- published: 19 Jul 2007
- views: 240586
- author: Stag
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- Abel Lefranc
- Abolitionism
- Albert Einstein
- Alchemy
- Alden Brooks
- Alderman
- Alice Barnham
- Amias Paulet
- AMORC
- Anne Bacon
- Anne Whateley
- Anthony Cooke
- Anti-realism
- Aristotle
- Attorney general
- Attorney-General
- Auguste Comte
- Authority control
- Averroes
- B. M. Ward
- Bacon's cipher
- Baconian method
- Baconian theory
- Baron Verulam
- Basil Montagu
- Bencher
- Berlin Circle
- Bernard Palissy
- Bernardino Telesio
- Bertram Fields
- Blois
- Brief Lives
- Burke's Peerage
- C. D. Broad
- Calvin Hoffman
- Carl Gustav Hempel
- Cashiering
- Causality
- Cestui que
- Charlton Ogburn
- Christopher Marlowe
- Cicero
- Code Napoleon
- Coherentism
- Complete Peerage
- Confirmation holism
- Contextualism
- Conventionalism
- Criticism of science
- Daniel Dennett
- Daphne du Maurier
- Debrett's
- Debtors' prison
- Delia Bacon
- Demarcation problem
- Democritus
- Determinism
- Edward Coke
- Edward Dyer
- Elizabeth Hatton
- Emilia Lanier
- Empedocles
- Empiricism
- Encyclopédistes
- English Renaissance
- English Restoration
- Epicureanism
- Epistemology
- Explanatory power
- Fact
- Fallibilism
- Falsifiability
- Fama Fraternitatis
- Foundationalism
- Frances Yates
- Francis Bacon
- Francis Bacon School
- Francis Walsingham
- Freemasonry
- Galileo Galilei
- Ganymede (mythology)
- George Greenwood
- Gray's Inn
- Harvey Wheeler
- Henri Poincaré
- Henry Albert Seymour
- Henry III of France
- Herbert Spencer
- Highgate
- History of Athens
- History of science
- Hugh of Saint Victor
- Immanuel Kant
- Imre Lakatos
- Inductive reasoning
- Infinitism
- Ingenuity
- Inquiry
- Instrumentalism
- Is Shakespeare Dead?
- Isaac Newton
- Italianate
- J. Thomas Looney
- James I of England
- Johannes Kelpius
- John Aubrey
- John Dewey
- John Guy (governor)
- John Locke
- John Orloff
- John Stuart Mill
- John Whitgift
- John William Cousin
- Joseph C. Hart
- Jurisprudence
- Jürgen Habermas
- Karl Pearson
- Karl Popper
- Karl Theodor Jaspers
- Knight Bachelor
- Larry Laudan
- Lord Chancellor
- Lord High Chancellor
- Marlovian theory
- Mary Sidney
- Mary, Queen of Scots
- Master of the Rolls
- Matthew Parris
- Medicine
- Metaphysics
- Methodology
- Michel de Montaigne
- Middlesex
- Miles Sandys
- Mount Vesuvius
- Napoleonic Code
- Nature (philosophy)
- New Atlantis
- New Scientist
- Niccolò Machiavelli
- Novum Organum
- Observation
- ODNB
- Orville Ward Owen
- Otto Neurath
- Outer barrister
- Paradigm
- Parmenides
- Paul Feyerabend
- Paul H. Kocher
- Paul Häberlin
- Pederast
- Peerage
- Peerage of England
- Perez Zagorin
- Philosophy of mind
- Pierre Duhem
- Pierre Gassendi
- Plato
- Pliny the Elder
- Pneumonia
- Poitiers
- Positivism
- Pragmatism
- Presocratics
- Prince Tudor theory
- Problem of induction
- Project Gutenberg
- Pseudoscience
- Puritan
- Queen Elizabeth I
- Queen's Counsel
- R.B. Braithwaite
- Rationalism
- Reductionism
- Renaissance humanism
- René Descartes
- Reversion (law)
- Rhetoric of science
- Robert Kilwardby
- Robert Lucas, Jr.
- Roger Bacon
- Roger Stritmatter
- Roland Emmerich
- Rosicrucianism
- Royal Society
- Rudolf Carnap
- Scientific law
- Scientific method
- Scientific realism
- Scientific theory
- Scientism
- Simonds D'Ewes
- Sir Matthew Hale
- Sir Robert Peel
- Skepticism
- St Albans
- Star Chamber
- Stephen Toulmin
- Stoicism
- Strand, London
- Stratford-upon-Avon
- T. Fisher Unwin
- Testability
- The Carolinas
- Theory choice
- Thomas Birch
- Thomas Browne
- Thomas Hobbes
- Thomas Jefferson
- Thomas Samuel Kuhn
- Tours
- Tower of London
- Twickenham
- United Kingdom
- Vanoccio Biringuccio
- Verulamium
- Vienna Circle
- Virginia
- Viscount St Alban
- Vitalism
- W.V.O. Quine
- Walter Travers
- Wikipedia Persondata
- Wikisource
- Wilhelm Windelband
- Wilhelm Wundt
- William Aubrey
- William Nugent
- William of Ockham
- William Shakespeare
- William Whewell
- Wissahickon Creek
- York House, Strand
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Gray's Inn
The Honourable Society of Gray's Inn, commonly known as Gray's Inn, is one of the four Inns of Court (professional associations for barristers and judges) in London. To be called to the Bar and practise as a barrister in England and Wales, an individual must belong to one of these Inns. Located at the intersection of High Holborn and Gray's Inn Road in Central London, the Inn is both a professional body and a provider of office accommodation (chambers) for many barristers. It is ruled by a governing council called "Pension", made up of the Masters of the Bench (or "Benchers"), and led by the Treasurer, who is elected to serve a one-year term. The Inn is known for its gardens, or Walks, which have existed since at least 1597.
Gray's Inn does not claim a specific foundation date; there is a tradition that none of the Inns of Court claims to be any older than the others. Law clerks and their apprentices have been established on the present site since at least 1370, with records dating from 1391. During the 15th and 16th centuries, the Inn grew steadily, reaching its pinnacle during the reign of Elizabeth I. The Inn was home to many important barristers and politicians, most notably Francis Bacon, and counted Elizabeth herself as a patron. Thanks to the efforts of prominent members such as William Cecil and Gilbert Gerard, Gray's Inn became the largest of the four by number, with over 200 barristers recorded as members. During this period, the Inn became noted for the masques and revels that it threw, and William Shakespeare is believed to have performed there at least once.
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Highgate
Coordinates: 51°34′18″N 0°08′41″W / 51.5716°N 0.1448°W / 51.5716; -0.1448
Highgate (
/ˈhaɪɡeɪt/ or /ˈhaɪɡɨt/) is an area of North London on the north-eastern corner of Hampstead Heath.
Highgate is one of the most expensive London suburbs in which to live. It has an active conservation body, the Highgate Society, to protect its character.
Until late Victorian times it was a distinct village outside London, sitting astride the main road to the north. The area retains many green expanses including the eastern part of Hampstead Heath, three ancient woods,Waterlow Park and the eastern-facing slopes known as Highgate bowl.
At its centre is Highgate village, a collection of largely Georgian shops, pubs, restaurants and residential streets, interspersed with diverse landmarks such as St Michael's Church and steeple, Highgate School (1565), Jacksons Lane arts centre housed in a Grade II listed former church, the Gatehouse inn dating from 1670 and Berthold Lubetkin's 1930s Highpoint buildings. Highgate is also famous for its atmospheric Victorian cemetery in which the communist philosopher Karl Marx is buried.
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Middlesex
Middlesex ( /ˈmɪdəlsɛks/; abbreviated Middx) is one of the 39 historic counties of England and the second smallest by area. The low-lying county contained the wealthy and politically independent City of London on its southern boundary and was dominated by it from a very early time. The county was significantly affected by the expansion of the metropolitan area of London in both the 18th and 19th centuries, such that from 1855 the south-east was administered as part of the metropolis. When county councils were initially introduced in England in 1889 about 20% of the area of Middlesex, along with a third of its population, was transferred to the County of London, and the remainder formed a smaller county, in the north-west, under the control of Middlesex County Council.
In the interwar years urban London had further expanded, with increasing suburbanisation, improvement and expansion of public transport, and the setting up of new industries outside the inner London area. After the Second World War, the population of the County of London and inner Middlesex was in steady decline, with new population growth only experienced in the outer suburbs. After a Royal Commission on Local Government in Greater London, almost all of the original area was incorporated into an enlarged Greater London in 1965, with small parts transferred to neighbouring Hertfordshire and Surrey. Despite the disappearance of the county council, Middlesex is still used as an area name and was retained as a postal county; which is now an optional component of postal addresses.
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St Albans
Coordinates: 51°45′18″N 0°20′10″W / 51.755°N 0.336°W / 51.755; -0.336
St Albans /sɨnt ˈɔːlbənz/ is a city in southern Hertfordshire, England, around 22 miles (35 km) north of central London, which forms the main urban area of the City and District of St Albans.
It is a historic market town, and is now a sought-after dormitory town within the London commuter belt. Property prices are notoriously high within the district, which is one of the most expensive in the UK.
St Albans has two official demonyms: Verulamian and Old Albanian. St Albans was a settlement of pre-Roman origin named Verlamion (or Verulam) by the Ancient British, Catuvellauni tribe. It became the first major town on the old Roman road of Watling Street for travellers heading north and became the Roman city of Verulamium.
Saint Alban, the first British Christian martyr, was beheaded in AD 308 by Maximian on the orders of Emperor Diocletian, who denounced the Christian faith and had ordered the deaths of all subjects and allies of the Roman Empire who refused to give up the faith. Saint Alban consequently gave the town its modern name.
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Strand, London
Coordinates: 51°30′41″N 0°07′08″W / 51.5114°N 0.1190°W / 51.5114; -0.1190
Strand is a street in the City of Westminster, London, England. The street is just over three-quarters of a mile long. It currently starts at Trafalgar Square and runs east to join Fleet Street at Temple Bar, which marks the boundary of the City of London at this point, though its historical length has been longer than this.
At the east end of the street are two old churches, St Mary-le-Strand and St Clement Danes which are now, owing to road-widening, situated on islands in the middle of the road. The length of road from St Mary's church eastwards up to St Clement's was widened in 1900 and subsumes the former Holywell Street which forked from the Strand and ran parallel with it to the north. The Strand marks the southern boundary of Covent Garden.
Two tube stations were once named Strand: the former Piccadilly line Strand tube station, now called Aldwych but no longer in use, and the former "Strand tube station" on the Northern Line now part of Charing Cross tube station. "Strand Bridge" was also the name given to Waterloo Bridge during construction, it was renamed for its official opening on the second anniversary of the victory.
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Stratford-upon-Avon
Coordinates: 52°11′24″N 1°42′36″W / 52.19°N 1.710°W / 52.19; -1.710
Stratford-upon-Avon ( /ˌstrætfəd əpɒn ˈeɪvən/) is a market town and civil parish in south Warwickshire, England. It lies on the River Avon, 22 miles (35 km) south east of Birmingham and 8 miles (13 km) south west of Warwick. It is the largest and most populous town of the District of Stratford-on-Avon, which uses the term "on" to indicate that it covers a much larger area than the town itself. Four electoral wards make up the urban town of Stratford; Alveston, Avenue and New Town, Mount Pleasant and Guild and Hathaway. The estimated total population for those wards in 2007 was 25,505.
The town is a popular tourist destination owing to its status as birthplace of the playwright and poet William Shakespeare, receiving about three million visitors a year from all over the world. The Royal Shakespeare Company resides in Stratford's Royal Shakespeare Theatre, one of Britain's most important cultural venues.
Stratford has Anglo-Saxon origins, and grew up as a market town in medieval times. The original charters of the town were granted in 1196, making Stratford officially over 800 years old. The name is a fusion of the Old English strǣt, meaning "street", and ford, meaning that a Roman road forded the River Avon at the site of the town.
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Tower of London
Coordinates: 51°30′29″N 0°4′34″W / 51.50806°N 0.07611°W / 51.50806; -0.07611
Her Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress, more commonly known as the Tower of London, is a historic castle on the north bank of the River Thames in central London, England. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets, separated from the eastern edge of the City of London by the open space known as Tower Hill. It was founded towards the end of 1066 as part of the Norman Conquest of England. The White Tower, which gives the entire castle its name, was built by William the Conqueror in 1078, and was a resented symbol of oppression, inflicted upon London by the new ruling elite. The castle was used as a prison since at least 1100, although that was not its primary purpose. A grand palace early in its history, it served as a royal residence. As a whole, the Tower is a complex of several buildings set within two concentric rings of defensive walls and a moat. There were several phases of expansion, mainly under Kings Richard the Lionheart, Henry III, and Edward I in the 12th and 13th centuries. The general layout established by the late 13th century remains despite later activity on the site.
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Twickenham
Coordinates: 51°26′55″N 0°20′13″W / 51.4486°N 0.3369°W / 51.4486; -0.3369
Twickenham is a large suburban town 10 miles (16 km) southwest of central London. It is the administrative headquarters of the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames and one of the locally important district centres identified in the London Plan. As part of the suburban growth of London in the twentieth century, the town expanded and increased in population, becoming established as the Municipal Borough of Twickenham in 1926; it has formed part of Greater London since 1965.
Excavations have revealed settlements in the area dating from the Early Neolithic, possibly Mesolithic periods. Occupation seems to have continued through the Bronze Age, the Iron Age and the Roman occupation. The area was first mentioned (as 'Tuican hom' and 'Tuiccanham') in a charter of 13 June 704 AD to cede the area to Waldhere, Bishop of London, 'for the salvation of our souls'. The charter is signed with 12 crosses. The signatories included Swaefred of Essex, Cenred of Mercia and Earl Paeogthath.
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United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a sovereign state located off the north-western coast of continental Europe. The country includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea.
The United Kingdom is a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system, with its seat of government in the capital city of London. It is a country in its own right and consists of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There are three devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in Belfast, Edinburgh and Cardiff, the capitals of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Associated with the UK, but not constitutionally part of it, are three Crown Dependencies. The United Kingdom has fourteen overseas territories. These are remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in 1922, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's land surface and was the largest empire in history. British influence can still be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former territories.
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Verulamium
Coordinates: 51°45′00″N 0°21′14″W / 51.7500°N 0.3539°W / 51.7500; -0.3539
Verulamium was an ancient town in Roman Britain. It was sited in the southwest of the modern city of St Albans in Hertfordshire, Great Britain. A large portion of the Roman city remains unexcavated, being now park and agricultural land, though much has been built upon (see below). The ancient Watling Street passed through the city.
Before the Romans, the settlement was known as Verulamion (perhaps meaning "[settlement of] Uerulamos [Broad-Hand]" in Brittonic), the capital of the Catuvellauni tribe. It was established by their leader Tasciovanus and in this pre-Roman form, was among the first places in Britain recorded by name.
The Roman settlement was granted the rank of municipium in c. AD 50, meaning its citizens had what were known as 'Latin Rights', a lesser citizenship status than the colonias possessed. It grew to a significant town, and as such received the attentions of Boudica of the Iceni in AD 61, when Verulamium was sacked and burnt: a black ash layer has been recorded by archaeologists, thus confirming the Roman written record. It grew steadily: by the early 3rd century it covered an area of about 125 acres (0.51 km2), behind a deep ditch and wall. It is the location of the martyrdom of the first English martyr saint, St Alban, who was a Roman patrician converted by the priest Amphibalus. This story is recorded by the monks of the abbey of the town, notably Brother Matthew Paris in his Anglo-Norman Vie de Seint Auban.
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Virginia
Virginia (
i/vərˈdʒɪnjə/), officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a U.S. state located in the South Atlantic region of the United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" after the eight U.S. presidents born there. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, which provide habitat for much of its flora and fauna. The capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond; Virginia Beach is the most populous city and Fairfax County the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealth's population is over eight million.
The area's history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony. Slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colony's early politics and plantation economy. Virginia was one of the 13 Colonies in the American Revolution and joined the Confederacy in the American Civil War, during which Richmond was made the Confederate capital and Virginia's northwestern counties separated to form the state of West Virginia. Although the Commonwealth was under conservative single-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, both major national parties are competitive in modern Virginia.
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York House, Strand
Coordinates: 51°30′29″N 0°07′24″W / 51.50806°N 0.12333°W / 51.50806; -0.12333
York House in the Strand in London was one of a string of mansions which once stood along the route from the City of London to the royal court at Westminster. It was built as the London home of the Bishops of Norwich not later than 1237, and around 300 years later it was acquired by King Henry VIII. It came to be known as York House when it was granted to the Archbishop of York in 1556 and retained that name for the rest of its existence. Its neighbors were Suffolk House (later Northumberland House), on the west and Durham House, London residence of the Bishop of Durham, to the east. For about seventy years from 1558 it was leased to various Lord Keepers of the Great Seal of England. In the 1620s it was acquired by the royal favourite George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and after an interlude during the English Civil War it was returned to George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, who sold it to developers for £30,000 in 1672. He made it a condition of the sale that his name and full title should be commemorated by George Street, Villiers Street, Duke Street, Of Alley, and Buckingham Street. Some of these streets are still extant, though Of Alley has been renamed York Place, Duke Street is now John Adam Street and George Street is now York Buildings. Villiers Street runs along the eastern side of Charing Cross railway station.
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A. L. Rowse
Alfred Leslie Rowse, CH, FBA (4 December 1903 – 3 October 1997), known professionally as A. L. Rowse and to friends and family as Leslie, was a British historian from Cornwall. He is perhaps best known for his work on Elizabethan England and his poetry about Cornwall. He was also a Shakespearean scholar and biographer. He developed a widespread reputation for irascibility and intellectual arrogance.
Rowse was born in Tregonissey near St Austell, Cornwall, the son of Richard Rowse, a china clayworker, and Annie (née Vanson). His parents were poor and semi-illiterate but despite his origins, he won a place at St. Austell Grammar School (now Poltair School - who have named part of their curriculum the Rowse Pathway) and then a scholarship to Christ Church, Oxford in 1921. He was encouraged in his pursuit of an academic career by fellow Cornish man of letters, Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch, who lived at Polperro and who recognised his ability from an early age. Rowse had doubts about his paternity and paid particular attention to his mother's association with a local farmer and butcher from Polgooth, near St. Austell, Frederick William May (1872–1953).
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Abel Lefranc
Maurice Jules Abel Lefranc (27 July 1863 - 27 November 1952), was a historian of French literature, expert on Rabelais, and the principal advocate of the Derbyite theory of Shakespeare authorship.
Lefranc was born in Élincourt-Sainte-Marguerite. After studying at the École Nationale des Chartes, where he wrote a thesis on the history and organization of the town of Noyon until the end of the 13th century (1886). He left to study in Leipzig and Berlin (1887), where he prepared a report on the teaching of history in Germany, which he believed to be the most advanced in the world.
While working with the National Archives, he continued his historical research, turning specifically to the 16th century. In 1893, at the age of 30, he published Histoire du Collège de France depuis les origines jusqu’à la fin du Premier Empire, a history of the Collège de France from its origin to the fall of Napoleon. His intention was to rehabilitate the later period of the Collège's existence, which had been neglected. He became secretary of the Collège de France under three of its directors: Gaston Boissier, Gaston Paris and Emile Levasseur, combining his job with those of archivist and librarian of the institution. He also continued with his own research on the history of literature.
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Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein ( /ˈælbərt ˈaɪnstaɪn/; German: [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪnʃtaɪn] (
listen); 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German theoretical physicist who developed the theory of general relativity, effecting a revolution in physics. For this achievement, Einstein is often regarded as the father of modern physics. While best known for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2 (which has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation"), he received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". The latter was pivotal in establishing quantum theory within physics.
Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led to the development of his special theory of relativity. He realized, however, that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields, and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on the general theory of relativity. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole.
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Alice Barnham
Alice Barnham, Viscountess St Albans (1592–1650) was the wife of English scientific philosopher and statesman Francis Bacon.
She was born 14 May 1592, to Benedict Barnham and his wife Dorothea, née Smith. Benedict Barnham (1559–1598) was a London merchant, who held the positions of Alderman, Sheriff of London (1591–1592), and Member of the English Parliament for Yarmouth. His father had been Sheriff before him. Her mother, Dorothea, or Dorothy (d. 1639), was the daughter of Humphrey Ambrose Smith, an important Cheapside mercer and the official purveyor of silks and velvets to Queen Elizabeth. Alice was the second of a family of daughters, her sisters being Elizabeth, Dorothy, and Bridget; a fifth, Benedicta, died at the age of 16 days. Her father died 4 April 1598, when Alice was not even six, but Alice was apparently a favourite, as his will said:
I give to my daughter, Alice Barneham, my lease of certain lands at Moulsham and Chelmsford in the County of Essex. And if it happen that the same Alice doe die and unmarried then I give the same lease to Elizabeth my eldest daughter, etc.
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Amias Paulet
Sir Amias Paulet (1532 – 26 September 1588) was an English diplomat, Governor of Jersey, and the gaoler for a period of Mary, Queen of Scots.
He was the son of Sir Hugh Paulet and Philippa Pollard. His name is sometimes spelt 'Amyas'. In 1559 he was made Lieutenant Governor of Jersey, one of the Channel Islands, his father being Governor. He kept this post until 1573. His father Hugh died that year, and Paulet was made Governor, a post he held until his death.
In 1576 Queen Elizabeth raised him to knighthood, appointed him Ambassador to Paris and at the same time put the young Francis Bacon under his charge. Paulet was in this embassy until he was recalled November, 1579. In 1579, he took into his household, the young Jean Hotman, son of Francis Hotman, to tutor his two sons Anthony and George. When the family returned to England, the tutor and his two charges settled at Oxford.
A fanatical Puritan with a harsh character, Paulet was appointed gaoler of Mary, Queen of Scots, by Elizabeth in January 1585, replacing the more tolerant Sir Ralph Sadler. He remained her keeper until Mary's execution at Fotheringhay Castle on 8 February 1587.
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Anne Bacon
Anne Bacon (née Cooke) (c. 1528 – 27 August 1610) was an English Lady and scholar. She made a lasting contribution to English religious literature with her translation from Latin of John Jewel's Apologie of the Anglican Church (1564). She was the mother of Francis Bacon.
Whether it be Ann or Anne Bacon, one cannot be sure, as sources debate; however, she was an English translator and lady of the British court. Though Anne’s exact date of birth is not known, it is presumed she was born in or around 1528. Anne Bacon was born in Essex, England, one of the five daughters of Anthony Cooke, tutor to Henry VIII’s only son Edward. Being an educator, Anthony ensured that all of his four sons and five daughters received a humanist educations, with in-depth studies in languages and the classics. From the success of not just Anne, but Anthony’s other daughters, this thorough education is quite evident. Anne was trained in Latin, Italian, French, Greek, and possibly even Hebrew. Her sister the Lady Elizabeth Hoby was trained in languages and is also well known for similar translations and texts. Her family's social status was high, in part because her father worked so closely with the Tudor royal family, and were large landowners as a result. They had an association of some sort with Stratford though what precisely this association was remains unspecified.
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Anne Whateley
Anne Whateley (fl. 1580s; or 1561–1600) is the name of a woman who is sometimes supposed to have been the intended wife of William Shakespeare before he married Anne Hathaway. Most scholars believe that Whateley never existed, but that her name in a document concerning Shakespeare's marriage is merely a clerical error. However several writers on Shakespeare have taken the view that she was a real rival to Hathaway for Shakespeare's hand. She has also appeared in imaginative literature on Shakespeare and in Shakespeare authorship speculations. Shakespeare's biographer Russell A. Fraser describes her as "a ghost", "haunting the edges of Shakespeare's story". She has also been called "the first of the Shakespearean Dark Ladies".
Her existence has been deduced from an entry in the Episcopal register at Worcester which states in Latin "Anno Domini 1582...Novembris...27 die eiusdem mensis. Item eodem die supradicto emanavit Licentia inter Wm Shaxpere et Annam Whateley de Temple Grafton." The entry states that a marriage licence has been issued to Shakespeare and Anne Whateley to marry in the village of Temple Grafton. The day afterwards, Fulk Sandells and John Richardson, friends of the Hathaway family from Stratford-upon-Avon, signed a surety of £40 as a financial guarantee for the wedding of "William Shagspere and Anne Hathwey".
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Anthony Cooke
Sir Anthony Cooke (1504 – 11 June 1576) was an eminent English humanist, scholar and tutor to Edward VI, England's first ruler to be raised as a Protestant.
Cooke was the son of John Cooke of Gidea Hall, Essex and Alice Saunders; and was a great-grandson of Sir Thomas Cook, draper, lord mayor of London 1462-3. Sometime before 1524 Anthony Cooke married Anne (d. 1553), daughter of Sir William Fitzwilliam (d. 1534) and Anne Hawes, and aunt of William Fitzwilliam (1526–1599). He served as High Sheriff of Essex for 1545.
Cooke was never officially described as tutor to Edward VI. It is now thought he may have been more a companion and guide than a formal teacher.
At his pupil's coronation Cooke was made Knight of the Bath. On 8 November 1547 he was returned to parliament for Lewes, and in the same year was one of the visitors commissioned by the crown to inspect the dioceses of London, Westminster, Norwich, and Ely; the injunctions drawn up by him and his companions are printed in John Foxe's Acts and Monuments. Two years later he served on two ecclesiastical commissions, of Protestant tendencies. In November and December 1551 he attended the discussion held between Roman Catholics and Protestants at the houses of Sir William Cecil and Sir Richard Moryson, and his public services were rewarded (27 October 1552) with a grant of land. On 27 July 1553 he was committed to the Tower of London on suspicion of complicity in Lady Jane Grey's movement.
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Aristotle
Aristotle (Ancient Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης, Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. Aristotle's writings were the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality, aesthetics, logic, science, politics, and metaphysics.
Aristotle's views on the physical sciences profoundly shaped medieval scholarship, and their influence extended well into the Renaissance, although they were ultimately replaced by Newtonian physics. In the zoological sciences, some of his observations were confirmed to be accurate only in the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. In metaphysics, Aristotelianism had a profound influence on philosophical and theological thinking in the Islamic and Jewish traditions in the Middle Ages, and it continues to influence Christian theology, especially the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues (Cicero described his literary style as "a river of gold"), it is thought that the majority of his writings are now lost and only about one-third of the original works have survived.
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Auguste Comte
Isidore Auguste Marie François Xavier Comte (19 January 1798 – 5 September 1857), better known as Auguste Comte [oɡyst kɔ̃t], was a French philosopher. He was a founder of the discipline of sociology and of the doctrine of positivism. He may be regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term.
Strongly influenced by the Utopian socialist Henri Saint-Simon, Comte developed the positive philosophy in an attempt to remedy the social malaise of the French revolution, calling for a new social doctrine based on the sciences. Comte was a major influence on 19th century thought, impacting the work of social thinkers such as Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill, and George Eliot. His concept of sociologie and social evolutionism, though now outdated, set the tone for early social theorists and anthropologists such as Harriet Martineau and Herbert Spencer, evolving into Modern academic sociology presented by Émile Durkheim as practical and objective social research.
Comte's social theories culminated in the "religion of humanity", which was influential to the development of religious humanist and Secular Humanist organizations in the 19th century. Comte likewise coined the word "altruism".
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Averroes
ʾAbū l-Walīd Muḥammad bin ʾAḥmad bin Rušd (Arabic: أبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد), better known just as Ibn Rushd (Arabic: ابن رشد), and in European literature as Averroes ( /əˈvɛroʊ.iːz/; April 14, 1126 – December 10, 1198), was an Andalusian Muslim polymath; a master of Aristotelian philosophy, Islamic philosophy, Islamic theology, Maliki law and jurisprudence, logic, psychology, politics, Arabic music theory, and the sciences of medicine, astronomy, geography, mathematics, physics and celestial mechanics. He was born in Córdoba, Al Andalus, modern-day Spain, and died in Marrakesh, Morocco. His school of philosophy is known as Averroism.
Ibn Rushd was a defender of Aristotelian philosophy against claims from the influential Islamic theologian Ghazali who attacked philosophy so it would not become an affront to the teachings of Islam.
Averroes' name is also seen as Averroës, Averroès or Averrhoës, indicating that the "o" and the "e" form separate syllables. Averroes is a Latinisation of a Hebrew transcription of the Arab name Ibn Rushd.
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Basil Montagu
Basil Montagu (24 April 1770–27 November 1851) was a British jurist, barrister, writer and philanthropist. He was educated in Charterhouse School and studied law in Cambridge, later wrote and worked on reforms in bankruptcy laws of Britain. He served as Accountant-General in Bankruptcy between 1835 and 1846. He was highly influenced by the writings of Francis Bacon. He was the son of John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, and his mistress, singer Martha Ray.
He was the second illegitimate son of John Montagu by Martha Ray; he was acknowledged by his father, and brought up at Hinchingbrooke, Huntingdonshire. He was educated at Charterhouse School and Christ's College, Cambridge, where he matriculated in 1786, graduated B.A. (fifth wrangler) in 1790, and proceeded M.A. in 1793. On 30 January 1789 he was admitted a member of Gray's Inn, but continued to reside at Cambridge until 1795, when, having by a technical loophole lost the portion of inheritance intended for him by his father, he came to London to read for the bar.
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Bernard Palissy
Bernard Palissy (c. 1510 – c. 1589) was a French Huguenot potter, hydraulics engineer and craftsman, famous for having struggled for sixteen years to imitate Chinese porcelain. In the 19th-century, Palissy's pottery became the inspiration for Mintons Ltd's Victorian majolica, which was exhibited at the Great Exhibition of 1851 under the name "Palissy ware".
The date and place of Palissy's birth are not known for certain but are believed to be about 1510, either at Saintes or Agen. It has been stated, on insufficient authority, that his father was a glass-painter and that he served as his father's apprentice. In his memoirs, Palissy tells us that he was apprenticed to a glass-painter and also learned the skill of land-surveying. At the end of his apprenticeship and following the custom of the day, he became a traveling workman; acquiring fresh knowledge in many parts of France and the Low Countries, perhaps even in the Rhine Provinces of Germany and in Italy.
It appears that Palissy returned to his native district around 1539, married, and set up house in Saintes. Other than what he tells us in his autobiography, namely that he worked as a portrait-painter, glass-painter and land-surveyor, we have little record of how he lived during the first years of his married life. It is known that he was commissioned to survey and prepare a plan of the salt marshes near Saintes when the council of King Francis I determined to establish a salt tax in the Saintonge.
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Bernardino Telesio
Bernardino Telesio (Italian pronunciation: [bernarˈdiːno teˈlɛːzjo]) (1509–1588) was an Italian philosopher and natural scientist. While his natural theories were later disproven, his emphasis on observation made him the "first of the moderns" who eventually developed the scientific method.
Telesio was born of noble parentage in Cosenza, a city in Calabria, Southern Italy. He was educated in Milan by his uncle, Antonio, himself a scholar and a poet of eminence, and afterwards in Rome and Padua. His studies included all the wide range of subjects, classics, science and philosophy, which constituted the curriculum of the Renaissance savants. Thus equipped, he began his attack upon the medieval Aristotelianism which then flourished in Padua and Bologna. In 1553 he married and settled in Cosenza, becoming the dominant figure of Cosentian Academy, founded by Aulo Giano Parassio in 1511. In 1563, or perhaps two years later, appeared his great work De Rerum Natura Iuxta Propria Principia (On the Nature of Things according to their Own Principles), which was followed by a large number of scientific and philosophical works of subsidiary importance. The heterodox views which he maintained aroused the anger of the Church on behalf of its cherished Aristotelianism, and a short time after his death his books were placed on the Index.
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C. D. Broad
C. D. Broad (full name Charlie Dunbar Broad; 30 December 1887 – 11 March 1971) was an English epistemologist, historian of philosophy, philosopher of science, moral philosopher, and writer on the philosophical aspects of psychical research. He was known for his thorough and dispassionate examinations of arguments in such works as Scientific Thought, published in 1923, The Mind and Its Place in Nature, published in 1925, and Examination of McTaggart's Philosophy, published in 1933.
Broad's essay on "Determinism, Indeterminism, and Libertarianism" in Ethics and the History of Philosophy (1952) introduced the philosophical terms "occurrent causation" and "non-occurrent causation", which became the basis for today's "agent causal" and "event causal" distinctions in the debates on Libertarian Free Will.
Broad was born in Harlesden, in Middlesex, England. He was educated at Dulwich College from 1900 until 1906. He gained a scholarship to study at Trinity College, Cambridge in 1906. In 1910 he graduated with First-Class Honours, with distinction.
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Carl Gustav Hempel
Carl Gustav "Peter" Hempel (January 8, 1905 in Oranienburg, Germany - November 9, 1997 in Princeton, New Jersey) was a philosopher of science and a major figure in 20th-century logical empiricism. He is especially well known for his articulation of the Deductive-nomological model of scientific explanation, which was considered the "standard model" of scientific explanation during the 1950s and 1960s. He is also known for the Raven paradox, which highlights the problem of induction.
Hempel studied mathematics, physics, and philosophy at the University of Göttingen, Heidelberg and Berlin. In Göttingen he encountered David Hilbert and was impressed by his attempt to base all of mathematics on solid logical foundations derived from a limited number of axioms (Hilbert's Program). Having moved to Berlin he participated in a congress on scientific philosophy in 1929, where he met Rudolf Carnap and became involved in the Berlin Circle of philosophers that was associated with the Vienna Circle. In 1934 he received his doctoral degree from the University of Berlin with a dissertation on probability theory.
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Charlton Ogburn
Charlton Ogburn, Jr. (15 March 1911, Atlanta, Georgia – 19 October 1998, Beaufort, South Carolina) was a journalist and author of memoirs and non-fiction works. He was also a well-known advocate of the Oxfordian theory of Shakespeare authorship. He wrote over a dozen books and numerous magazine articles.
Ogburn was the son of lawyer Charlton Greenwood Ogburn and writer Dorothy Ogburn née Stevens and the nephew of the sociologist William Fielding Ogburn. He was raised in Savannah and New York, graduated from Harvard in 1932 and wrote and worked in publishing. During World War II he joined military intelligence, leaving with the rank of captain. He returned to the US to begin a career with the State Department. He married Vera M. Weidman in 1951.
After the success of his story "Merrill's Marauders", a Harper's Magazine cover story in 1957, Harper & Bros. offered an advance for a book and he quit the government to write full-time in 1957.
He was among the first State Department officials to explicitly oppose the growing U.S. involvement in the Vietnam war.
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Christopher Marlowe
Christopher Marlowe (baptised 26 February 1564; died 30 May 1593) was an English dramatist, poet and translator of the Elizabethan era. Marlowe was the foremost Elizabethan tragedian until his mysterious early death. Marlowe greatly influenced William Shakespeare, who was born in the same year as Marlowe and who rose to become the eminent Elizabethan playwright after Marlowe's death. Marlowe's plays are known for the use of blank verse, and their overreaching protagonists.
A warrant was issued for Marlowe's arrest on 18 May 1593. No reason for it was given, though it was thought to be connected to allegations of blasphemy—a manuscript believed to have been written by Marlowe was said to contain "vile heretical conceipts". On 20 May he was brought to the court to attend upon the Privy Council for questioning. There is no record of their having met that day, however, and he was commanded to attend upon them each day thereafter until "licensed to the contrary." Ten days later, he was stabbed to death by Ingram Frizer. Whether the stabbing was connected to his arrest has never been resolved.
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Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( /ˈsɪsɨroʊ/; Classical Latin: [ˈkɪkɛroː]; January 3, 106 BC – December 7, 43 BC; sometimes anglicized as Tully), was a Roman philosopher, statesman, lawyer, orator, political theorist, Roman consul and constitutionalist. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the equestrian order, and is widely considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists.
He introduced the Romans to the chief schools of Greek philosophy and created a Latin philosophical vocabulary (with neologisms such as humanitas, qualitas, quantitas, and essentia) distinguishing himself as a linguist, translator, and philosopher.
Petrarch's rediscovery of Cicero's letters is often credited for initiating the 14th-century Renaissance. According to Polish historian Tadeusz Zieliński, "Renaissance was above all things a revival of Cicero, and only after him and through him of the rest of Classical antiquity." The peak of Cicero's authority and prestige came during the eighteenth-century Enlightenment, and his impact on leading Enlightenment thinkers such as John Locke, David Hume, and Montesquieu was substantial. His works rank among the most influential in European culture, and today still constitute one of the most important bodies of primary material for the writing and revision of Roman history, especially the last days of the Roman Republic.
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Daniel Dennett
Daniel Clement Dennett (born March 28, 1942) is an American philosopher, writer and cognitive scientist whose research centers on the philosophy of mind, philosophy of science and philosophy of biology, particularly as those fields relate to evolutionary biology and cognitive science. He is currently the Co-director of the Center for Cognitive Studies, the Austin B. Fletcher Professor of Philosophy, and a University Professor at Tufts University. Dennett is a firm atheist and secularist, a member of the Secular Coalition for America advisory board, as well as an outspoken supporter of the Brights movement. Dennett is referred to as one of the "Four Horsemen of New Atheism," along with Richard Dawkins, Sam Harris, and the late Christopher Hitchens.
Born in Boston, Massachusetts, Dennett spent part of his childhood in Lebanon, where, during World War II, his father was a covert counter-intelligence agent with the Office of Strategic Services posing as a cultural attaché to the American Embassy in Beirut. When he was five, his mother took him back to Massachusetts after his father died in an unexplained plane crash. His sister is the investigative journalist Charlotte Dennett.
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Daphne du Maurier
Dame Daphne du Maurier, Lady Browning DBE ( /ˈdæfni duː ˈmɒri.eɪ/; 13 May 1907 – 19 April 1989) was a British author and playwright.
Many of her works have been adapted into films, including the novels Rebecca (which won the Best Picture Oscar in 1941) and Jamaica Inn and the short stories The Birds and Don't Look Now. The first three were directed by Alfred Hitchcock.
Her elder sister was the writer Angela du Maurier. Her father was the actor Gerald du Maurier. Her grandfather was the writer George du Maurier.
Daphne du Maurier was born in London, the second of three daughters of the prominent actor-manager Sir Gerald du Maurier and actress Muriel Beaumont (maternal niece of William Comyns Beaumont). Her grandfather was the author and Punch cartoonist George du Maurier, who created the character of Svengali in the novel Trilby.
These connections helped her in establishing her literary career, and du Maurier published some of her very early work in Beaumont's Bystander magazine. Her first novel, The Loving Spirit, was published in 1931.
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Delia Bacon
Delia Bacon (February 2, 1811 – September 2, 1859) was an American writer of plays and short stories, a sister of the Congregational minister Leonard Bacon. She is best known today for her work on the Shakespeare authorship question.
She promoted the theory that the plays attributed to William Shakespeare were written by a group of men, including Francis Bacon, Sir Walter Raleigh and others, which may have included Edmund Spenser, Lord Buckhurst and the Earl of Oxford.
Bacon was born in a frontier log-cabin in Tallmadge, Ohio, the youngest daughter of a Congregationalist minister, who in pursuit of a vision had abandoned New Haven for the wilds of Ohio. The venture quickly collapsed, and the family returned to New England, where her father died soon after. The impoverished state of their finances permitted only her elder brother Leonard to receive a tertiary education, at Yale, while her own formal education ended when she was fourteen. She became a teacher in schools in Connecticut, New Jersey, and New York, and then, until about 1852, became a distinguished professional lecturer, conducting, in various Eastern United States cities, classes for women in history and literature by methods she devised. At 20, in 1831, she published her first book, Tales of the Puritans anonymously, consisting of three long stories on colonial life. In 1832 she beat Edgar Allan Poe for a short-story prize sponsored by the Philadelphia Saturday Courier.
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Democritus
Democritus (Greek: Δημόκριτος, Dēmokritos, "chosen of the people") (ca. 460 BC – ca. 370 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosopher born in Abdera, Thrace, Greece. He was an influential pre-Socratic philosopher and pupil of Leucippus, who formulated an atomic theory for the cosmos.
His exact contributions are difficult to disentangle from his mentor Leucippus, as they are often mentioned together in texts. Their speculation on atoms, taken from Leucippus, bears a passing and partial resemblance to the nineteenth-century understanding of atomic structure that has led some to regard Democritus as more of a scientist than other Greek philosophers; however their ideas rested on very different bases. Largely ignored in ancient Athens, Democritus was nevertheless well known to his fellow northern-born philosopher Aristotle. Plato is said to have disliked him so much that he wished all his books burned. Many consider Democritus to be the "father of modern science".
Democritus was born in the city of Abdera in Thrace, an Ionian colony of Teos, although some called him a Milesian. He was born in the 80th Olympiad (460–457 BC) according to Apollodorus of Athens, and although Thrasyllus placed his birth in 470 BC, the later date is probably more likely.John Burnet has argued that the date of 460 is "too early", since according to Diogenes Laërtius ix.41, Democritus said that he was a "young man (neos)" during Anaxagoras' old age (circa 440–428). It was said that Democritus' father was so wealthy that he received Xerxes on his march through Abdera. Democritus spent the inheritance which his father left him on travels into distant countries, to satisfy his thirst for knowledge. He traveled to Asia, and was even said to have reached India and Ethiopia.
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Edward Coke
Sir Edward Coke SL PC ( /ˈkʊk/, formerly /ˈkuːk/; 1 February 1552 – 3 September 1634) was an English barrister, judge and politician considered to be the greatest jurist of the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras. Born into a middle class family, Coke was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge before leaving to study at the Inner Temple, where he was called to the Bar on 20 April 1578. As a barrister he took part in several notable cases, including Slade's Case, before earning enough political favour to be returned to Parliament, where he served first as Solicitor General and then as Speaker of the House of Commons. Following a promotion to Attorney General he led the prosecution in several notable cases, including Robert Devereux, Sir Walter Raleigh and the Gunpowder Plot conspirators. As a reward for his services he was first knighted, and then made Chief Justice of the Common Pleas.
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Edward Dyer
Sir Edward Dyer (October 1543 – May 1607) was an English courtier and poet.
The son of Sir Thomas Dyer, Kt., he was born at Sharpham Park, Glastonbury, Somerset. He was educated, according to Anthony Wood, either at Balliol College, Oxford or at Broadgates Hall (later Pembroke College, Oxford), and left after taking a degree. After some time abroad, he appeared at Elizabeth I's court. His first patron was Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, who seems to have thought of putting him forward as a rival to Sir Christopher Hatton for the queen's favour. He is mentioned by Gabriel Harvey, along with Sir Philip Sidney, as one of the ornaments of the court. Sidney, in his will, bequeathed his books equally between Fulke Greville and Dyer.
He was employed by Elizabeth on a mission (1584) to the Low Countries, and in 1589 was sent to Denmark. In a commission to inquire into manors unjustly alienated from the crown in the west country he did not altogether please the queen, but nevertheless received a grant of some forfeited lands in Somerset in 1588. He was knighted and made chancellor of the Order of the Garter in 1596. William Oldys said of him that he "would not stoop to fawn," and some of his verses seem to show that he disliked the pressures of life at court. He was buried in the chancel of St Saviour's, Southwark, on 11 May 1607 (21 May N.S.).
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Emilia Lanier
Emilia Lanier, also spelled Lanyer, (1569–1645) was the first Englishwoman to assert herself as a professional poet through her single volume of poems, Salve Deus Rex Judaeorum (1611). Born Aemilia Bassano and part of the Lanier family tree, she was a member of the minor gentry through her father's appointment as a royal musician, and was apparently educated in the household by Susan Bertie, Countess of Kent. She was for several years the mistress of Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon, first cousin of Elizabeth I of England. She was married to her first cousin, court musician Alfonso Lanier, in 1592 when she became pregnant by Hunsdon, and the marriage was reportedly unhappy.
Learning about the events of Lanier's life has not always been an easy task for researchers. Very little is known about her. Scholars have had to piece together Lanier's biography by relying on the sparse amount of church, court and legal records that mention Lanier's name and her activity. Researchers have also relied upon entries from astrologer Simon Forman's (1552–1611) professional diary, which mention his accounts with Lanier. Lanier visited Foreman many times during 1597 for astrological readings, and because Forman was evidently sexually interested in her and rejected, his account is likely biased.
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Empedocles
Empedocles (pronounced: /ɛmˈpɛdəkliːz/; Ancient Greek: Ἐμπεδοκλῆς; Empedoklēs; Ancient Greek: [empedoklɛ̂ːs]; ca. 490–430 BC) was a Greek pre-Socratic philosopher and a citizen of Agrigentum, a Greek city in Sicily. Empedocles' philosophy is best known for being the originator of the cosmogenic theory of the four Classical elements. He also proposed powers called Love and Strife which would act as forces to bring about the mixture and separation of the elements. These physical speculations were part of a history of the universe which also dealt with the origin and development of life. Influenced by the Pythagoreans, he supported the doctrine of reincarnation. Empedocles is generally considered the last Greek philosopher to record his ideas in verse. Some of his work survives, more than in the case of any other Presocratic philosopher. Empedocles' death was mythologized by ancient writers, and has been the subject of a number of literary treatments.
Empedocles was born, c. 490 BC, at Agrigentum (Acragas) in Sicily to a distinguished family. Very little is known about his life. His father Meto seems to have been instrumental in overthrowing the tyrant of Agrigentum, presumably Thrasydaeus in 470 BC. Empedocles continued the democratic tradition of his house by helping to overthrow the succeeding oligarchic government. He is said to have been magnanimous in his support of the poor; severe in persecuting the overbearing conduct of the aristocrats; and he even declined the sovereignty of the city when it was offered to him.
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Frances Yates
Dame Frances Amelia Yates DBE (28 November 1899 – 29 September 1981) was a British historian. She taught at the Warburg Institute of the University of London for many years.
She wrote extensively on the occult or Neoplatonic philosophies of the Renaissance. Her books Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition (1964), The Art of Memory (1966), and The Rosicrucian Enlightenment (1972) are major works. She dealt with traditions whose remoteness she could not eliminate, even while she made them more understandable.
She was born in Southsea, in the City of Portsmouth, Hampshire. Yates' father, a devout Anglican, was a naval engineer who began working in the shipyards as a teenager and supervised the construction of British warships in the years leading up to World War I. Although one of her older sisters attended Girton College, Cambridge, like many independent women scholars, Frances was educated at home by her mother, yet attended Birkenhead High School for some time. Through part-time correspondence study, she was granted degree in French at University College, London (UCL), achieving firsts, in 1924, and an MA at the same institution on French Theater in 1926.
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Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban(s),KC (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626) was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist and author. He served both as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England. Although his political career ended in disgrace, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution.
Bacon has been called the creator of empiricism. His works established and popularised inductive methodologies for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method, or simply the scientific method. His demand for a planned procedure of investigating all things natural marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, much of which still surrounds conceptions of proper methodology today.
Bacon was knighted in 1603, and created both the Baron Verulam in 1618, and the Viscount St Alban in 1621; as he died without heirs both peerages became extinct upon his death. He famously died by contracting pneumonia while studying the effects of freezing on the preservation of meat.
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Francis Walsingham
Sir Francis Walsingham (c. 1532 – 6 April 1590) was principal secretary to Queen Elizabeth I of England from 20 December 1573 until his death, and is popularly remembered as her "spymaster".
Born to a well-connected family of gentry, Walsingham travelled in continental Europe after leaving university before embarking at the age of twenty on a career in the law. A committed Protestant, during the reign of the Catholic Queen Mary I of England he joined other expatriates in exile in Switzerland and northern Italy until Mary's death and the accession of her Protestant half-sister, Elizabeth.
Walsingham rose from relative obscurity to become one of the small coterie who directed the Elizabethan state, overseeing foreign, domestic and religious policy. He served as English ambassador to France in the early 1570s, and witnessed the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre. As principal secretary, he was a supporter of exploration, colonization, the plantation of Ireland, and the use of England's maritime power. He worked to bring Scotland and England together. Overall, his foreign policy demonstrated a new understanding of the role of England as a maritime, Protestant power in an increasingly global economy. He oversaw operations that penetrated the heart of Spanish military preparation, gathered intelligence from across Europe, disrupted a range of plots against Elizabeth, and secured the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots.
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Galileo Galilei
Galileo Galilei (Italian pronunciation: [ɡaliˈlɛːo ɡaliˈlɛi]; 15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642), was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. His achievements include improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations and support for Copernicanism. Galileo has been called the "father of modern observational astronomy", the "father of modern physics", the "father of science", and "the Father of Modern Science".
His contributions to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus, the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), and the observation and analysis of sunspots. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, inventing an improved military compass and other instruments.
Galileo's championing of heliocentrism was controversial within his lifetime, when most subscribed to either geocentrism or the Tychonic system. He met with opposition from astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism due to the absence of an observed stellar parallax. The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, and they concluded that it could only be supported as a possibility, not as an established fact. Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated him and the Jesuits, who had both supported Galileo up until this point. He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest. It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he wrote one of his finest works, Two New Sciences. Here he summarized the work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials.
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George Greenwood
Sir George Greenwood (3 January 1850 – 27 October 1928), was a British lawyer, politician, cricketer, animal welfare reformer and energetic adovcate of the Shakespeare authorship question.
Born George Granville Greenwood, in Kensington, London, he was the second son of John Greenwood, Q. C. and Fanny Welch. Educated at Eton he was in the "select" for the Newcastle scholarship and then matriculated to Trinity College, Cambridge. As a foundation scholar, he took his degree with a first class in the classical tripos in 1873. Having been called to the Bar by the Middle Temple in 1876, he joined the Western Circuit. He married in 1878 Laura, daughter of Dr. Cumberbatch and had one son and three daughters.
He contested Peterborough in 1886 and Central Hull in 1900. In 1906 he won Peterborough for the Liberal Party and held it till December 1915, when forced by rheumatism to retire. He was knighted in 1916.
He was an ardent supporter of all measures for the protection of animals, and was on the Council of the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, and was President of many similar societies. While he was in Parliament his consistent vigilance and practical knowledge were of great service. He was an outspoken advocate for the independence of India at a time when the Indian cause lacked effective voices within England.
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Harvey Wheeler
John Harvey Wheeler (October 17, 1918 - September 6, 2004) was an American author, political scientist, and scholar. He was best known as co-author with Eugene Burdick of Fail-Safe, 1962, an early cold war novel that depicted what could easily go wrong in an age on the verge of nuclear war. The novel was made into a movie, directed by Sidney Lumet and starring Henry Fonda, in 1964. In later years, Wheeler was a founding editor of the Journal of Social and Biological Structures, 1982, and an early advocate of online education and the Internet as a democratizing tool. He taught a course in "OnLine Publishing" for Connected Education in the mid-to-late 1980s.
Wheeler attended Subiaco Academy, earned his bachelor's and master's degree from Indiana University, and his PhD from Harvard University. He taught at Harvard University, Johns Hopkins University; became full professor of political science at Washington and Lee University, where he wrote "Fail-safe". In 1960 he became longtime fellow at the Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions in Santa Barbara, Calif. While at CSDI he wrote, edited or contributed to a dozen books, including "Democracy in a Revolutionary Era" (1968) and "The Virtual Library" (1987).
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Henri Poincaré
Jules Henri Poincaré (29 April 1854 – 17 July 1912) (French pronunciation: [ˈʒyl ɑ̃ˈʁi pwɛ̃nkaˈʁe]) was a French mathematician, theoretical physicist, engineer, and a philosopher of science. He is often described as a polymath, and in mathematics as The Last Universalist, since he excelled in all fields of the discipline as it existed during his lifetime.
As a mathematician and physicist, he made many original fundamental contributions to pure and applied mathematics, mathematical physics, and celestial mechanics. He was responsible for formulating the Poincaré conjecture, which was one of the most famous unsolved problems in mathematics until it was solved in 2002–2003. In his research on the three-body problem, Poincaré became the first person to discover a chaotic deterministic system which laid the foundations of modern chaos theory. He is also considered to be one of the founders of the field of topology.
Poincaré made clear importance of paying attention to the invariance of laws of physics under different transformations, and was the first to present the Lorentz transformations in their modern symmetrical form. Poincaré discovered the remaining relativistic velocity transformations and recorded them in a letter to Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz (1853–1928) in 1905. Thus he obtained perfect invariance of all of Maxwell's equations, an important step in the formulation of the theory of special relativity.
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Henry III of France
Henry III (19 September 1551 – 2 August 1589; born Alexandre Édouard de France, Polish: Henryk Walezy, Lithuanian: Henrikas Valua) was King of France from 1574 to 1589. As Henry of Valois, he was the first elected monarch of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with the dual titles of King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1573 to 1575.
Henry was born at the Royal Château de Fontainebleau, Seine-et-Marne, third son of King Henry II and Catherine de' Medici, grandson of Francis I of France and Claude of France, and brother of Francis II of France and Charles IX of France. He was made Duke of Angoulême and Duke of Orléans in 1560, and Duke of Anjou in 1566.
In 1564, his name became Henri.[citation needed] He was his mother's favourite; she called him chers yeux ("Precious Eyes") and lavished fondness and affection upon him for most of his life. His elder brother, Charles, grew to detest him, resenting Henry's greater health and activity.[citation needed]
In his youth, he was considered the best of the sons of Catherine de' Medici and Henry II. Unlike his father and elder brothers, he had little interest in the traditional Valois pastimes of hunting and physical exercise. Although he was both fond of fencing and skilled in it, he preferred to indulge his tastes for the arts and reading. These predilections were attributed to his Italian mother.
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Herbert Spencer
Herbert Spencer (27 April 1820 – 8 December 1903) was an English philosopher, biologist, sociologist, and prominent classical liberal political theorist of the Victorian era.
Spencer developed an all-embracing conception of evolution as the progressive development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, and human culture and societies. He was "an enthusiastic exponent of evolution" and even "wrote about evolution before Darwin did." As a polymath, he contributed to a wide range of subjects, including ethics, religion, anthropology, economics, political theory, philosophy, biology, sociology, and psychology. During his lifetime he achieved tremendous authority, mainly in English-speaking academia. "The only other English philosopher to have achieved anything like such widespread popularity was Bertrand Russell, and that was in the 20th century." Spencer was "the single most famous European intellectual in the closing decades of the nineteenth century" but his influence declined sharply after 1900; "Who now reads Spencer?" asked Talcott Parsons in 1937.
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Hugh of Saint Victor
Hugh of Saint Victor (c. 1096 – 11 February 1141) was born perhaps in France, or more probably in Saxony. His origins and early life are rather obscure. He studied and taught at the Augustinian Abbey of Saint Victor in Paris after which he is named. His writings include works of theology, mysticism, philosophy and the arts. Appointed a canon of the Victorines around the turn of the twelfth century.
The early Didascalion was an elementary, encyclopedic approach to God and Christ, in which Hugh avoided controversial subjects and focused on what he took to be commonplaces of Catholic Christianity. In it he outlined three types of philosophy or "science" [scientia] that can help mortals improve themselves and advance toward God: theoretical philosophy (theology, mathematics, physics) provides them with truth, practical philosophy (ethics, economics, politics) aids them in becoming virtuous and prudent, and "mechanical" or "illiberal" philosophy (e.g., carpentry, agriculture, medicine) yields physical benefits. A fourth philosophy, logic, is preparatory to the others and exists to ensure clear and proper conclusions in them. Hugh's deeply mystical bent did not prevent him from seeing philosophy as a useful tool for understanding the divine, or from using it to argue on behalf of faith.
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Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant (German pronunciation: [ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl ˈkant]; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher from Königsberg (today Kaliningrad of Russia), who researched, lectured, and wrote on philosophy and anthropology during the Enlightenment at the end of the 18th century. At the time, there were major successes and advances in the sciences (for example, Isaac Newton, Carl Friedrich Gauss, and Robert Boyle) applying reason and logic.
Kant’s major work, the Critique of Pure Reason (Kritik der reinen Vernunft, 1781), aimed to unite reason with experience to move beyond what he took to be failures of traditional philosophy and metaphysics. He hoped to end an age of speculation where objects outside experience were used to support what he saw as futile theories, while opposing the skepticism of thinkers such as Descartes, Berkeley and Hume.
He stated:
Kant proposed a ‘Copernican Revolution’ in reverse, saying that:
Kant published other important works on ethics, religion, law, aesthetics, astronomy, and history. These included the Critique of Practical Reason (Kritik der praktischen Vernunft, 1788) and the Metaphysics of Morals (Die Metaphysik der Sitten, 1797), which dealt with ethics. And the Critique of Judgment (Kritik der Urteilskraft, 1790), which looks at aesthetics and teleology. He aimed to resolve disputes between empirical and rationalist approaches. The former asserted that all knowledge comes through experience; the latter maintained that reason and innate ideas were prior. Kant argued that experience is purely subjective without first being processed by pure reason. He also said that using reason without applying it to experience only leads to theoretical illusions. The free and proper exercise of reason by the individual was both a theme of the Enlightenment, and of Kant's approaches to the various problems of philosophy.
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Imre Lakatos
Imre Lakatos (November 9, 1922 – February 2, 1974) was a Hungarian philosopher of mathematics and science, known for his thesis of the fallibility of mathematics and its 'methodology of proofs and refutations' in its pre-axiomatic stages of development, and also for introducing the concept of the 'research programme' in his methodology of scientific research programmes.
Lakatos was born Imre (Avrum) Lipschitz to a Jewish family in Debrecen, Hungary in 1922. He received a degree in mathematics, physics, and philosophy from the University of Debrecen in 1944. He avoided Nazi persecution of Jews by changing his name to Imre Molnár. His mother and grandmother died in Auschwitz. He became an active communist during the Second World War. He changed his last name once again to Lakatos (Locksmith) in honor of Géza Lakatos.
After the war, from 1947 he worked as a senior official in the Hungarian ministry of education. He also continued his education with a PhD at Debrecen University awarded in 1948, and also attended György Lukács's weekly Wednesday afternoon private seminars. He also studied at the Moscow State University under the supervision of Sofya Yanovskaya in 1949. When he returned, however, he found himself on the losing side of internal arguments within the Hungarian communist party and was imprisoned on charges of revisionism from 1950 to 1953. More of Lakatos' activities in Hungary after World War II have recently become known.
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Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton PRS MP (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727 [NS: 4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727]) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian, who has been "considered by many to be the greatest and most influential scientist who ever lived." His monograph Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, lays the foundations for most of classical mechanics. In this work, Newton described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, which dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. Newton showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws, by demonstrating the consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his theory of gravitation, thus removing the last doubts about heliocentrism and advancing the Scientific Revolution.
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J. Thomas Looney
John Thomas Looney (14 August 1870 – 17 January 1944) was an English school teacher who is best known for having originated the Oxfordian theory, which claims that Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford (1550–1604) was the true author of Shakespeare's plays.
Looney was born in South Shields. His father, also called John Thomas, had a shoe-making shop at 91 West Holborn in the centre of the town. Both his parents were Methodists. His family came from the Isle of Man and claimed descent from the Earls of Derby. He grew up in a strong evangelical environment, and determined to become a minister at the age of 16. While studying at the Chester Diocesan College, he lost his faith. He later embraced the theories of the positivist philosopher Auguste Comte, becoming a proponent of the Comtean "Religion of Humanity" and a leader in its short-lived church, in which he pioneered outdoor preaching. The Church of Humanity gave special prominence to Shakespeare, naming a month after him in the Positivist calendar, and placing a bust of him in its place of worship.
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James I of England
James VI and I (19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625) was King of Scots as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the English and Scottish crowns on 24 March 1603 until his death. The kingdoms of England and Scotland were individual sovereign states, with their own parliaments, judiciary, and laws, though both were ruled by James in personal union.
He became King of Scotland at the age of thirteen months, succeeding his mother Mary, Queen of Scots, who had been compelled to abdicate in his favour. Four different regents governed during his minority, which ended officially in 1578, though he did not gain full control of his government until 1583. In 1603, he succeeded the last Tudor monarch of England and Ireland, Elizabeth I, who died without issue. He continued to reign in all three kingdoms for 22 years, a period known as the Jacobean era after him, until his death in 1625 at the age of 58. After the Union of the Crowns, he based himself in England (the largest of the three realms) from 1603, only returning to Scotland once in 1617, and styled himself "King of Great Britain and Ireland". In his reign, the Plantation of Ulster and British colonization of the Americas began.
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Johannes Kelpius
Johannes Kelpius (1667–1708), a German Pietist, mystic, musician, and writer, interested in the occult, botany, and astronomy, came to believe with his followers in the "Society of the Woman in the Wilderness" that the end of the world would occur in 1694. This belief, based on an elaborate interpretation of a passage from the biblical Book of Revelation, anticipated the advent of a heavenly kingdom somewhere in the wilderness during that year. Kelpius felt that the seventeenth-century Province of Pennsylvania, given its reputation for religious toleration at the edge of a barely settled wilderness, was the best place to be. Philadelphia had been founded in 1682, but the city and the Province of Pennsylvania had quickly become a tolerant haven and refuge for many pietist, communitarian, or free-thinking groups who were leaving an intolerant Old World for the congenial religious climate of the British colony. Kelpius and his followers crossed the Atlantic and lived in the valley of the Wissahickon Creek in Philadelphia from 1694 until his death. It is reported that they lived communally, though they also spent time in solitary meditation in caves and small cells scattered about their common living quarters. Though no sign or revelation accompanied the year 1694, the faithful, known as the Hermits or Mystics of the Wissahickon, continued to live in celibacy, searching the stars and hoping for the end.
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John Aubrey
John Aubrey FRS, (12 March 1626 – 7 June 1697) was an English antiquary, natural philosopher and writer. He is perhaps best known as the author of the collection of short biographical pieces usually referred to as Brief Lives. He was a pioneer archaeologist, who recorded (often for the first time) numerous megalithic and other field monuments in southern England, and who is particularly noted as the discoverer of the Avebury henge monument. The Aubrey holes at Stonehenge are named after him, although there is considerable doubt as to whether the holes that he observed are those that currently bear the name. He was also a pioneer folklorist, collecting together a miscellany of material on customs, traditions and beliefs under the title "Remaines of Gentilisme and Judaisme". He set out to compile county histories of both Wiltshire and Surrey, although both projects remained unfinished. His "Interpretation of Villare Anglicanum" (also unfinished) was the first attempt to compile a full-length study of English place-names. He had wider interests in applied mathematics and astronomy, and was friendly with many of the greatest scientists of the day.
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John Dewey
John Dewey (October 20, 1859 – June 1, 1952) was an American philosopher, psychologist and educational reformer whose ideas have been influential in education and social reform. Dewey was an important early developer of the philosophy of pragmatism and one of the founders of functional psychology. He was a major representative of progressive education and liberalism.
Although Dewey is known best for his publications concerning education, he also wrote about many other topics, including experience, nature, art, logic, inquiry, democracy, and ethics.
In his advocacy of democracy, Dewey considered two fundamental elements—schools and civil society—as being major topics needing attention and reconstruction to encourage experimental intelligence and plurality. Dewey asserted that complete democracy was to be obtained not just by extending voting rights but also by ensuring that there exists a fully formed public opinion, accomplished by effective communication among citizens, experts, and politicians, with the latter being accountable for the policies they adopt.[citation needed]
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John Guy (governor)
John Guy (died c. March 1629) was an English merchant adventurer, colonist and politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1621 to 1624. He was the first Proprietary Governor of Newfoundland and led the first attempt to establish a colony on the island.
Guy was the son of a tradesman of Bristol.[citation needed] He became a merchant and was admitted to the corporation of the city in 1603. He was sheriff of Bristol for the year from 1605 to 1606.
In 1608 Guy and other members of the Society of Merchant Venturers decided to act upon a letter received by the mayor from Chief Justice Popham concerning the colonisation of Newfoundland. Since John Cabot had discovered the island and Sir Humfrey Gilbert had formally taken possession of it for Queen Elizabeth, the merchants of the city had a special interest in Newfoundland, but there had been little attempt to exploit and colonise the island. The merchants decided not to embark on the scheme without the co-operation of King James I, which was forthcoming. Guy visited the island in 1608 to scout possible locations for a settlement, selecting Cuper's Cove (present day Cupids) as the site of the colony.[citation needed] In 1609, he put forward a proposal "to animate the English to plant [or colonise] in Newfoundland." The merchants of Bristol and London took up the idea with enthusiasm and a list of contributions was made out with Guy and others subscribing twenty marks a year for five years. On 27 April 1610 James I granted a charter to Henry Spencer, Earl of Northampton, keeper of the privy seal, and others including John Guy and his brother Philip Guy, which incorporated them as the "Treasurer and Company of Adventurers and Planters of the Cities of London and Bristol, for the purpose of colonising Newfoundland, and comprehending as their sphere of action the southern and eastern parts of the new found land between 46° and 52° N. L."
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John Locke
John Locke FRS ( /ˈlɒk/; 29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704), widely known as the Father of Classical Liberalism, was an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers. Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Francis Bacon, he is equally important to social contract theory. His work had a great impact upon the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence.
Locke's theory of mind is often cited as the origin of modern conceptions of identity and the self, figuring prominently in the work of later philosophers such as Hume, Rousseau and Kant. Locke was the first to define the self through a continuity of consciousness. He postulated that the mind was a blank slate or tabula rasa. Contrary to pre-existing Cartesian philosophy, he maintained that we are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience derived from sense perception.
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John Orloff
John Orloff is an American screenwriter known for creating and adapting complex stories in widely disparate genres.
Orloff was born in Los Angeles, California, where he was raised in a "Hollywood" family. His father, also named John Orloff, was a TV commercial director. His grandmother was B-Movie actress Peggy Knudsen, and his great-grandparents were the real-life married couple of Fibber McGee and Molly, stars of TV and radio.
Orloff studied screenwriting at the University of California, Los Angeles Film School, and on graduation went to work in the advertising business.
After ten years working on TV commercials in various positions, he met a TV Movie development executive, now his wife, from the HBO television network. When she continually brought home what he felt were "awful" screenplays, he decided to write his own; a 16th-century English melodrama based on the Shakespeare authorship question, which ended up being sent to Tom Hanks and Steven Spielberg.
They were not interested in producing his project, but Hanks asked Orloff, a keen "World War II buff", to write for the 2001 HBO miniseries Band of Brothers. Orloff wrote episode 2, "Day of Days" and episode 9, "Why We Fight". His work earned him a Christopher Award, and an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Writing for a Miniseries, Movie or a Dramatic Special.Band of Brothers has a 9.6 rating on IMDb—higher than any feature film in the database—and is the single highest grossing and best-selling TV DVD of all time, and one of the highest grossing DVD's of any kind.
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John Stuart Mill
John Stuart Mill, FRSE (20 May 1806 – 8 May 1873) was a British philosopher, political economist and civil servant. He was an influential contributor to social theory, political theory, and political economy. He has been called "the most influential English-speaking philosopher of the nineteenth century". Mill's conception of liberty justified the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state control. He was a proponent of utilitarianism, an ethical theory developed by Jeremy Bentham. Hoping to remedy the problems found in an inductive approach to science, such as confirmation bias, he clearly set forth the premises of falsification as the key component in the scientific method. Mill was also a Member of Parliament and an important figure in liberal political philosophy.
John Stuart Mill was born on Rodney Street in the Pentonville area of London, the eldest son of the Scottish philosopher, historian and economist James Mill, and Harriet Burrow. John Stuart was educated by his father, with the advice and assistance of Jeremy Bentham and Francis Place. He was given an extremely rigorous upbringing, and was deliberately shielded from association with children his own age other than his siblings. His father, a follower of Bentham and an adherent of associationism, had as his explicit aim to create a genius intellect that would carry on the cause of utilitarianism and its implementation after he and Bentham had died.
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John Whitgift
John Whitgift (c. 1530 – 29 February 1604) was the Archbishop of Canterbury from 1583 to his death. Noted for his hospitality, he was somewhat ostentatious in his habits, sometimes visiting Canterbury and other towns attended by a retinue of 800 horsemen. Whitgift's theological views were often controversial.
He was the eldest son of Henry Whitgift, a merchant, of Great Grimsby, Lincolnshire, where he was born. His date of birth was probably somewhere between 1530 and 1533. His early education was entrusted to his uncle, Robert Whitgift, abbot of the neighbouring monastery of Wellow, by whose advice he was afterwards sent to St Anthony's School, London. In 1549 he matriculated at Queens' College, Cambridge, and in May 1550 he moved to Pembroke Hall, where the martyr John Bradford was his tutor. In May 1555 he became a fellow of Peterhouse.
Dr. Whitgift is believed to have taught Francis Bacon at Cambridge University in the 1570s.
Having taken orders in 1560, he became chaplain to Richard Cox, Bishop of Ely, who collated him to the rectory of Teversham, Cambridgeshire. In 1563 he was appointed Lady Margaret's Professor of Divinity at Cambridge, and his lectures gave such satisfaction to the authorities that on 5 July 1566 they considerably augmented his stipend. The following year he was appointed Regius Professor of Divinity, and also became master first of Pembroke Hall and then of Trinity. He had a principal share in compiling the statutes of the university, which passed the great seal on 25 September 1570, and in November following he was chosen as vice-chancellor.
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John William Cousin
John William Cousin (1849–December 1910) was a British writer, editor and biographer. He was one of six children born to William and Anne Ross Cousin, his mother being a noted hymn-writer, in Scotland. A fellow of the Faculty of Actuaries and secretary of the Actuarial Society of Edinburgh, he revised and wrote the introduction for Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's Evangeline in 1907.
However, he is best known as the editor of A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature, a collection of biographical entries on numerous authors and literary figures, originally published in 1910 for J.M. Dent's "Everyman Library" series. The bulk of his work was later used by David Clayton Browning to compile the Everyman's Dictionary of Literary Biography which was released in 1958 and subsequently reprinted during the 1960s and 70s.
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Joseph C. Hart
Joseph Coleman Hart (1798–1855) was an American writer. He is now best known as the first person to assert in print that William Shakespeare was not the true author of the plays published under his name. His novel Miriam Coffin influenced Herman Melville, though Melville was also highly critical of Hart.
Hart was a lawyer by profession, who also served as a Colonel in the National Guard and as a school principal. During this period he wrote a number of textbooks on geography. He was a long time resident of New York and friend of several literary figures, occasionally working as a journalist. He later served as an American consul to Santa Cruz de Tenerife, where he died.
Hart became widely known with his novel Miriam Coffin; or, The Whale-Fisherman (1835). This was the first novel to deal with whaling in Nantucket, a subject later made famous by Herman Melville in Moby-Dick. Hart's work was the most important fictional influence on Melville's novel. Hart wrote the book to encourage congressional support for the whaling industry. He interviewed local people to obtain an accurate account of their lives and the workings of the industry. Unlike Melville, Hart concentrates on the community in Nantucket, and places less emphasis on the whalers. The novel was based on the historical career of profiteer Kezia Coffin (1723–1798). It describes the corrupt financial dealings of Miriam, a whaler's wife, whose unproductive market speculations are contrasted with the heroic and productive labors of her husband, fighting nature and dangerous savage peoples to bring home useful raw materials.
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Jürgen Habermas
Jürgen Habermas ( /ˈjɜrɡən/ or /ˈjʊərɡən ˈhɑːbərmɑːs/;German: [ˈjʏʁɡən ˈhaːbɐmaːs]; born June 18, 1929) is a German sociologist, geographer and philosopher in the tradition of critical theory and pragmatism. He is perhaps best known for his theory on the concepts of 'communicative rationality' and the 'public sphere'. His work focuses on the foundations of social theory and epistemology, the analysis of advanced capitalistic societies and democracy, the rule of law in a critical social-evolutionary context, and contemporary politics, particularly German politics. Habermas's theoretical system is devoted to revealing the possibility of reason, emancipation, and rational-critical communication latent in modern institutions and in the human capacity to deliberate and pursue rational interests. Habermas is known for his work on the concept of modernity, particularly with respect to the discussions of "rationalization" originally set forth by Max Weber. While influenced by American pragmatism, action theory, and even poststructuralism, many of the central tenets of Habermas' thought remain broadly Marxist in nature. Global polls identified him as one of the leading intellectuals of the present day.
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Karl Popper
Sir Karl Raimund Popper, CH FRSFBA (28 July 1902 – 17 September 1994) was an Austro-Britishphilosopher and professor at the London School of Economics. He is generally regarded as one of the greatest philosophers of science of the 20th century; he also wrote extensively on social and political philosophy.
Popper is known for his attempt to repudiate the classical observationalist/inductivist form of scientific method in favour of empirical falsification. He is also known for his opposition to the classical justificationist account of knowledge which he replaced with critical rationalism, "the first non justificational philosophy of criticism in the history of philosophy". In political discourse, he is known for his vigorous defence of liberal democracy and the principles of social criticism that he came to believe made a flourishing "open society" possible.
Karl Popper was born in Vienna (then in Austria-Hungary) in 1902, to upper middle-class parents. All of Karl Popper's grandparents were Jewish, but the Popper family converted to Lutheranism before Karl was born. Karl's father Simon Siegmund Carl Popper was a lawyer from Bohemia, and mother Jenny Schiff was of Silesian and Hungarian descent. After establishing themselves in Vienna, the Poppers made a rapid social climb in Viennese society: Simon Siegmund Carl became a legal partner[clarification needed] of Vienna's liberal mayor Raimond Grübl and, after his death in 1898, took over the firm (Karl received his middle name from the mayor).
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Larry Laudan
Larry Laudan (b. Austin, Texas, 1941) is a contemporary philosopher of science and epistemologist. He has strongly criticized the traditions of positivism, realism, and relativism, and he has defended a view of science as a privileged and progressive institution against popular challenges. Laudan's philosophical view of "research traditions" is seen as an important alternative to Imre Lakatos's "research programs."
His most important contributions to the philosophy of science can be found in his book Progress and its Problems (1977) while acting as chair of the history and philosophy of science department at the University of Pittsburgh. Laudan charges philosophers of science with paying lip service to the view that “science is fundamentally a problem-solving activity” without taking seriously the view's implications for the history of science and its philosophy, and without questioning certain issues in the historiography and methodology of science. Against empiricism, which is represented by Karl Popper, and "revolutionism," represented by Thomas Kuhn, Laudan maintained in Progress and its Problems that science is an evolving process that accumulates more empirically validated evidence while solving conceptual anomalies at the same time. Mere evidence collecting or empirical confirmation does not constitute the true mechanism of scientific advancement; conceptual resolution and comparison of the solutions of anomalies provided by various theories form an indispensable part of the evolution of science.
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Mary Sidney
Mary Herbert (née Sidney), Countess of Pembroke (27 October 1561 – 25 September 1621), was one of the first English women to achieve a major reputation for her literary works, poetry, poetic translations and literary patronage.
Mary Sidney was born at Tickenhill Palace, Bewdley in Worcestershire on 27 October 1561. She was one of four daughters of Sir Henry Sidney and Mary Dudley, the daughter of John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland. Mary was mainly brought up at Ludlow Castle, the seat of the President of the Welsh Marches, a role her father held until 1586. Like her brother, Sir Philip Sidney, she received a Calvinist education, which included classics, French, Italian, Hebrew, music and needlework.
Following the death of her youngest sister, Ambrosia Sidney in 1575, Mary was summoned to London to attend Queen Elizabeth I. In 1577, her mother's brother, Robert Dudley, helped Sir Henry Sidney to arrange her marriage to their close ally, Henry Herbert, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, then in his mid-forties. As Countess of Pembroke, Mary was responsible for a number of estates including Ramsbury, Ivychurch (Alderbury, Wilts),Wilton House and Baynards Castle, London where it is known that they entertained Queen Elizabeth to dinner. She bore Pembroke four children, the first of whom, William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke (1580–1630) may be the young man described in Shakespeare's Sonnets. Their other surviving child, Philip, became the 4th Earl of Pembroke on his brother's death in 1630. These sons are the "Incomparable Pair" to whom William Shakespeare's First Folio is dedicated. At different times, both were patrons of the King's Men. Her daughter, Dorothy (born 1586 - died 1615 in Gravesend, Kent, ENG) married Sir Richard Devereaux Gilliam (born 1583 - died 1651 in Norfolk, Virginia, USA), the elder son of Walter, Viscount Hereford of Herefordshire, England.
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Mary, Queen of Scots
Mary, Queen of Scots (8 December 1542 – 8 February 1587), also known as Mary Stuart or Mary I of Scotland, was queen regnant of Scotland from 14 December 1542 to 24 July 1567 and queen consort of France from 10 July 1559 to 5 December 1560.
Mary was the only surviving legitimate child of King James V of Scotland. She was 6 days old when her father died and she was crowned nine months later. In 1558, she married Francis, Dauphin of France. He ascended the French throne as King Francis II in 1559, and Mary became queen consort of France until she was widowed on 5 December 1560. Mary then returned to Scotland, arriving in Leith on 19 August 1561. Four years later, she married her first cousin, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, but their union was unhappy. In February 1567, his residence was destroyed by an explosion, and Darnley was found murdered in the garden.
James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, was generally believed to have orchestrated Darnley's death, but he was acquitted of the charge in April 1567, and the following month he married Mary. Following an uprising against the couple, Mary was imprisoned in Loch Leven Castle. On 24 July 1567, she was forced to abdicate in favour of her one-year-old son, James. After an unsuccessful attempt to regain the throne, she fled southwards seeking the protection of her first cousin once removed, Queen Elizabeth I of England. Mary had previously claimed Elizabeth's throne as her own and was considered the legitimate sovereign of England by many English Catholics, including participants in a rebellion known as the Rising of the North. Perceiving her as a threat, Elizabeth had her confined in a number of castles and manor houses in the interior of England. After 18 years and 9 months in custody, Mary was tried and executed for her involvement in plots to assassinate Elizabeth.
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Matthew Parris
Matthew Francis Parris (born 7 August 1949 in Johannesburg, South Africa) is a UK-based journalist and former Conservative politician.
Parris is the eldest of six children (three brothers and two sisters) and grew up in several British territories and former territories: South Africa, Cyprus, Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Swaziland and Jamaica, where his father was working as an electrical engineer. His parents ended up working and living in Catalonia, an autonomous region of Spain, where Parris later bought a house.
Parris was educated at Waterford Kamhlaba United World College of Southern Africa, an independent school just outside Mbabane in Swaziland, followed by Clare College at the University of Cambridge, from which he gained a first class degree in Law, where he was also a member of Cambridge University Liberal Club. He then won a Paul Mellon scholarship and studied international relations at Yale University.
At the age of 19, Parris drove across Africa to Europe in a Morris Oxford; the trip was traumatically punctuated when he and the girl he was travelling with were attacked, and he was forced to witness her rape.[citation needed]
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Michel de Montaigne
Michel Eyquem de Montaigne (French pronunciation: [miʃɛl ekɛm də mɔ̃tɛɲ]), February 28, 1533 – September 13, 1592, was one of the most influential writers of the French Renaissance, known for popularising the essay as a literary genre and is popularly thought of as the father of Modern Skepticism. He became famous for his effortless ability to merge serious intellectual speculation with casual anecdotes and autobiography—and his massive volume Essais (translated literally as "Attempts") contains, to this day, some of the most widely influential essays ever written. Montaigne had a direct influence on writers the world over, including René Descartes,Blaise Pascal, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Friedrich Nietzsche, Stefan Zweig, Eric Hoffer,Isaac Asimov, and possibly on the later works of William Shakespeare.
In his own time, Montaigne was admired more as a statesman than as an author. The tendency in his essays to digress into anecdotes and personal ruminations was seen as detrimental to proper style rather than as an innovation, and his declaration that, 'I am myself the matter of my book', was viewed by his contemporaries as self-indulgent. In time, however, Montaigne would be recognized as embodying, perhaps better than any other author of his time, the spirit of freely entertaining doubt which began to emerge at that time. He is most famously known for his skeptical remark, 'Que sçay-je?' ('What do I know?' in Middle French; modern French Que sais-je?). Remarkably modern even to readers today, Montaigne's attempt to examine the world through the lens of the only thing he can depend on implicitly—his own judgment—makes him more accessible to modern readers than any other author of the Renaissance. Much of modern literary non-fiction has found inspiration in Montaigne and writers of all kinds continue to read him for his masterful balance of intellectual knowledge and personal story-telling.
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Niccolò Machiavelli
Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (Italian pronunciation: [nikkoˌlɔ makjaˈvɛlli], 3 May 1469 – 21 June 1527) was an Italian historian, diplomat, philosopher, humanist and writer based in Florence during the Renaissance. A founder of modern political science, he was a diplomat, political philosopher, playwright, and a civil servant of the Florentine Republic. He also wrote comedies, carnival songs, and poetry. His personal correspondence is renowned in the Italian language. He was Secretary to the Second Chancery of the Republic of Florence from 1498 to 1512, when the Medici were out of power. He wrote his masterpiece, The Prince after the Medici had recovered power and he no longer held a position of responsibility in Florence, and is respectively interpreted by many as a satire of these powers.
Machiavelli was born in Florence, Italy, the first son and third child of attorney, Bernardo di Niccolò Machiavelli, and his wife, Bartolomea di Stefano Nelli. The Machiavelli family are believed to be descended from the old marquesses of Tuscany and to have produced thirteen Florentine Gonfalonieres of Justice, one of the offices of a group of nine citizens selected by drawing lots every two months, who formed the government, or Signoria. Machiavelli, like many people of Florence, was however not a full citizen of Florence, due to the nature of Florentine citizenship in that time, even under the republican regime.
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Orville Ward Owen
Dr. Orville Ward Owen (January 1, 1854 – March 31, 1924) was an American physician, and exponent of the Baconian theory of Shakespearean authorship. Owen claimed to have discovered hidden messages contained in the works of Shakespeare/Bacon. He deciphered these using a device he invented called a "cipher wheel". The alleged discoveries were published in Owen's multi-volume work Sir Francis Bacon's Cipher Story (1893-5).
Owen's "cipher wheel" was a device for quickly collating printed pages from the works of Shakespeare, Francis Bacon, and other authors, combining passages that appeared to have some connection with key words or phrases. Owen described this as the word cipher. A one thousand long strip of canvas had on it pasted the works of Shakespeare as well as samples by Christopher Marlowe and other contemporaries. When the wheels turned, key words were highlighted.
The method was examined by cryptologists William and Elizebeth Friedman, who conclude that it has no cryptographic validity. In addition, Dr. Frederick Mann, a close friend of Owen, published a severe critique soon after Owen's book first appeared. Mann wrote that Owen's method means that "we are asked to believe that such peerless creations as Hamlet, The Tempest, and Romeo and Juliet were not prime productions of the transcendent genius who wrote them, but were subsidiary devices which Bacon designed for the purpose of concealing the cipher therein." He also noted that Owen and his assistants gave themselves considerable freedom in choosing and altering passages as they saw fit, even though the cipher-text was supposed to be identified by keywords; "in one instance the keyword is 47 lines away from the quotation taken, and in a large number of instances it is not even to be found on the same page".
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Otto Neurath
Otto Neurath (Vienna, December 10, 1882 - Oxford, December 22, 1945) was an Austrian philosopher of science, sociologist, and political economist. Before he was to flee his native country in 1934, Neurath was one of the leading figures of the Vienna Circle.
Neurath was born in Vienna, the son of Wilhelm Neurath (1840–1901), a well-known political economist at the time. He studied mathematics in Vienna and gained his Ph.D. in the department of Political Science and Statistics at the University of Berlin.
He married Anna Schapire in 1907. She died as a result of childbirth (Paul Neurath) in 1911, and he married a close friend, the mathematician and philosopher Olga Hahn. Perhaps because of Olga's blindness and then because of the outbreak of war, his son, Paul Neurath was sent to a children's home outside Vienna, where Neurath's mother lived, and returned to live with his father and Olga when he was nine years old.
Neurath taught political economy at the Neue Wiener Handelsakademie (New College of Commerce, Vienna) until war broke out. Subsequently he became director of the Deutsches Kriegwirtschaftsmuseum (German Museum of War Economy, later the Deutsches Wirtschaftmuseum) at Leipzig. Wolfgang Schumann, known from the Dürerbund for which Neurath had written many articles, urged him to work out a plan for socialization. Neurath joined the German Social Democratic Party in 1918-19 and ran an office for central economic planning in Munich. When the Bavarian Soviet Republic was defeated, Neurath was imprisoned but returned to Austria after intervention from the Austrian government. While in prison he wrote "Anti-Spengler", a critical attack on Oswald Spengler's "Decline of the West".
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Parmenides
Parmenides of Elea ( /pɑrˈmɛnɨdiːz əv ˈɛliə/; Ancient Greek: Παρμενίδης ὁ Ἐλεάτης; fl. early 5th century BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher born in Elea, a Greek city on the southern coast of Italy. He was the founder of the Eleatic school of philosophy. The single known work of Parmenides is a poem, On Nature, which has survived only in fragmentary form. In this poem, Parmenides describes two views of reality. In "the way of truth" (a part of the poem), he explains how reality (coined as "what-is") is one, change is impossible, and existence is timeless, uniform, necessary, and unchanging. In "the way of opinion," he explains the world of appearances, in which one's sensory faculties lead to conceptions which are false and deceitful. These ideas strongly influenced the whole of Western philosophy, perhaps most notably through its effect on Plato.
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Paul Feyerabend
Paul Karl Feyerabend (January 13, 1924 – February 11, 1994) was an Austrian-born philosopher of science best known for his work as a professor of philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley, where he worked for three decades (1958–1989). He lived a peripatetic life, living at various times in England, the United States, New Zealand, Italy, Germany, and finally Switzerland. His major works include Against Method (published in 1975), Science in a Free Society (published in 1978) and Farewell to Reason (a collection of papers published in 1987). Feyerabend became famous for his purportedly anarchistic view of science and his rejection of the existence of universal methodological rules. He is an influential figure in the philosophy of science, and also in the sociology of scientific knowledge.
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Paul H. Kocher
Paul Harold Kocher (April 23, 1907 - July 17, 1998) was an author and professor of English. He wrote extensively on the works of J. R. R. Tolkien as well as on aspects of Elizabethan English philosophy and literature, and the Franciscan missions of 18th and 19th century California.
Born Paul Harold Kocher in Trinidad, he later moved to New York, becoming a United States citizen. He taught at various universities across the United States, retiring from Stanford University in 1970. Winner of the Mythopoeic Society's Scholarship in Inkling Studies Award in 1973 for his book Master of Middle Earth.
Books and publications:
Marlowe's Atheist Lecture: The Journal of English and Germanic Philology. 1940
Christopher Marlowe: A Study of His Thought, Learning and Character. North Carolina. 1946
Science and Religion in Elizabethan England. 1955
Master of Middle-Earth: the fiction of J. R. R. Tolkien. 1972 (published as: Master of Middle-Earth: the achievement of J. R. R. Tolkien in Britain in 1973)
California's old missions: the story of the 21 Franciscan missions in Alta California, 1769-1823. 1976
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Perez Zagorin
Perez Zagorin (May 20, 1920 – April 26, 2009) was an American historian who specialized in 16th and 17th century English and British history and political thought, early modern European history, and related areas in literature and philosophy. From 1965 to 1990, he taught at the University of Rochester, New York, retiring as the Joseph C. Wilson Professor of History Emeritus.
Zagorin was born in Chicago, Illinois on May 29, 1920 to Solomon Novitz and Mildred Ginsburg Zagorin. He married the artist Honoré Desmond Sharrer on May 29, 1947. They had one son, Adam Zagorin, who currently works for Time Magazine and has two sons of his own.
Zagorin's B.A. was from the University of Chicago; he earned both his M.A. and Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1947 and 1952 respectively. At Harvard, Zagorin was a student of Wilbur Kitchener Jordan, Charles McIlwain and others.
He taught history at Amherst College 1947-1949, at Vassar College 1951-1953, and reached the rank of full Professor at McGill University, Montreal, while teaching there 1955-1965. The move to Canada resulted in part because of difficulties he encountered finding a tenure track position in the US because of his political beliefs, as McCarthyism threatened academic freedom.
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Pierre Duhem
Pierre Maurice Marie Duhem ([pjˈɛʁ moʁˈis maʁˈi dyˈɛm] ( listen); 9 June 1861 – 14 September 1916) was a French physicist, mathematician and philosopher of science, best known for his writings on the indeterminacy of experimental criteria and on scientific development in the Middle Ages. Duhem also made major contributions to the science of his day, particularly in the fields of hydrodynamics, elasticity, and thermodynamics.
Duhem's views on the philosophy of science are explicated in The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory. In this work, he opposed Newton's statement that the Principia's law of universal mutual gravitation was deduced from 'phenomena', including Kepler's second and third laws. Newton's claims in this regard had already been attacked by critical proof-analyses of the German logician Leibniz and then most famously by Immanuel Kant, following Hume's logical critique of induction. But the novelty of Duhem's work was his proposal that Newton's theory of universal mutual gravity flatly contradicted Kepler's Laws of planetary motion because the interplanetary mutual gravitational perturbations caused deviations from Keplerian orbits. Since no proposition can be validly logically deduced from any it contradicts, according to Duhem, Newton must not have logically deduced his law of gravitation directly from Kepler's Laws.
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Pierre Gassendi
Pierre Gassendi (January 22, 1592 – October 24, 1655) was a French philosopher, priest, scientist, astronomer, and mathematician. With a church position in south-east France, he also spent much time in Paris, where he was a leader of a group of free-thinking intellectuals. He was also an active observational scientist, publishing the first data on the transit of Mercury in 1631. The lunar crater Gassendi is named after him.
He wrote numerous philosophical works, and some of the positions he worked out are considered significant, finding a way between scepticism and dogmatism. Richard Popkin indicates that Gassendi was one of the first thinkers to formulate the modern "scientific outlook", of moderated scepticism and empiricism. He clashed with his contemporary Descartes on the possibility of certain knowledge. His best known intellectual project attempted to reconcile Epicurean atomism with Christianity.
Gassendi was born at Champtercier, near Digne, in France. A youthful prodigy, at a very early age he showed academic potential and attended the college at Digne, where he displayed a particular aptitude for languages and mathematics. Soon afterwards he entered the University of Aix-en-Provence, to study philosophy under Philibert Fesaye. In 1612 the college of Digne called him to lecture on theology. Four years later he received the degree of Doctor of Theology at Avignon, and in 1617 he took holy orders. In the same year he answered a call to the chair of philosophy at Aix-en-Provence University, and seems gradually to have withdrawn from theology.
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Plato
Plato ( /ˈpleɪtoʊ/; Greek: Πλάτων, Plátōn, "broad"; 424/423 BC – 348/347 BC) was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the foundations of Western philosophy and science. In the words of A. N. Whitehead:
The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. I do not mean the systematic scheme of thought which scholars have doubtfully extracted from his writings. I allude to the wealth of general ideas scattered through them.
Plato's sophistication as a writer is evident in his Socratic dialogues; thirty-six dialogues and thirteen letters have been ascribed to him. Plato's writings have been published in several fashions; this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of Plato's texts. Plato's dialogues have been used to teach a range of subjects, including philosophy, logic, ethics, rhetoric, and mathematics.
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Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus (23 AD – August 25, 79 AD), better known as Pliny the Elder, was a Roman author, naturalist, and natural philosopher, as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and personal friend of the emperor Vespasian. Spending most of his spare time studying, writing or investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field, he wrote an encyclopedic work, Naturalis Historia, which became a model for all such works written subsequently. Pliny the Younger, his nephew, wrote of him in a letter to the historian Tacitus:
Pliny is referring to the fact that Tacitus relied on his uncle's now missing work on the History of the German Wars. Pliny the Elder died on August 25, 79 AD, while attempting the rescue by ship of a friend and his family from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius that had just destroyed the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The prevailing wind would not allow his ship to leave the shore. His companions attributed his collapse and death to toxic fumes; but they were unaffected by the fumes, suggesting natural causes.
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Puritan
The Puritans were a significant grouping of English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries, including, but not limited to, English Calvinists. Puritanism in this sense was founded by some Marian exiles from the clergy shortly after the accession of Elizabeth I of England in 1558, as an activist movement within the Church of England. The designation "Puritan" is often incorrectly used, notably based on the assumption that hedonism and puritanism are antonyms. Historically, the word was used pejoratively to characterize the Protestant group as extremists similar to the Cathari of France, and according to Thomas Fuller in his Church History dated back to 1564, Archbishop Matthew Parker of that time used it and "precisian" with the sense of modern "stickler".
Puritans were blocked from changing the established church from within, and severely restricted in England by laws controlling the practice of religion, but their views were taken by the emigration of congregations to the Netherlands and later New England, and by evangelical clergy to Ireland and later into Wales, and were spread into lay society by preaching and parts of the educational system, particularly certain colleges of the University of Cambridge. They took on distinctive views on clerical dress and in opposition to the episcopal system, particularly after the 1619 conclusions of the Synod of Dort were resisted by the English bishops. They largely adopted Sabbatarian views in the 17th century, and were influenced by millennialism.
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Queen Elizabeth I
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was queen regnant of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana, or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. The daughter of Henry VIII, she was born a princess, but her mother, Anne Boleyn, was executed two and a half years after her birth, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. Her half-brother, Edward VI, bequeathed the crown to Lady Jane Grey, cutting his half-sisters out of the succession in contradiction to statute law. His will was set aside, Lady Jane Grey was executed, and in 1558 Elizabeth succeeded the Catholic Mary I, during whose reign she had been imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels.
Elizabeth set out to rule by good counsel, and she depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, Baron Burghley. One of her first moves as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement later evolved into today's Church of England. It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir so as to continue the Tudor line. She never did, however, despite numerous courtships. As she grew older, Elizabeth became famous for her virginity, and a cult grew up around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of the day.
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R.B. Braithwaite
Richard Bevan Braithwaite (15 January 1900–21 April 1990) was an English philosopher who specialized in the philosophy of science, ethics, and the philosophy of religion. He was a lecturer in moral science at the University of Cambridge from 1934 to 1953, then Knightbridge Professor of Moral Philosophy there from 1953 to 1967. He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1946 to 1947, and was elected a fellow of the British Academy in 1957.
Braithwaite was born in Banbury, Oxfordshire. His father was the historian of early Quaker history, William Charles Braithwaite.
He entered King's College, Cambridge, in 1919 to study physics and mathematics, gaining a BA in 1923 and an MA in 1926. "He was a Fellow of King's College, Cambridge from 1924 to 1990. He was appointed Cambridge University Lecturer in Moral Sciences in 1928."
He was married (secondly) to the computational linguist and philosopher Margaret Masterman with whom he founded the Epiphany Philosophers a group of (largely) Anglicans and Quakers seeking a new view of the relationship between philosophy and science (see the Pardshaw Dialogues, below).
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René Descartes
René Descartes (French pronunciation: [ʁəne dekaʁt]; Latinized form: Renatus Cartesius; adjectival form: "Cartesian"; 31 March 1596 – 11 February 1650) was a French philosopher, mathematician, and writer who spent most of his adult life in the Dutch Republic. He has been dubbed the 'Father of Modern Philosophy', and much subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings, which are studied closely to this day. In particular, his Meditations on First Philosophy continues to be a standard text at most university philosophy departments. Descartes' influence in mathematics is equally apparent; the Cartesian coordinate system — allowing algebraic equations to be expressed as geometric shapes in a two-dimensional coordinate system — was named after him. He is credited as the father of analytical geometry, the bridge between algebra and geometry, crucial to the discovery of infinitesimal calculus and analysis. Descartes was also one of the key figures in the Scientific Revolution and has been described as an example of genius.
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Robert Kilwardby
Robert Kilwardby (c. 1215–11 September 1279) was an Archbishop of Canterbury in England and as well as a cardinal.
Kilwardby studied at the University of Paris, then was a teacher of grammar and logic there. He then joined the Dominican Order and studied theology, and became regent at Oxford University before 1261, probably by 1245. He was named provincial prior of the Dominicans for England in 1261, and in October 1272 Pope Gregory X appointed him as Archbishop of Canterbury to end a disupte over the election. Kilwardby was provided to the archbishopric on 11 October 1272, given the temporalities on 12 December 1272, and consecrated on 26 February 1273.
Kilwardby crowned Edward I and his wife Eleanor as king and queen of England in August 1274, but otherwise took little part in politics. He instead concentrated on his ecclesiastical duties, including charity to the poor and donating to the Dominicans.
In 1278 Pope Nicholas III named Kilwardby Cardinal Bishop of Porto and Santa Rufina. He then resigned Canterbury and left England, taking with him papers, registers and documents belonging to the see. He also left the see deep in debt again, after his predecessor had cleared the debt. He died in Italy in 1279 and was buried in the Dominican convent in Viterbo, Italy. While in theory this was a promotion, probably it was not, as the pope was unhappy with Kilwardy's support of efforts to resist the payment of papal revenues and with the lack of effort towards the reforms demanded at the Second Council of Lyon in 1274.
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Robert Lucas, Jr.
Robert Emerson Lucas, Jr. (born September 15, 1937, Yakima, Washington) is an American economist at the University of Chicago. He received the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1995 and is consistently indexed among the top 10 economists in the Research Papers in Economics rankings. He is married to economist Nancy Stokey.
He received his B.A. in History in 1959 and Ph.D. in Economics in 1964, both from the University of Chicago. He taught at the Graduate School of Industrial Administration (now Tepper School of Business) at Carnegie Mellon University until 1975, when he returned to the University of Chicago.
One of the most influential economists since the 1970s, he challenged the foundations of macroeconomic theory (previously dominated by the Keynesian economics approach), arguing that a macroeconomic model should be built as an aggregated version of microeconomic models (while noting that aggregation in the theoretical sense may not be possible within a given model). He developed the "Lucas critique" of economic policymaking, which holds that relationships that appear to hold in the economy, such as an apparent relationship between inflation and unemployment, could change in response to changes in economic policy. This led to the development of New Keynesian economics and the drive towards microeconomic foundations for macroeconomic theory.
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Roger Bacon
Roger Bacon, O.F.M. (c. 1214–1294), (scholastic accolade Doctor Mirabilis, meaning "wonderful teacher"), was an English philosopher and Franciscan friar who placed considerable emphasis on the study of nature through empirical methods. He is sometimes credited, mainly starting in the 19th century, as one of the earliest European advocates of the modern scientific method inspired by the works of Aristotle and later pseudo-Aristotelian works, like the works of Muslim scientist Alhazen. However, more recent reevaluations emphasize that he was essentially a medieval thinker, with much of his "experimental" knowledge obtained from books, in the scholastic tradition. A survey of the reception of Bacon's work over centuries found that it often reflects the concerns and controversies central to the receivers.
Roger Bacon was born in Ilchester in Somerset, England, possibly in 1213 or 1214 at the Ilchester Friary. The only source for his date of birth is his statement in the Opus Tertium, written in 1267, that "forty years have passed since I first learned the alphabet". The 1214 birth date assumes he was not being literal, and may have meant 40 years had passed since he matriculated at Oxford at the age of 13. If he had been literal, his birth date was more likely to have been around 1220/1222. In the same passage he reports that for all but two of those forty years he had always been engaged in study. His family appears to have been well-off, but, during the stormy reign of Henry III of England, their property was despoiled and several members of the family were driven into exile.
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Roland Emmerich
Roland Emmerich (German: [ˈʁoːlant ˈɛməʁɪç]) (born November 10, 1955) is a German film director, screenwriter, and producer. His films, most of which are Hollywood productions filmed in English, have grossed more than $3 billion worldwide, more than those of any other European directors. His films have grossed just over $1 billion in the United States, making him the country's 14th-highest grossing director of all time. He began his work in the film industry by directing the film The Noah's Ark Principle as part of his university thesis and also co-founded Centropolis Entertainment in 1985 with his sister. He is a collector of art and an active campaigner for the lesbian and gay community, himself being openly gay. He is also a campaigner for an awareness of global warming and equal rights.
Emmerich has directed many successful films such as Stargate (1994), Independence Day (1996), The Patriot (2000), The Day After Tomorrow (2004) and 2012 (2009). Although many of his films have been successful in the box office, his films usually have the tendency of being panned by critics such as Universal Soldier (1992), Godzilla (1998) and 10,000 BC (2008) .
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Rudolf Carnap
Rudolf Carnap (May 18, 1891 – September 14, 1970) was an influential German-born philosopher who was active in Europe before 1935 and in the United States thereafter. He was a major member of the Vienna Circle and an advocate of logical positivism.
Carnap was born to a west German family that had been humble until his parents' generation. He began his formal education at the Barmen Gymnasium. From 1910 to 1914, he attended the University of Jena, intending to write a thesis in physics. But he also studied carefully Kant's Critique of Pure Reason during a course taught by Bruno Bauch, and was one of very few students to attend Gottlob Frege's courses in mathematical logic. After serving in the German army during World War I for three years, he was given permission to study physics at the University of Berlin, 1917–18, where Albert Einstein was a newly appointed professor. Carnap then attended the University of Jena, where he wrote a thesis defining an axiomatic theory of space and time. The physics department said it was too philosophical, and Bruno Bauch of the philosophy department said it was pure physics. Carnap then wrote another thesis, with Bauch's supervision, on the theory of space in a more orthodox Kantian style, and published as Der Raum (Space) in a supplemental issue of Kant-Studien (1922). In it he makes the clear distinction between formal, physical and perceptual (e.g., visual) spaces.
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Simonds D'Ewes
Sir Simonds d'Ewes, 1st Baronet (18 December 1602, Milden, Suffolk, England – 18 April 1650) was an antiquary and politician. He was bred for the bar, was a member of the Long Parliament and left notes on its transactions. d'Ewes took the Puritan side in the Civil War. His Journal of all the Parliaments of Elizabeth is of value; he left an Autobiography and Correspondence.
Simonds d'Ewes was born the eldest son of Paul d'Ewes, of Milden, Suffolk, and Cecelia, the heiress of Sir Richard Simonds. He inherited a fortune from his maternal grandfather while still young; his other grandfather was the printer Gerard D'Ewes. After some early private teaching, including time at the school of Henry Reynolds (father of Bathsua Makin, who impressed D'Ewes much more), he was sent to the grammar school at Bury St. Edmunds. He then went to St John's College, Cambridge, and studied under Richard Holdsworth. At St John's he was exposed to and influenced by a strong college tradition of Puritanism.
He was admitted to the Middle Temple in 1611, and in 1623 was called to the Bar. He did not pursue a legal career, preferring instead to follow up antiquarian interests, which took him to the records in the Tower of London. He met Sir Robert Cotton, who introduced him to John Selden, the outstanding lawyer-scholar of the time; but D'Ewes found him conceited.
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Sir Matthew Hale
Sir Matthew Hale SL (1 November 1609 — 25 December 1676) was an influential English barrister, judge and lawyer most noted for his treatise Historia Placitorum Coronæ, or The History of the Pleas of the Crown. Born to a barrister and his wife, who had both died by the time he was 5, Hale was raised by his father's relative, a strict Puritan, and inherited his faith. In 1626 he matriculated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford (now Hertford College), intending to become a priest, but after a series of distractions was persuaded to become a barrister like his father thanks to an encounter with a Serjeant-at-Law in a dispute over his estate. On 8 November 1628 he joined Lincoln's Inn, where he was called to the Bar on 17 May 1636. As a barrister, Hale represented a variety of Royalist figures during the prelude and duration of the English Civil War, including Thomas Wentworth and William Laud; it has been hypothesised that Hale was to represent Charles I at his state trial, and conceived the defence Charles used. Despite the Royalist loss, Hale's reputation for integrity and his political neutrality saved him from any repercussions, and under the Commonwealth of England he was made Chairman of the Hale Commission, which investigated law reform. Following the Commission's dissolution, Oliver Cromwell made him a Justice of the Common Pleas.
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Sir Robert Peel
Sir Robert Peel, 2nd Baronet (5 February 1788 – 2 July 1850) was a British Conservative statesman who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 10 December 1834 to 8 April 1835, and again from 30 August 1841 to 29 June 1846. While Home Secretary, Peel helped create the modern concept of the police force, leading to officers being known as "bobbies" (in England) and "Peelers" (in Northern Ireland). While Prime Minister after 1841, Peel repealed the Corn Laws and issued the Tamworth Manifesto (1834), leading to the formation of the Conservative Party out of the shattered Tory Party.
Peel was born in Bury, Lancashire, England, to the industrialist and Member of Parliament Sir Robert Peel, 1st Baronet. His father was one of the richest textile manufacturers of the early Industrial Revolution. Peel was educated first at Hipperholme Grammar School, then at Harrow School and finally Christ Church, Oxford, where he took a double first in classics and mathematics. He is also believed to have attended Bury Grammar School. While living in Tamworth, he is credited with the development of the Tamworth Pig by breeding Irish stock with some local Tamworth pigs.
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Star Chamber
The Star Chamber (Latin: Camera stellata) was an English court of law that sat at the royal Palace of Westminster until 1641. It was made up of Privy Counsellors, as well as common-law judges and supplemented the activities of the common-law and equity courts in both civil and criminal matters. The court was set up to ensure the fair enforcement of laws against prominent people, those so powerful that ordinary courts could never convict them of their crimes. Court sessions were held in secret, with no indictments, no right of appeal, no juries, and no witnesses. Evidence was presented in writing. Over time it evolved into a political weapon, a symbol of the misuse and abuse of power by the English monarchy and courts.
In modern usage, legal or administrative bodies with strict, arbitrary rulings and secretive proceedings are sometimes called, metaphorically or poetically, star chambers. This is a pejorative term and intended to cast doubt on the legitimacy of the proceedings. The inherent lack of objectivity of any politically motivated charges has led to substantial reforms in English law in most jurisdictions since that time.
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Stephen Toulmin
Stephen Edelston Toulmin (25 March 1922 - 4 December 2009) was a British philosopher, author, and educator. Influenced by Ludwig Wittgenstein, Toulmin devoted his works to the analysis of moral reasoning. Throughout his writings, he sought to develop practical arguments which can be used effectively in evaluating the ethics behind moral issues. His works were later found useful in the field of rhetoric for analyzing rhetorical arguments. The Toulmin Model of Argumentation, a diagram containing six interrelated components used for analyzing arguments, was considered his most influential work, particularly in the field of rhetoric and communication, and in computer science.
Stephen Toulmin was born in London, England, on 25 March 1922 to Geoffrey Edelson Toulmin and Doris Holman Toulmin. He earned his Bachelor of Arts degree from King's College, Cambridge in 1942. Soon after, Toulmin was hired by the Ministry of Aircraft Production as a junior scientific officer, first at the Malvern Radar Research and Development Station and later at the Supreme Headquarters of the Allied Expeditionary Force in Germany. At the end of World War II, he returned to England to earn a Master of Arts degree in 1947 and a PhD in philosophy from Cambridge University, subsequently publishing his dissertation as An Examination of the Place of Reason in Ethics (1950). While at Cambridge, Toulmin came into contact with the Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein, whose examination on the relationship between the uses and the meanings of language shaped much of Toulmin’s own work.
wn.com/Stephen_Toulmin -
Thomas Birch
Thomas Birch (23 November 1705 – 9 January 1766) was an English historian.
He was the son of Joseph Birch, a coffee-mill maker, and was born at Clerkenwell.
He preferred study to business but, as his parents were Quakers, he did not go to the university. Notwithstanding this circumstance, he was ordained deacon in the Church of England in 1730 and priest in 1731. As a strong supporter of the Whigs, he gained the favour of Philip Yorke, afterwards lord chancellor and first earl of Hardwicke, and his subsequent preferments were largely due to this friendship. He held successively a number of benefices in different counties, and finally in London. In 1735 he became a member of the Society of Antiquaries, and was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, of which he was secretary from 1752 to 1765. In 1728 he had married Hannah Cox, who died in the following year. Birch was killed on 9 January 1766 by a fall from his horse, and was buried in the church of St Margaret Pattens, London, of which he was then rector. He died, according to his will, "in a full confidence in the Mercy and Goodness of almighty God and with a firm persuasion of a blessed Immortality discoverable by the Light of Nature and confirmed for us Christians by that of Revelation", leaving his books and manuscripts to the British Museum, and a sum of about £500 to increase the salaries of the three assistant librarians.
wn.com/Thomas_Birch -
Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury (5 April 1588 – 4 December 1679), in some older texts Thomas Hobbs of Malmsbury, was an English philosopher, best known today for his work on political philosophy. His 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory.
Hobbes was a champion of absolutism for the sovereign but he also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between civil society and the state); the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative" and based on the consent of the people; and a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid.
He was one of the founders of modern political philosophy. His understanding of humans as being matter and motion, obeying the same physical laws as other matter and motion, remains influential; and his account of human nature as self-interested cooperation, and of political communities as being based upon a "social contract" remains one of the major topics of political philosophy.
wn.com/Thomas_Hobbes -
Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson (April 13, 1743 (April 2, 1743 O.S.) – July 4, 1826) was an American Founding Father, the principal author of the United States Declaration of Independence (1776) and the third President of the United States (1801–1809). At the beginning of the American Revolution, Jefferson served in the Continental Congress, representing Virginia. He then served as a wartime Governor of Virginia (1779–1781). Just after the war ended, from mid-1784 Jefferson served as a diplomat, stationed in Paris, initially as a commissioner to help negotiate commercial treaties. In May 1785, he became the United States Minister to France. He was the first United States Secretary of State (1790–1793) during the administration of President George Washington. Upon resigning his office, with his close friend James Madison he organized the Democratic-Republican Party. Elected Vice-President in 1796, under his opponent John Adams, Jefferson with Madison secretly wrote the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, which attempted to nullify the Alien and Sedition Acts.
wn.com/Thomas_Jefferson -
Thomas Samuel Kuhn
Thomas Samuel Kuhn ( /ˈkuːn/; July 18, 1922 – June 17, 1996) was an American historian and philosopher of science whose controversial 1962 book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was deeply influential in both academic and popular circles, introducing the term "paradigm shift," which has since become an English-language staple.
Kuhn has made several notable claims concerning the progress of scientific knowledge: that scientific fields undergo periodic "paradigm shifts" rather than solely progressing in a linear and continuous way; that these paradigm shifts open up new approaches to understanding that scientists would never have considered valid before; and that the notion of scientific truth, at any given moment, cannot be established solely by objective criteria but is defined by a consensus of a scientific community. Competing paradigms are frequently incommensurable; that is, they are competing accounts of reality which cannot be coherently reconciled. Thus, our comprehension of science can never rely on full "objectivity"; we must account for subjective perspectives as well.
wn.com/Thomas_Samuel_Kuhn -
Viscount St Alban
Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban(s),KC (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626) was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist and author. He served both as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England. Although his political career ended in disgrace, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution.
Bacon has been called the creator of empiricism. His works established and popularised inductive methodologies for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method, or simply the scientific method. His demand for a planned procedure of investigating all things natural marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, much of which still surrounds conceptions of proper methodology today.
Bacon was knighted in 1603, and created both the Baron Verulam in 1618, and the Viscount St Alban in 1621; as he died without heirs both peerages became extinct upon his death. He famously died by contracting pneumonia while studying the effects of freezing on the preservation of meat.
wn.com/Viscount_St_Alban -
W.V.O. Quine
Willard Van Orman Quine (June 25, 1908 – December 25, 2000) (known to intimates as "Van") was an American philosopher and logician in the analytic tradition. From 1930 until his death 70 years later, Quine was continuously affiliated with Harvard University in one way or another, first as a student, then as a professor of philosophy and a teacher of mathematics, and finally as a professor emeritus who published or revised several books in retirement. He filled the Edgar Pierce Chair of Philosophy at Harvard from 1956 to 1978. A recent poll conducted among analytic philosophers named Quine one of the five most important philosophers of the past two centuries. He won the first Schock Prize in Logic and Philosophy in 1993, for "his systematical and penetrating discussions of how learning of language and communication are based on socially available evidence and of the consequences of this for theories on knowledge and linguistic meaning."
wn.com/W.V.O._Quine -
Walter Travers
Walter Travers (1548? – 1635) was an English Puritan theologian. He was at one time chaplain to William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, and tutor to his son Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury.
He is remembered mostly as an opponent of the teaching of Richard Hooker. He was educated at the University of Cambridge, where he was admitted to Christ's College before migrating to Trinity, and then travelled to Geneva to visit Theodore Beza. He was ordained by Thomas Cartwright in Antwerp. He was a lecturer at the Temple Church in London in 1581, until he was forbidden to preach by Archbishop Whitgift in March 1586.
He was Provost of Trinity College, Dublin from 1594 to 1598.
wn.com/Walter_Travers -
Wilhelm Windelband
Wilhelm Windelband (May 11, 1848, Potsdam – October 22, 1915, Heidelberg) was a German philosopher of the Baden School.
Windelband is now mainly remembered for the terms nomothetic and idiographic, which he introduced. These have currency in psychology and other areas, though not necessarily in line with his original meanings. Windelband was a neo-Kantian who protested other neo-Kantians of his time and maintained that "to understand Kant rightly means to go beyond him". Against his positivist contemporaries, Windelband argued that philosophy should engage in humanistic dialogue with the natural sciences rather than uncritically appropriating its methodologies. His interests in psychology and cultural sciences represented an opposition to psychologism and historicism schools by a critical philosophic system.
Windelband relied in his effort to reach beyond Kant on such philosophers as Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Johann Friedrich Herbart and Hermann Lotze. Closely associated with Windelband was Heinrich Rickert. Windelband's disciples were not only noted philosophers, but sociologists like Max Weber and theologians like Ernst Troeltsch and Albert Schweitzer.
wn.com/Wilhelm_Windelband -
Wilhelm Wundt
Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (16 August 1832 - 31 August 1920 in Germany) was a German physician, psychologist, physiologist, philosopher, and professor, known today as one of the founding figures of modern psychology. He is widely regarded as the "father of experimental psychology". In 1879, Wundt founded the first formal laboratory for psychological research at the University of Leipzig.
By creating this laboratory he was able to explore the nature of religious beliefs, identify mental disorders and abnormal behavior, and find damaged parts of the brain. In doing so, he was able to establish psychology as a separate science from other topics. He also formed the first journal for psychological research in 1881.
Asteroids 635 Vundtia and 11040 Wundt are named in his honour.
Wundt was born at Neckarau, Baden on August 16th, 1832 (now part of Mannheim), the fourth child to parents Maximilian Wundt (a Lutheran minister), and his wife Marie Frederike. When about four years of age, Wundt's family moved to Heidelsheim which was known to be a small town. He studied from 1851 to 1856 at the University of Tübingen, University of Heidelberg, and the University of Berlin. After graduating in medicine from Heidelberg (1856), Wundt studied briefly with Johannes Peter Müller, before joining the University's staff, becoming an assistant to the physicist and physiologist Hermann von Helmholtz in 1858. There he wrote Contributions to the Theory of Sense Perception (1858–62). In 1865, he wrote a textbook about human physiology. In 1867 he became a professor in acquainting medical students with the exact physical needs for medical investigation. In 1874, he became a professor of "Inductive Philosophy" in Zurich. In 1875, he moved back to Leipzig.
wn.com/Wilhelm_Wundt -
William Aubrey
William Aubrey (ca. 1529 – 25 June 1595) was Regius Professor of Civil Law at the University of Oxford from 1553 to 1559, and was one of the founding Fellows of Jesus College, Oxford. He was also a MP.
Aubrey was born in Brecknockshire, Wales. After being educated at what later became Christ College, Brecon, Aubrey went to Oxford University, becoming a Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford in 1547. He obtained a BCL degree in 1549 and was appointed Principal of New Inn Hall, Oxford in 1550. In 1553, he succeeded Robert Weston as Regius Professor of Civil Law. He held the position until 1559, when he was succeeded by John Griffith. In 1571, he was named in the foundation charter as one of the original eight fellows of Jesus College, Oxford. He obtained the degree of DCL in 1554 and the following year he was made a Master in Chancery.
In 1562, Aubrey was a member of the commission set up by Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury that declared unlawful the marriage of Lady Catherine Grey to Henry Herbert (son of the 1st Earl of Pembroke). He was one of the signatories of the opinion that John Lesley (Bishop of Ross and an ambassador for Mary, Queen of Scots) could be tried in England for intriguing against Queen Elizabeth.
wn.com/William_Aubrey -
William Nugent
William Nugent (Irish: Uilliam Nuinseann) (1550–1625) was an Irish rebel, brother of Christopher, fourteenth baron of Delvin (Sixth Baron Delvin), and the younger son of Richard Nugent, thirteenth baron Delvin, from whom he inherited the manor and castle of Ross in County Meath.
He first acquired notoriety in December 1573 by his forcible abduction and marriage of Jane (Janet) Marward, heiress and titular baroness of Skryne, and ward of his uncle, Nicholas Nugent. He was for a short time in May 1575 placed under restraint on suspicion of being implicated in the refusal of his brother, Lord Delvin, to sign the proclamation of rebellion against the Earl of Desmond. On 10 April 1577 he and his wife had livery granted them of the lands of the late Baron Skryne , valued at 130 lbs. a year. He was suspected of sympathising with the rebellion of Viscount Baltinglass, but eluded capture by taking refuge with Toirdhealbhach Luinneach Ó Néill, who refused to surrender him. He was excluded by name from the general pardon offered the adherents of Lord Baltinglass, and by the unwise severity of Lord Grey he was driven to take up arms on his own account. With the assistance of the Ó Conchúir and Kavanagh septs, he created considerable disturbance on the borders of the Pale. The rising, though violent, was short-lived. Nugent spent much of the winter without shelter. His friends were afraid to communicate with him. Nugent's wife, out of 'the dutiful love of a wife to husband in that extremity,' managed to send him some shirts. She was found out and punished with a year's imprisonment. Finally, in January 1582, with the assistance of Turlough Luineach, he escaped to Scotland, and from there made his way through France to Rome. Shortly afterwards, his uncle Nicholas, who had already been removed from his office as Chief Justice, was charged with inciting William to rebellion, found guilty of treason , and hanged.
wn.com/William_Nugent -
William of Ockham
William of Ockham ( /ˈɒkəm/; also Occam, Hockham, or several other spellings; c. 1288 – c. 1348) was an English Franciscan friar and scholastic philosopher, who is believed to have been born in Ockham, a small village in Surrey. He is considered to be one of the major figures of medieval thought and was at the centre of the major intellectual and political controversies of the fourteenth century. Although he is commonly known for Ockham's razor, the methodological principle that bears his name, William of Ockham also produced significant works on logic, physics, and theology. In the Church of England, his day of commemoration is 10 April.
William of Ockham joined the Franciscan order at an early age. It is believed that he studied theology at the University of Oxford from 1309 to 1321, but never completed his master's degree (the usual undergraduate degree in those times). Because of this, he acquired the byname Venerabilis Inceptor, or "Worthy Beginner" (an inceptor was a student formally admitted to the ranks of teachers by the university authorities). He was also known as the Doctor Invincibilis or "Unconquerable Teacher."
wn.com/William_of_Ockham -
William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare (baptised 26 April 1564; died 23 April 1616) was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon". His surviving works, including some collaborations, consist of about 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and several other poems. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright.
Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children: Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Between 1585 and 1592, he began a successful career in London as an actor, writer, and part owner of a playing company called the Lord Chamberlain's Men, later known as the King's Men. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613 at age 49, where he died three years later. Few records of Shakespeare's private life survive, and there has been considerable speculation about such matters as his physical appearance, sexuality, religious beliefs, and whether the works attributed to him were written by others.
wn.com/William_Shakespeare -
William Whewell
William Whewell ( /ˈhjuːəl/ HEW-əl; 24 May 1794 – 6 March 1866) was an English polymath, scientist, Anglican priest, philosopher, theologian, and historian of science. He was Master of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Whewell was born in Lancaster. His father, a carpenter, wished him to follow his trade, but his success in mathematics at Lancaster and Heversham grammar schools won him an exhibition (a type of scholarship) at Trinity College, Cambridge (1812). In 1814 he was awarded the Chancellor's Gold Medal for poetry. He was Second Wrangler in 1816, President of the Cambridge Union Society in 1817, became fellow and tutor of his college, and, in 1841, succeeded Dr Christopher Wordsworth as master. He was professor of mineralogy from 1828 to 1832 and Knightbridge Professor of Philosophy (then called "moral theology and casuistical divinity") from 1838 to 1855.
Whewell died in Cambridge 1866 as a result of a fall from his horse.
Full bibliographical details are given by Isaac Todhunter, W. Whewell: an Account of his Writings (2 vols., 1876). See also Life of W. Whewell, by Mrs Stair Douglas (1881).
wn.com/William_Whewell
Famous quotes by Francis Bacon:
"Imagination was given man to compensate for what he is not, and a sense of humor to console him for what he is."
"People usually think according to their inclinations, speak according to their learning and ingrained opinions, but generally act according to custom."
"Age appears best in four things: old wood to burn, old wine to drink, old friends to trust, and old authors to read."
"The desire of excessive power caused the angels to fall; the desire of knowledge caused men to fall."
"Silence is the sleep that nourishes wisdom."
"Choose the life that is most useful, and habit will make it the most agreeable."
"Science is but an image of the truth."
"Some books are to be tasted; others swallowed; and some to be chewed and digested."
"It is not what men eat but what they digest that makes them strong; not what we gain but what we save that makes us rich; not what we read but what we remember that makes us learned; not what we preach but what we practice that makes us Christians."
"If we begin with certainties, we shall end in doubts; but if we begin with doubts, and are patient in them, we shall end in certainties."
"Imagination was given man to compensate for what he is not, and a sense of humor to console him for what he is."
"People usually think according to their inclinations, speak according to their learning and ingrained opinions, but generally act according to custom."
"Age appears best in four things: old wood to burn, old wine to drink, old friends to trust, and old authors to read."
"The desire of excessive power caused the angels to fall; the desire of knowledge caused men to fall."
"Silence is the sleep that nourishes wisdom."
"Choose the life that is most useful, and habit will make it the most agreeable."
"Science is but an image of the truth."
"Some books are to be tasted; others swallowed; and some to be chewed and digested."
"It is not what men eat but what they digest that makes them strong; not what we gain but what we save that makes us rich; not what we read but what we remember that makes us learned; not what we preach but what we practice that makes us Christians."
"If we begin with certainties, we shall end in doubts; but if we begin with doubts, and are patient in them, we shall end in certainties."
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Francis Bacon - Documentary part 1/6
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:36
- Updated: 15 Dec 2012
This is excellent! Cool docu about the well known artist. He discusses his work, his methods, his views on life and lots more. Cut in 6 parts. Enjoy!
http://wn.com/Francis_Bacon_Documentary_part_1_6
This is excellent! Cool docu about the well known artist. He discusses his work, his methods, his views on life and lots more. Cut in 6 parts. Enjoy!
Francis Bacon - On Life, Death, and Gambling
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:54
- Updated: 27 Nov 2012
1985 Documentary on Francis Bacon. Those interested in Bacon's work may find Gilles Deleuze's book -Francis Bacon: The Logic of Sensation- (translated by Daniel W. Smith) illuminating. www.upress.umn.edu
http://wn.com/Francis_Bacon_On_Life,_Death,_and_Gambling
1985 Documentary on Francis Bacon. Those interested in Bacon's work may find Gilles Deleuze's book -Francis Bacon: The Logic of Sensation- (translated by Daniel W. Smith) illuminating. www.upress.umn.edu
- published: 22 May 2007
- views: 88654
- author: svsugvcarter
francis bacon southbank 1/6
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 11 Dec 2012
www.etsy.com
http://wn.com/francis_bacon_southbank_1_6
francis bacon southbank 2/6
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 01 Dec 2012
www.etsy.com
http://wn.com/francis_bacon_southbank_2_6
The Art of Francis Bacon - Part 1/6
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:52
- Updated: 11 Dec 2012
No actual Bacon footage, but some good close-ups and quotes narrated by Derek Jacobi
http://wn.com/The_Art_of_Francis_Bacon_Part_1_6
No actual Bacon footage, but some good close-ups and quotes narrated by Derek Jacobi
- published: 26 Oct 2008
- views: 79906
- author: Stag
Francis Bacon A Terrible Beauty
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:08
- Updated: 15 Dec 2012
Promotional Film by Feenish Productions for Francis Bacon A Terrible Beauty Centenary Exhibition 28th October 2009 - 7th March 2010 Dublin City Gallery The Hugh Lane for more information go to: www.hughlane.ie http Feenish Productions
http://wn.com/Francis_Bacon_A_Terrible_Beauty
Promotional Film by Feenish Productions for Francis Bacon A Terrible Beauty Centenary Exhibition 28th October 2009 - 7th March 2010 Dublin City Gallery The Hugh Lane for more information go to: www.hughlane.ie http Feenish Productions
- published: 25 Sep 2009
- views: 40274
- author: FeenishProductions
francis bacon southbank 3/6
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 10 Dec 2012
www.etsy.com
http://wn.com/francis_bacon_southbank_3_6
Francis Bacon
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:25
- Updated: 17 Dec 2012
A selection of my favourite paintings by the artist Francis Bacon. Music: Blut Aus Nord and Lustmord.
http://wn.com/Francis_Bacon
A selection of my favourite paintings by the artist Francis Bacon. Music: Blut Aus Nord and Lustmord.
- published: 01 Mar 2009
- views: 8563
- author: GoldenRatio
francis bacon interview 1971`
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:01
- Updated: 15 Dec 2012
http://wn.com/francis_bacon_interview_1971`
The South Bank Show: Francis Bacon 1/6
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:07
- Updated: 12 Nov 2012
Francis Bacon documentary from 1985 discussing the artists life and work.
http://wn.com/The_South_Bank_Show_Francis_Bacon_1_6
Francis Bacon documentary from 1985 discussing the artists life and work.
- published: 18 May 2010
- views: 6078
- author: xenbay
Sir Francis Bacon's Fascinating Life and Political Career, with Will Durant
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:01
- Updated: 05 Dec 2012
Take advantage of audible.com's special offer and start listening to Audiobooks on your iPod or Smartphone today. Just click on the link Below. www.qksrv.net Get your first 3 months at 50% off. Just $7.49 a month. Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount Saint Alban, (22 January 1561 -- 9 April 1626) was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, lawyer, jurist, author and father of the scientific method. He served both as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England. Although his political career ended in disgrace, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method and pioneer in the scientific revolution. Bacon has been called the father of empiricism. His works established and popularized inductive methodologies for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method, or simply the scientific method. His demand for a planned procedure of investigating all things natural marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, much of which still surrounds conceptions of proper methodology today. His dedication probably led to his death, bringing him into a rare historical group of scientists who were killed by their own experiments. Bacon was knighted in 1603, and created both the Baron Verulam in 1618, and the Viscount St Alban in 1621; as he died without heirs both peerages became extinct upon his death. He famously died of pneumonia contracted while studying the effects of ...
http://wn.com/Sir_Francis_Bacon's_Fascinating_Life_and_Political_Career,_with_Will_Durant
Take advantage of audible.com's special offer and start listening to Audiobooks on your iPod or Smartphone today. Just click on the link Below. www.qksrv.net Get your first 3 months at 50% off. Just $7.49 a month. Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount Saint Alban, (22 January 1561 -- 9 April 1626) was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, lawyer, jurist, author and father of the scientific method. He served both as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England. Although his political career ended in disgrace, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method and pioneer in the scientific revolution. Bacon has been called the father of empiricism. His works established and popularized inductive methodologies for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method, or simply the scientific method. His demand for a planned procedure of investigating all things natural marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, much of which still surrounds conceptions of proper methodology today. His dedication probably led to his death, bringing him into a rare historical group of scientists who were killed by their own experiments. Bacon was knighted in 1603, and created both the Baron Verulam in 1618, and the Viscount St Alban in 1621; as he died without heirs both peerages became extinct upon his death. He famously died of pneumonia contracted while studying the effects of ...
- published: 21 Feb 2011
- views: 5830
- author: AudibleSuperfan
TateShots: Damien Hirst on Francis Bacon
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:59
- Updated: 02 Dec 2012
When Damien Hirst was a kid, he says, 'All my paintings were like bad Bacons'. We invited Damien to Tate Britain to see the Francis Bacon retrospective. He tells us why he loves the Crucifixion and Head series': detail that vanishes the closer you get, paint like blood and guts. 'That's probably why I love Bacon paintings. When I first saw them they reminded me of places I'd seen in nightmares.'
http://wn.com/TateShots_Damien_Hirst_on_Francis_Bacon
When Damien Hirst was a kid, he says, 'All my paintings were like bad Bacons'. We invited Damien to Tate Britain to see the Francis Bacon retrospective. He tells us why he loves the Crucifixion and Head series': detail that vanishes the closer you get, paint like blood and guts. 'That's probably why I love Bacon paintings. When I first saw them they reminded me of places I'd seen in nightmares.'
- published: 03 Dec 2008
- views: 25208
- author: tate
Francis Bacon - "Knowledge is Power"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:44
- Updated: 08 Dec 2012
Presentation on Francis Bacon for History of Science
http://wn.com/Francis_Bacon_Knowledge_is_Power
Presentation on Francis Bacon for History of Science
- published: 14 Nov 2011
- views: 523
- author: Tito Gomez
Sir Francis Bacon's 'The New Atlantis' Explained And Summarized By Will Durant
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:23
- Updated: 25 Nov 2012
Take advantage of audible.com's special offer and start listening to Audiobooks on your iPod or Smartphone today. Just click on the link Below. www.qksrv.net Get your first 3 months at 50% off. Just $7.49 a month. Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount Saint Alban, (22 January 1561 -- 9 April 1626) was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, lawyer, jurist, author and father of the scientific method. He served both as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England. Although his political career ended in disgrace, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method and pioneer in the scientific revolution. Bacon has been called the father of empiricism. His works established and popularized inductive methodologies for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method, or simply the scientific method. His demand for a planned procedure of investigating all things natural marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, much of which still surrounds conceptions of proper methodology today. His dedication probably led to his death, bringing him into a rare historical group of scientists who were killed by their own experiments. Bacon was knighted in 1603, and created both the Baron Verulam in 1618, and the Viscount St Alban in 1621; as he died without heirs both peerages became extinct upon his death. He famously died of pneumonia contracted while studying the effects of ...
http://wn.com/Sir_Francis_Bacon's_'The_New_Atlantis'_Explained_And_Summarized_By_Will_Durant
Take advantage of audible.com's special offer and start listening to Audiobooks on your iPod or Smartphone today. Just click on the link Below. www.qksrv.net Get your first 3 months at 50% off. Just $7.49 a month. Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount Saint Alban, (22 January 1561 -- 9 April 1626) was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, lawyer, jurist, author and father of the scientific method. He served both as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England. Although his political career ended in disgrace, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method and pioneer in the scientific revolution. Bacon has been called the father of empiricism. His works established and popularized inductive methodologies for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method, or simply the scientific method. His demand for a planned procedure of investigating all things natural marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, much of which still surrounds conceptions of proper methodology today. His dedication probably led to his death, bringing him into a rare historical group of scientists who were killed by their own experiments. Bacon was knighted in 1603, and created both the Baron Verulam in 1618, and the Viscount St Alban in 1621; as he died without heirs both peerages became extinct upon his death. He famously died of pneumonia contracted while studying the effects of ...
- published: 22 Feb 2011
- views: 6286
- author: AudibleSuperfan
Francis Bacon Tribute
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:44
- Updated: 16 Nov 2012
A quick little vid I threw together for my Professor, explaining Francis Bacon --------------------------------------------------------------------------- website www.matthewkean.com
http://wn.com/Francis_Bacon_Tribute
A quick little vid I threw together for my Professor, explaining Francis Bacon --------------------------------------------------------------------------- website www.matthewkean.com
- published: 01 Apr 2008
- views: 8435
- author: Matthew Kean
Francis Bacon - Sale Highlight
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:04
- Updated: 23 Apr 2012
Sotheby's Gregoire Billault discusses Francis Bacon's masterpiece 'Figure Writing Reflected in Mirror', which has been held in a private collection since it was purchased at the legendary 1977 Bacon exhibition at Galerie Claude Bernard in Paris.
http://wn.com/Francis_Bacon_Sale_Highlight
Sotheby's Gregoire Billault discusses Francis Bacon's masterpiece 'Figure Writing Reflected in Mirror', which has been held in a private collection since it was purchased at the legendary 1977 Bacon exhibition at Galerie Claude Bernard in Paris.
- published: 20 Apr 2012
- views: 1004
- author: SothebysTV
Francis Bacon's works at the Art Gallery of NSW
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:58
- Updated: 18 Nov 2012
Francis Bacon: five decades features more than 50 works by Bacon, who has been widely considered the master of post-war British art and the most important figurative painter after Picasso. Watch World News Australia 6.30pm nightly and 10.30pm Mon-Fri on SBS ONE.
http://wn.com/Francis_Bacon's_works_at_the_Art_Gallery_of_NSW
Francis Bacon: five decades features more than 50 works by Bacon, who has been widely considered the master of post-war British art and the most important figurative painter after Picasso. Watch World News Australia 6.30pm nightly and 10.30pm Mon-Fri on SBS ONE.
- published: 18 Nov 2012
- views: 98
- author: WorldNewsAustralia
![FRANCIS BACON and the Brutality of Fact [excerpt]](http://web.archive.org./web/20121218082910im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/ek7h2h5Gh0o/default.jpg "FRANCIS BACON and the Brutality of Fact [excerpt]")
FRANCIS BACON and the Brutality of Fact [excerpt]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:28
- Updated: 10 Dec 2012
FRANCIS BACON and the Brutality of Fact a film by Michael Blackwood (1985, 58 minutes, color) Website: www.michaelblackwoodproductions.com In his London studio, the British painter discusses his work and approach with David Sylvester, a friend and close observer of his art since the late 1940s. Central to their conversation are Bacon's controversial, horrifying subjects and style. His representations of the human figure in portraits and triptychs link him, in his view, to the distorted realism of Van Gogh and Picasso, who also portrayed the intensity of life that Bacon calls "the brutality of fact." © Michael Blackwood Productions 2012 All Rights Reserved
http://wn.com/FRANCIS_BACON_and_the_Brutality_of_Fact_excerpt_
FRANCIS BACON and the Brutality of Fact a film by Michael Blackwood (1985, 58 minutes, color) Website: www.michaelblackwoodproductions.com In his London studio, the British painter discusses his work and approach with David Sylvester, a friend and close observer of his art since the late 1940s. Central to their conversation are Bacon's controversial, horrifying subjects and style. His representations of the human figure in portraits and triptychs link him, in his view, to the distorted realism of Van Gogh and Picasso, who also portrayed the intensity of life that Bacon calls "the brutality of fact." © Michael Blackwood Productions 2012 All Rights Reserved
- published: 06 Jan 2012
- views: 9397
- author: MichaelBlackwoodProd
LIME HEADED DOG 'Francis Bacon' music video
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:13
- Updated: 09 May 2012
Music video for Lime Headed Dog. Written and directed by Greg Butler. 2008 © Photography by Adam Ings. 'Francis Bacon' Joel Cox 2008 © If you liked this video then view the sequel 'I don't want to be murdered...' www.myspace.com/limeheadeddog Volcano Attack 2008 ©
http://wn.com/LIME_HEADED_DOG_'Francis_Bacon'_music_video
Music video for Lime Headed Dog. Written and directed by Greg Butler. 2008 © Photography by Adam Ings. 'Francis Bacon' Joel Cox 2008 © If you liked this video then view the sequel 'I don't want to be murdered...' www.myspace.com/limeheadeddog Volcano Attack 2008 ©
- published: 31 Jul 2008
- views: 9033
- author: gregbutler1
Francis Bacon interview - 1984
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:43
- Updated: 14 Dec 2012
Le travail de Bacon n'est réellement reconnu qu'après la Seconde Guerre mondiale : ses œuvres provoquent des réactions extrêmes, souvent d'intense répulsion, tant elles sont violentes et expressives. Dans cette interview Francis Bacon parle de sa peinture, de sa technique et de ses influences. Le DVD "Francis Bacon - L'Homme Et L'Arène" un film de Adam Low est disponible : www.adam18.com
http://wn.com/Francis_Bacon_interview_1984
Le travail de Bacon n'est réellement reconnu qu'après la Seconde Guerre mondiale : ses œuvres provoquent des réactions extrêmes, souvent d'intense répulsion, tant elles sont violentes et expressives. Dans cette interview Francis Bacon parle de sa peinture, de sa technique et de ses influences. Le DVD "Francis Bacon - L'Homme Et L'Arène" un film de Adam Low est disponible : www.adam18.com
- published: 21 Sep 2010
- views: 41067
- author: Adam Montmartre
Francis Bacon - Wiki Article
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 40:30
- Updated: 01 Nov 2012
, 1st Viscount St. Alban, Kt., KC (22 January 1561 -- 9 April 1626) was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, and author. He served both as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of Engla... Francis Bacon - Wiki Article - wikiplays.org Original @ http All Information Derived from Wikipedia using Creative Commons License: en.wikipedia.org Author: Frans Pourbus the younger Image URL: en.wikipedia.org Licensed under:This image is ineligible for copyright and therefore is in the public domain, because it consists entirely of information that is common property and contains no original authorship., This work is in the Public Domain., This work is in the public domain in the United States. Author: Nicholas Hilliard Image URL: en.wikipedia.org Licensed under:This image is ineligible for copyright and therefore is in the public domain, because it consists entirely of information that is common property and contains no original authorship., This work is in the Public Domain., This work is in the public domain in the United States. Author: Unknown Image URL: en.wikipedia.org Licensed under:Creative Commons ASA 3.0, Licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License., GNU Free Documentation License, Creative Commons License Attribution-Share Ali...
http://wn.com/Francis_Bacon_Wiki_Article
, 1st Viscount St. Alban, Kt., KC (22 January 1561 -- 9 April 1626) was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, and author. He served both as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of Engla... Francis Bacon - Wiki Article - wikiplays.org Original @ http All Information Derived from Wikipedia using Creative Commons License: en.wikipedia.org Author: Frans Pourbus the younger Image URL: en.wikipedia.org Licensed under:This image is ineligible for copyright and therefore is in the public domain, because it consists entirely of information that is common property and contains no original authorship., This work is in the Public Domain., This work is in the public domain in the United States. Author: Nicholas Hilliard Image URL: en.wikipedia.org Licensed under:This image is ineligible for copyright and therefore is in the public domain, because it consists entirely of information that is common property and contains no original authorship., This work is in the Public Domain., This work is in the public domain in the United States. Author: Unknown Image URL: en.wikipedia.org Licensed under:Creative Commons ASA 3.0, Licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License., GNU Free Documentation License, Creative Commons License Attribution-Share Ali...
- published: 01 Nov 2012
- views: 130
- author: WikiPlays
Francis Bacon Portraits
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:16
- Updated: 01 Dec 2012
La peinture ne saisira le mystère de la réalité que si le peintre ne sait pas comment s'y prendre. I want to make portraits and images. I don't know how. Out of despair, I just use paint anyway. Suddenly the things you make coagulate and take on just the shape you intend. Totally accurate marks, which are outside representational marks. (Francis Bacon).
http://wn.com/Francis_Bacon_Portraits
La peinture ne saisira le mystère de la réalité que si le peintre ne sait pas comment s'y prendre. I want to make portraits and images. I don't know how. Out of despair, I just use paint anyway. Suddenly the things you make coagulate and take on just the shape you intend. Totally accurate marks, which are outside representational marks. (Francis Bacon).
- published: 04 Dec 2010
- views: 7660
- author: barakatapek
Francis Bacon - Documentary part 2/6
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:12
- Updated: 27 Nov 2012
Part 2.
http://wn.com/Francis_Bacon_Documentary_part_2_6
photo: AP / Guang Niu, Pool
16 Dec 2012
Retired Col. Gen. Viktor Yesin yesterday wrapped up a visit to the United States during which he met with officials at the Pentagon, State Department as well as members of Congress warning about underestimating China’s tactical nuclear weapons buildup ... Yesin warns that U.S. and Western arms specialists are dramatically underestimating China’s nuclear arsenal ... Somewhere between the higher and lower estimates is no doubt the truth ... Mr ... Mr ... ....(size: 4.0Kb)
photo: AP / Jason DeCrow
16 Dec 2012
NEWTOWN, Conn. — The gunman in the Connecticut shooting rampage committed suicide as first responders closed in, the governor said Sunday, raising the specter that Adam Lanza had planned an even more gruesome massacre and was stopped short. Lanza blasted his way into the building and used a high-power rifle to kill 20 children and six adults, including the principal who tried to stop him, authorities said ... Among the questions ... H ... The Rev....(size: 8.8Kb)
photo: AP / Newtown Bee, Shannon Hicks
15 Dec 2012
The massacre of 26 children and adults at an elementary school in the US state of Connecticut elicited horror and soul-searching around the world even as it raised more basic questions about why the gunman, a 20-year-old described as brilliant but remote, would have been driven to such a crime and how he chose his victims ... He paused for several seconds to keep his composure as he teared up and wiped an eye ... ... "I'm numb ... Yes, yeah....(size: 8.8Kb)
photo: AP / Newtown Bee, Shannon Hicks
15 Dec 2012
Newtown, Conn. Twenty schoolchildren were slaughtered by a heavily armed gunman who opened fire at a suburban elementary school in Connecticut on Friday, ultimately killing at least 27 people including himself in the one of the worst mass shootings in US history ... Authorities found 18 children and seven adults, including the gunman, dead at the school, and two children were pronounced dead later after being taken to a hospital ... Reuters ....(size: 7.5Kb)
photo: AP / David Goldman
17 Dec 2012
WASHINGTON—Democrats say meaningful action in the wake of last week's elementary school shooting must include a ban on military-style assault weapons and a look at how the nation deals with individuals suffering from serious mental illness. Several Democratic lawmakers and Independent Sen ... Gun control was a hot topic in the early 1990s, when Congress enacted a 10-year ban on assault weapons ... He added ... Sen ... Rep ... ———....(size: 5.3Kb)
The Examiner
18 Dec 2012
This just in, Christmas is next week. Hopefully, you didn’t need this for Chanukah, as it’s a little late to the game. That said, here’s a gift guide for those last minute shoppers out there ... Line Sir Francis Bacon / Atomic Elysian ... For those lucky enough to ski more soft snow, The Sir Francis Bacon from Line and women’s Elysian from Atomic offer awesome flotation while still maintaining versatility in less than epic conditions ... Tuning ... ....(size: 2.4Kb)
Huffington Post
18 Dec 2012
Forget special effects, prosthetics and hyper-detailed makeup; all you need to turn a willing friend into a monster is a little Scotch tape ... "Scotch Tape" lies somewhere between Tadao Cern's "Blow Job" series and Francis Bacon's haunting oil portraits ... Loading Slideshow. Amanda ... Joy ... ....(size: 2.9Kb)
The Australian
17 Dec 2012
MOST public art is appalling, according to world-renowned sculptor Anish Kapoor, who says a cultural move away from glorifying war with monuments has increased the onus on artists to produce meaningful work. Speaking yesterday ahead of the annual Ann Lewis Contemporary Visual Arts International Address in Sydney, the Indian-born British artist said creators of public works had a cultural responsibility to society ... Login ... FRANCIS BACON ... ....(size: 7.2Kb)
The Australian
17 Dec 2012
MOST public art is appalling, according to world-renowned sculptor Anish Kapoor, who says a cultural move away from glorifying war with monuments has increased the onus on artists to produce meaningful work. Speaking yesterday ahead of the annual Ann Lewis Contemporary Visual Arts International Address in Sydney, the Indian-born British artist said creators of public works had a cultural responsibility to society ... Login ... FRANCIS BACON ... ....(size: 7.2Kb)
Huffington Post
17 Dec 2012
How To Help The Victims Of Sandy Hook. Though our wounds will never fully heal, helping others can ease the heartbreak. Here are several ways to do it. Science has determined that people need to know 7.5 things per day, on average, about the world of business. You can't argue with science ... When the mountain didn't come, he said, according to Francis Bacon, "If the mountain won't come to Muhammad, then Muhammad must go to the mountain." ... ET....(size: 18.5Kb)
The Australian
16 Dec 2012
Also in this story. Login to read the rest of this article. User Login Username *. Password *. Remember me. Login. Evan Williams. 'Dark as it is, Les Miserables is never dull. I enjoyed every minute of it'. Evan Williams MORE films, stage versions and musicals have been made of Les Miserables than just about any other work of classic fiction. Ian Cuthbertson ... Iain Shedden ... Jane Fraser. 'More women are hypochondriacs than men ... Prev ... FRANCIS BACON ... ....(size: 7.0Kb)
The Examiner
15 Dec 2012
Paley Collection. This exhibition showed works from famous artists such as Edouard Manet, Paul Cezanne, and Francis Bacon. And what was significant about this exhibition, was although it displayed what would be considered to be an artist’s most famous work (such as Francis Bacon’s Study for Three Heads), it would also show another side of others (such as Edouard Manet’s 2 Roses on a Tablecloth). Finally there was Rudolf Nurevey ... ....(size: 2.2Kb)
The Telegraph India
15 Dec 2012
LOOKING CLOSELY AT UNREALITY. Soumitra Das Visual Arts. No one said it better than Hamlet when he exclaimed, Words, words, words, as an expression of his verdict on verbiage ... Sen has created the likeness of teeth with dental polymer before, but never on this scale, and never before has the effect been so violently disturbing as in Francis Bacons renderings of the smashed-up faces of accident victims ... The Kallat couple is present here....(size: 6.5Kb)
New Straits/Business Times
15 Dec 2012
CREATIVE. Whoever was Shakespeare, he wrote great plays. He was a genius with wicked wits and outrageous puns. EVEN after his death 396 years ago, the world's interest in William Shakespeare has never waned. With Anonymous, a film made last year and countless new books, Shakespeare is the coolest and the hottest dead author the world has ever known ... Ben Johnson, Christopher Marlowe, even Sir Walter Raleigh and Francis Bacon ... ....(size: 4.3Kb)
The Australian
14 Dec 2012
IT'S 60 seconds before showtime. Bruce Springsteen, the E Street Band and almost a dozen additional musicians are huddled in a circle behind a stage in Anaheim, California. A stone's throw from Disneyland, the full house holds almost 20,000 fans making a helluva noise in anticipation of Springsteen's arrival. Holding hands, the band leans in to hear Springsteen offer a few rousing words of encouragement ... Also in this story ... FRANCIS BACON....(size: 7.7Kb)
The Source
14 Dec 2012
Honoring those that push the boundaries of culture and creativity is nothing new for thesource.com, so it’s only right we chop it up with the 1/9 th of the Screwed Arts Collective Justin Tolentino ... Mr ... ... ... ... Cy Twombly, Clyfford Still, Barry McGee, Basquiat, Francis Bacon, Robert Rauschenberg, and Rene Magritte all are big influences of mine; each for their own, some obvious some not so obvious, reasons ... ....(size: 3.6Kb)
noodls
14 Dec 2012
(Source. Nottingham Trent University). Friday 14 December 2012 Expert opinion. Dr Virginie Grzelczyk on the North Korean rocket launch ... Indeed, just about a year ago, the world watched anxiously as Kim Jong Il, North Korea's Dear Leader, passed away ... If, according to Francis Bacon, knowledge is power, then the power to manage uncertainty in this world can only come from dialogue and interaction with Pyongyang ... Dr Virginie Grzelczyk ... (noodl....(size: 5.0Kb)
The Australian
13 Dec 2012
Login to read the rest of this article. User Login Username *. Password *. Remember me. Login. David Stratton. 'There's something comforting in seeing the old boy Clint Eastwood is still going strong'. David Stratton CLINT Eastwood has always been a Republican even if he has directed films, such as Million Dollar Baby, that are at odds with social conservatism. Iain Shedden ... Luke Slattery ... Evan Williams ... Prev. 1 of 4 ... FRANCIS BACON ... ....(size: 6.9Kb)
.jpg) Portrait of Francis Bacon, by John Vanderbank (ca. 1731), after a portrait by an unknown artist (circa 1618). |
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| Born | (1561-01-22)22 January 1561 Strand, London, England |
|---|---|
| Died | 9 April 1626(1626-04-09) (aged 65) Highgate, London, England |
| Era | English Renaissance, The Scientific Revolution |
| Region | Western philosophy |
| School | Renaissance Philosophy, Empiricism |
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Influenced
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| Signature |  |
This article is about the philosopher. For other people with the same name, see Francis Bacon (disambiguation).
Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban(s),[1] KC (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626) was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist and author. He served both as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England. Although his political career ended in disgrace, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution.
Bacon has been called the creator of empiricism.[2] His works established and popularised inductive methodologies for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method, or simply the scientific method. His demand for a planned procedure of investigating all things natural marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, much of which still surrounds conceptions of proper methodology today.
Bacon was knighted in 1603, and created both the Baron Verulam in 1618, and the Viscount St Alban in 1621;[3] as he died without heirs both peerages became extinct upon his death. He famously died by contracting pneumonia while studying the effects of freezing on the preservation of meat.
Contents |
Biography[link]
Early life[link]
Bacon was born on 22 January 1561 at York House near the Strand in London, the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon by his second wife Anne (Cooke) Bacon, the daughter of noted humanist Anthony Cooke. His mother's sister was married to William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, making Burghley Francis Bacon's uncle. Biographers believe that Bacon was educated at home in his early years owing to poor health (which plagued him throughout his life), receiving tuition from John Walsall, a graduate of Oxford with a strong leaning towards Puritanism. He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, on 5 April 1573 at the age of twelve,[4] living for three years there together with his older brother Anthony Bacon under the personal tutelage of Dr John Whitgift, future Archbishop of Canterbury. Bacon's education was conducted largely in Latin and followed the medieval curriculum. He was also educated at the University of Poitiers. It was at Cambridge that he first met Queen Elizabeth, who was impressed by his precocious intellect, and was accustomed to calling him "the young Lord Keeper".[5]
His studies brought him to the belief that the methods and results of science as then practised were erroneous. His reverence for Aristotle conflicted with his loathing of Aristotelian philosophy, which seemed to him barren, disputatious, and wrong in its objectives.
On 27 June 1576, he and Anthony entered de societate magistrorum at Gray's Inn. A few months later, Francis went abroad with Sir Amias Paulet, the English ambassador at Paris, while Anthony continued his studies at home. The state of government and society in France under Henry III afforded him valuable political instruction. For the next three years he visited Blois, Poitiers, Tours, Italy, and Spain. During his travels, Bacon studied language, statecraft, and civil law while performing routine diplomatic tasks. On at least one occasion he delivered diplomatic letters to England for Walsingham, Burghley, and Leicester, as well as for the queen.
The sudden death of his father in February 1579 prompted Bacon to return to England. Sir Nicholas had laid up a considerable sum of money to purchase an estate for his youngest son, but he died before doing so, and Francis was left with only a fifth of that money. Having borrowed money, Bacon got into debt. To support himself, he took up his residence in law at Gray's Inn in 1579.
Parliamentarian[link]
Bacon's threefold goals were to uncover truth, to serve his country, and to serve his church. He sought to further these ends by seeking a prestigious post. In 1580, through his uncle, Lord Burghley, he applied for a post at court, which might enable him to pursue a life of learning. His application failed. For two years he worked quietly at Gray's Inn, until he was admitted as an outer barrister in 1582.
His parliamentary career began when he was elected MP for Bossiney, Devon in a 1581 by-election. In 1584, he took his seat in parliament for Melcombe in Dorset, and subsequently for Taunton (1586). At this time, he began to write on the condition of parties in the church, as well as on the topic of philosophical reform in the lost tract, Temporis Partus Maximus. Yet, he failed to gain a position he thought would lead him to success. He showed signs of sympathy to Puritanism, attending the sermons of the Puritan chaplain of Gray's Inn and accompanying his mother to the Temple chapel to hear Walter Travers. This led to the publication of his earliest surviving tract, which criticised the English church's suppression of the Puritan clergy. In the Parliament of 1586, he openly urged execution for Mary, Queen of Scots.
About this time, he again approached his powerful uncle for help; this move was followed by his rapid progress at the bar. He became Bencher in 1586, and he was elected a reader in 1587, delivering his first set of lectures in Lent the following year. In 1589, he received the valuable appointment of reversion to the Clerkship of the Star Chamber, although he did not formally take office until 1608 – a post which was worth £16,000 a year.[6]
In 1588 he was returned as MP for Liverpool and then for Middlesex in 1593. He later sat three times for Ipswich (1597, 1601, 1604) and once for Cambridge University (1614).[7]
He became known as a liberal-minded reformer, eager to amend and simplify the law. He opposed feudal privileges and dictatorial powers, though a friend of the crown. He was against religious persecution. He struck at the House of Lords in their usurpation of the Money Bills. He advocated for the union of England and Scotland, thus being one of the influences behind the consolidation of the United Kingdom; and also advocated, later on, for the integration of Ireland into the Union. These, he believed, would bring greater peace and strength to these countries.[8][9]
Attorney General[link]
Bacon soon became acquainted with Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, Queen Elizabeth's favourite. By 1591, he acted as the earl's confidential adviser.
In 1592, he was commissioned to write a tract in response to the Jesuit Robert Parson's anti-government polemic, which he titled Certain observations made upon a libel, identifying England with the ideals of democratic Athens against the belligerence of Spain.
Bacon took his third parliamentary seat for Middlesex when in February 1593 Elizabeth summoned Parliament to investigate a Roman Catholic plot against her. Bacon's opposition to a bill that would levy triple subsidies in half the usual time offended many people.[clarification needed] Opponents accused him of seeking popularity. For a time, the royal court excluded him.
When the Attorney-Generalship fell vacant in 1594, Lord Essex's influence was not enough to secure Bacon that office. Likewise, Bacon failed to secure the lesser office of Solicitor-General in 1595.[6] To console him for these disappointments, Essex presented him with a property at Twickenham, which he sold subsequently for £1,800.
In 1596, Bacon became Queen's Counsel, but missed the appointment of Master of the Rolls. During the next few years, his financial situation remained bad. His friends could find no public office for him, and a scheme for retrieving his position by a marriage with the wealthy and young widow Lady Elizabeth Hatton failed after she broke off their relationship upon accepting marriage to a wealthier man. In 1598 Bacon was arrested for debt. Afterwards however, his standing in the Queen's eyes improved. Gradually, Bacon earned the standing of one of the learned counsels, though he had no commission or warrant and received no salary. His relationship with the Queen further improved when he severed ties with Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, a shrewd move because Essex was executed for treason in 1601.
With others, Bacon was appointed to investigate the charges against Essex, his former friend and benefactor. A number of Essex's followers confessed that Essex had planned a rebellion against the Queen.[10] Bacon was subsequently a part of the legal team headed by Attorney General Sir Edward Coke at Essex's treason trial.[10] After the execution, the Queen ordered Bacon to write the official government account of the trial, which was later published as A DECLARATION of the Practices and Treasons attempted and committed by Robert late Earle of Essex and his Complices, against her Majestie and her Kingdoms ... after Bacon's first draft was heavily edited by the Queen and her ministers.[11]
According to his personal secretary and chaplain, William Rawley, as a judge Bacon was always tender-hearted, "looking upon the examples with the eye of severity, but upon the person with the eye of pity and compassion". And also that "he was free from malice", "no revenger of injuries", and "no defamer of any man".[12]
James I comes to the throne[link]
The succession of James I brought Bacon into greater favour. He was knighted in 1603. In another shrewd move, Bacon wrote his Apologie in defence of his proceedings in the case of Essex, as Essex had favoured James to succeed to the throne.
The following year, during the course of the uneventful first parliament session, Bacon married Alice Barnham. In June 1607 he was at last rewarded with the office of Solicitor-General.[6] The following year, he began working as the Clerkship of the Star Chamber. In spite of a generous income, old debts still couldn't be paid. He sought further promotion and wealth by supporting King James and his arbitrary policies.
In 1610 the fourth session of James' first parliament met. Despite Bacon's advice to him, James and the Commons found themselves at odds over royal prerogatives and the king's embarrassing extravagance. The House was finally dissolved in February 1611. Throughout this period Bacon managed to stay in the favour of the king while retaining the confidence of the Commons.
In 1613, Bacon was finally appointed attorney general, after advising the king to shuffle judicial appointments. As attorney general, Bacon prosecuted Somerset in 1616. The so-called "Prince's Parliament" of April 1614 objected to Bacon's presence in the seat for Cambridge and to the various royal plans which Bacon had supported. Although he was allowed to stay, parliament passed a law that forbade the attorney-general to sit in parliament. His influence over the king had evidently inspired resentment or apprehension in many of his peers. Bacon, however, continued to receive the King's favour, which led to his appointment in March 1617 as the temporary Regent of England (for a period of a month), and in 1618 as Lord Chancellor. On 12 July 1618 the king created Bacon Baron Verulam, of Verulam, in the Peerage of England. As a new peer he then styled himself as "Francis, Lord Verulam".[6]
Bacon continued to use his influence with the king to mediate between the throne and Parliament and in this capacity he was further elevated in the same peerage, as Viscount St Alban, on 27 January 1621.[13]
Lord Chancellor and public disgrace[link]
Bacon's public career ended in disgrace in 1621. After he fell into debt, a Parliamentary Committee on the administration of the law charged him with twenty-three separate counts of corruption. To the lords, who sent a committee to enquire whether a confession was really his, he replied, "My lords, it is my act, my hand, and my heart; I beseech your lordships to be merciful to a broken reed." He was sentenced to a fine of £40,000 and committed to the Tower of London during the king's pleasure; the imprisonment lasted only a few days and the fine was remitted by the king.[14] More seriously, parliament declared Bacon incapable of holding future office or sitting in parliament. He narrowly escaped undergoing degradation, which would have stripped him of his titles of nobility. Subsequently the disgraced viscount devoted himself to study and writing.
There seems little doubt that Bacon had accepted gifts from litigants, but this was an accepted custom of the time and not necessarily evidence of deeply corrupt behaviour.[15] While acknowledging that his conduct had been lax, he countered that he had never allowed gifts to influence his judgement and, indeed, he had on occasion given a verdict against those who had paid him. The true reason for his acknowledgement of guilt is the subject of debate, but it may have been prompted by his poor state of health, or by a view that through his fame and the greatness of his office he would be spared harsh punishment. He may even have been blackmailed, with a threat to charge him with sodomy, into confession.[15][16]
The British jurist Basil Montagu wrote in Bacon's defense, concerning the episode of his public disgrace:
Bacon has been accused of servility, of dissimulation, of various base motives, and their filthy brood of base actions, all unworthy of his high birth, and incompatible with his great wisdom, and the estimation in which he was held by the noblest spirits of the age. It is true that there were men in his own time, and will be men in all times, who are better pleased to count spots in the sun than to rejoice in its glorious brightness. Such men have openly libelled him, like Dewes and Weldon, whose falsehoods were detected as soon as uttered, or have fastened upon certain ceremonious compliments and dedications, the fashion of his day, as a sample of his servility, passing over his noble letters to the Queen, his lofty contempt for the Lord Keeper Puckering, his open dealing with Sir Robert Cecil, and with others, who, powerful when he was nothing, might have blighted his opening fortunes for ever, forgetting his advocacy of the rights of the people in the face of the court, and the true and honest counsels, always given by him, in times of great difficulty, both to Elizabeth and her successor. When was a "base sycophant" loved and honoured by piety such as that of Herbert, Tennison, and Rawley, by noble spirits like Hobbes, Ben Jonson, and Selden, or followed to the grave, and beyond it, with devoted affection such as that of Sir Thomas Meautys.
[17]
Personal life[link]
When he was 36, Bacon engaged in the courtship of Elizabeth Hatton, a young widow of 20. Reportedly, she broke off their relationship upon accepting marriage to a wealthier man—Edward Coke. Years later, Bacon still wrote of his regret that the marriage to Hatton had not taken place.[18]
At the age of forty-five, Bacon married Alice Barnham, the fourteen-year-old daughter of a well-connected London alderman and MP. Bacon wrote two sonnets proclaiming his love for Alice. The first was written during his courtship and the second on his wedding day, 10 May 1606. When Bacon was appointed Lord Chancellor, "by special Warrant of the King", Lady Bacon was given precedence over all other Court ladies.
Reports of increasing friction in his marriage to Alice appeared, with speculation that some of this may have been due to financial resources not being as readily available to her as she was accustomed to having in the past. Alice was reportedly interested in fame and fortune, and when reserves of money were no longer available, there were complaints about where all the money was going. Alice Chambers Bunten wrote in her Life of Alice Barnham[19] that, upon their descent into debt, she actually went on trips to ask for financial favours and assistance from their circle of friends. Bacon disinherited her upon discovering her secret romantic relationship with John Underhill. He rewrote his will, which had previously been very generous to her (leaving her lands, goods, and income), revoking it all.
Bacon's personal secretary and chaplain, William Rawley, however, wrote in his biography of Bacon that his inter-marriage with Alice Barnham was one of "much conjugal love and respect", mentioning a robe of honour that he gave to her, and which "she wore unto her dying day, being twenty years and more after his death".[12]
The well-connected antiquary John Aubrey noted in his Brief Lives concerning Bacon, "He was a Pederast. His Ganimeds and Favourites tooke Bribes",[20] biographers continue to debate about Bacon's sexual inclinations and the precise nature of his personal relationships.[21] Several authors[22][23] believe that despite his marriage Bacon was primarily attracted to the same sex. Professor Forker[24] for example has explored the "historically documentable sexual preferences" of both King James and Bacon – and concluded they were all oriented to "masculine love", a contemporary term that "seems to have been used exclusively to refer to the sexual preference of men for members of their own gender."[25] The Jacobean antiquarian, Sir Simonds D'Ewes implied there had been a question of bringing him to trial for buggery.[26]
This conclusion has been disputed by others,[10][27][28][29][30] who point to lack of consistent evidence, and consider the sources to be more open to interpretation. In his "New Atlantis", Bacon describes his utopian island as being "the chastest nation under heaven", in which there was no prostitution or adultery, and further saying that "as for masculine love, they have no touch of it".[31]
Death[link]
On 9 April 1626 Bacon died of pneumonia while at Arundel mansion at Highgate outside London. An influential account of the circumstances of his death was given by John Aubrey's Brief Lives. Aubrey has been criticised for his evident credulousness in this and other works; on the other hand, he knew Thomas Hobbes, Bacon's fellow-philosopher and friend. Aubrey's vivid account, which portrays Bacon as a martyr to experimental scientific method, had him journeying to Highgate through the snow with the King's physician when he is suddenly inspired by the possibility of using the snow to preserve meat: "They were resolved they would try the experiment presently. They alighted out of the coach and went into a poor woman's house at the bottom of Highgate hill, and bought a fowl, and made the woman exenterate it".
After stuffing the fowl with snow, Bacon contracted a fatal case of pneumonia. Some people, including Aubrey, consider these two contiguous, possibly coincidental events as related and causative of his death: "The Snow so chilled him that he immediately fell so extremely ill, that he could not return to his Lodging ... but went to the Earle of Arundel's house at Highgate, where they put him into ... a damp bed that had not been layn-in ... which gave him such a cold that in 2 or 3 days as I remember Mr Hobbes told me, he died of Suffocation."
Being unwittingly on his deathbed, the philosopher wrote his last letter to his absent host and friend Lord Arundel:
My very good Lord,—I was likely to have had the fortune of Caius Plinius the elder, who lost his life by trying an experiment about the burning of Mount Vesuvius; for I was also desirous to try an experiment or two touching the conservation and induration of bodies. As for the experiment itself, it succeeded excellently well; but in the journey between London and Highgate, I was taken with such a fit of casting as I know not whether it were the Stone, or some surfeit or cold, or indeed a touch of them all three. But when I came to your Lordship's House, I was not able to go back, and therefore was forced to take up my lodging here, where your housekeeper is very careful and diligent about me, which I assure myself your Lordship will not only pardon towards him, but think the better of him for it. For indeed your Lordship's House was happy to me, and I kiss your noble hands for the welcome which I am sure you give me to it. I know how unfit it is for me to write with any other hand than mine own, but by my troth my fingers are so disjointed with sickness that I cannot steadily hold a pen."[32]
Another account appears in a biography by William Rawley, Bacon's personal secretary and chaplain:
He died on the ninth day of April in the year 1626, in the early morning of the day then celebrated for our Saviour's resurrection, in the sixty-sixth year of his age, at the Earl of Arundel's house in Highgate, near London, to which place he casually repaired about a week before; God so ordaining that he should die there of a gentle fever, accidentally accompanied with a great cold, whereby the defluxion of rheum fell so plentifully upon his breast, that he died by suffocation.[33]
At the news of his death, over thirty great minds collected together their eulogies of him, which was then later published in Latin.[34]
He left personal assets of about £7,000 and lands that realised £6,000 when sold.[35] His debts amounted to more than £23,000, equivalent to more than £3m at current value.[35][36]
Philosophy and Works[link]
Main article: The works of Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon's Philosophy is displayed in the vast and varied writings he left, which might be divided in three great branches:
- Scientifical works - in which his ideas for an universal reform of knowledge, scientific method and the improvement of mankind's state are presented.
- Religious/literary works - in which he presents his moral philosophy and theological meditations.
- Juridical works - in which his reforms in Law are proposed.
(See main article)
Influence[link]
Science[link]
Bacon's ideas were influential in the 1630s and 1650s among scholars, in particular Sir Thomas Browne, who in his encyclopaedia Pseudodoxia Epidemica (1646–1672) frequently adheres to a Baconian approach to his scientific enquiries. During the Restoration, Bacon was commonly invoked as a guiding spirit of the Royal Society founded under Charles II in 1660.[37][38] In the nineteenth century his emphasis on induction was revived and developed by William Whewell, among others. He has been reputed as the "Father of Experimental Science".[39]
Bacon is also considered to be the philosophical influence behind the dawning of the Industrial age. In his works, Bacon called for a "spring of a progeny of inventions, which shall overcome, to some extent, and subdue our needs and miseries",[40] always proposing that all scientific work should be done for charitable purposes, as matter of alleviating mankind's misery, and that therefore science should be practical and have as purpose the inventing of useful things for the improvement of mankind's estate. This changed the course of science in history, from a merely contemplative state, as it was found in ancient and medieval ages, to a practical, inventive state - that would have eventually led to the inventions that made possible the Industrial Revolutions of the following centuries.[41]
The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history. In the two centuries following 1800, the world's average per capita income increased over tenfold, while the world's population increased over sixfold.[42] In the words of Nobel Prize winner Robert E. Lucas, Jr., "For the first time in history, the living standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth ... Nothing remotely like this economic behavior has happened before”.[43]
He also wrote a long treatise on Medicine, History of Life and Death,[44] with natural and experimental observations for the prolongation of life.
For one of his biographers, Hepworth Dixon, Bacon's influence in modern world is so great that every man who rides in a train, sends a telegram, follows a steam plough, sits in an easy chair, crosses the channel or the Atlantic, eats a good dinner, enjoys a beautiful garden, or undergoes a painless surgical operation, owes him something.[45]
North America[link]
Some authors[who?] believe that Bacon's vision for a Utopian New World in North America was laid out in his novel New Atlantis, which depicts a mythical island, Bensalem, located somewhere between Peru and Japan. In this work he depicted a land where there would be freedom of religion - showing a Jew treated fairly and equally in an island of Christians, but it has been debated whether this work had influenced others reforms, such as greater rights for women, the abolition of slavery, elimination of debtors' prisons, separation of church and state, and freedom of political expression,[46][47][48][49] although there is no hint of these reforms in The New Atlantis itself. His propositions of legal reform (which were not established in his life time), though, are considered to have been one of the influences behind the Napoleonic Code,[50] and therefore could show some resemblance with or influence in the drafting of others liberal constitutions that came in the centuries after Bacon's lifetime, such as the American.
Francis Bacon played a leading role in creating the British colonies, especially in Virginia, the Carolinas, and Newfoundland in northeastern Canada. His government report on “The Virginia Colony” was submitted in 1609. In 1610 Bacon and his associates received a charter from the king to form the Tresurer and the Companye of Adventurers and planter of the Cittye of London and Bristoll for the Collonye or plantacon in Newfoundland[51] and sent John Guy to found a colony there. In 1910 Newfoundland issued a postage stamp to commemorate Bacon's role in establishing the province. The stamp describes Bacon as, "the guiding spirit in Colonization Schemes in 1610."[18] Moreover, some scholars believe he was largely responsible for the drafting, in 1609 and 1612, of two charters of government for the Virginia Colony.[52] Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States and author of the Declaration of Independence, wrote: "Bacon, Locke and Newton. I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical and Moral sciences".[53] Historian and biographer William Hepworth Dixon considered that Bacon's name could be included in the list of Founders of the United States of America.[54]
It is also believed by the Rosicrucian organization AMORC, that Bacon would have influenced a settlement of mystics in North America, stating that his work "The New Atlantis" inspired a colony of Rosicrucians led by Johannes Kelpius, to journey across the Atlantic Ocean in a chartered vessel called Sarah Mariah, and move on to Pennsylvania in late XVII Century. According to their claims, these rosicrucian communities "made valuable contributions to the newly emerging American culture in the fields of printing, philosophy, the sciences and arts".[55]
Johannes Kelpius and his fellows moved to Wissahickon Creek, in Pennsylvania, and became known as "Hermits of Mystics of the Wissahickon"[56] or simply "Monks of the Wissahickon".[57][58]
Law[link]
Although much of his legal reform proposals were not established in his life time, his legal legacy was considered by the magazine New Scientist, in a publication of 1961, as having influenced the drafting of the Code Napoleon, and the law reforms introduced by Sir Robert Peel.[59]
The historian William Hepworth Dixon referred to the Code Napoleon as "the sole embodiment of Bacon's thought", saying that Bacon's legal work "has had more success abroad than it has found at home", and that in France "it has blossomed and come into fruit".[50]
The scholar Harvey Wheeler attributed to Bacon, in his work "Francis Bacon’s Verulamium - the Common Law Template of The Modern in English Science and Culture", the creation of these distinguishing features of the modern common law system:
- Using cases as repositories of evidence about the "unwritten law”;
- Determining the relevance of precedents by exclusionary principles of evidence and logic;
- Treating opposing legal briefs as adversarial hypotheses about the application of the "unwritten law" to a new set of facts.
As late as the eighteenth-century some juries still declared the law rather than the fact, but already before the end of the seventeenth century Sir Matthew Hale explained modern common law adjudication procedure and acknowledged Bacon as the inventor of the process of discovering unwritten laws from the evidences of their applications. The method combined empiricism and inductivism in a new way that was to imprint its signature on many of the distinctive features of modern English society.[60]
In brief, Bacon is considered by some jurists[who?] to be the father of modern Jurisprudence.[61]
Political scientist James McClellan, from the University of Virginia, considered Bacon to have had "a great following" in the American colonies.[62]
Historical debates[link]
Bacon and Shakespeare[link]
Main articles: Baconian theory and Bacon's cipher
The Baconian theory of Shakespearean authorship, first proposed in the mid-19th century, contends that Sir Francis Bacon wrote the plays conventionally attributed to William Shakespeare, in opposition to the scholarly consensus that William Shakespeare of Stratford was the author.
Occult theories[link]
Main article: Occult theories about Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon often gathered with the men at Gray's Inn to discuss politics and philosophy, and to try out various theatrical scenes that he admitted writing.[63] Bacon's alleged connection to the Rosicrucians and the Freemasons has been widely discussed by authors and scholars in many books.[64] However others, including Daphne du Maurier (in her biography of Bacon), have argued there is no substantive evidence to support claims of involvement with the Rosicrucians.[65] Frances Yates[66] does not make the claim that Bacon was a Rosicrucian, but presents evidence that he was nevertheless involved in some of the more closed intellectual movements of his day. She argues that Bacon's movement for the advancement of learning was closely connected with the German Rosicrucian movement, while Bacon's New Atlantis portrays a land ruled by Rosicrucians. He apparently saw his own movement for the advancement of learning to be in conformity with Rosicrucian ideals.[67]
The link between Bacon's work and the Rosicrucians ideals which Yates allegedly found, was the conformity of the purposes expressed by the Rosicrucian Manifestos and Bacon's plan of a "Great Instauration",[67] for the two were calling for a reformation of both "divine and human understanding",[68][69] as well as both had in view the purpose of mankind's return to the "state before the Fall".[70][71]
Another major link is said to be the resemblance between Bacon's "New Atlantis" and the German Rosicrucian Johann Valentin Andreae's "Description of the Republic of Christianopolis (1619)".[72] In his book, Andreae shows an utopic island in which Christian theosophy and applied science ruled, and in which the spiritual fulfillment and intellectual activity constituted the primary goals of each individual, the scientific pursuits being the highest intellectual calling – linked to the achievement of spiritual perfection. Andreae's island also depicts a great advancement in technology, with many industries separated in different zones which supplied the population's needs – which shows great resemblance to Bacon's scientific methods and purposes.[41][73]
The Rosicrucian organization AMORC claims that Francis Bacon was the "Imperator" (leader) of the Rosicrucian Order in both England and the European continent, and would have directed it at that time of the Renaissance.[55]
Francis Bacon's influence can also be seen on a variety of religious and spiritual authors, and on groups that have utilised his writings in their own belief systems.[74][75][76][77][78]
See also[link]
- The works of Francis Bacon
- Baconian method
- Scientific method
- Novum Organum Scientiarum
- Pseudodoxia Epidemica
- Francis Bacon School
- Cestui que (Defense and Comment on Chudleigh's Case)
- New Atlantis
- Essays (Francis Bacon)
- Bacon's cipher
- Code Napoleon
- Occult theories about Francis Bacon
Bibliography[link]
 |
Wikisource has original works written by or about: |
A complete chronological Bibliography of Francis Bacon. (Many of Bacon's writings were only published after his death in 1626).
- Notes on the State of Christendom (1582)
- Letter of Advice to the Queen (1585-6)
- An Advertisement Touching the Controversies of the Church of England (1586-9)
- Dumb show in the Gray’s Inn Christmas Revels (1587-8)
- Misfortunes of Arthur (1588)
- A Conference of Pleasure : In Praise of Knowledge, In Praise of Fortitude, In Praise of Love, In Praise of Truth. (1592)
- Certain Observations made upon a Libel (1592)
- Temporis Partus Maximus (‘The Greatest Birth of Time’) (1593)
- A True Report of the Detestable Treason intended by Dr Roderigo Lopez (1594)
- The Device of the Indian Prince : Squire, Hermit, Soldier, Statesman. (1594)
- Gray’s Inn Christmas/New Year Revels: The High and Mighty Prince Henry, Prince of Purpoole ( 1594-5) (See Gesta Grayorum)
- The Honourable Order of the Knights of the Helmet (1595)(See Gesta Grayorum)
- The Sussex Speech (1595)
- The Philautia Device (1595)
- Maxims of the Law (1596)
- Essays (1st ed.) (1597)
- The Colours of Good and Evil (1597)
- Meditationes Sacrae (1597)
- Declaration of the Practices and Treasons attempted and Committed by the late Earl of Essex (1601)
- Valerius Terminus of the Interpretation of Nature (1603)
- A Brief Discourse touching the Happy Union of the Kingdoms of England and Scotland (1603)
- Cogitations de Natura Rerum (‘Thoughts on the Nature of Things’) (1604)
- Apologie concerning the late Earl of Essex (1604)
- Certain Considerations touching the better pacification and Edification of the Church of England (1604)
- The Advancement and Proficience of Learning Divine and Human (1605)
- Temporis Masculus Partus (‘The Masculine Birth of Time’) (1605)
- Filium Labyrinthi sive Formula Inquisitionis (1606)
- In Felicem Memoriam Elizabethae (‘In Happy Memory of Queen Elizabeth’) (1606)
- Cogitata et Visa de Interpetatione Naturae (‘Thoughts and Conclusions on the Interpretation of Nature’) (1607)
- Redargiutio Philosophiarum (‘The Refutation of Philosophies’) (1608)
- The Plantation of Ireland (1608-9)
- De Sapientia Veterum (‘Wisdom of the Ancients’) (1609)
- Descriptio Globi Intellectualis (‘A Description of the Intellectual Globe’) (1612)
- Thema Coeli (‘Theory of the Heavens’) (1612)
- Essays (2nd edition –38 essays) (1612)
- Marriage of the River Thames to the Rhine (masque performed by Gray's Inn and Inner Temple lawyers on the river and in Westminster Hall in celebration of the marriage of Princess Elizabeth to Prince Frederick, Elector Palatine) (1613)
- Charge…touching Duels (1614)
- The Masque of Flowers (performed by Gray's Inn before the King at Whitehall to honour the marriage of the Earl of Somerset to Frances Howard, Countess of Essex) (1614)
- Instauratio Magna ('Great Instauration') (1620)
- Novum Organum Scientiarum (‘New Method’) (1620)
- Historia Naturalis (‘Natural History’) (1622)
- Introduction to six Natural Histories (1622)
- Historia Ventorum (‘History of Winds’) (1622)
- History of the Reign of King Henry VII (1622)
- Abcedarium Naturae (1622)
- De Augmentis Scientiarum (1623)
- Historia Vitae et Mortis (‘History of Life and Death’) (1623)
- Historia Densi et Rari (‘History of Density and Rarity’) (1623)
- Historia Gravis et Levis (‘History of Gravity and Levity’) (1623)
- History of the Sympathy and Antipathy of Things (1623)
- History of Sulphur, Salt and Mercury (1623)
- A Discourse of a War with Spain (1623)
- An Advertisement touching an Holy War (1623)
- A Digest of the Laws of England (1623)
- Cogitationes de Natura Rerum (‘Thoughts on the Nature of Things’) (1624)
- De Fluxu et Refluxu Maris (‘Of the Ebb and Flow of the Sea’) (1624)
- Essays, or Counsels Civil and Moral (3rd/final edition – 58 essays) (1625)
- Apothegms New and Old (1625)
- Translation of Certain Psalms into English Verse (1625)
- Revision of De Sapientia Veterum (‘Wisdom of the Ancients’) (1625)
- Inquisitio de Magnete (‘Enquiries into Magnetism’) (1625)
- Topica Inquisitionis de Luce et Lumine (‘Topical Inquisitions into Light and Luminosity’) (1625)
All the following works were published only after his death (1626):
- New Atlantis (1627)
- Sylva Sylvarum, or Natural History (1627)
- Certain Miscellany Works (1629)
- Use of the Law (1629)
- Elements of the Common Laws (1629)
- Operum Moralium et Civilium (1638)
- Dialogum de Bello Sacro (1638)
- Cases of Treason (1641)
- Confession of Faith (1641)
- Speech concerning Naturalisation (1641)
- Office of Constables (1641)
- Discourse concerning Church Affairs (1641)
- An Essay of a King (1642)
- The Learned Reading of Sir Francis Bacon (to Gray’s Inn) (1642)
- Ordinances (1642)
- Relation of the Poisoning of Overbury. (1651)
- Scripta in Naturali et Universali Philosophia (1653)
- Scala Intellectus sive Filum Labyrinthi (1653)
- Prodromi sive Anticipationes Philosophiae Secundae (1653)
- Cogitationes de Natura Rerum (1653)
- De Fluxu et Refluxu Maris (1653)
- The Mirror of State and Eloquence (1656)
- Opuscula Varia Posthuma, Philosophica, Civilia et Theologia (1658)
- Letter of Advice to the Duke of Buckingham (1661)
- Charge given for the Verge (1662)
- Baconiana, Or Certain Genuine Remains Of Sr. Francis Bacon (1679)
- Abcedarium Naturae, or a Metaphysical piece (1679)
- Letters and Remains (1734)
- Promus (1861)
Notes[link]
- ^ Complete Peerage, under Saint Alban, second edition; also Saint Albans, like the town and the three similar titles. The spelling differs even in authoritative contemporary sources, such as the Grant Book, and between the two editions of the Complete Peerage.
- ^ www.psychology.sbc.edu/Empiricism.htm
- ^ Contemporary spelling, used by Bacon himself in his letter of thanks to the king for his elevation. Birch, Thomas (1763). Letters, Speeches, Charges, Advices, &c of Lord Chancellor Bacon. 6. London: Andrew Millar. pp. 271–2. OCLC 228676038.
- ^ Venn, J.; Venn, J. A., eds. (1922–1958). "Bacon, Francis". Alumni Cantabrigienses (10 vols) (online ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Collins, Arthur (1741). The English Baronetage: Containing a Genealogical and Historical Account of All the English Baronets, Now Existing: Their Descents, Marriages, and Issues; Memorable Actions, Both in War, and Peace; Religious and Charitable Donations; Deaths, Places of Burial and Monumental Inscriptions [sic]. Printed for Tho. Wotton at the Three Daggers and Queen's Head. p. 5.
- ^ a b c d Peltonen, Markku (October 2007). "Bacon, Francis, Viscount St Alban (1561–1626)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
- ^ "History of Parliament". http://www.historyofparliamentonline.org/volume/1558-1603/member/bacon-francis-1561-1626. Retrieved 2011-10-02.
- ^ Spedding, James. "The letters and life of Francis Bacon" (1861).
- ^ http://publish.ucc.ie/celt/docs/E600001-015
- ^ a b c Nieves Matthews, Francis Bacon: The History of a Character Assassination (Yale University Press, 1996)
- ^ Matthews (1996: 56–57)
- ^ a b Rawley, William (1670). The Life of the Right Honorable Francis Bacon Baron of Verulam, Viscount ST. Alban. London: Thomas Johns,, London. http://hiwaay.net/~paul/bacon/biographies/rawley.html.
- ^ Peltonen in the ODNB states that the viscountcy was styled St Alban, but many other sources, including Burke and Debrett, use the name of Bacon's parliamentary constituency: then St Alban's
- ^ Parris, Matthew; Maguire, Kevin (2004). "Francis Bacon—1621". Great Parliamentary Scandals. London: Chrysalis. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-1-86105-736-5.
- ^ a b Zagorin, Perez (1999). Francis Bacon. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 22–23. ISBN 978-0-691-00966-7.
- ^ Historian A. L. Rowse, quoted in Parris; Maguire (2004: 8): "a charge of sodomy was...to be brought against the sixty-year-old Lord Chancellor".
- ^ Montagu, Basil (1837). Essays and Selections. pp. 325, 326. ISBN 978-1-4368-3777-4.
- ^ a b Alfred Dodd, Francis Bacon's Personal Life Story', Volume 2 – The Age of James, England: Rider & Co., 1949, 1986. pages 157 – 158, 425, 502 – 503, 518 – 532
- ^ Alice Chambers Bunten, Life of Alice Barnham, Wife of Sir Francis Bacon, London: Oliphants Ltd. 1928.
- ^ Oliver Lawson Dick, ed. Aubrey's Brief Lives. Edited from the Original Manuscripts, 1949, s.v. "Francis Bacon, Viscount of St. Albans" p. 11.
- ^ See opposing opinions of: A. L. Rowse, Homosexuals in History, New York: Carroll & Garf, 1977. page 44; Jardine, Lisa; Stewart, Alan Hostage To Fortune: The Troubled Life of Francis Bacon Hill & Wang, 1999. page 148; Nieves Mathews, Francis Bacon: The History of a Character Assassination, Yale University Press, 1996; Ross Jackson, The Companion to Shaker of the Speare: The Francis Bacon Story, England: Book Guild Publishing, 2005. pages 45 – 46
- ^ A. L. Rowse, Homosexuals in History, New York: Carroll & Garf, 1977. page 44
- ^ Jardine, Lisa; Stewart, Alan Hostage To Fortune: The Troubled Life of Francis Bacon Hill & Wang, 1999. page 148
- ^ Charles R. Forker, Masculine Love, Renaissance Writing, and the New Invention of Homosexuality: An Addendum in the Journal of Homosexuality (1996), Indiana University
- ^ Journal of Homosexuality, Volume: 31 Issue: 3, 1996, pages 85–93, ISSN: 0091-8369
- ^ Fulton Anderson, Francis Bacon:His career and his thought, Los Angeles, 1962
- ^ Ross Jackson, The Companion to Shaker of the Speare: The Francis Bacon Story, England: Book Guild Publishing, 2005. pages 45 – 46
- ^ Bryan Bevan, The Real Francis Bacon, England: Centaur Press, 1960
- ^ Helen Veale, Son of England, India: Indo Polish Library, 1950
- ^ Peter Dawkins, Dedication to the Light, England: Francis Bacon Research Trust, 1984
- ^ Bacon, Francis. The New Atlantis. 1627
- ^ Bacon, The Works of Francis Bacon, Lord Chancellor of England. A new Edition, ed. Basil Montagu, London: 1825–1834
- ^ William Rawley (Bacon's personal secretary and chaplain) Resuscitatio, or, Bringing into Publick Light Several Pieces of the Works, Civil, Historical, Philosophical, & Theological, Hitherto Sleeping; of the Right Honourable Francis Bacon....Together with his Lordship's Life 1657. "Francis Bacon, the glory of his age and nation, the adorner and ornament of learning, was born in York House, or York Place, in the Strand, on the two and twentieth day of January, in the year of our Lord 1560."
- ^ W.G.C. Gundry, ed. Manes Verulamani. This important volume consists of 32 eulogies originally published in Latin shortly after Bacon's funeral in 1626. Bacon's peers refer to him as "a supreme poet" and "a concealed poet," and also link him with the theatre.
- ^ a b Lovejoy, Benjamin (1888). Francis Bacon: A Critical Review. London: Unwin. p. 171. OCLC 79886184.
- ^ Officer, Lawrence; Williamson, Samuel. "Purchasing Power of British Pounds from 1264 to Present". Measuring Worth.com. http://www.measuringworth.com/ppoweruk/. Retrieved 18 October 2009.
- ^ Julian Martin, Francis Bacon: The State and the Reform of Natural Philosophy, 1992
- ^ Byron Steel, Sir Francis Bacon: The First Modern Mind, Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Doran and Co., Inc., 1930
- ^ Peter Urbach, Francis Bacon's Philosophy of Science, Open Court Publishing Co., 1987. A study which argues from a close consideration of Bacon's actual words in context, that he was immensely more sophisticated and modern than is generally allowed. Bacon's reputation as a philosopher of science has sunk since the 17th and early 18th centuries, when he was accorded the title "Father of Experimental Philosophy".
- ^ Bacon, Francis. "The Great Instauration". Instauratio Magna. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Great_Instauration.
- ^ a b Farrington, Benjamin. "Francis Bacon, philosopher of industrial science" (1951). ISBN 978-0-374-92706-6
- ^ Maddison, Angus (2003). The World Economy: Historical Statistics. Paris: Development Centre, OECD. pp. 256–62, Tables 8a and 8c..
- ^ Lucas, Robert E., Jr. (2002). Lectures on Economic Growth. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 109–10. ISBN 978-0-674-01601-9.
- ^ Bacon, Francis. History of Life and Death. http://books.google.com.br/books/about/History_of_Life_and_Death.html?id=dW5lJ9-LeBAC&redir_esc=y.
- ^ Hepworth Dixon, William. "The story of Lord Bacon's Life" (1862).. http://books.google.com.br/books?id=zd05AAAAcAAJ&pg=PP1&dq=the+story+of+lord+bacon's+life+hepworth+dixon&hl=pt-BR&sa=X&ei=T1gwT7bDEILs0gHHnuzSCg&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA.
- ^ Harvey Wheeler, Francis Bacon’s Case of the Post-Nati:(1608); Foundations of Anglo-American Constitutionalism; An Application of Critical Constitutional Theory, Ward, 1998
- ^ Howard B. White, Peace Among the Willows: The Political Philosophy of Francis Bacon, The Hague Martinus Nijhoff, 1968
- ^ Harvey Wheeler, Francis Bacon’s "Verulamium": the Common Law Template of The Modern in English Science and Culture, 1999
- ^ Frances Yates, (essay) Bacon's Magic, in Frances Yates, Ideas and Ideals in the North European Renaissance, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984
- ^ a b Hepworth Dixon, William (1861). Personal history of Lord Bacon: From unpublished papers. pp. 35. http://books.google.com/books?id=CGbaQ-oqtxQC&oe=UTF-8.
- ^ http://www.heritage.nf.ca/law/lab4/labvol4_1701.html
- ^ http://www.fbrt.org.uk/pages/essays/essay-fb-life.html
- ^ "The Letters of Thomas Jefferson: 1743–1826 Bacon, Locke, and Newton". http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/P/tj3/writings/brf/jefl74.htm. Retrieved 13 June 2009. "Bacon, Locke and Newton, whose pictures I will trouble you to have copied for me: and as I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical & Moral sciences."
- ^ Hepworth Dixon, William. Personal History of Lord Bacon from Unpublished Papers. pp. 200. http://books.google.com.br/books?id=BE4dalMQX-cC&lpg=PA200&ots=KscW7Kisfc&dq=the%20people%20of%20the%20Great%20Republic%20would%20give%20the%20great%20and%20august%20name%20of%20Bacon%20to%20one%20of%20their%20splendid%20cities&hl=pt-BR&pg=PA200#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ a b "The Mastery of Life". http://www.rosicrucian.org/about/mastery/mastery.pdf. Page 31
- ^ Johannes Kelpius
- ^ http://www.southerncrossreview.org/25/tyson.htm
- ^ http://fleurdelys4me.wordpress.com/2011/12/04/hello-world/
- ^ Crowther, J. G.. "Article about Francis Bacon". New Scientist January 19, 1961. http://books.google.com.br/books?id=ODBtWGjxXH8C&pg=PA146&dq=francis+bacon+napoleon+code&hl=pt-BR&sa=X&ei=DY0sT9KBG4Pv0gHrpqTRCg&ved=0CEkQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Wheeler, Harvey. "Francis Bacon’s 'Verulamium': the Common Law Template of The Modern in English Science and Culture"
- ^ Kocher, Paul (1957). "Francis Bacon and the Science of Jurisprudence". Journal of the History of Ideas (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press) 8: 3–26.
- ^ McClellan, James. "The Common Law Tradition - Liberty, Order, and Justice: An Introduction to the Constitutional Principles of American Government (1989).
- ^ Frances Yates, Theatre of the World, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1969
- ^ Bryan Bevan, The Real Francis Bacon, England: Centaur Press, 1960
- ^ Daphne du Maurier, The Winding Stair, Biography of Bacon 1976.
- ^ Frances Yates, The Occult Philosophy in the Elizabethan Age, pages 61–68, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979
- ^ a b Frances Yates, The Rosicrucian Enlightenment, London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972
- ^ "Howbeit we know after a time there wil now be a general reformation, both of divine and humane things, according to our desire, and the expectation of others: for it's fitting, that before the rising of the Sun, there should appear and break forth Aurora, or some clearness, or divine light in the sky" – Fama Fraternitatis http://www.sacred-texts.com/sro/rhr/rhr06.htm
- ^ Bacon, Francis. Of the Proficience and Advancement of Learning, Divine and Human
- ^ "Like good and faithful guardians, we may yield up their fortune to mankind upon the emancipation and majority of their understanding, from which must necessarily follow an improvement of their estate [...]. For man, by the fall, fell at the same time from his state of innocency and from his dominion over creation. Both of these losses however can even in this life be in some part repaired; the former by religion and faith, the latter by arts and sciences. – Francis Bacon, Novum Organum
- ^ "We ought therefore here to observe well, and make it known unto everyone, that God hath certainly and most assuredly concluded to send and grant to the whole world before her end ... such a truth, light, life, and glory, as the first man Adam had, which he lost in Paradise, after which his successors were put and driven, with him, to misery. Wherefore there shall cease all servitude, falsehood, lies, and darkness, which by little and little, with the great world's revolution, was crept into all arts, works, and governments of men, and have darkened most part of them". – Confessio Fraternitatis
- ^ Andreae, Johann Valentin. "Christianopolis". Description of the Republic of Christianopolis (1619). http://www.archive.org/details/christianopolis00andr.
- ^ "Literary criticism of Johann Valentin Andreae". http://www.enotes.com/johann-valentin-andreae-criticism/andreae-johann-valentin.
- ^ Saint Germain Foundation. The History of the "I AM" Activity and Saint Germain Foundation. Schaumburg, Illinois: Saint Germain Press 2003
- ^ Luk, A.D.K.. Law of Life – Book II. Pueblo, Colorado: A.D.K. Luk Publications 1989, pages 254–267
- ^ White Paper – Wesak World Congress 2002. Acropolis Sophia Books & Works 2003.
- ^ Partridge, Christopher ed. New Religions: A Guide: New Religious Movements, Sects and Alternative Spiritualities Oxford University Press, USA 2004.
- ^ Schroeder, Werner Ascended Masters and Their Retreats Ascended Master Teaching Foundation 2004, pages 250–255
References[link]
- Material originally from the 1911 Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge.
- Material originally from the 1912 Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Bacon, Francis". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. - Cousin, John William (1910). " Bacon, Francis, Lord Verulam, And Viscount St. Alban". A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature. London: J. M. Dent & Sons. Wikisource
- John Farrell, "The Science of Suspicion." Paranoia and Modernity: Cervantes to Rousseau (Cornell UP, 2006), chapter six.
- "Our Western Heritage" Roselle / Young: Chapter five "The 'Scientific Revolution' and the 'Intellectual Revolution'".
- Mary Heese, "Francis Bacon's Philosophy of Science," Essential Articles for the Study of Francis Bacon, ed. Brian Vickers (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1968), pp. 114–139.
- Benjamin Farrington, The Philosophy of Francis Bacon (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1964). Contains English translations of
- Temporis Partus Masculus
- Cogitata et Visa
- Redargutio Philosphiarum
- James Spedding, Robert Leslie Ellis, Douglas Denon Heath, The Works of Francis Bacon, Baron of Verulam, Viscount St Albans and Lord High Chancellor of England 15 vols (London, 1857–74). (Index at UPenn of Archive.org holdings)
- Paolo Rossi, Francis Bacon: from Magic to Science, Taylor & Francis 1978.
External links[link]
| Find more about Francis Bacon on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
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Textbooks from Wikibooks |
- Archival material relating to Francis Bacon listed at the UK National Register of Archives
- Francis Bacon entry by Juergen Klein in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Works by Francis Bacon at Project Gutenberg
- The Francis Bacon Society
- Contains the New Organon, slightly modified for easier reading
| Political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Sir Thomas Egerton |
Lord High Chancellor 1617–1621 |
Succeeded by In Commission |
| Preceded by Henry Hobart |
Attorney General of England and Wales 1613–1617 |
Succeeded by Henry Yelverton |
| Parliament of England | ||
| Preceded by Miles Sandys |
Member of Parliament for Taunton 1586–1588 |
Succeeded by William Aubrey |
| Preceded by Arthur Atye |
Member of Parliament for Liverpool 1588–1594 |
Succeeded by Thomas Gerard |
| Preceded by William Fleetwood |
Member of Parliament for Middlesex 1594–1598 |
Succeeded by Sir John Peyton |
| Peerage of England | ||
| New title Title granted by
James I of England |
Baron Verulam 1618–1626 |
Extinct |
| New title Title granted by
James I of England |
Viscount St Alban 1621–1626 |
|
|
|||||||||||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Bacon, Francis |
| Alternative names | Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban, Francis (full name and title); Verulam, Baron (title); St Alban, Viscount (title) |
| Short description | Philosopher and statesman |
| Date of birth | (1561-01-22)22 January 1561 |
| Place of birth | Strand, London, England |
| Date of death | 9 April 1626(1626-04-09) |
| Place of death | Highgate, London, England |
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Bacon
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Will Durant | |
|---|---|
| Born | (1885-11-05)November 5, 1885 North Adams, Massachusetts |
| Died | November 7, 1981(1981-11-07) (aged 96) Los Angeles, California |
| Occupation | Historian, writer, philosopher, teacher |
| Nationality | American |
| Subjects | History, philosophy, religion |
| Spouse(s) | Ariel Durant |
| Children | Ethel Durant |
William James Durant (November 5, 1885 – November 7, 1981) was a prolific American writer, historian, and philosopher. He is best known for The Story of Civilization, 11 volumes written in collaboration with his wife Ariel Durant and published between 1935 and 1975. He was earlier noted for The Story of Philosophy, written in 1926, which one observer described as "a groundbreaking work that helped to popularize philosophy."[1]
He conceived of philosophy as total perspective, or, seeing things "sub specie totius," a phrase inspired by Spinoza's "sub specie aeternitatis."[2] He sought to unify and humanize the great body of historical knowledge, which had grown too voluminous and become fragmented into esoteric specialties, and to vitalize it for contemporary application.[3] Durant was a gifted prose stylist and storyteller who won a large readership in great part because of the nature and excellence of his writing, which, in contrast to formal academic language, is lively, witty, charismatic, colourful, ornate, epigrammatic, in short, "humanized." Max Schuster, co-founder of the publisher Simon & Schuster (which also published Durant's works), and himself an admirer of Durant's writings for their beauty, remarked that Durant's prose "begs to be read aloud."[4] John Little, who founded and heads the Will Durant foundation and has devoted much effort towards popularizing Durant's works in the 21st century, echoes Schuster's admiration for Durant's works in words which Durant himself sometimes used to describe a few of the finest works of Classical Antiquity: "prose so beautiful it rivals poetry."[5]
Will and Ariel Durant were awarded the Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction in 1968 and the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1977.
Contents |
Early life[link]
Durant was born in North Adams, Massachusetts of French-Canadian parents Joseph Durant and Mary Allard, who had been part of the Quebec emigration to the United States.
In 1900, Durant was educated by the Jesuits in St. Peter's Preparatory School and, later, Saint Peter's College in Jersey City, New Jersey. Historian Joan Rubin writes of this period, "Despite some adolescent flirtations, he began preparing for the vocation that promised to realize his mother's fondest hopes for him: the priesthood. In that way, one might argue, he embarked on a course that, while distant from Yale's or Columbia's apprenticeships in gentility, offered equivalent cultural authority within his own milieu."[6]
In 1905, he began experimenting with socialist philosophy but, after World War I, began recognizing that a "lust for power" underlay all forms of political behavior.[6] However, even before the war, "other aspects of his sensibility had competed with his radical leanings," notes Rubin. She adds that "the most concrete of those was a persistent penchant for philosophy. With his energy invested in Spinoza, he made little room for Bakunin. From then on, writes Rubin, "his retention of a model of selfhood predicated on discipline made him unsympathetic to anarchist injunctions to 'be yourself'. . . To be one's 'deliberate self,' he explained, meant to 'rise above' the impulse to 'become the slaves of our passions' and instead to act with 'courageous devotion' to a moral cause."[6]
He graduated in 1907. He worked as a reporter for Arthur Brisbane's New York Evening Journal for ten dollars a week. At the Evening Journal, he wrote several articles on sexual criminals. In 1907, he began teaching Latin, French, English and geometry at Seton Hall University, South Orange, New Jersey. Durant was also made librarian at the college.
Teaching career[link]
In 1911 he left the seminary. He became the principal of Ferrer Modern School, an advanced school intended to educate the working-classes; he also taught there. Alden Freeman, a supporter of the Ferrer Modern School, sponsored him for a tour of Europe. At the Modern School, he fell in love with and married a pupil, 13 years his junior, Chaya (Ida) Kaufman, whom he later nicknamed "Ariel". The Durants had one daughter, Ethel, and adopted a son, Louis.
By 1914 he began to reject "intimations of human evil," notes Rubin, and to "retreat from radical social change." She summarizes these changes in his overall philosophy:
- "Instead of tying human progress to the rise of the proletariat, he made it the inevitable outcome of the laughter of young children or the endurance of his parents' marriage. As Ariel Durant later summarized it, he had concocted, by his mid-thirties, 'that sentimental, idealizing blend of love, philosophy, Christianity, and socialism which dominated his spiritual chemistry' the rest of his life.
- "Those attributes ultimately propelled him away from radicalism as a substitute faith and from teaching young anarchists as an alternative vocation. Instead, late in 1913 he embarked on a different pursuit: the dissemination of culture."[6]
In 1913, he resigned his post as teacher. To support themselves, he began lecturing in a Presbyterian church for five- and ten-dollar fees; the material for these lectures became the starting point for The Story of Civilization.
Author[link]
 |
This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability. |
In 1917, while working on a doctorate in philosophy at Columbia University, Will Durant wrote his first book, Philosophy and the Social Problem. He discussed the idea that philosophy had not grown because it avoided the actual problems of society. He received his doctorate that same year from Columbia.[7] He was also an instructor at the university.
[edit] The Story of Philosophy
The Story of Philosophy originated as a series of Little Blue Books (educational pamphlets aimed at workers) and was so popular it was republished in 1926 by Simon & Schuster as a hardcover book[8] and became a bestseller, giving the Durants the financial independence that would allow them to travel the world several times and spend four decades writing The Story of Civilization. He left teaching and began work on the eleven volume Story of Civilization. Will drafted a civil rights "Declaration of Interdependence" in the early 1940s, nearly a full decade before the Brown decision (see Brown v. Board of Education) ignited the Civil Rights Movement. This Declaration was introduced into the Congressional Record on October 1, 1945.[citation needed]
[edit] The Story of Civilization
The Durants strove throughout The Story of Civilization to create what they called "integral history". They opposed this to the "specialization" of history, an anticipatory rejection of what some have called the "cult of the expert." Their goal was to write a "biography" of a civilization, in this case, the West, including not just the usual wars, politics and biography of greatness and villainy, but also the culture, art, philosophy, religion, and the rise of mass communication. Much of The Story considers the living conditions of everyday people throughout the twenty-five hundred years their "story" of the West covers. They also bring an unabashedly moral framework to their accounts, constantly stressing the repetition of the "dominance of strong over the weak, the clever over the simple." The Story of Civilization is the most successful historiographical series in history. It has been said that the series "put Simon and Schuster on the map" as a publishing house.
The Story of Civilization is also noteworthy because of the excellence of its writing style, and contains numerous apothegms worthy of the Roman and Renaissance authors Durant admired. Discussing certain inconsistencies in the character of Botticelli in The Renaissance (page 137), he writes: "Doubtless like all of us he was many men, turned on one or another of his selves as occasion required, and kept his real self a frightened secret from the world."
For Rousseau and Revolution, (1967), the 10th volume of The Story of Civilization, they were awarded the Pulitzer Prize for literature; later followed one of the two highest awards granted by the United States government to civilians, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, by President Ford in 1977.
Other works[link]
Throughout his career, Durant had several brilliant speeches; among such was the "Persia in the History of Civilization" that was presented as an address before the Iran-America Society in Tehran on April 21, 1948, and its manuscript had been intended for inclusion in the Bulletin of the Asia Institute (formerly Bulletin of the American Institute for Persian, then Iranian, Art and Archaeology), Vol. VII, no. 2, which never saw publication.[9] They were followed by Rousseau and Revolution with a slender volume of observations called The Lessons of History, which was both synopsis of the series as well as analysis. Though they had intended to carry the work into the 20th century, they simply ran out of time and had expected the 10th volume to be their last. However, they went on to publish a final volume, their 11th, The Age of Napoleon in 1975. They also left behind notes for a twelfth volume, The Age of Darwin, and an outline for a thirteenth, The Age of Einstein, which would have taken The Story of Civilization through to 1945.
Two posthumous works by Durant have been published in recent years, The Greatest Minds and Ideas of All Time (2002) and Heroes of History: A Brief History of Civilization from Ancient Times to the Dawn of the Modern Age (2001).
- Final years
The Durants also shared a love story as remarkable as their scholarship;[citation needed] they detail this in Dual Autobiography. After Will went into the hospital, Ariel stopped eating. Will died after he heard that Ariel had died. They died within two weeks of each other in 1981 (she on October 25 and he on November 7). Though their daughter, Ethel, and grandchildren strove to keep the death of his Ariel from the ailing Will, he learned of it on the evening news, and he himself died at the age of 96. He was buried beside his wife in Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery in Los Angeles.
Writing about Russia[link]
In 1933, he published Tragedy of Russia: Impressions from a Brief Visit and soon after, The Lesson of Russia. A few years after the books were published, social commentator Will Rogers had read them and described a symposium he had attended that included Will Durant as one of the contributors. He later wrote of Durant, "He is just about our best writer on Russia. He is the most fearless writer that has been there. He tells you just what it's like. He makes a mighty fine talk. One of the most interesting lecturers we have, and a fine fellow."[1]
Legacy[link]
Will Durant fought for equal wages, women's suffrage and fairer working conditions for the American labor force. Durant not only wrote on many topics but also put his ideas into effect. Durant, it has been said widely, attempted to bring philosophy to the common man. He authored The Story of Philosophy, The Mansions of Philosophy, and, with the help of his wife, Ariel, wrote The Story of Civilization. He also wrote magazine articles.
He was trying to improve understanding of viewpoints of human beings and to have others forgive foibles and human waywardness. He chided the comfortable insularity of what is now known as Eurocentrism, by pointing out in Our Oriental Heritage that Europe was only "a jagged promontory of Asia." He complained of "the provincialism of our traditional histories which began with Greece and summed up Asia in a line" and said they showed "a possibly fatal error of perspective and intelligence."
Philosophical writings[link]
On the decline and rebuilding of civilizations[link]
Much like Oswald Spengler, Will Durant saw the decline of a civilization as a culmination of strife between religion and secular intellectualism, thus toppling the precarious institutions of convention and morality:
"Hence a certain tension between religion and society marks the higher stages of every civilization. Religion begins by offering magical aid to harassed and bewildered men; it culminates by giving to a people that unity of morals and belief which seems so favorable to statesmanship and art; it ends by fighting suicidally in the lost cause of the past. For as knowledge grows or alters continually, it clashes with mythology and theology, which change with geological leisureliness. Priestly control of arts and letters is then felt as a galling shackle or hateful barrier, and intellectual history takes on the character of a "conflict between science and religion." Institutions which were at first in the hands of the clergy, like law and punishment, education and morals, marriage and divorce, tend to escape from ecclesiastical control, and become secular, perhaps profane. The intellectual classes abandon the ancient theology and—after some hesitation—the moral code allied with it; literature and philosophy become anticlerical. The movement of liberation rises to an exuberant worship of reason, and falls to a paralyzing disillusionment with every dogma and every idea. Conduct, deprived of its religious supports, deteriorates into epicurean chaos; and life itself, shorn of consoling faith, becomes a burden alike to conscious poverty and to weary wealth. In the end a society and its religion tend to fall together, like body and soul, in a harmonious death. Meanwhile among the oppressed another myth arises, gives new form to human hope, new courage to human effort, and after centuries of chaos builds another civilization."[10]
More than twenty years after his death, Durant's quote of "A great civilization is not conquered from without until it has destroyed itself within"[11] appeared as the opening graphic of Mel Gibson's 2006 film Apocalypto.
On religion and evolution[link]
In an article in 1927, he wrote his thoughts about reconciling religion and Darwinism. An excerpt from the article:
- "As to harmonizing the theory of evolution with the Biblical account of creation, I do not believe it can be done, and I do not see why it should be. The story of Genesis is beautiful, and profoundly significant as symbolism: there is no good reason to torture it into conformity with modern theory."[12]
Selected books[link]
See a full bibliography at Will Durant Online [1].
- Durant, Will (1917) Philosophy and the Social Problem. New York: Macmillan.
- Durant, Will (1926) The Story of Philosophy. New York: Simon and Schuster.
- Durant, Will (1927) Transition. New York: Simon and Schuster.
- Durant, Will (1929) The Mansions of Philosophy. New York: Simon and Schuster. Later with slight revisions re-published as The Pleasures of Philosophy
- Durant, Will (1930) The Case for India. New York: Simon and Schuster.
- Durant, Will (1931) Adventures in Genius. New York: Simon and Schuster.
- Durant, Will (1931) Great Men of Literature, taken from Adventures in Genius. New York: Garden City Publishing Co.
- Durant, Will (1953) The Pleasures of Philosophy. New York: Simon and Schuster.
- Durant, Will & Durant, Ariel (1968) The Lessons of History. New York: Simon and Schuster.
- Durant, Will & Durant, Ariel (1970) Interpretations of Life. New York: Simon and Schuster.
- Durant, Will & Durant, Ariel (1977) A Dual Autobiography. New York: Simon and Schuster.
- Durant, Will (2001) Heroes of History: A Brief History of Civilization from Ancient Times to the Dawn of the Modern Age. New York: Simon and Schuster. Actually copyrighted by John Little and the Estate of Will Durant.
- Durant, Will (2002) The Greatest Minds and Ideas of All Time. New York: Simon and Schuster.
- Durant, Will (2003) An Invitation to Philosophy: Essays and Talks on the Love of Wisdom. Promethean Press.
- Durant, Will (2008) Adventures in Philosophy. Promethean Press.
=== The Story of Civilization
- Durant, Will (1939) The Life of Greece. New York: Simon and Schuster.
- Durant, Will (1944) Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster.
- Durant, Will (1950) The Age of Faith. New York: Simon and Schuster.
- Durant, Will (1953) The Renaissance. New York: Simon and Schuster.
- Durant, Will (1957) The Reformation. New York: Simon and Schuster.
- Durant, Will, & Durant, Ariel (1961) The Age of Reason Begins. New York: Simon and Schuster.
- Durant, Will, & Durant, Ariel (1963) The Age of Louis XIV. New York: Simon and Schuster.
- Durant, Will, & Durant, Ariel (1965) The Age of Voltaire. New York: Simon and Schuster.
- Durant, Will, & Durant, Ariel (1967) Rousseau and Revolution. New York: Simon and Schuster.
- Durant, Will, & Durant, Ariel (1975) The Age of Napoleon. New York: Simon and Schuster.
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ a b Rogers, Will (1966). Steven K. Gragert. ed. The Papers of Will Rogers. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 393.
- ^ Durant, Will. "What is Philosophy?". http://www.willdurant.com/philosophy.htm.
- ^ Durant, Will (1935). Our Oriental Heritage. Simon & Schuster. pp. vii.
- ^ "Adventures in Philosophy" by Will Durant (with Intro by John Little) pp.1
- ^ "The Greatest Minds and Ideas of All Time" by Will Durant (with Intro by John Little) [in Intro]
- ^ a b c d Rubin, Joan Shelley. The Making of Middlebrow Culture, Univ. of North Carolina Press (1992)
- ^ A Symphony of History:Will Durant’s The Story of Civilization, The Objective Standard. By Dan Norton. Spring 2011. Vol. 6, No. 1. Third paragraph. Retrieved 29 May 2012.
- ^ http://ktwu.wuacc.edu/journeys/scripts/412b.html
- ^ Durant, Will. "Persia in the History of Civilization". Addressing 'Iran-America Society. Mazda Publishers, Inc.. http://www.mazdapublisher.com/Documents/Persian%20Civilization.pdf.
- ^ The Story of Civilization, V.1., 71. See also this article's Discussion page.
- ^ The Story of Civilization (Vol 3 Caesar And Christ. Epilogue—Why Rome fell): A great civilization is not conquered from without until it has destroyed itself within. The essential causes of Rome's decline lay in her people, her morals, her class struggle, her failing trade, her bureaucratic despotism, her stifling taxes, her consuming wars.
- ^ Durant, Will. Popular Science, Oct. 1927
External links[link]
 |
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Will Durant |
- Will Durant Foundation
- Will Durant's list of One Hundred Best Books for an Education
- Internet Archive
- The Pulitzer Prizes: 1968
- "Durant, Will and Durant, Ariel." Encyclopædia Britannica from Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. (Accessed May 14, 2005)
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||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Durant, Will |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | November 5, 1885 |
| Place of birth | North Adams, Massachusetts |
| Date of death | November 7, 1981 |
| Place of death | Los Angeles, California |
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will_Durant
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Damien Hirst | |
|---|---|
 Damien Hirst, still from the movie The Future of Art. |
|
| Born | (1965-06-07) 7 June 1965 (age 47) Bristol, England, UK |
| Nationality | British |
| Field | Conceptual art, installation art, painting |
| Training | Jacob Kramer College, Leeds; Goldsmiths |
| Movement | Young British Artists |
| Works | The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living, For the Love of God |
| Patrons | Charles Saatchi |
| Awards | Turner Prize |
Damien Steven Hirst[1] (born 7 June 1965) is an English artist, entrepreneur and art collector. He is the most prominent[2] member of the group known as the Young British Artists (or YBAs), who dominated the art scene in Britain during the 1990s.[3] He is internationally renowned,[4] and is reportedly Britain's richest living artist, with his wealth valued at £215m in the 2010 Sunday Times Rich List.[5][6] During the 1990s his career was closely linked with the collector Charles Saatchi, but increasing frictions came to a head in 2003 and the relationship ended.[7]
Death is a central theme in Hirst's works.[8][9] He became famous for a series of artworks in which dead animals (including a shark, a sheep and a cow) are preserved—sometimes having been dissected—in formaldehyde. The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living, a 14-foot (4.3 m) tiger shark immersed in formaldehyde in a vitrine (clear display case) became the iconic work of British art in the 1990s,[10] and the symbol of Britart worldwide.[11] He has also made "spin paintings," created on a spinning circular surface, and "spot paintings", which are rows of randomly coloured circles created by his assistants.
In September 2008, he took an unprecedented move for a living artist[12] by selling a complete show, Beautiful Inside My Head Forever, at Sotheby's by auction and by-passing his long-standing galleries.[13] The auction exceeded all predictions, raising £111 million ($198 million), breaking the record for a one-artist auction[14] as well as Hirst's own record with £10.3 million for The Golden Calf, an animal with 18-carat gold horns and hooves, preserved in formaldehyde.[13]
In several instances since 1999, sources for certain of Hirst's works have been challenged and contested as plagiarised, both in written articles by journalists and artists, and, in one instance, through legal proceedings which led to an out-of-court settlement.[15]
Hirst has made certain controversial statements to the media including, following the 11 September attacks, Hirst congratulated the attackers, stating, "You've got to hand it to them on some level." On 18 September 2002, he "apologised unreservedly" for the remarks.[16]
Contents |
Life and career[link]
Early life[link]
Damien Hirst was born in Bristol and grew up in Leeds. His father was reportedly a motor mechanic, who left the family when Hirst was 12.[17] His mother, Mary Brennan, of Irish Catholic descent, worked for the Citizens Advice Bureau, and has stated that she lost control of her son when he was young.[17] He was arrested on two occasions for shoplifting.[17] However, Hirst sees her as someone who would not tolerate rebellion: she cut up his bondage trousers and heated one of his Sex Pistols vinyl records on the cooker to turn it into a fruit bowl[18] (or a plant pot[19]). He says, "If she didn't like how I was dressed, she would quickly take me away from the bus stop." She did, though, encourage his liking for drawing, which was his only successful educational subject.[18]
His art teacher "pleaded"[18] for Hirst to be allowed to enter the sixth form,[18] where he took two A-levels, achieving an "E" grade in art.[17] He was refused admission to Jacob Kramer school of art when he first applied, but attended the college after a subsequent successful application to the Foundation Diploma course.[17]
He went to an exhibition of work by Francis Davison, staged by Julian Spalding at the Hayward Gallery in 1983.[20] Davison created abstract collages from torn and cut coloured paper which, Hirst said, "blew me away", and which he modelled his own work on for the next two years.[20]
He worked for two years on London building sites, then studied Fine Art at Goldsmiths, University of London[17] (1986–89), although again he was refused a place the first time he applied. In 2007, Hirst was quoted as saying of An Oak Tree by Goldsmiths' senior tutor, Michael Craig-Martin: "That piece is, I think, the greatest piece of conceptual sculpture. I still can't get it out of my head."[21] While a student, Hirst had a placement at a mortuary, an experience that influenced his later themes and materials.
Warehouse shows[link]
Main article: Freeze (art exhibition)
In July 1988, in his second year at Goldsmiths College, Hirst was the main organiser of an independent student exhibition, Freeze, in a disused London Port Authority administrative block in London's Docklands. He gained sponsorship from the London Docklands Development Corporation. The show was visited by Charles Saatchi, Norman Rosenthal and Nicholas Serota, thanks to the influence of his Goldsmiths' lecturer Michael Craig-Martin. Hirst's own contribution to the show consisted of a cluster of cardboard boxes painted with household paint.[22] After graduating, Hirst was included in New Contemporaries show and in a group show at Kettles Yard Gallery in Cambridge. Seeking a gallery dealer, he first approached Karsten Schubert, but was turned down.
In 1990 Hirst, along with his friend Carl Freedman and Billee Sellman, curated two enterprising "warehouse" shows, Modern Medicine and Gambler, in a Bermondsey former Peek Freans biscuit factory they designated "Building One".[23][24] Saatchi arrived at the second show in a green Rolls Royce and, according to Freedman, stood open-mouthed with astonishment in front of (and then bought) Hirst's first major "animal" installation, A Thousand Years, consisting of a large glass case containing maggots and flies feeding off a rotting cow's head.[25] They also staged Michael Landy's Market.[24] At this time, Hirst said, "I can’t wait to get into a position to make really bad art and get away with it. At the moment if I did certain things people would look at it, consider it and then say 'f off'. But after a while you can get away with things."[20]
In 1991 his first solo exhibition, organised by Tamara Chodzko – Dial, In and Out of Love, was held in an unused shop on Woodstock Street in central London; he also had solo exhibitions at the Institute of Contemporary Arts, and the Emmanuel Perrotin Gallery in Paris. The Serpentine Gallery presented the first survey of the new generation of artists with the exhibition Broken English, in part curated by Hirst. At this time Hirst met the up-and-coming art dealer, Jay Jopling, who then represented him.
Career in contemporary art[link]
In 1991, Charles Saatchi had offered to fund whatever artwork Hirst wanted to make, and the result was showcased in 1992 in the first Young British Artists exhibition at the Saatchi Gallery in North London. Hirst's work was titled The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living and was a shark in formaldehyde in a vitrine, and sold for £50,000. The shark had been caught by a commissioned fisherman in Australia and had cost £6,000.[26] It became the iconic work of British art in the 1990s,[10] and the symbol of Britart worldwide.[11] The exhibition also included A Thousand Years. As a result of the show, Hirst was nominated for that year's Turner Prize, but it was awarded to Grenville Davey.
File:Hirst-Shark.jpg
The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living by Damien Hirst (1991)
Hirst's first major international presentation was in the Venice Biennale in 1993 with the work, Mother and Child Divided, a cow and a calf cut into sections and exhibited in a series of separate vitrines. He curated the show Some Went Mad, Some Ran Away in 1994 at the Serpentine Gallery in London, where he exhibited Away from the Flock (a sheep in a tank of formaldehyde). On 9 May, Mark Bridger, a 35 year old artist from Oxford, walked in to the gallery and poured black ink into the tank, and retitled the work Black Sheep. He was subsequently prosecuted, at Hirst's wish, and was given two years' probation. The sculpture was restored at a cost of £1,000.
In 1995, Hirst won the Turner Prize. New York public health officials banned Two F***ing and Two Watching featuring a rotting cow and bull, because of fears of "vomiting among the visitors". There were solo shows in Seoul, London and Salzburg. He directed the video for the song "Country House" for the band Blur. No Sense of Absolute Corruption, his first solo show in the Gagosian Gallery in New York was staged the following year. In London the short film, Hanging Around, was shown—written and directed by Hirst and starring Eddie Izzard. In 1997 the Sensation exhibition opened at the Royal Academy in London. A Thousand Years and other works by Hirst were included, but the main controversy occurred over other artists' works. It was nevertheless seen as the formal acceptance of the YBAs into the establishment.[27]
File:Hirst-Beautiful.jpg
Beautiful revolving sphincter, oops brown painting by Damien Hirst (2003)
In 1997, his autobiography and art book, I Want To Spend the Rest of My Life Everywhere, with Everyone, One to One, Always, Forever, Now, was published. With Alex James of the band Blur and actor Keith Allen, he formed the band Fat Les, achieving a number 2 hit with a raucous football-themed song Vindaloo, followed up by Jerusalem with the London Gay Men's Chorus. Hirst also painted a simple colour pattern for the Beagle 2 probe. This pattern was to be used to calibrate the probe's cameras after it had landed on Mars. He turned down the British Council's invitation to be Britain's representative at the 1999 Venice Biennale because "it didn't feel right".[28] He sued British Airways claiming a breach of copyright over an advert design with coloured spots for its low budget airline, Go.[citation needed]
2000s[link]
In 2000, Hirst's sculpture Hymn (which Saatchi had bought for a reported £1m) was given pole position at the show Ant Noises (an anagram of "sensation") in the Saatchi Gallery. Hirst was then sued himself for breach of copyright over this sculpture (see Appropriation below).[29] Hirst sold three more copies of his sculpture for similar amounts to the first.[30] In September 2000, in New York, Larry Gagosian held the Hirst show, Damien Hirst: Models, Methods, Approaches, Assumptions, Results and Findings. 100,000 people visited the show in 12 weeks and all the work was sold.
On 10 September 2002, on the eve of the first anniversary of the 9/11 World Trade Center attacks, Hirst said in an interview with BBC News Online:
- "The thing about 9/11 is that it's kind of like an artwork in its own right. It was wicked, but it was devised in this way for this kind of impact. It was devised visually... You've got to hand it to them on some level because they've achieved something which nobody would have ever have thought possible, especially to a country as big as America. So on one level they kind of need congratulating, which a lot of people shy away from, which is a very dangerous thing."[31]
The next week, following public outrage at his remarks, he issued a statement through his company, Science Ltd:
- "I apologise unreservedly for any upset I have caused, particularly to the families of the victims of the events on that terrible day."[32]
Hirst gave up smoking and drinking in 2002, although the short-term result was that his wife Maia "had to move out because I was so horrible." He had met Joe Strummer (former lead singer of The Clash) at Glastonbury in 1995, becoming good friends and going on annual family holidays with him. Just before Christmas 2002, Strummer died of a heart attack. This had a profound effect on Hirst, who said, "It was the first time I felt mortal." He subsequently devoted a lot of time to founding a charity, Strummerville, to help young musicians.[18]
In April 2003, the Saatchi Gallery opened at new premises in County Hall, London, with a show that included a Hirst retrospective. This brought a developing strain in his relationship with Saatchi to a head[7] (one source of contention had been who was most responsible for boosting their mutual profile). Hirst disassociated himself from the retrospective to the extent of not including it in his CV.[7] He was angry that a Mini car that he had decorated for charity with his trademark spots was being exhibited as a serious artwork.[7] The show also scuppered a prospective Hirst retrospective at Tate Modern.[7] He said Saatchi was "childish"[18] and "I'm not Charles Saatchi's barrel-organ monkey ... He only recognises art with his wallet ... he believes he can affect art values with buying power, and he still believes he can do it."[7]
In September 2003, he had an exhibition Romance in the Age of Uncertainty at Jay Jopling's White Cube gallery in London, which made him a reported £11m,[18] bringing his wealth to over £35m. It was reported that a sculpture, Charity, had been sold for £1.5m to a Korean, Kim Chang-Il, who intended to exhibit it in his department store's gallery in Seoul.[33] The 22-foot (6.7m), 6-ton sculpture was based on the 1960s Spastic Society's model, which is of a girl in leg irons holding a collecting box. In Hirst's version the collecting box is shown broken open and is empty.
Charity was exhibited in the centre of Hoxton Square, in front of the White Cube. Inside the gallery downstairs were 12 vitrines representing Jesus's disciples, each case containing mostly gruesome, often blood-stained, items relevant to the particular disciple. At the end was an empty vitrine, representing Christ. Upstairs were four small glass cases, each containing a cow's head stuck with scissors and knives. It has been described as an "extraordinarily spiritual experience" in the tradition of Catholic imagery.[34] At this time Hirst bought back 12 works from Saatchi (a third of Saatchi's holdings of Hirst's early works), through Jay Jopling, reportedly for more than £8 million. Hirst had sold these pieces to Saatchi in the early 1990s for rather less, his first installations costing under £10,000.[7]
File:DamienHirstVirginMother.JPG
Virgin Mother by Damien Hirst
On 24 May 2004, a fire in the Momart storage warehouse destroyed many works from the Saatchi collection, including 17 of Hirst's, although the sculpture Charity survived, as it was outside in the builder's yard. That July, Hirst said of Saatchi, "I respect Charles. There's not really a feud. If I see him, we speak, but we were never really drinking buddies."[18]
Hirst designed a cover for the Band Aid 20 charity single featuring the "Grim Reaper" in late 2004. The image showed an African child perched on his knee. This was not to the liking of the record company executives and was replaced by reindeer in the snow standing next to a child.
In December 2004, The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living was sold by Saatchi to American collector Steve Cohen, for $12 million (£6.5 million), in a deal negotiated by Hirst's New York agent, Gagosian.[35] Cohen, a Greenwich hedge fund manager, then donated the work to The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Sir Nicholas Serota had wanted to acquire it for the Tate Gallery, and Hugo Swire, Shadow Minister for the Arts, tabled a question to ask if the government would ensure it stayed in the country.[36] Current export regulations do not apply to living artists.
Hirst exhibited 30 paintings at the Gagosian Gallery in New York in March 2005. These had taken 3½ years to complete. They were closely based on photos, mostly by assistants (who were rotated between paintings) but with a final finish by Hirst.[37]
In February 2006, he opened a major show in Mexico, at the Hilario Galguera Gallery, called The Death of God, Towards a Better Understanding of Life without God aboard The Ship of Fools. The exhibition attracted considerable media coverage as Hirst's first show in Latin America. In June that year, he exhibited alongside the work of Francis Bacon (Triptychs) at the Gagosian Gallery, Britannia Street, London. Included in the exhibition was the seminal vitrine, A Thousand Years (1990), and four triptychs: paintings, medicine cabinets and a new formaldehyde work entitled The Tranquility of Solitude (For George Dyer), influenced by Bacon.
File:Hirst-Love-Of-God.jpg
For the Love of God by Damien Hirst (2007)
A Thousand Years, one of Hirst's most provocative and engaging works, contains an actual life cycle. Maggots hatch inside a white minimal box, turn into flies, then feed on a bloody, severed cow's head on the floor of a claustrophobic glass vitrine. Above, hatched flies buzz around in the closed space. Many meet a violent end in an insect-o-cutor; others survive to continue the cycle. A Thousand Years was admired by Bacon, who in a letter to a friend a month before he died, wrote about the experience of seeing the work at the Saatchi Gallery in London. Margarita Coppack notes that "It is as if Bacon, a painter with no direct heir in that medium, was handing the baton on to a new generation." Hirst has openly acknowledged his debt to Bacon, absorbing the painter's visceral images and obsessions early on and giving them concrete existence in sculptural form with works like A Thousand Years.[38]
Hirst gained the auction record for the most expensive work of art by a living artist—his Lullaby Spring in June 2007, when a 3 metre-wide steel cabinet with 6,136 pills sold for 19.2 million dollars to Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani, the Emir of Qatar.[citation needed]
File:RHCP I'm With You Cover.jpg
Artwork for the Red Hot Chili Peppers album, I'm with You by Damien Hirst (2011)
In June 2007, Beyond Belief, an exhibition of Hirst's new work, opened at the White Cube gallery in London. The centre-piece, a Memento Mori titled For the Love of God, was a human skull recreated in platinum and adorned with 8,601 diamonds weighing a total of 1,106.18 carats.[39] Approximately £15,000,000 worth of diamonds were used. It was modelled on an 18th century skull, but the only surviving human part of the original is the teeth. The asking price for For the Love of God was £50,000,000 ($100 million or 75 million euros). It didn't sell outright,[40] and on 30 August 2008 was sold to a consortium that included Hirst himself and his gallery White Cube.[40]
In November 2008, the skull was exhibited at the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam next to an exhibition of paintings from the museum collection selected by Hirst. Wim Pijbes, the museum director, said of the exhibition, "It boosts our image. Of course, we do the Old Masters but we are not a 'yesterday institution'. It's for now. And Damien Hirst shows this in a very strong way."[41]
Works[link]
Beautiful Inside My Head Forever[link]
Main article: Beautiful Inside My Head Forever
Beautiful Inside My Head Forever was a two day auction of Hirst's new work at Sotheby's, London, taking place on 15 and 16 September 2008.[13]
It was unusual as he bypassed galleries and sold directly to the public.[42] Writing in The Independent, Cahal Milmo said that the idea of the auction was conceived by Hirst's business advisor of 13 years, Frank Dunphy, who had to overcome Hirst's initial reluctance about the idea.[43]
The sale raised £111 million ($198 million) for 218 items.[14] The auction exceeded expectations,[14] and was ten times higher than the existing Sotheby's record for a single artist sale,[44] occurring as the financial markets plunged.[44] The Sunday Times said that Hirst's business colleagues had "propped up"[44] the sale prices, making purchases or bids which totalled over half of the £70.5 million spent on the first sale day:[44] Harry Blain of the Haunch of Venison gallery said that bids were entered on behalf of clients wishing to acquire the work.[44]
Cartrain[link]
Main article: Cartrain
In December 2008, Hirst contacted the Design and Artists Copyright Society (DACS) demanding action be taken over works containing images of his skull sculpture For the Love of God made by a 16 year old graffiti artist, Cartrain, and sold on the internet gallery 100artworks.com. On the advice of his gallery, Cartrain handed over the artworks to DACS and forfeited the £200 he had made; he said, "I met Christian Zimmermann [from DACS] who told me Hirst personally ordered action on the matter."[45] In June 2009, copyright lawyer Paul Tackaberry compared the two images and said, "This is fairly non-contentious legally. Ask yourself, what portion of the original–and not just the quantity but also the quality–appears in the new work? If a 'substantial portion' of the 'original' appears in the new work, then that's all you need for copyright infringement... Quantitatively about 80% of the skull is in the second image."[46]
Cartrain walked into Tate Britain in July 2009 and removed a pack of "very rare Faber Castell 1990 Mongol 482 series pencils" from Damien Hirst's pharmacy installation. Cartrain had then made a "fake" police appeal poster stating that the pencils had been "stolen" and that if anyone had any information they should call the police on the phone number advertised. Cartrain was arrested for £500,000 worth of theft.[47]
Painting[link]
In October 2009, Hirst revealed that he had been painting with his own hand in a style influenced by Francis Bacon for several years. No Love Lost, his show of these paintings at the Wallace Collection in London received "one of the most unanimously negative responses to any exhibition in living memory".[48] Tom Lubbock of The Independent called Hirst's work derivative, weak and boring:[49] "Hirst, as a painter, is at about the level of a not-very-promising, first-year art student."[49] Rachel Campbell-Johnston of The Times said it was "shockingly bad".[49] A 2012 exhibition of paintings by Hirst at the White Cube gallery in Bermondsey, entitled "Two Weeks One Summer", provoked in The Guardian the comment that Hirst "can kid himself he is an Old Master and have the art world go along with the fantasy".[50]
Work philosophy[link]
File:Hirst-LSD.jpg
LSD by Damien Hirst
Although Hirst participated physically in the making of early works, he has always needed assistants (Carl Freedman helped with the first vitrines), and now the volume of work produced necessitates a "factory" setup, akin to Andy Warhol's or a Renaissance studio. This has led to questions about authenticity, as was highlighted in 1997, when a spin painting that Hirst said was a "forgery" appeared at sale, although he had previously said that he often had nothing to do with the creation of these pieces.
Hirst said that he only painted five spot paintings himself because, "I couldn't be fucking arsed doing it"; he described his efforts as "shite"—"They're shit compared to ... the best person who ever painted spots for me was Rachel. She's brilliant. Absolutely fucking brilliant. The best spot painting you can have by me is one painted by Rachel." He also describes another painting assistant who was leaving and asked for one of the paintings. Hirst told her to, "'make one of your own.' And she said, 'No, I want one of yours.' But the only difference, between one painted by her and one of mine, is the money.'"[51] By February 1999, two assistants had painted 300 spot paintings. Hirst sees the real creative act as being the conception, not the execution, and that, as the progenitor of the idea, he is therefore the artist:
"Art goes on in your head," he says. "If you said something interesting, that might be a title for a work of art and I'd write it down. Art comes from everywhere. It's your response to your surroundings. There are on-going ideas I've been working out for years, like how to make a rainbow in a gallery. I've always got a massive list of titles, of ideas for shows, and of works without titles."[18]
Hirst is also known to volunteer repair work on his projects after a client has made a purchase. For example, this service was offered in the case of the suspended shark purchased by Steven A. Cohen.[52][53][54]
Appropriation and plagiarism claims[link]
In 1999, chef Marco Pierre White said Hirst's Butterflies On Mars had plagiarised his own work, Rising Sun, which he then put on display in the restaurant Quo Vadis in place of the Hirst work.[55]
File:LeKaySpiritus2.jpg
Spiritus Callidus #2 by John Lekay, 1993, crystal skull
In 2000, Hirst was sued for breach of copyright over his sculpture, Hymn, which was a 20-foot (6.1 m), six ton, enlargement of his son Connor's 14" Young Scientist Anatomy Set, designed by Norman Emms, 10,000 of which are sold a year by Hull-based toy manufacturer Humbrol for £14.99 each.[29] Hirst paid an undisclosed sum to two charities, Children Nationwide and the Toy Trust in an out-of-court settlement,[29] as well as a "good will payment" to Emms.[55] The charitable donation was less than Emms had hoped for. Hirst also agreed to restrictions on further reproductions of his sculpture.[29]
In 2006, a graphic artist and former research associate at the Royal College of Art, Robert Dixon, author of 'Mathographics', alleged that Hirst's print Valium had "unmistakable similarities" to one of his own designs. Hirst's manager contested this by explaining the origin of Hirst's piece was from a book The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Geometry (1991)—not realising this was one place where Dixon's design had been published.[55][56]
In 2007, artist John LeKay said he was a friend of Damien Hirst between 1992 and 1994 and had given him a "marked-up duplicate copy" of a Carolina Biological Supply Company catalogue, adding "You have no idea how much he got from this catalogue. The Cow Divided is on page 647 – it is a model of a cow divided down the centre, like his piece." This refers to Hirst’s work Mother and Child, Divided—a cow and calf cut in half and placed in formaldehyde.[56] LeKay also claimed Hirst had copied the idea of For the Love of God from LeKay's crystal skulls made in 1993, and said, "I would like Damien to acknowledge that 'John really did inspire the skull and influenced my work a lot.'"[56] Copyright lawyer Paul Tackaberry reviewed images of LeKay's and Hirst's work and saw no basis for copyright infringement claims in a legal sense.[46]
In 2010, in The Jackdaw, Charles Thomson said there were 15 cases where Hirst had plagiarised other work.[57] Examples cited were Joseph Cornell who had created a similar piece to Hirst's Pharmacy in 1943; Lori Precious who had made stained-glass window effects from butterfly wings from 1994, a number of years before Hirst; and John LeKay who did a crucified sheep in 1987.[57] Thomson said that Hirst's spin paintings and installation of a ball on a jet of air were not original, since similar pieces had been made in the 1960s.[57][58] A spokesperson for Hirst said the article was "poor journalism" and that Hirst would be making a "comprehensive" rebuttal of the claims.[59]
Hirst's own collection[link]
In November 2006, Hirst was curator of In the darkest hour there may be light, shown at the Serpentine Gallery, London, the first public exhibition of (a small part of) his own collection.[60] Now known as the ‘murderme collection’, this significant accumulation of works spans several generations of international artists, from well-known figures such as Francis Bacon, Jeff Koons, Tracey Emin, Richard Prince and Andy Warhol, to artists in earlier stages of their careers such as his former assistant Rachel Howard,[61] David Choe, Nicholas Lumb, Tom Ormond and Dan Baldwin.[62]
“As a human being, as you go through life, you just do collect. It was that sort of entropic collecting that I found myself interested in, just amassing stuff while you’re alive.” – Damien Hirst, 2006.[63]
Hirst is currently restoring the Grade I listed Toddington Manor, near Cheltenham, where he intends to eventually house the complete collection.[64]
In 2007, Hirst donated the 1991 sculptures "The Acquired Inability to Escape" and "Life Without You" and the 2002 work "Who is Afraid of the Dark?" (fly painting), and an exhibition copy from 2007 of "Mother and Child Divided" to the Tate Museum from his own personal collection of works.[65]
In March 2012 Hirst outlined plans to open a gallery in Vauxhall, London specifically designed to exhibit his personal collection, which includes five pieces by Francis Bacon. The date of opening is provisionally set for 2014.[66]
Restaurant ventures[link]
Hirst had a short-lived partnership with chef Marco Pierre White in the restaurant "Quo Vadis". His best-known restaurant involvement was Pharmacy, located in Notting Hill, London, which closed in September 2003. Although one of the owners, Hirst had only leased his art work to the restaurant, so he was able to retrieve and sell it at a Sotheby's auction, earning over £11 million. Some of the work had been adapted, e.g. by signing it prior to the auction.[67]
Hirst opened and currently helps to run a seafood restaurant, 11 The Quay, in the seaside town of Ilfracombe in the UK.
9/11 controversy[link]
Following the 11 September attacks, Hirst told BBC News Online: "You've got to hand it to them on some level, because they've achieved something which nobody would have thought possible, especially to a country as big as America. So on one level they need congratulating, which a lot of people shy away from, which is a very dangerous thing." On 18 September 2002, he apologised "unreservedly" for the remarks.[16]
Charitable work[link]
Hirst is a supporter of the indigenous rights organisation, Survival International.[68] On September 2008, Hirst donated the work, Beautiful Love Survival, at the Sotheby’s London sale, Beautiful Inside My Head Forever, to raise money for this organisation.[69][70] Later, he also contributed his writing to the book, We Are One: A Celebration of Tribal Peoples, released in October 2009, in support of Survival. The book explores the existence and threats of indigenous cultures around the world.[71][72]
Personal life[link]
Hirst lives with his Californian girlfriend, Maia Norman, by whom he has three sons: Connor Ojala, (born 1995, Kensington and Chelsea, London), Cassius Atticus (born 2000, North Devon) and Cyrus Joe (born 2005, Westminster, London).[73] Since the birth of Connor, he has spent most of his time at his remote farmhouse, a 300-year-old former inn, near Combe Martin, Devon. Hirst and Norman are not married,[citation needed], although Hirst refers to Norman as his "common-law wife".[74] The artist owns a large compound in Baja, Mexico, which serves as a part-time residence and art studio. The studio employs several artists who carry out Hirst's projects.
Hirst has admitted serious drug and alcohol problems during a ten year period from the early 1990s: "I started taking cocaine and drink... I turned into a babbling fucking wreck."[51] During this time he was renowned for his wild behaviour and eccentric acts, including for example, putting a cigarette in the end of his penis in front of journalists.[75] He frequented the high profile Groucho Club in Soho, London, and was banned on occasion for his behaviour.
Net worth[link]
Hirst is reputed to be the richest living artist to date.[6] In 2009, the annually collated chart of the wealthiest individuals in Britain and Ireland, Sunday Times Rich List, placed Hirst at joint number 238 with a net worth of £235m.[76] Hirst's wealth was valued at £215m in the 2010 Sunday Times Rich List, hence Damien Hirst is Britain’s wealthiest artist.[5]
In September 2008, he took an unprecedented move for a living artist[12] by selling a complete show, Beautiful Inside My Head Forever, at Sotheby's by auction and by-passing his long-standing galleries.[13] The auction exceeded all predictions, raising £111 million ($198 million), breaking the record for a one-artist auction[14] as well as Hirst's own record with £10.3 million for The Golden Calf, an animal with 18-carat gold horns and hooves, preserved in formaldehyde.[13]
In several instances since 1999, the sources for certain of Hirst's works have been challenged and contested, both in written articles by journalists and artists, and, in one instance, through legal proceedings which led to an out-of-court settlement.[15]
Critical responses to conceptual work[link]
Positive[link]
Hirst has been praised in recognition of his celebrity and the way this has galvanised interest in the arts, raising the profile of British art and helping to (re)create the image of "Cool Britannia." In the mid-1990s, the then-Heritage Secretary, Virginia Bottomley recognised him as "a pioneer of the British art movement", and even sheep farmers were pleased he had raised increased interest in British lamb.[78] Janet Street-Porter praised his originality, which had brought art to new audiences and was the "art-world equivalent of the Oasis concerts at Earl's Court".[78]
Andres Serrano is also known for shocking work and understands that contemporary fame does not necessarily equate to lasting fame, but backs Hirst: "Damien is very clever ... First you get the attention ... Whether or not it will stand the test of time, I don't know, but I think it will."[78] Sir Nicholas Serota commented, "Damien is something of a showman ... It is very difficult to be an artist when there is huge public and media attention. Because Damien Hirst has been built up as a very important figure, there are plenty of sceptics ready to put the knife in."[78]
Tracey Emin said: "There is no comparison between him and me; he developed a whole new way of making art and he's clearly in a league of his own. It would be like making comparisons with Warhol."[77] Despite Hirst's insults to him, Saatchi remains a staunch supporter, labelling Hirst a genius[78] and stating:
General art books dated 2105 will be as brutal about editing the late 20th century as they are about almost all other centuries. Every artist other than Jackson Pollock, Andy Warhol, Donald Judd and Damien Hirst will be a footnote.[79]
Negative[link]
There has been equally vehement opposition to Hirst's work. Norman Tebbit, commenting on the Sensation exhibition, wrote "Have they gone stark raving mad? The works of the 'artist' are lumps of dead animals. There are thousands of young artists who didn't get a look in, presumably because their work was too attractive to sane people. Modern art experts never learn."[80] The view of the tabloid press was summed up by a Daily Mail headline: "For 1,000 years art has been one of our great civilising forces. Today, pickled sheep and soiled beds threaten to make barbarians of us all." The Evening Standard art critic, Brian Sewell, said simply, "I don't think of it as art ... It is no more interesting than a stuffed pike over a pub door. Indeed there may well be more art in a stuffed pike than a dead sheep."[80]
The Stuckist art group was founded in 1999 with a specific anti-Britart agenda by Charles Thomson and Billy Childish;[81] Hirst is one of their main targets. They wrote (referring to a Channel 4 programme on Hirst):
The fact that Hirst's work does mirror society is not its strength but its weakness – and the reason it is guaranteed to decline artistically (and financially) as current social modes become outmoded. What Hirst has insightfully observed of his spin-paintings in Life and Death and Damien Hirst is the only comment that needs to be made of his entire oeuvre: "They're bright and they're zany – but there's fuck all there at the end of the day."[80]
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In 2003, under the title A Dead Shark Isn't Art, the Stuckism International Gallery exhibited a shark which had first been put on public display two years before Hirst's by Eddie Saunders in his Shoreditch shop, JD Electrical Supplies. Thomson asked, "If Hirst’s shark is recognised as great art, then how come Eddie’s, which was on exhibition for two years beforehand, isn’t? Do we perhaps have here an undiscovered artist of genius, who got there first, or is it that a dead shark isn’t art at all?"[82] The Stuckists suggested that Hirst may have got the idea for his work from Saunders' shop display.[83]
In a 2008 Channel 4 documentary called The Mona Lisa Curse, art critic Robert Hughes claimed that Hirst's work was "tacky" and "absurd". Hughes said it was "a little miracle" that the value of £5 million was put on Hirst's Virgin Mother (a 35 foot bronze statue), which was made by someone "with so little facility".[84] Hughes called Hirst's shark in formaldehyde "the world's most over-rated marine organism" and attacked the artist for "functioning like a commercial brand", making the case that Hirst and his work proved that financial value was now the only meaning that remained for art.[84]
Julian Spalding, British art critic and author of the book Con Art - Why You Should Sell Your Damien Hirsts While You Can,[85] has said "It's often been proposed, seriously, that Damien Hirst is a greater artist than Michelangelo because he had the idea for a shark in a tank whereas Michelangelo didn't have the idea for his David," and "The emperor has nothing on. When the penny drops that these are not art, it's all going to collapse. Hirst should not be in the Tate. He's not an artist. What separates Michelangelo from Hirst is that Michelangelo was an artist and Hirst isn't."[86][87]
Stefanie Schneider said on the Gerd Scobel documentary shown on 3sat called "Money or Life" in Dec 2011 that "He may be a designer, but certainly no artist."
Artworks[link]
His works include:
- In and Out of Love (1991), an installation of potted plants, caterpillars and monochrome canvases painted with sugar solution and glue. There were also (in a separate room) tables with ashtrays containing used cigarette butts. Eventually, the caterpillars metamorphose into butterflies, and the insects become fixed to the surfaces of the canvases. In its now fixed form, the work is held by the Yale Center for British Art and is on regular exhibit there.
- The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living (1991), a tiger shark in a glass tank of formaldehyde. This piece was one of the works in his Turner Prize nomination show.
- A Thousand Years (1991), composed of a vitrine with a glass division. In one half is the severed head of a cow on the floor; in the other is an insect electrocutor. Maggots introduced into the vitrine feed off the cow and then develop into flies that are killed by the electrocutor.
- Pharmacy (1992), a life-size recreation of a chemist's shop.
- Amonium Biborate (1993)
- Away from the Flock (1994), composed of a dead sheep in a glass tank of formaldehyde.
- Arachidic Acid (1994) an early example of Hirst's spot paintings.
- Some Comfort Gained from the Acceptance of the Inherent Lies in Everything (1996) multiple cows in a line head-to-tail, divided cross-sectionally into equal rectangular tanks of formaldehyde, equally-spaced, each containing about 3 feet (0.91 m) of the animals.
- Beautiful Axe , Slash, Gosh Painting (1999) Signed on the reverse. Gloss household paint on canvas
- Hymn (1999), a scaled-up replica of his son Connor's toy: a basic anatomical model of the male human body. The sculpture is 20 ft (6.1 m) tall and composed of painted bronze.
- Mother and Child Divided, composed of a cow and a calf sliced in half in a glass tank of formaldehyde.
- Two Fucking and Two Watching, includes a rotting cow and bull. This work was banned from exhibition in New York by public health officials.
- God, composed of a cabinet containing pharmaceutical products.
- The Virgin Mother, a massive sculpture depicting a pregnant female human, with layers removed from one side to expose the fœtus, muscle and tissue layers, and skull underneath. This work was purchased by real estate magnate Aby Rosen for display on the plaza of one of his properties, the Lever House, in New York City.
- Breath (2001), a 45-second film of Samuel Beckett's play for the Beckett on Film series.
- Painting-By-Numbers (2001), a do-it-yourself painting kit comprising a stamped canvas, brushes, and 90 paint tins in plexiglass designed to make one infamous 'dot' painting. Part of the exhibition was binned by a gallery cleaner who mistook it for trash.[88]
- The Stations of the Cross (2004), a series of twelve photographs depicting the final moments of Jesus Christ, made in collaboration with the photographer David Bailey.
- The Wrath of God (2005), a new version of a shark in formaldehyde.
- The Inescapable Truth, (2005). Glass, steel, dove, human skull and formaldehyde solution.
- The Sacred Heart of Jesus, (2005). Perspex, bull's heart, silver, assorted needles, scalpels, and formaldehyde solution.
- Faithless, (2005). Butterflies and household gloss on canvas
- The Hat Makes de Man, (2005). Painted bronze that simulates wood and hats.
- The Death of God, (2006). Household gloss on canvas, human skull, knife, coin and sea shells. This painting, which is a part of a group of others which were made in Mexico, are believed to be "the beginning of Hirst's Mexican period".
- For The Love of God, a platinum cast of an 18th century skull covered in 8,601 diamonds.[89]
- Saint Sebastian, Exquisite Pain, a black calf tied to a pole pierced with arrows. The calf is in a tank of formaldehyde. Performer George Michael has recently purchased this calf and has made it Hirst's fourth most expensive piece.
- Beautiful Inside my Head Forever (2008), Hirst's auction of new work at Sotheby's.
- CleanEquity award 2008 and 2009
- Temple (2008), a massive painted bronze sculpture of a man, with similar treatment to "Virgin Mother", above, reminiscent of models used by anatomy students, with revealed organs and internal structure. This work was exhibited outside the Oceanographic Museum in Monaco in 2010, during a summer retrospective of the artist's work.
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ Nicholson, Octavia. "Hirst, Damien (Steven)", Oxford Art Online (subscription). Retrieved 9 November 2008.
- ^ "Glossary: Young British Artists (YBA)", Tate. Retrieved on 14 July 2009.
- ^ "Hirst generation missing from Turner prize 2000 shortlist", The Guardian, 14 June 2000. Retrieved 11 September 2009.
- ^ "Great interviews of the 20th century", The Guardian, 13 September 2007. Retrieved 11 September 2009.
- ^ a b Richard Brooks, "It’s the fame I crave, says Damien Hirst," The Times, 28 March 2010
- ^ a b Graham-Dixon, Andrew. "Artworld insanity", The Sunday Telegraph, p. 28, 21 September 2008.
- ^ a b c d e f g "Hirst Buys His Art back from Saatchi", The Guardian, 27 November 2003. Retrieved 20 March 2006.
- ^ "Damien Hirst (born 1965)", National Galleries of Scotland (click "biography"). Retrieved 22 March 2010.
- ^ Brooks, Richard. "Damien Hirst's earliest painting goes on sale", The Sunday Times, 6 April 2008. Retrieved 22 March 2010.
- ^ a b Brooks, Richard. (16 January 2005). "Hirst's shark is sold to America", The Sunday Times. Retrieved 14 October 2008.
- ^ a b Davies, Serena. (8 January 2005)."Why painting is back in the frame", The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 14 October 2008.
- ^ a b Barker, Godfrey; Jury, Louise."Even his fag ends sell as Hirst art auction hits £100 million", Evening Standard, 16 September 2008. Retrieved on 22 July 2009.
- ^ a b c d e Akbar, Arifa. (16 September 2008). "A formaldehyde frenzy as buyers snap up Hirst works", The Independent. Retrieved 16 September 2008.
- ^ a b c d Parsons, Neal. (16 September 2008). "Update 1-Hirst's London art sale defies economic blues". Reuters. Retrieved 16 September 2008.
- ^ a b Dyer, Clare. "Hirst pays up for Hymn that wasn't his", The Guardian, 19 May 2000. Retrieved 15 September 2010.
- ^ a b Unattributed, "Hirst apologises for 11 Sept comments," BBC News, accessed 9 December 2010.
- ^ a b c d e f "Shockaholic" on BBC site. Retrieved 19 March 2006.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "I Knew It Was Time to Clean up My Act" Daily Telegraph, 26 July 2004. Retrieved 20 March 2006.
- ^ Hattenstone, Simon. "Damien Hirst: 'Anyone can be Rembrandt' ", The Guardian, 14 November 2009. Retrieved 21 February 2010.
- ^ a b c Spalding, Julian. "Why it's OK not to like modern art", The Times (2nd page online), 8 May 2003. Retrieved 26 October 2008.
- ^ "Michael Craig-Martin: out of the ordinary", The Daily Telegraph, 24 November 2007. Retrieved 4 November 2008.
- ^ The Freeze catalogue 1988
- ^ Rainbird, Sean. "'Are We as a Society Going to Carry on Treating People This Way?' Michael Landy’s Scrapheap Services", Tate Gallery, Spring 2004. Retrieved 22 October 2008.
- ^ a b Archer, Michael. "Oranges and Lemons and Oranges and Bananas", Acme, 2001. Retrieved 22 October 2008.
- ^ "Market News:Counter", The Daily Telegraph, 17 March 2003. Retrieved 22 October 2008.
- ^ "Saatchi mulls £6.25m shark offer", BBC. Retrieved 23 February 2007.
- ^ Beckett, Andy. "Shock art to shop art", The Guardian, p. T.002, 28 August 1997.
- ^ The Guardian 6 October 2001. Retrieved 19 March 2006.
- ^ a b c d "Hirst Pays up in Toy Row" on BBC site. Retrieved 19 March 2006.
- ^ "Charles Saatchi Could Have Bought Four Davids for the Price of Tracey Emin's Bed", The Daily Telegraph, 7 January 2006. Retrieved 20 March 2006.
- ^ Allison, Rebecca. (11 September 2002). "9/11 wicked but a work of art, says Damien Hirst", The Guardian. Retrieved 11 November 2008.
- ^ "Hirst apologies for 11 Sept Comments" BBC website. Retrieved 26 March 2006.
- ^ 9 September 2003. 'Holy Cow! Hirst Turns to Religion'. The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 20 March 2006.
- ^ Dorment, Richard. (10 September 2003). 'Damien Bares His Soul'. The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 20 March 2006.
- ^ exhibit-E.com (1 May 1956). "Larry Gagosian website". Gagosian.com. http://www.gagosian.com. Retrieved 15 August 2010.
- ^ Hugo Swire web site. Retrieved 18 February 2006.
- ^ Science Photo Library press release, 15 March 2005. Retrieved 20 March 2006.
- ^ Gagosian Gallery. Retrieved 27 December 2006.
- ^ "Damien Hirst: Beyond Belief exhibition", White Cube. Retrieved 19 June 2009.
- ^ a b Thornton, Sarah. "Damien Hirst is rewriting the rules of the market (2)", 'The Art Newspaper, 17 July 2008. Retrieved 11 August 2008.
- ^ (1 June 2009). "The project team: Communicating Hirst at the Rijksmuseum", Art, Design & Publicity. Retrieved 15 December 2009.
- ^ Singh, Anita. "Damien Hirst auction expected to fetch £65 million", The Daily Telegraph, 29 July 2008.
- ^ Milmo, Cahal. "Mr 10 per cent (and he's worth every penny)", The Independent, 18 September 2008. Retrieved 29 March 2010.
- ^ a b c d e The Sunday Times. (21 September 2008). "Hirst dealers bolster prices at record sale", The Sunday Times. Retrieved 10 February 2009.
- ^ Akbar, Arifa. (6 December 2008). 'Hirst demands share of artist's £65 copies' The Independent. Retrieved 6 December 2008.
- ^ a b Preece, Robert. (June 2009). 'Reality check: When appropriation becomes copyright infringement'. Sculpture magazine/AD&P. Retrieved 19 June 2009.
- ^ "Teenage graffiti artist accused of stealing £500,000 box of pencils in feud with Damien Hirst", The Daily Mail, 5 September 2009. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
- ^ Hudson, Mark. "It couldn't get worse for Damien Hirst", The Daily Telegraph, 14 October 2009.
- ^ a b c "Press views: Damien Hirst's paintings", BBC, 4 October 2009. Retrieved on 25 December 2009.
- ^ Jones, Jonathan (22 May 2012). "Damien Hirst: Two Weeks One Summer – review". The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2012/may/22/damien-hirst-two-weeks-review#. Retrieved 23 May 2012.
- ^ a b c Hirst, Damien and Burn, Gordon (2001). On the Way to Work. Faber
- ^ The New York Times
- ^ "The Art Newspaper". The Art Newspaper. http://www.theartnewspaper.com/article01.asp?id=355. Retrieved 15 August 2010.
- ^ "Dallas News". Dallas News. 2 October 2006. http://www.dallasnews.com/sharedcontent/dws/ent/stories/DN-hirst_1002gl.ART.State.Edition1.3e4aa3b.html. Retrieved 15 August 2010.
- ^ a b c Alberge, Dalya. (14 August 2003). "Spot the difference as artist accuses Hirst of copying", The Times. Retrieved 8 February 2008.
- ^ a b c Alberge, Dalya. (27 June 2007). "My old friend Damien stole my skull idea", The Times. Retrieved 10 December 2007.
- ^ a b c Alberge, Dalya. "Damien Hirst faces eight new claims of plagiarism" The Guardian, 2 September 2010. Retrieved 2 September 2010.
- ^ Unattributed reporter, "Damien Hirst faces new plagiarism claims," The Daily Telegraph, 3 September 2010
- ^ "Damien Hirst art works 'inspired by others'", BBC, 2 September 2010. Retrieved 3 September 2010.
- ^ Spears-Meers, Emily. 'High Art Lite in the Darkest Hour', Oxonian Review, 1 March 2007. Retrieved 29 December 2010.
- ^ Gleadell, Colin. "Market news: Sotheby's, Jamie Reid, Rachel Howard and more...", Daily Telegraph, 30 January 2007. Retrieved 10 January 2008.
- ^ [1]. Retrieved 12 December 2008.
- ^ [2]. Retrieved 12 December 2008.
- ^ [3]. Retrieved 12 December 2008.
- ^ [4]. Retrieved 12 December 2008.
- ^ "Damien Hirst outlines vision for gallery to house his personal collection", The Guardian, 10 March 2012.
- ^ "Laplaca on". Artnet.com. 18 October 2004. http://www.artnet.com/Magazine/news/laplaca/laplaca10-21-04.asp. Retrieved 15 August 2010.
- ^ "Right Livelihood Award: 1989 – Survival International". Rightlivelihood.org. http://www.rightlivelihood.org/survival.html. Retrieved 15 August 2010.
- ^ "Damien Hirst donates 'Beautiful Love Survival'". Survival International. 15 September 2008. http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/3572. Retrieved 15 August 2010.
- ^ "Sotheby's – Auctions – Calendar – Damien Hirst – Beautiful Inside My Head Forever (Evening Sale)". Sothebys. http://www.sothebys.com/app/live/lot/LotDetail.jsp?lot_id=159484183. Retrieved 15 August 2010.
- ^ "'We Are One: a celebration of tribal peoples' published this autumn". Survival International. 16 October 2009. http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/4981. Retrieved 25 November 2009.
- ^ "We Are One". Survival International. http://www.survivalinternational.org/weareone. Retrieved 15 August 2010.
- ^ "Births England and Wales 1984–2006". Findmypast.com. http://www.findmypast.com/BirthsMarriagesDeaths.jsp. Retrieved 15 August 2010.
- ^ Kate Bernard (6 August 2006). "Kate Bernard talks to Maia Norman, Damien Hirst's other half". The Observer (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/theobserver/2006/aug/06/1. Retrieved 15 August 2010.
- ^ Leith, William. "Avoiding the Sharks", Life: The Observer Magazine, p. 15, 14 February 1999.
- ^ "2009 Rich List search", The Times. Retrieved 22 March 2010.
- ^ a b The Independent on Sunday 12 March 2005. Retrieved 19 March 2006.
- ^ a b c d e For Hirst, Channel 4. Retrieved 19 March 2006.
- ^ Art Newspaper interview on Saatchi Gallery site. Retrieved 19 March 2006.
- ^ a b c Against Hirst, Channel 4 Retrieved 19 March 2006. Archive link.
- ^ Stuckist anti-Britart manifesto, 4 August 1999. Retrieved 20 March 2006.
- ^ a b Alberge, Dalya. (10 April 2003). "Traditionalists mark shark attack on Hirst", The Times. Retrieved 6 February 2008.
- ^ "A Dead Shark Isn't Art" Stuckism International web site. Retrieved 20 March 2006.
- ^ a b Thorpe, Vanessa (7 September 2008). "Top critic lashes out at Hirst's 'tacky' art". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/artanddesign/2008/sep/07/damienhirst.art. Retrieved 7 September 2008.
- ^ New York Times "What Price a Dead Shark?" March 31, 2012
- ^ The Independent "Sell up now before it's too late, expert tells Damien Hirst fans" March 27, 2012
- ^ BBC News "Julian Spalding attacks Damien Hirst 'con art'" March 27, 2012
- ^ "Cleaner clears up Hirst's ashtray art" The Guardian (London), 19 October 2001. Retrieved 19 October 2001.
- ^ "Hirst unveils £50m diamond skull", BBC, 1 June 2007. Retrieved 1 June 2007.
External links[link]
|
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Damien Hirst |
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Damien Hirst |
- Official Damien Hirst Website
- A Conversation with Damien Hirst
- OtherCriteria – Damien Hirst's publishing company
- Damien Hirst at the Museum of Modern Art
- Artist's profile at White Cube, including examples of work
- Damien Hirst at Gagosian Gallery
- Gordon Burn and Damien Hirst in conversation
- Life and death and Damien Hirst Channel 4 TV micro site
- Video of Hirst's 9/11 comments on BBC
- Damien Hirst's Pharmacy on Tate interactive site
- "The Art Damien Hirst Stole" by Charles Thomson from The Jackdaw
- " Damien Hirst: Print Maker, Bowes Museum"
- Hockney and Hirst feud over assistants
- Damien Hirst at Gow Langsford Gallery, Auckland, New Zealand, September 2011.
- Damien Hirst. Retrospective at Tate Modern, London / UK, Video Damien Hirst. Retrospective at Tate Modern, London, 2012
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Hirst, Damien |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | 7 June 1965 |
| Place of birth | Bristol, England |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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