American Sign Language
Spoken in	North America, West Africa
Native speakers	(unknown)
Language family	French FSL-based creole[1] American Sign Language
Dialects	Black American Sign Language Puerto Rican Sign Language Bolivian Sign Ghanaian Sign Nigerian Sign
Language codes
ISO 639-3	ase
300px   Areas where ASL or a dialect/derivative of ASL is the national sign language   Areas where ASL is in significant use alongside another sign language

American Sign Language (ASL) is a sign language, a language in which the hands, arms, head, facial expression and body language are used to speak without sound. ASL is not related to English, and features an entirely different grammar and vocabulary.^[2] In the 1960s, ASL was sometimes referred to as "Ameslan"^[3] but this term is now obsolete.

ASL is the dominant sign language of deaf communities in the United States and English-speaking parts of Canada.^[4] Although the United Kingdom and the United States / Canada share English as a common oral and written language, British Sign Language (BSL) is a completely different language from ASL, and they are not mutually intelligible. ASL is instead related to French Sign Language.

Besides North America, dialects of ASL or ASL-based creoles are used, sometimes alongside indigenous sign languages, in the Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Haiti, Puerto Rico, Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Chad, Gabon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Central African Republic, Mauritania, Kenya, Madagascar, Zimbabwe, Barbados, Bolivia, China, Trinidad and Tobago and Jamaica. Like other sign languages, its grammar and syntax are distinct from any spoken language, including English.

Population[link]

The number of ASL speakers is unknown. Determining the number of people who use ASL is difficult because, unlike most oral languages, ASL use is not associated with a specific ethnicity, location, or even household. Rather, people learn ASL because they are deaf, hearing impaired or, less commonly, speech impaired, or because they have family or friends who sign. Further, most deaf children are born to hearing adults and thus learn ASL mainly at school, rather than from their parents, so it is often not the language of the home.^[5][6]

ASL is frequently, though incorrectly, cited as the fourth- or fifth-most-spoken language in the United States.^[7] These figures misquote a 1972 survey that actually concluded that ASL speakers constituted the fourth-largest population requiring an interpreter in court. Several other languages were more widely spoken, but many of their speakers were bilingual in English.^[8] The survey only questioned deaf people on whether they signed "well", it did not distinguish ASL from other sign languages, and it did not investigate how many hearing people among their friends and family, such as their children, might also sign.

From that incomplete 1972 data, it was extrapolated that there were at most 500,000 home signers, both deaf and hearing, in the United States at the time, with an unknown percentage being ASL signers. There has been no reliable estimate since the 1972 study. The US population has also grown by 50% in the roughly 40 years since 1972, and education for the deaf, including access to ASL, has greatly improved. In addition, the number of profoundly deaf people in the country (approx. 2.5 million in the year 2000), a figure commonly given as the upper bound in ASL estimates, cannot be used, as the majority (roughly 75%) of these people became deaf after age 65 and are unlikely to use ASL well, if at all.^[8][5]

Variations in signed English[link]

ASL words are also used with English grammar and word order plus, in some systems such as Signing Exact English ("SEE"), invented or modified signs for English inflections such as "-ing" and function words such as "the". These forms of signing, generically called Manually Coded English (MCE), are not ASL, but manually coded forms of English. See Manually Coded English for more information on these and other non-vocal language systems.^[2]

SEE and similar language codes are often used to teach English, its structure, grammar and syntax, to native ASL speakers. In addition, many hearing people, interpreters, and Deaf people when signing to a hearing person use what is commonly called Pidgin Sign English (PSE), or 'Contact Sign', a blend of English and ASL grammar and syntax using sign vocabulary. PSE can range from very English-like PSE (more like sign-supported English) to a very ASL-like PSE, which uses mostly ASL grammar and words, but may not use the finer ASL grammatical points.^[2]

History[link]

A sign language interpreter at a presentation

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In the United States, as elsewhere in the world, hearing families with deaf children have historically employed ad-hoc home sign, idiosyncratic systems of hand gesture that do not amount to full language, for rudimentary communication. There were however exceptions, such as the community of Martha's Vineyard, where a large percentage of the population was deaf and the entire hearing population was able to sign a true sign language. Elsewhere the development of sign language required the emergence of deaf schools, which brought large numbers of deaf children together. The story of ASL begins with deaf education, Martha's Vineyard, and a minister, Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, who was enlisted by a father to educate his deaf daughter, Alice Cogswell in 1814.

Prior sign languages[link]

France[link]

The French had a natural sign language, which is often referred to as Old French Sign Language (OFSL). OFSL was the language of a large community of Deaf people living in Paris. This language was passed down from deaf person to deaf person, and may be the oldest sign language of Europe. The Abbé Charles-Michel de l'Épée was the first to acknowledge that signed language could be used to educate the deaf.

An oft-repeated deaf folk tale explains Épée's role in the origin of LSF (and later, ASL): While visiting a parishioner, Épee met two deaf daughters conversing with each other using OFSL. The mother explained that her daughters were being educated privately by means of pictures. Épée was inspired by these deaf children and in 1771 established the first educational institution for the deaf.^[9] He created a series of grammatical signs to represent French grammatical markers (called "methodical signs") and taught those to his students so that they might learn grammatical French. At Épée's school, a large group of Deaf children lived together for the first time in France and it is this generation of native speakers which most likely developed OFSL into a full language. The combination of OFSL, methodical signs, and possibly other influences came together and evolved into French Sign Language, LSF, or langue des signes française.

United States[link]

Little is known of sign languages in the United States before 1817. In most communities there were few deaf people, and home sign was used. However, there were several communities with a high incidence of congenital deafness (30× the national average) where village sign language was used, and from where students attended the first schools for the deaf. The most famous of these was on Martha’s Vineyard. (See Martha's Vineyard Sign Language.)

Plains Indians[link]

In 1541, 1688, 1740, 1805, and 1828, there were reports that the Plains Indians developed a sign language to communicate between tribes of different languages. This sign language is believed to have developed in the lower Rio Grande prior to the Europeans settling and to have spread northward and become what is known as Plains Indian Sign Language (PISL). There is no evidence to show that it influenced the development of American Sign Language. By 1885, PISL had an estimated 110,000 users of various tribal dialects, but today it has only a small fraction of that number. It was not a language strictly for deaf people but an integral part of the language along with spoken components. It was also a common language between tribes who had different spoken elements.^[10]

Birth of American Sign Language and the American School for the Deaf[link]

In 1815, a Protestant minister, Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet, left his home in Hartford, Connecticut to visit Europe. Dr. Mason Cogswell had asked Gallaudet to investigate methods of teaching his deaf daughter, Alice Cogswell. While in England, Gallaudet hit a roadblock when directors of the Braidwood Schools, who taught the oral method, refused to share their methods of teaching. Nevertheless, while in London, Gallaudet met with Abbé Sicard, director of the Royal Institution for the Deaf in Paris, and two of his students, one of whom was Laurent Clerc. Sicard invited Gallaudet to visit the school in Paris. He did not go immediately, but instead traveled to Edinburgh, Scotland where he again met the directors of Braidwood. They again refused to teach him their methods. Gallaudet then traveled to Paris and learned the educational methods of the Royal Institution for the Deaf with sign language, a combination of Old French Sign Language and the signs developed by Abbé de l’Épée. Gallaudet persuaded Clerc to return with him to Connecticut and become a teacher for the deaf. Gallaudet and Clerc opened the Connecticut Asylum for the Education and Instruction of Deaf and Dumb Persons (now called American School for the Deaf) in April 1817. Clerc used French Sign as the language of instruction. The largest group of students during the first seven decades of the school were from Martha’s Vineyard, and they brought their sign language with them. There were also 44 students from around Henniker, New Hampshire, and 27 from a settlement in southeastern Maine, each of which had their own sign language. Because these languages were not documented, it is unclear how much influence they had in the emerging ASL. Many of the students did not come from such areas, however, and arrived with nothing more than home sign. Nonetheless, Clerc reported that he often learned the students' signs rather than conveying FSL:^[1]

I see, however, and I say it with regret, that any efforts that we have made or may still be making, to do better than, we have inadvertently fallen somewhat back of Abbé de l’Épée. Some of us have learned and still learn signs from uneducated pupils, instead of learning them from well instructed and experienced teachers.

(Clerc, 1852, from Woodward 1978:336)

On the other hand, it is clear that the new language was not simply MVSL: Students returning to Martha's Vineyard from Hartford used signs that the islanders did not recognize.

Clerc also directed the Pennsylvania School for the Deaf for a year beginning in 1819, and one of his hearing students, Ronald MacDonald, established the first Canadian school for the deaf in Quebec in 1831. Canadian students attended the school in Hartford. Clerc spent the rest of his life in the US, providing a continuous influence of FSL. Nonetheless, the percentage of FSL signs in ASL is only moderate, at about 58%. ASL is thus not a dialect of FSL. Woodward (1978:339) characterized the result of this contact—between the FSL of Clerc and the village sign of many of the students—as a "massive abrupt change due to creolization".^[1]

Growth and standardization[link]

American Sign Language Convention of March 2008 in Austin, Texas

From its synthesis at this first public school for the deaf in North America, the language grew in an unbroken chain to the rest of the US and Canada. Graduates went on to found schools of their own. The only competing Deaf-community sign language was Quebec Sign, which was primarily restricted to francophone areas. Within the US, Deaf associations were formed, such as the National Association of the Deaf in 1880. Members from across the country met at national conventions, which helped stabilize the language, though each school tended to have a recognizable accent, with some distinct vocabulary; due to segregation a notably distinct dialect emerged in black schools.

Oralism versus Manualism[link]

After being strongly established in the United States there was a bitter fight between those who supported oralism over manualism in the late 19th century. Many notable individuals of high standing contributed to this debate, such as Alexander Graham Bell. The oralists won many battles and for a long time the use of sign was suppressed: socially and pedagogically. ASL was discouraged in schools for the deaf in many parts of the country at this time. Deaf teachers often were forced out of teaching to prevent deaf students from being exposed to sign language. Deaf children who did not progress adequately in oral programs were labeled "oral failures".^[11] Many did not consider sign language to be a legitimate language. This was changed by William Stokoe, a professor of English at Gallaudet University hired in 1955. He immediately became fascinated by ASL and began serious study of it. Eventually, through publication in linguistics journals of articles containing detailed linguistic analysis of ASL, he was able to convince the scientific mainstream that ASL was indeed a "language" on a par with any other.^{[citation needed]}

The modern language[link]

The language continues to grow, adding new signs for changes in culture and technology. For example, there is a sign for INTERNET and a one for Video blog (the L hands, touching at thumb tips, rotate up from palm down to palm forward). Hip-hop has been signed on YouTube.^[12]

Linguistics[link]

Two men and a woman signing.

ASL is a natural language, as proven to the satisfaction of the linguistic community by William Stokoe, and contains phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax and pragmatics just like spoken languages. Like other sign languages, it is a manual language and a visual language: information is encoded not in sounds but with the shape and movement of the hands and other parts of the body, and with facial expressions, including mouthing. Sign languages are commonly misunderstood as being gestural, but while gesture is used in sign languages just as it is in spoken languages (and indeed home sign is largely gestural), a sign language is fundamentally different from gesture in what it conveys and how it conveys it.

Iconicity[link]

The topic of iconicity in signed languages is a sensitive one. According to Saussure, one of the most important tenets of a real language is that the mapping between form and meaning (sign and signifier) must be completely arbitrary. As a result, linguists have tried to downplay the role of iconicity in signed languages. Since the onset of the Cognitive Revolution more research has emerged showing that all languages, including spoken languages, have iconic tendencies. As a result, linguists are taking a second look at iconicity in signed languages.

A common misconception is that signs are iconically self-explanatory, that they are a transparent imitation of what they mean, or even that they are pantomime. Signed languages typically have a higher degree of morphophonological iconicity than do spoken languages (called mimesis or onomatopoeia), and pantomime does play a much more extended role in signed languages compared to spoken language.

However, in some aspects of signed languages, iconicity does not seem to play a significant role. Research on acquisition of pronouns in ASL (Petitto, 1987) ^[13] has shown that children do not always take advantage of the iconic properties of signs when interpreting their meaning. Petitto showed that when children were acquiring the pronoun ‘you’ the iconicity of the point (at the child) was often confused, and treated more like a name. This is a similar finding to research in spoken languages on pronoun acquisition.

Klima and Bellugi^[14] devised three categories of explicitness in signs:

• Transparent: Non-signers can usually correctly guess the meaning
• Translucent: Meaning makes sense to non-signers once it is explained
• Opaque: Meaning has no apparent relation to the sign itself

There are differences in degrees of iconicity across sign types. Classifiers are very iconic. There is a need for more research on this, since this is not a topic that researchers easily agree on.

Grammar[link]

ASL grammar is completely unrelated to that of English. It lacks the inflections of English, such as tense and number, and does not use articles such as "the", but its spatial mode of expression has enabled it to develop an elaborate system of grammatical aspect that is absent from English. ASL grammar was obscured for much of its history by the practice of glossing it rather than transcribing it (see Writing systems below), a practice which conveyed little of its grammar apart from word order.

Variation[link]

When looking at variations it needs to be kept in mind that different groups of people do not always sign one way and not the other, rather they prefer and use a particular form of a sign more often.^[15] Furthermore, each individual signer has their own style of signing depending on various factors, such as where they went to school, if they were mainstreamed (see Mainstreaming (education)), who taught them ASL, at what age they learned ASL, and how active they are in the Deaf Community.^[16]

The American Sign Language used in different regions across North America reflects the spoken language around them.^[17] This may include the speed of their signing and names for local places.^[16]

Regional variation in Canada[link]

According to The Canadian Dictionary of ASL ^[18] there are five broad regions of ASL variation in Canada, the Pacific, Prairie, Ontario, Quebec, and Atlantic regions.

Regional lexical variation[link]

Throughout these regions only lexical variations have been explored. For example the word learn can be signed two different ways. There is the standard way to sign the word learn that seems to be used by most signers of ASL in Canada, and there is also an Atlantic regional variation. Another example is about, which has three different ways of signing it; these are the standard way and two regional variations (Atlantic and Ontario). The videos on the right hand side of the page highlight the different ways to sign the word about.^[18]

About – General sign

About – Atlantic Variation

About – Ontario Variation

Regional variation in the United States[link]

ASL has many regional and subcultural varieties and accents. "Just as there are accents in speech, there are regional accents in sign. People from the South sign slower than people in the North—even people from northern and southern Indiana have different styles."^[19]

Lexical variation[link]

The most obvious regional difference is in local signs. For example, there are more than six signs for birthday in ASL, just as in English one can say couch and sofa, or soda and pop, to mean the same thing.^[15]

Phonological variation[link]

According to Lucas, Bayley, and Valli, each sign has a handshape (see handshape section in American Sign Language grammar) and these handshapes can resemble signs of numbers or letters. Some signs that are created with a 1 handshape can also be made using an L or a 5 handshape (open handshape). There is a variation among regions in the United States when it comes to which handshape signers prefer to use. Signers from California, Missouri, Massachusetts and Louisiana favor the 1 handshape over the L handshape and open handshape, while signers from Maryland, Washington and Virginia prefer the L handshape and open handshape over the 1 handshape.^[20]

Black American Sign Language[link]

Black sign language is influenced by African American English (AAE). This is especially evident in the younger Black deaf community, with use of signs for AAE words like my bad and whassup.^[21] This is a language contact feature.

History[link]

Black ASL evolved out of racial segregation in the United States, especially in the South. While White and Black children were both instructed in ASL, only Black teachers were permitted to instruct Black deaf children.^[20] Black sign language was born out of this isolation. This isolation, as well as minimal adult input, contributed to the fact that Black Sign Language displays traditional sign language elements as well as the adoption of words used by younger hearing Black people.^[22]

Phonological variation[link]

Black sign language speakers prefer to use two hands opposed to one, for example: remember.^[21] Black sign language speakers are also more likely to sign higher on the body. A sign that may be lowered to the cheek level by an ASL speaker is more likely to be produced by a Black Sign Language speaker on the forehead, for example: teacher.^[20]

Lexical variation[link]

The sign for rabbit provides a good example of variation between Black and White Signers. While both communities use the forehead location and neutral space location with the H handshape, Black signers also have a separate sign for rabbit, with a bent V handshape and different hand movement.^[15]

Varieties outside North America[link]

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

ASL is perhaps the most widespread of the world's sign languages, though BANZSL is also spoken around the world. As a language of deaf education, ASL has been introduced to numerous countries, where it has often diverged into a separate dialect. Bolivian Sign Language, for example, is essentially ASL, apart from changes in initialized signs to make them match the spelling of Spanish. A similar French influence is seen in classroom ASL in francophone West Africa, where ASL was introduced along with formal education for the deaf by the deaf American missionary Andrew Foster. Local variants such as Ghanaian Sign Language and Nigerian Sign Language arose in anglophone countries as well.

Other languages, such as Thai Sign Language, developed as a creole of ASL and indigenous sign; a similar situation may have occurred with Malaysian Sign Language, which in turn was the base of Indonesian Sign Language. Cyprus Sign Language is reported to be a blend of ASL and Greek Sign Language, which may itself have developed from a combination of ASL and FSL. Moroccan Sign Language was developed by the American Peace Corps on a base of ASL along with incorporating local signs.

In the Philippines, ASL is widely understood by the Deaf community, though it is not the ancestor of Philippine Sign Language as sometimes thought. In some countries, such as Zimbabwe, it is widely used alongside a national sign language. Countries where ASL or a derivative of ASL is the national or a widespread language include Barbados, Belize, Benin, Bolivia, Botswana (with BSL), Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Canada, the Central African Republic, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Kenya (minority use), Liberia, Madagascar (minority use), Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Philippines (L2 use), Puerto Rico, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Trinidad and Tobago, Togo, and Zimbabwe (with ZSL). See American Sign Language family for an incomplete list of ASL varieties used outside North America.

Classifiers[link]

Sign languages exhibit the use of polymorphemic constructions referred to as classifiers (not all researchers term these constructions classifiers). These constructions can convey shape, size, motion, location, movement, stative-descriptive, and/or handling information. These constructions are highly inflectable.^[23] There have been few studies on how frequent classifiers are used in ASL. Ranging from 4.2% to 7.68% in a corpus study. The nature of classifiers and their constructions allows the signer to use them more frequently in narratives; one study found this to be 17.7%.^[24][25] Classifiers are highly iconic.

Fingerspelling[link]

The American manual alphabet. Most of the letters are shown as the viewer would see them, but some (C, D, G, H, K, P, Q, and to a lesser extent F, O, X) are shown from the side for clarity.

Fingerspelling as the main form of communication is known as the Rochester Method, also known as Visible English. The Rochester Method focuses on oral language and speech, spelling spoken words. It was the primary form of instruction at Rochester School for the Deaf.

Writing systems[link]

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

The phrase "American Sign Language" in ASL, transcribed in Stokoe notation

The phrase "American Sign Language" in ASL, transcribed in Sutton SignWriting

For much of its history, ASL was not written. It was instead glossed with English words written in all capital letters. However, there is no one-to-one correspondence between words in ASL and English, and the inflectional modulation of ASL signs—a dominant part of the grammar—is lost.

Since in spoken languages the elements of sound are for the most part produced linearly in time (that is, in a word like cat the a sound comes after the c sound, and the t sound comes after that), they can generally be easily written in a linear (one-dimensional) writing system such as an alphabet. There are only a few aspects which are produced simultaneously, such as tone in some languages, or vowel and consonant harmony, and which are therefore not straightforward to write with an alphabet. In sign languages, however, several channels operate simultaneously—hand shape, often with the two hands operating independently, hand location, hand motion, facial expression, mouthing—making an alphabetic script more complicated than just stringing letters together in the order sounds are produced.

In the 1960s linguist William Stokoe created the first writing system for a sign language, the so-called Stokoe notation, which he designed specifically for ASL. It is alphabetic, with a letter or diacritic for every phonemic (distinctive) hand shape, orientation, motion, and position, though it lacks any representation of facial expression, and is better suited for individual words than for extended passages of text. Stokoe used it for his 1965 A Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic Principles, the first dictionary with entries in ASL—that is, the first dictionary which one could use to look up a sign without first knowing its conventional gloss in English.

The usage of Stokoe's system is currently restricted to academic circles. Several additional candidates for written ASL have appeared in over the years, including Sutton SignWriting, Sign Script, ASL-phabet, and Si5s. Of these, only SignWriting has much following, being used for example in college newsletters.

ASL and baby sign[link]

In recent years, researchers have shown that exposure to sign language has a positive impact on the socialization of hearing children. When infants are taught to sign, parents are able to converse with them at a developmental stage when they are not yet capable of producing vocal speech, which requires fine control of both breathing and the vocal tract.^{[citation needed]} The ability of a child to actively communicate earlier than would otherwise be possible appears to accelerate language development and to decrease the frustrations of communication.^{[citation needed]} In a study, more than 140 families were randomly assigned to two groups: signing and non-signing. Babies using sign language showed a three-month developmental advancement at 24-months, speaking like 27-month olds. At 36-months, they were developing like a 47-month old, showing a whole year's advancement. By age 8, those who were signing as babies scored an average of twelve points higher on the WISC-III IQ test.^[26]

Many parents use a collection of simplified or ad hoc signs called "baby sign." However, parents can learn to recognize their baby's approximations of adult ASL signs, just as they will later learn to recognize their approximations of oral language, so teaching an infant ASL is also possible. Typically, young children will make an ASL sign in the correct location and use the correct hand motion, but may be able only to approximate the hand shape, for example, using one finger instead of three in signing water. Deaf children from deaf families will often "babble" in sign, just as their hearing counterparts babble in speech, making nonsensical hand gestures.

ASL has come a long way from its condemned days of banned use to being viewed as a grammatical language, which is the main form of communication in American Deaf culture. Many parents today purchase “Baby Signs” DVDs and books which incorporate ASL signs for infant and toddler communication. “Baby Signs” was developed by Dr. Linda Acredolo and Dr. Susan Goodwyn in the early 1980s, and has become a persistent trend in child development.

However, there is an interesting contrast between the belief that exposure of signs to a hearing infant will aid them in language development, whereas a deaf infant at times must show the inability to learn a spoken language before they are taught sign language. This thought had originated due to the idea that sign language hinders the development of a spoken language in deaf children (Mayberry, 2008).

See also[link]

• American Sign Language grammar
• American Sign Language literature
• ASL Idioms
• Association of Visual Language Interpreters of Canada
• Bimodal Bilingualism in the American Deaf Community
• Child of deaf adult
• Cued Speech
• Philippine Sign Language
• Florida Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf
• Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf
• Sign Name
• Signing Exact English

References[link]

Additional Reading

• Bailey, C. S. & Dolby, K. (2002). The Canadian dictionary of ASL. Edmonton, AB: The University of Alberta Press.
• Barnard, Henry (1852), "Tribute to Gallaudet—A Discourse in Commemoration of the Life, Character and Services, of the Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet, LL.D.—Delivered Before the Citizens of Hartford, January 7, 1852. With an Appendix, Containing History of Deaf-Mute Instruction and Institutions, and other Documents." (Download book: PDF Saveourdeafschools.org)
• Groce, Nora Ellen (1988). Everyone Here Spoke Sign Language: Hereditary Deafness on Martha's Vineyard. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-27041-X. 
• Lane, Harlan L. (1984). When the mind hears: A history of the deaf. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-394-50878-5.
• Hill, J. & Lucas, C. (2009). A Presence Ignored: The Case of the Black Deaf Community in the US [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from blackaslproject.gallaudet.edu
• Lucas, C., Bayley, B., & Valli, C. (2003). What’s your sign for pizza?: An introduction to variation in American Sign Language. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press.
• Mayberry, Rachel I. (2007). “When Timing is Everything: Age of First-Language Acquisition Effects on Second-Language Learning.” Applied Psycholinguistics, 28, pp 537–549 doi:10.1017/S0142716407070294.
• McCaskill, C., Lucas, C., Hill, J. & Bayley, R. (2010). The Intersection of African-American English and Black ASL [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from blackaslproject.gallaudet.edu
• Solomon, A. (2010). Cultural and Sociolinguistic Features of the Black Deaf Community. (Honors Thesis). Retrieved from repository.cmu.edu
• Padden, Carol; & Humphries, Tom. (1988). Deaf in America: Voices from a culture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-19423-3.
• Sacks, Oliver W. (1989). Seeing voices: A journey into the world of the deaf. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-06083-0.
• Stokoe, William C. (1976). Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic Principles. Linstok Press. ISBN 0-932130-01-1. 
• Stokoe, William C. (1960). Sign language structure: An outline of the visual communication systems of the American deaf. Studies in linguistics: Occasional papers (No. 8). Buffalo: Dept. of Anthropology and Linguistics, University at Buffalo.