[link]

During the negotiations of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Belarus first declared independence under German occupation on 25 March 1918, forming the Belarusian People's Republic.^[52][53] Immediately afterwards, the Polish–Soviet War ignited, and Belarus found itself torn between resurgent Poland and Soviet Russia. A part of Belarus under Russian rule emerged as the Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1919. Soon thereafter it merged to form the Lithuanian–Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. The contested lands were divided between Poland and the Soviet Union after the war ended in 1921, and the Belorussian SSR became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922.^[52][54] The western part of modern Belarus remained part of Poland.^[55][56][56]

In the 1920s, agricultural reforms that culminated in the Belarusian phase of Soviet collectivization was set in motion. In the 1930s, the implementation of the Soviet five-year plans for the national economy led to rapid industrialization.

The Brest Fortress to the War Memorial

Soviet partisan fighters behind German front lines in Belarus in 1943

In 1939, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union invaded and occupied Poland, marking the beginning of World War II. Much of northeastern Poland, which had been part of the country since the Peace of Riga two decades earlier, was annexed to the Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, and now constitutes West Belarus.^{[9][10][11][12][13][14]} The Soviet-controlled Belarusian People Council officially took control of the territories, whose populations were predominantly ethnic Belarusians, on 28 October 1939 in Białystok.^[14]

Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. The Brest Fortress, which had been annexed in 1939, was subjected to one of the most destructive onslaughts and its notable defense in 1941 was memorialized as an act of heroism in countering German aggression. Statistically, BSSR was the hardest-hit Soviet republic in World War II and remained in Nazi hands until 1944. During that time, Germany destroyed 209 out of 290 cities in the republic, 85% of the republic's industry, and more than one million buildings.^[15] Casualties were estimated to be between two and three million (about a quarter to one-third of the total population), while the Jewish population of Belarus was devastated during the Holocaust and never recovered.^[15][57] The population of Belarus did not regain its pre-war level until 1971.^[57]

After the war, Belarus was among the 51 founding countries of the United Nations Charter and as such it was allowed an additional vote at the UN, on top of the Soviet Union's vote. Vigorous postwar reconstruction promptly followed the end of the war and Belorussian SSR became a major center of manufacturing in western USSR, creating jobs and attracting ethnic Russians.^[58] The borders of Belorussian SSR and Poland were redrawn and became known as the Curzon Line.^[59]

Map of the Belorussian SSR, 1940

Joseph Stalin implemented a policy of Sovietization to isolate the Belorussian SSR from Western influences.^[57] This policy involved sending Russians from various parts of the Soviet Union and placing them in key positions in the Belorussian SSR government. The official use of the Belarusian language and other cultural aspects were limited by Moscow. After Stalin's death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev continued his predecessor's cultural hegemony program, stating, "The sooner we all start speaking Russian, the faster we shall build communism."^[57]

In 1986, the Belorussian SSR was significantly exposed to nuclear fallout from the explosion at the Chernobyl power plant in neighboring Ukrainian SSR.^[60]

In June 1988, archaeologist and leader of the Christian Conservative Party of the BPF Zyanon Paznyak discovered mass graves of victims executed in 1937–41 at Kurapaty, near Minsk.^[60] Some nationalists contend that this discovery is proof that the Soviet government was trying to erase the Belarusian people, causing Belarusian nationalists to seek independence.^[61]

In March 1990, elections for seats in the Supreme Soviet of the Belorussian SSR took place. Though the pro-independence Belarusian Popular Front took only 10% of the seats, the populace was content with the selection of the delegates.^[62] Belarus declared itself sovereign on 27 July 1990 by issuing the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic. With the support of the Communist Party, the country's name was changed to the Republic of Belarus on 25 August 1991.^[62] Stanislav Shushkevich, the chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Belarus, met with Boris Yeltsin of Russia and Leonid Kravchuk of Ukraine on 8 December 1991 in Belavezhskaya Pushcha to formally declare the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States.^[62]

A national constitution was adopted in March 1994 in which the functions of prime minister were given to the president of Belarus. Two-round elections for the presidency on (24 June 1994 and 10 July 1994)^[63] catapulted the formerly unknown Alexander Lukashenko into national prominence. He garnered 45% of the vote in the first round and 80%^[62] in the second, defeating Vyacheslav Kebich who received 14% of the vote. Lukashenko was re-elected in 2001, in 2006 and again in 2010.

Geography[link]

Strusta Lake in the Vitebsk Province

Belarus lies between latitudes 51° and 57° N, and longitudes 23° and 33° E. It is landlocked, relatively flat, and contains large tracts of marshy land.^[64] According to a 2005 estimate by the United Nations, 40% of Belarus is covered by forests.^[65] Many streams and 11,000 lakes are found in Belarus.^[64] Three major rivers run through the country: the Neman, the Pripyat, and the Dnieper. The Neman flows westward towards the Baltic sea and the Pripyat flows eastward to the Dnieper; the Dnieper flows southward towards the Black Sea.^[66]

The highest point is Dzyarzhynskaya Hara (Dzyarzhynsk Hill) at 345 metres (1,132 ft), and the lowest point is on the Neman River at 90 metres (295 ft).^[64] The average elevation of Belarus is 525 feet (160 m) above sea level.^[67] The climate features cold winters, with average January temperatures at −6 °C (21.2 °F), and cool and moist summers with an average temperature of 18 °C (64.4 °F).^[68] Belarus has an average annual rainfall of 550 to 700 mm (21.7 to 27.6 in).^[68] The country is in the transitional zone between continental climates and maritime climates.^[64]

Horses grazing in Minsk Province

Natural resources include peat deposits, small quantities of oil and natural gas, granite, dolomite (limestone), marl, chalk, sand, gravel, and clay.^[64] About 70% of the radiation from neighboring Ukraine's 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster entered Belarusian territory, and as of 2005 about a fifth of Belarusian land (principally farmland and forests in the southeastern provinces) continues to be affected by radiation fallout.^[69] The United Nations and other agencies have aimed to reduce the level of radiation in affected areas, especially through the use of caesium binders and rapeseed cultivation, which are meant to decrease soil levels of caesium-137.^[70][71]

Belarus borders five countries—Latvia to the north, Lithuania to the northwest, Poland to the west, Russia to the north and the east, and Ukraine to the south. Treaties in 1995 and 1996 demarcated Belarus's borders with Latvia and Lithuania, but Belarus failed to ratify a 1997 treaty establishing the Belarus-Ukraine border.^[72] Belarus and Lithuania ratified final border demarcation documents in February 2007.^[73]

Politics[link]

Victory Square, Minsk

Belarus is a presidential republic, governed by a president and the National Assembly. The term for the president is five years. Under the 1994 constitution, the president could only serve for two terms as president, but a change in the constitution in 2004 eliminated term limits.^[74] Since 1994, Alexander Lukashenko has been the president of Belarus. In 1996, Lukashenko called for a controversial vote to extend the presidential term from five to seven years, and as a result the election that was supposed to occur in 1999 was pushed back to 2001. The referendum on the extension was denounced as a "fantastic" fake by the chief electoral officer, Viktar Hanchar, who was removed from office during the campaign.^[75] The National Assembly is a bicameral parliament comprising the 110-member House of Representatives (the lower house) and the 64-member Council of the Republic (the upper house).

The House of Representatives has the power to appoint the prime minister, make constitutional amendments, call for a vote of confidence on the prime minister, and make suggestions on foreign and domestic policy. The Council of the Republic has the power to select various government officials, conduct an impeachment trial of the president, and accept or reject the bills passed by the House of Representatives. Each chamber has the ability to veto any law passed by local officials if it is contrary to the constitution.^[76]

The government includes a Council of Ministers, headed by the prime minister and five deputy prime ministers.^[77] The members of this council need not be members of the legislature and are appointed by the president. The judiciary comprises the Supreme Court and specialized courts such as the Constitutional Court, which deals with specific issues related to constitutional and business law. The judges of national courts are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Council of the Republic. For criminal cases, the highest court of appeal is the Supreme Court. The Belarusian Constitution forbids the use of special extrajudicial courts.^[76]

House of Government in Minsk, with a statue of Vladimir Lenin in the foreground

As of 2007, 98 of the 110 members of the House of Representatives are not affiliated with any political party, and of the remaining 12 members, 8 belong to the Communist Party of Belarus, 3 to the Agrarian Party of Belarus, and 1 to the Liberal Democratic Party of Belarus. Most non-partisans represent a wide scope of social organizations such as workers' collectives, public associations, and civil society organizations, similar to the composition of the Soviet legislature.^[78]

Neither the pro-Lukashenko parties, such as the Belarusian Socialist Sporting Party and the Republican Party of Labour and Justice, nor the People's Coalition 5 Plus opposition parties, such as the Belarusian People's Front and the United Civil Party of Belarus, won any seats in the 2004 elections. Groups such as the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) declared the election "un-free" because of the opposition parties' poor results and media bias in favor of the government.^[79]

In the 2006 presidential election, Lukashenko was opposed by Alaksandar Milinkievič, who represented a coalition of opposition parties, and by Alaksandar Kazulin of the Social Democrats. Kazulin was detained and beaten by police during protests surrounding the All Belarusian People's Assembly. Lukashenko won the election with 80% of the vote; the Russian Federation and the CIS deemed the vote open and fair^[80] while the OSCE and other organizations called the election unfair.^[81]

After the December completion of the 2010 presidential election, Lukashenko was elected to a fourth straight term with nearly 80% of the vote in elections. The runner-up opposition leader Andrei Sannikov received less than 3% of the vote; independent observers criticized the election as fraudulent. When opposition protesters took to the streets in Minsk, many people, including most rival presidential candidates, were beaten and arrested by the state militia.^[82] Many of the candidates, including Sannikov, were sentenced to prison or house arrest for terms typically over four years.^[83][84] Six months later amidst an unprecedented economic crisis, activists utilized social networking to initiate a fresh round of protests characterized by wordless hand-clapping.^[85]

Human rights[link]

A symbol of Belarusian opposition, this flag served as the national flag from 1991 to 1995.

Lukashenko has described himself as having an "authoritarian ruling style".^[86] Western countries have described Belarus under Lukashenko as a dictatorship; the government has accused the same Western powers of trying to oust Lukashenko.^[87] The Council of Europe has barred Belarus from membership since 1997 for undemocratic voting and election irregularities in the November 1996 constitutional referendum and parliament by-elections.^[88] The Belarusian government is also criticized for human rights violations and its unjust persecution of non-governmental organisations, independent journalists, national minorities, and opposition politicians.^[89][90] In a testimony to the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, former United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice labeled Belarus as one of the world's six "outposts of tyranny".^[91] In response, the Belarusian government called the assessment "quite far from reality".^[92]

Foreign relations[link]

Alexander Lukashenko (left) shaking hands with Dmitry Medvedev (President of Russia) in 2008

Belarus and Russia have been close trading partners and diplomatic allies since the breakup of the Soviet Union. Belarus is dependent on Russia for imports of raw materials and for its export market.^[93] The union of Russia and Belarus, a supranational confederation, was established in a 1996–99 series of treaties that called for monetary union, equal rights, single citizenship, and a common foreign and defense policy.^[93] However, the future of the union has been placed in doubt because of Belarus's repeated delays of monetary union, the lack of a referendum date for the draft constitution, and a dispute over the petroleum trade.^[93]

On 11 December 2007, reports emerged that a framework for the new state was discussed between both countries.^[94] On 27 May 2008, Belarusian President Lukashenko said that he had named Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin the "prime minister" of the Russia-Belarus alliance. The significance of this act was not immediately clear; some incorrectly speculated that Putin would become president of a unified state of Russia and Belarus after stepping down as Russian president in May 2008.^[95]

Belarus was a founding member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS); however, recently other CIS members have questioned the effectiveness of the organization.^[96] Belarus has trade agreements with several European Union member states (despite other member states' travel ban on Lukashenko and top officials),^[97] including neighboring Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland.^[98] Incidentally, the travel bans imposed by the European Union have been lifted in the past in order to allow Lukashenko to attend diplomatic meetings and also to engage his government and opposition groups in dialogue.^[99]

Bilateral relations with the United States are strained because the U.S. Department of State supports various anti-Lukashenko non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and also because the Belarusian government has made it increasingly difficult for U.S.-based organizations to operate within the country.^[100] Diplomatic tension remained tense, and in 2004, the United States passed the Belarus Democracy Act, which authorized funding for pro-democracy Belarusian NGOs, and proscribed loans to the Belarusian government, except for humanitarian purposes.^[101] Despite this political friction, the two countries do cooperate on intellectual property protection, prevention of human trafficking, technology crime, and disaster relief.^[102]

Sino-Belarusian relations have improved,^[103] strengthened by the visit of President Lukashenko to China in October 2005.^[104] Belarus also has strong ties with Syria,^[105] considered a key partner in the Middle East.^[106] In addition to the CIS, Belarus is a member of the Eurasian Economic Community, the Collective Security Treaty Organisation,^[98] the international Non-Aligned Movement since 1998,^[107] the Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE), and the UN since its founding in 1945. As an OSCE member state, Belarus's international commitments are subject to monitoring under the mandate of the U.S. Helsinki Commission.^[108]

Military[link]

The Armed Forces of Belarus have three branches: the Army, the Air Force, and the Ministry of Defense joint staff. Lieutenant General Yuri Zhadobin heads the Ministry of Defense,^[109] and Alexander Lukashenko (as president) serves as Commander-in-Chief.^[110] The Armed Forces were formed in 1992 using parts of the former Soviet Armed Forces on the new republic's territory. The transformation of the ex-Soviet forces into the Armed Forces of Belarus, which was completed in 1997, reduced the number of its soldiers by 30,000 and restructured its leadership and military formations.^[111]

Most of Belarus's service members are conscripts, who serve for 12 months if they have higher education or 18 months if they do not.^[112] However, demographic decreases in the Belarusians of conscription age have increased the importance of contract soldiers, who numbered 12,000 as of 2001.^[113] In 2005, about 1.4% of Belarus's gross domestic product was devoted to military expenditures.^[114] Belarus has not expressed a desire to join NATO but has participated in the Individual Partnership Program since 1997,^[115] and Belarus provides refueling and airspace support for the ISAF mission in Afghanistan.^[116] Belarus first began to cooperate with NATO upon signing documents to participate in their Partnership for Peace Program in 1995.^[117] However, Belarus cannot join NATO because it is a member of the Collective Security Treaty Organisation. Tensions between NATO and Belarus reached a peak after the March 2006 presidential election in Belarus.^[118]

Administrative divisions[link]

Belarus is divided into six regions (Belarusian: вобласць, Russian: область), which are named after the cities that serve as their administrative centers.^[119] Each region has a provincial legislative authority, called a region council (Belarusian: абласны Савет Дэпутатаў, Russian: областной Совет Депутатов), which is elected by its residents, and a provincial executive authority called a region administration (Belarusian: абласны выканаўчы камітэт, Russian: областной исполнительный комитет), whose chairman is appointed by the president.^[120] Regions are further subdivided into raions, commonly translated as districts or regions (Belarusian: раён, Russian: район).^[119]

Provinces of Belarus

Each raion has its own legislative authority, or raion council, (Belarusian: раённы Савет Дэпутатаў, Russian: районный Совет Депутатов) elected by its residents, and an executive authority or raion administration appointed by higher executive powers. As of 2002, there are six regions, 118 raions, 102 towns, and 108 urbanized settlements.^[121] The city of Minsk is split into nine districts and enjoys special status as the nation's capital.^[122] It is run by an executive committee and has been granted a charter of self-rule.^[123]

Regions (with administrative centers):

1. Brest Region (Brest)
2. Gomel Region (Gomel)
3. Grodno Region (Grodno)
4. Mogilev Region (Mogilev)
5. Minsk Region (Minsk)
6. Vitebsk Region (Vitebsk)

Special administrative district:

1. Minsk City

Economy[link]

Belarusian GDP growth since 1995 and estimate for 2008

Belarusian economy by sector

Graphical depiction of Belarus's product exports in 28 color coded categories.

Most of the Belarusian economy remains state-controlled^[93] and has been described as "Soviet-style."^[124] Thus, 51.2% of Belarusians are employed by state-controlled companies, 47.4% are employed by private companies (of which 5.7% are partially foreign-owned), and 1.4% are employed by foreign companies.^[125] The country relies on Russia for various imports, including petroleum.^[126][127] Important agricultural products include potatoes and cattle byproducts, including meat.^[128] As of 1994, Belarus's main exports included heavy machinery (especially tractors), agricultural products, and energy products.^[129]

Historically, textiles and wood processing have constituted a large part of industrial activity.^[130] As of the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, Belarus was one of the world's most industrially developed states by percentage of GDP as well as the richest CIS member-state.^[131] Economically, Belarus involved itself in the CIS, Eurasian Economic Community, and Union with Russia.

In the 1990s, however, industrial production plunged due to decreases in imports, investment, and demand for Belarusian products from its trading partners.^[132] The GDP only began to rise in 1996;^[133] this coincided with the implementation of social welfare and state subsidies.^[133] In 2006, the GDP amounted to US$83.1 billion in purchasing power parity (PPP) dollars (estimate), or about $8,100 per capita.^[128] In 2005, the GDP increased by 9.9%; the inflation rate averaged 9.5%.^[128]

As of 2006, Belarus's largest trading partner is Russia, accounting for nearly half of total trade, and the European Union is Belarus's next largest trading partner, with nearly a third of foreign trade.^[134][135] Because of its failure to protect labour rights, however, Belarus lost its EU Generalized System of Preferences status on 21 June 2007, which raised tariff rates to their prior most favoured nation levels.^[135] Belarus applied to become a member of the World Trade Organization in 1993.^[136]

Obverse of the 500 Belarusian ruble (BYB/BYR), the national currency

The labor force consists of more than four million people, among whom women hold slightly more jobs than men.^[137] In 2005, nearly a quarter of the population was employed by industrial factories.^[137] Employment is also high in agriculture, manufacturing sales, trading goods, and education. The unemployment rate, according to government statistics, was 1.5% in 2005.^[137] There were 679,000 unemployed Belarusians, two-thirds of whom were women.^[137] The unemployment rate has been in decline since 2003, and the overall rate of employment is the highest since statistics were first compiled in 1995.^[137]

The currency of Belarus is the Belarusian ruble (BYR). The currency was introduced in May 1992, replacing the Soviet ruble. The ruble was reintroduced with new values in 2000 and has been in use ever since.^[138] As part of the Union of Russia and Belarus, both states have discussed using a single currency along the same lines as the Euro. This led to a proposal that the Belarusian Ruble be discontinued in favour of the Russian ruble (RUB), starting as early as 1 January 2008. As of August 2007, the National Bank of Belarus no longer pegged the Belarusian Ruble to the Russian Ruble.^[139] The banking system of Belarus consists of thirty state-owned banks and one privatised bank.^[140] On 23 May 2011, the Belarusian Ruble depreciated 56% against the U.S. dollar. The depreciation was even steeper on the black market and financial collapse seemed imminent as citizens rushed to exchange their rubles for dollars, euros, durable goods, and canned goods.^[141] On 1 June 2011, Belarus requested an economic rescue package from the International Monetary Fund.^[142][143]

Demographics[link]

The Resurrection Church of Brest is the largest church in Belarus. Over 5000 people can attend services

According to 2009 census, the population is 9,503,807.^[2] Ethnic Belarusians constitute 83.7% of Belarus' total population.^[2] The next largest ethnic groups are: Russians (8.3%), Poles (3.1%), and Ukrainians (1.7%).^[2] Belarus' two official languages are Russian and Belarusian;^[144] Russian is the main language, used by 72% of the population, while Belarusian, the second official language, is only used by 11.9%.^[145] Minorities also speak Polish, Ukrainian and Eastern Yiddish.^[146]

Belarus has a population density of about 50 people per square kilometer (127 per sq mi); 70% of its total population is concentrated in urban areas. Minsk, the nation's capital and largest city, is home to 1,836,808 residents as of 2009.^[2] Gomel, with 481,000 people, is the second-largest city and serves as the capital of the Homiel Voblast. Other large cities are Mogilev (365,100), Vitebsk (342,400), Hrodna (314,800) and Brest (298,300).^[147]

Like many other European countries, Belarus has a negative population growth rate and a negative natural growth rate. In 2007, Belarus's population declined by 0.41% and its fertility rate was 1.22,^[148] well below the replacement rate. Its net migration rate is +0.38 per 1,000, indicating that Belarus experiences slightly more immigration than emigration. As of 2007, 69.7% of Belarus's population is aged 14 to 64; 16% is under 14, and 14.6% is 65 or older. Its population is also aging: while the current median age is 37, it is estimated that Belarusians' median age group will be between 55 and 65 in 2050.^[149] There are about 0.88 males per female in Belarus.^[148] The average life expectancy is 68.7 years (63.0 years for males and 74.9 years for females).^[148] Over 99% of Belarusians are literate.^[148][150]

Religion[link]

Saint Sophia Cathedral in Polotsk

Orthodoxy makes up about 80% of the population. Catholicism is spread mostly in the western regions, and there are also different denominations of Protestantism (especially during the time of union with Protestant Sweden).^[151] Other minorities practice Judaism and other religions. Many Belarusians converted to the Russian Orthodox Church after Belarus was annexed by Russia after the partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. As a consequence, the Russian Orthodox church now has more members than other denominations.

Belarus's Roman Catholic minority, which constitute about 15% of the country's population^[99] and is concentrated in the western part of the country, especially around Hrodna, is made up of a mixture of Belarusians and the country's Polish and Lithuanian minorities.^[152] In a statement to the media regarding Belarusian-Vatican ties, President Lukashenko stated that Orthodox and Catholic believers are the "two main confessors in our country".^[153] About one percent belong to the Belarusian Greek Catholic Church.^[152]

Before the Holocaust, Belarus was a major center of the European Jewish population, with 10% being Jewish, but the population of Jews has been reduced by war, starvation, deportation, and emigration so that today it is a very small minority of less than one percent.^[154] The Lipka Tatars numbering over 15,000 are Muslims. According to Article 16 of the Constitution, Belarus has no official religion. While the freedom of worship is granted in the same article, religious organizations deemed harmful to the government or social order can be prohibited.^[155]

Culture[link]

Francysk Skaryna, developer of the Belarusian language, and one of the first people to print in the Cyrillic alphabet

Literature[link]

Belarusian literature began with 11th- to 13th-century religious scripture, such as the 12th-century poetry of Cyril of Turaw.^[156] By the 16th century, Polotsk resident Francysk Skaryna translated the Bible into Belarusian. It was published in Prague and Vilnius sometime between 1517 and 1525, making it the first book printed in Belarus or anywhere in Eastern Europe.^[157] The modern era of Belarusian literature began in the late 19th century; one prominent writer was Yanka Kupala. Many Belarusian writers of the time, such as Uładzimir Žyłka, Kazimir Svayak, Yakub Kolas, Źmitrok Biadula, and Maksim Haretski, wrote for Nasha Niva, a Belarusian-language paper published in Vilnius.

After Belarus was incorporated into the Soviet Union, the Soviet government took control of the Republic's cultural affairs. At first, a policy of "Belarusianization" was followed in the newly formed B.S.S.R. (Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic). This policy was reversed in the 1930s, and the majority of prominent Belarusian intellectuals and nationalist advocates were either exiled or killed in Stalinist purges.^[158] The free development of literature occurred only in Polish-held territory until Soviet occupation in 1939.^[157] Several poets and authors went into exile after the Nazi occupation of Belarus and would not return until the 1960s.^[157] The last major revival of Belarusian literature occurred in the 1960s with novels published by Vasil Bykaŭ and Uladzimir Karatkievich.

Writer Vintsent Dunin-Martsinkyevich.

Music[link]

Stanisław Moniuszko

In the 19th century, Polish composer Stanisław Moniuszko composed operas and chamber music pieces while living in Minsk. During his stay, he worked with Belarusian poet Vintsent Dunin-Martsinkyevich and created the opera Sielanka (Peasant Woman). At the end of the 19th century, major Belarusian cities formed their own opera and ballet companies. The ballet Nightingale by M. Kroshner was composed during the Soviet era and became the first Belarusian ballet showcased at the National Academic Bolshoi Ballet Theatre in Minsk.^[159]

After the Second World War, music focused on the hardships of the Belarusian people or on those who took up arms in defense of the homeland. During this period, A. Bogatyryov, creator of the opera In Polesye Virgin Forest, served as the "tutor" of Belarusian composers.^[160] The National Academic Theatre of Ballet, in Minsk, was awarded the Benois de la Dance Prize in 1996 as the top ballet company in the world.^[160] Rock music has become increasingly popular in recent years, though the Belarusian government has attempted to limit the amount of foreign music aired on the radio in favor of traditional Belarusian music. Since 2004, Belarus has been sending artists to the Eurovision Song Contest.^[161]

Performances[link]

The regional theater in Gomel

The Belarusian government sponsors annual cultural festivals such as the Slavianski Bazaar in Vitebsk, which showcases Belarusian performers, artists, writers, musicians, and actors. Several state holidays, such as Independence Day and Victory Day, draw big crowds and often include displays such as fireworks and military parades, especially in Vitebsk and Minsk.^[162] The government's Ministry of Culture finances events promoting Belarusian arts and culture both inside and outside the country.

Dress[link]

The traditional Belarusian dress originates from the Kievan Rus' period. Due to the cool climate, clothes were designed to preserve body heat and were usually made from flax or wool. They were decorated with ornate patterns influenced by the neighboring cultures: Poles, Lithuanians, Latvians, Russians, and other European nations. Each region of Belarus has developed specific design patterns.^[163] One ornamental pattern common in early dresses currently decorates the hoist of the Belarusian national flag, adopted in a disputed referendum in 1995.^[164]

Cuisine[link]