The Frisii were an ancient Germanic tribe living in the low-lying region between the Zuiderzee and the River Ems. In the Germanic pre-Migration Period (i.e., before c. 300 AD) the Frisii and the related Chauci, Saxons, and Angles inhabited the Continental European coast from the Zuyder Zee to south Jutland.^[1] All of these peoples shared a common material culture, and so cannot be defined archaeologically.^[2]

The Frisii were bordered on the south by Germans who would later coalesce into the Frankish confederation in the 3rd century. On the east they were bordered by the Ampsivarii who lived at the mouth of the Ems until AD 58,^[3][4] at which time the Chauci expelled them and gained a border with the Frisii.

The Chauci and other tribes to the east would merge to form the Saxons in the 3rd century. Some or all of the Frisii may have joined in either or both of these confederations, but they would retain a separate identity in Roman eyes until at least 296, when they were forcibly resettled as laeti ^[5] (i.e., Roman-era serfs) and thereafter disappear from recorded history. Their tentative existence in the 4th century is confirmed by archaeological discovery of a type of earthenware unique to 4th-century Frisia, called terp Tritzum, showing that an unknown number of Frisii were resettled in Flanders and Kent,^[6] likely as laeti under the aforementioned Roman coercion.

The lands of the Frisii were abandoned by c. 400 due to flooding caused by a marine transgression and lay empty for a century, when changing environmental conditions again made the region habitable. At that time, settlers repopulated the region and came to be known as 'Frisians'. Medieval and later accounts of 'Frisians' refer to these 'new Frisians' rather than to the ancient Frisii.^[7]

Description[link]

What little is known of the Frisii is provided by a few Roman accounts, most of them military. Pliny the Elder (AD 23–79) said their lands were forest-covered with tall trees growing up to the edge of the lakes.^[8] They lived by agriculture^[9] and raising cattle.^[10] In the late 1st century the Romans referred to the 'Greater Frisii' as living to the east of the Zuiderzee, and the 'Lesser Frisii' to the west of it, so-called for their proportional power, and with the settlements of both stretching along the border of the Rhine to the ocean.^[11]

In his Germania Tacitus would describe all the Germanic peoples of the region as having elected kings with limited powers and influential military leaders who led by example rather than by authority. The people lived in spread-out settlements.^[12] He specifically noted the weakness of Germanic political hierarchies in reference to the Frisii, when he mentioned the names of two kings of the 1st century Frisii and added that they were kings "as far as the Germans are under kings".^[13]

Early Roman accounts of war and raiding do not mention the Frisii as participants, though the neighboring Canninefates (to the west and southwest) and Chauci (to the east) are named in that regard. The earliest mention of the Frisii tells of Drusus' 12 BC war against the Rhine Germans and the Chauci. The Romans did not attack them after devastating the lands of the Rhine Germans, but merely passed through their territory and along their coast in order to attack the Chauci. The account says that the Frisii were "won over", suggesting a Roman suzerainty was imposed.^[14]

Over the course of time the Frisii would provide Roman auxiliaries through treaty obligations, but the tribe would also appear in its own right in concert with other Germanic tribes, opposing the Romans. Accounts of wars therefore mention the Frisii on both sides of the conflict, though the actions of troops under treaty obligation were separate from the policies of the tribe.

Wars with the Romans[link]

The Frisii were little more than occasional and incidental players in Roman accounts of history, which focus on Roman actions that were of interest to Roman readers. As a consequence, references to them are disjoint and offer little useful information about them.

When Drusus brought Roman forces through Frisii lands in 12 BC and "won them over", he placed a moderate tax on them. However, a later Roman governor raised the requirements and exacted payment, at first decimating the herds of the Frisii, then confiscating their land, and finally taking wives and children into bondage. By AD 29 the Frisii had had enough. They hanged the Roman soldiers collecting the tax and forced the governor to flee to a Roman fort, which they then besieged. The propraetor of Lower Germany, Lucius Apronius, raised the siege and attacked the Frisii, but was beaten back after suffering heavy losses. For whatever reason, the Romans did not seek revenge and the matter was closed. The prestige of the Frisii among the neighboring Germanic tribes was raised considerably.^[15]

After their experiences with the predatory Roman governor and Lucius Apronius, the Frisii became disaffected towards Rome. In AD 47 the Frisii along with the Chauci were led by a certain Gannascus of the Canninefates. They raided along the then-wealthy coast of Gallia Belgica.^[16] The Roman military commander, Corbulo, campaigned successfully against the Germanic tribes,^[17] For the and for the Frisii this meant Roman occupation, with the Romans specifying where they must live, with a fort built among them, and forcing a Roman-style senate, magistrates, and constitution upon them.^[18]

The Frisii are next mentioned in 54, when they occupied empty, Roman-controlled land near the Rhine, settling into houses and sowing and plowing fields. The Romans attempted to persuade them to leave, and even invited two Frisii kings to Rome to meet Nero, who ordered them to leave. The Frisii refused, whereby a Roman military force coerced them, killing any who resisted.^[19]

In AD 69 the Batavi and other tribes rose against Roman rule in the Revolt of the Batavi, becoming a general uprising by all the Germans in the region, including the Frisii. Things went well for the Germans at first. One of the early leaders, Brinno of the Canninefates tribe, quickly defeated a Roman force of 2 cohorts and took their camp.^[20] The capable Civilis ultimately succeeded to leadership of the Germanic side and inflicted huge casualties on the Romans, even besieging Roman strongholds such as Vetera.^[21] On the sea, a Roman flotilla was captured by a Germanic one.^[22] However, the war would not end well for the Germans. Led by Cerialis, the Romans ultimately gave as good as they had gotten, forcing a humiliating peace on the Batavi and stationing a legion on their territory.

In the course of the war, both the Frisii and the Chauci had auxiliaries serving under the Romans, and in a siege and assault by Civilis at Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensis (at modern Cologne), a cohort of Chauci and Frisii had been trapped and burned.^[23][24]

Final demise of the ancient Frisii[link]

The emperor Constantius Chlorus had campaigned successfully against several Germanic peoples during the internecine civil wars that had brought him to sole power over the Roman Empire. Among them were the Frisii and Chamavi, who were described in the Panegyrici Latini (Manuscript VIII) as being forced to resettle within Roman territory as laeti (i.e., Roman-era serfs) in c. 296.^[5] This is the last reference to the ancient Frisii in the historical record. However they would appear once more, this time in the archaeological record. The discovery of a type of earthenware unique to 4th century Frisia, called terp Tritzum, shows that an unknown number of them were resettled in Flanders and Kent,^[6] likely as laeti under the aforementioned Roman coercion.

If there were any Frisii left in Frisia, they would fall victim to the whims of nature. After several hundred years of favorable conditions, the environment in all of the low-lying coastal regions of northwestern Europe began to deteriorate c. 250 AD and gradually worsened over the next 200 years. Tectonic subsidence, a rising water table and storm surges combined to flood some areas. The situation was aggravated by a shift to a cooler, wetter climate in the region.^{[25][26][27][28]}

In the 3rd and 4th centuries the population of Frisia steadily decreased, and by the 5th century the population had dropped dramatically. The coastal lands would remain largely unpopulated for the next two centuries. When conditions improved Frisia would receive an influx of new settlers, mostly Saxons, and these would eventually be referred to as 'Frisians', though they were not necessarily descended from the ancient Frisii.

Suggested Roman references[link]

Auxiliaries at Hadrian's Wall[link]

One of the entries of the Notitia Dignitatum reads "Tribunus cohortis primae Frixagorum Vindobala",^[29] referring to the office of a tribune of the first cohort of the 'Frixagi', once stationed at Vindobala (at modern Rudchester) on Hadrian's Wall. Efforts have sometimes been made to connect this auxiliary unit with the Frisii by supposing that the original document must have said "Frisiavonum" and a later copyist mistakenly wrote "Frixagorum".^[30] Some works make the claim in passing, perhaps citing someone else's claim of a copyist's error as justification.^[31]

The Frisiavones[link]

The Frisiavones (or Frisiabones) are mentioned in Pliny the Elder's Natural History (AD 79). They are listed as a people of the islands in and near the Rhine River, as are the Frisii.^[32] They also appear as a people of northern Gaul in the chapter on Gallia Belgica,^[33] their name given between those of the Sunici and Betasi (not to be confused the Batavi).

The inscription stone found at Melandra Castle

Tangible evidence of the existence of the Frisavones includes several inscriptions found in Britain, from Roman Manchester and from Melandra Castle near modern Glossop in Derbyshire. The Melandra Castle inscription reads "CHO. T. FRISIAVO C. VAL VITALIS", which may be expanded to become "Cohortis Primae Frisiauonum Centurio Valerius Vitalis", which may be translated as "Valerius Vitalis, Centurion of the First Cohort of the Frisiavones".^[34]

Suggestions that the Frisiavones were actually the Frisii center on the similarity in names, combined with the Roman classification of 'Lesser Frisii' to the west of the Zuiderzee and 'Greater Frisii' to the east of it^[11] (which provides a reason as to why the Frisii might have been known by two different names). However, Pliny's placement of the Frisiavones in northern Gaul is not near the known location of the Frisii, which is acceptable if the Frisavones are a separate people, but not if they are a part of a greater Frisian tribe.^[35]

Theodor Mommsen (The Provinces of the Roman Empire from Caesar to Diocletian, 1885) believed that the Germanic tribes of the region consisted of two parts, one having come under Roman influence and the other having remained outside of Roman influence, and he concluded that the Frisiavones were the same people as the Frisii. However, his reasoning parsed the accounts of Tacitus and Pliny selectively: He interpreted the 'Lesser Frisii' and 'Greater Frisii' of Tacitus to refer to the Roman-influenced Frisavones and the non-Roman-influenced Frisii; he considered Pliny's account that mentioned both the Frisiavones and the Frisii to be consistent with the model; and he rejected Pliny's account placing the Frisiavones in northern Gaul, saying that it "is beyond doubt incorrect".^[36]

Early medieval 'Frisian' references[link]

The Panegyrici Latini in c. 297 is the last mention of the Frisii by that name. There is no mention of them by any other name for nearly 3 centuries, when the name re-emerges as 'Frisians'. These later references are all connected to the ascendancy of the Franks under the Merovingians, who referred to the people who had resettled the lands of the ancient Frisii as 'Frisians'.^[37] The interpretation of these references to 'Frisians' as references to the ancient Frisii has occasionally been made.

The Byzantine scholar Procopius, writing c. 565 in his Gothic Wars (Bk IV, Ch 20), said that "Brittia" in his time (a different word that his more usual "Bretannia") was occupied by three peoples: Angles, Frisians and Britons.^[38] Procopius said that he was relating information from an informant, likely a member of a Frankish delegation to the court at Byzantium,^[39] and did not assert the information as fact. Other information that he related included the assertion that there were no horses in Britain, that Hadrian's Wall separated the temperate parts of the island from the uninhabitable parts, and that 'countless people' had attested that Britain was the home of dead souls.^[40] His information about Britain, while occasionally useful, is not considered authoritative.^[41][42]

Venantius Fortunatus was a poet to the Frankish Merovingian court and wrote a eulogy to the Merovingian king Chilperic, who had died in 584. A list of peoples who were said to fear Chilperic's power is given and includes the Frisians, as well as the Suebi, Goths, Basques, Danes, Jutes, Saxons, and Britons. The eulogies of this age were intended to praise the high status of the subject, and the sudden reappearance of a list of old tribal names fitted into poetic meters is given little historical value.^[42] The context is poetic license rather than historical accuracy.

Coins with the obverse and reverse inscriptions 'AVDVLFVS FRISIA' and 'VICTVRIA AVDVLFO', as well as 'FRISIA' and 'AVDVLFVS' have been found at Escharen, a village in the Dutch province of North Brabant. The stylistic quality suggests that they are of Northern Frankish origin of that era rather than Frisian, besides which a local production using a self-descriptive country name (i.e., 'FRISIA') would be unheard of in that era.^[43]

Other medieval 'Frisian' references[link]

Frisia appears in the Old English heroic poem Beowulf, which tells a story of events of the early 6th century. In it, the Geatish king Hygelac is killed while raiding Frisia. It has been noted that Gregory of Tours (c. 538–594) mentioned a Danish king Chlochilaichus who was killed while invading Frankish territory in the early 6th century, suggesting that, in this instance, Beowulf might have a basis in historical facts. However, Gregory was writing little more than fifty years after the events and may have based his story on eyewitness accounts, yet he makes no mention of Frisia or the Frisians. The poem is not considered a rich source of historical facts by Beowulf scholars.^[44]

The Historia Brittonum gives a list of 33 ancient cities of Britain, among them 'Cair Peris', its location unspecified. It also contains a reference to the Picts and Orkney and a place 'ultra mare Frenessicum'.^[45] The 'Cair' in 'Cair Peris' is reasonably taken to be Welsh 'Caer' (fort), while 'Peris' is a matter of speculation and conjecture, including the supposition that it is a reference to 'Frisians'. In the context of the Historia, the 'mare Frenessicum' coincides nicely with the Firth of Forth. While the Historia is often useful to scholars, it is also the source of storyline details that have no discernible provenance. It was written more than 500 years after the last unambiguous reference to the ancient Frisii (the Panegyrici Latini in c. 297), and at a time when medieval Frisia and the Frisians were playing a dominant role in North Sea trade.

Notes[link]

References[link]

Frisian Kingdom Magna Frisia
600–734 →
The Frisian Realm
Capital	Dorestad, Utrecht and others
Language(s)	Old Frisian
Religion	Germanic paganism
Government	Monarchy
King
- c. 678	Aldgisl
- c. 680 - 719	Redbad
- 719 - 734	Poppo
History
- Established	600
- Disestablished	734
Area	50.000 km2 (19 sq mi)
Currency	Sceat [1]

The Frisian Kingdom (West Frisian: Fryske Keninkryk), also known as Magna Frisia, was a kingdom in what is now the Netherlands and northern Germany, established around 600 AD. The kingdom came to an end after the Battle of the Boarn (734) where it was defeated by the Frankish Empire.

Migration Period[link]

During the Migration Period the ancient Frisii settled in the north and the west of the Low Countries.^[2] The Frisians consisted of tribes with loose bonds, centered on war bands but without great power. In the second half of the 7th century the Frisian kingship reached its maximum geographic development.^[3]

Social classes[link]

The earliest Frisian records name four social classes, the ethelings (nobiles in Latin documents) and frilings, who together made up the "Free Frisians" who might bring suit at court, and the laten or liten with the slaves, who were absorbed into the laten during the Early Middle Ages, as slavery was not so much formally abolished, as evaporated.^[4] The laten were tenants of lands they did not own and might be tied to it in the manner of serfs, but in later times might buy their freedom.^[5]

History of wars[link]

The exact title of the Frisian rulers depends on the source. Frankish sources tend to call them dukes; other sources often call them kings. Only three Frisian rulers are named in written sources.

Aldgisl[link]

Under the rule of the king Aldgisl, the Frisians came in conflict with the Frankish mayor of the palace Ebroin, over the old Roman border fortifications. Aldgisl could keep the Franks at a distance with his army. In 678 he welcomed the English bishop Wilfrid, who, like him, was not a friend of the Franks.^[2]

Redbad[link]

Frisian sceattas c.710–735

Great fibula of Wijnaldum from the 7th century, found in 1953

Under Redbad, the tide turned in favour of the Franks: in 690 the Franks were victorious in the battle of Dorestad under the mayor of the palace Pepin of Herstal.^[6] Though not all the consequences of this battle are clear, Dorestad became Frankish again, as did the castles of Utrecht and Fechten. It is presumed that the influence of the Franks now reached from south of the Oude Rijn to the coast, but this is not entirely clear because the influence of the Frisians over the central river area was not entirely lost. In any case there was an Archbishopric or bishopric of the Frisians founded for Willibrord^[7] and a marriage was arranged between Grimoald the Younger the oldest son of Pepin, and Thiadsvind, the daughter of Redbad, in 711.^[8]

After Pepin died, in 714, Redbad took advantage of the battle for succession in Frankish lands and regained southern Frisia. He made a treaty with the Frankish mayor of the palace Ragenfrid so that in 716 his armies could enter the Frankish land as far as Cologne, where they were victorious in the Battle of Cologne.^[9] The army returned to the north with a large war loot. Redbad made plans to invade the Frankish empire for the second time and mobilised a large army, but before he could do this he fell ill and died in the autumn of 719.^[10]

It is not certain who the successor of Redbad was. It is believed that there were troubles with the succession, because the Frankish opponent Charles Martel could easily invade Frisia and subjugate the land. The resistance was so weak that Charles Martel not only annexed Frisia Citerior ("nearer" Frisia south of the Rhine), but he also crossed the Rhine and annexed "farther" Frisia, to the banks of the river Vlie.^[11]

Poppo[link]

In 733 Charles Martel sent an army against the Frisians. The Frisian army was pushed back to Eastergoa. The next year the Battle of the Boarn took place. Charles ferried an army across the Aelmere with a fleet that enabled him to sail up to De Boarn. The Frisians were defeated in the ensuing battle,^[11] and their king Poppo was killed.^[9] The victors began plundering and burning heathen sanctuaries. Charles Martel returned with much loot, and broke the power of the Frisian kings for good.

After the Frankish conquest[link]

After the Battle of the Boarn in 734, the Franks annexed the Frisian lands between the Vlie and the Lauwers. They conquered the area east of the Lauwers in 785, when Charlemagne defeated Widukind. The Carolingians laid Frisia under the rule of grewan, a title that has been loosely related to count in its early sense of "governor" rather than "feudal overlord".^[12] The Lex Frisionum, the "Law Code of the Frisians" was recorded in Latin during the reign of Charlemagne.

References[link]

• Note: The area of 50.000 km² in the infobox is after the Battle of Cologne.

Further reading[link]

• H. Halbertsma Frieslands Oudheid, 2000, ISBN 978-90-5345-167-0
• G. Verwey, Geschiedenis van Nederland, Amsterdam, 1995.
• P. Pentz e.o., Koningen van de Noordzee, 2003.
• J.J. Kalma e.o. Geschiedenis van Friesland, 1980.

The Germanic Wars is a name given to a series of wars between the Romans and various Germanic tribes between 113 BCE and 596 CE. The nature of these wars varied through time between Roman conquest, Germanic uprisings and later Germanic invasions in the Roman Empire that started in the late 2nd century. The series of conflicts which began in the 5th century, under the Western Roman Emperor Honorius, led (along with internal strife) to the ultimate downfall of the Western Roman Empire.

• Siege of Olbia, c. 220 BCE
• Cimbrian War, 113–101 BCE
  • Battle of Noreia 112 BCE^[1]
  • Battle of Agen 107 BCE^[2]
  • Battle of Arausio 105 BCE
  • Battle of Aquae Sextiae 102 BCE
  • Battle of Vercellae 101 BCE^[3]
• Battle of Vosges 58 BCE
• Battle of the Sabis 57 BCE
• clades Lolliana 16 BCE
• Battle of the Lupia River 11 BCE
• clades Variana 9 CE
• Battle of the Weser River 16
• Battle of Baduhenna Wood 28
• Marcomannic Wars 166–180
• Crisis of the Third Century
  • Battle at the Harzhorn c. 235
  • Battle of Philippopolis 250
  • Battle of Abrittus 251
  • Battle of Mediolanum 259
  • Battle of Thermopylae 267
  • Siege of Mainz 268
  • Battle of Lake Benacus 268
  • Siege of Augustodunum Haeduorum 269
  • Battle of Naissus 269
  • Battle of Placentia 271
  • Battle of Fano 271
  • Battle of Pavia 271
  • Battle of Châlons 274
• Battle of Lingones 298
• Battle of Vindonissa 298
• Siege of Senonae 356
• Siege of Autun 356
• Battle of Durocortorum 356
• Battle of Brumath 356
• Battle of Argentoratum 357
• Battle of Solicinium 367
• Great Conspiracy 367-368
• Gothic War (376–382)
  • Battle of the Willows 377
  • Battle of Adrianople 378
  • Battle of Thessalonica 380
• Battle of Argentovaria 378
• Massacre of Thessalonica 390
• Battle of the Frigidus 394
• Gothic War (402-403)
  • Battle of Pollentia 402
  • Battle of Verona 403
• Battle of Faesulae 405
• Battle of Moguntiacum 406
• Crossing of the Rhine 406
• Sack of Rome 410
• Siege of Hippo Regius 430
• Battle of Narbonne 436
• Battle of the Catalaunian Plains 451
• Sack of Aquileia 452
• Battle of Nedao 454
• Sack of Rome 455
• Battle of Órbigo 456
• Battle of Arelate 458
• Night of the Long Knives c. 460
• Battle of Cartagena 461
• Battle of Wippedesfleot 466
• Battle of Bassianae 468
• Battle of Cape Bon 468
• Battle of Bolia 469
• Battle of Déols c. 469
• Battle of Ravenna 476
• Battle of Mercredesburne 485
• Battle of Soissons 486
• Battle of Isonzo 489
• Battle of Verona 489
• Battle of Tolbiac 496
• Battle of Mons Badonicus probably in the range 490-517
• Battle of Vouillé 507
• Battle of Vézeronce 524
• Battle of the Unstrut River 531
• Battle of Autun 532
• Vandalic War 533-534
  • Battle of Ad Decimum 533
  • Battle of Tricamarum 533
• Gothic War (535–554)
  • Siege of Rome 537-538
  • Battle of Faventia 542
  • Battle of Mucellium 542
  • Siege of Naples 543
  • Sack of Rome 546
  • Siege of Rome 549-550
  • Battle of Sena Gallica 551
  • Battle of Taginae 552
  • Battle of Mons Lactarius 553
• Battle of the Volturnus 554
• Siege of Ticinum 569–572
• Battle of Deorham 577
• Battle of Woden's Burg 592
• Battle of Raith 596

Chronology[link]

[edit] 3rd century BCE

• c. 220 BCE, Siege of Olbia by East Germanic Basternae and Scirii.

[edit] 2nd century BCE

• 149–146 BCE, Fall of the Carthaginian Empire.
• 146 BCE, Fall of the Macedon Kingdom, Fall of Corinth, Greece becomes a Roman province.
• 133 BCE, Fall of the Kingdom of Pergamon.

The Defeat of the Cimbri by Alexandre Gabriel Décamps

• 113–101 BCE, Germanic Collision with the Roman Republic, Cimbrian War, Begin of Germanic Wars.
  • 112 BCE, Battle of Noreia,^[1] Suicide of Consul Gnaeus Papirius Carbo.
  • 107 BCE, Helvetii defeat the Romans in the Battle of Agen,^[2] Consul Lucius Cassius Longinus dies in battle,^[2] General Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus dies in battle.^[2] (Battle against Allies of the Cimbri)
  • 105 BCE, Battle of Arausio, Execution of Roman General Marcus Aurelius Scaurus, Proconsul Quintus Servilius Caepio and Consul Gnaeus Mallius Maximus exiled.
  • 102 BCE, Consul Gaius Marius defeats the Scirii and Teutons in the Battle of Aquae Sextiae, Capture of King Teutobod, Extermination of the Teutons, Cimbri defeat Consul Quintus Lutatius Catulus in the Adige Valley.^[4]
  • 101 BCE, Roman consuls Gaius Marius and Manius Aquillius defeat the Cimbri in the Battle of Vercellae,^[3] King Boiorix dies in battle,^[3] Extermination of the Cimbri.^[3]

[edit] 1st century BCE

• 74 BCE, Fall of the Kingdom of Bithynia.
• 71 BCE, Spartacus is killed and his rebel army destroyed.
• 63 BCE, Pompey the Great conquers Phonecia, Coele-Syria, and Judea for Rome, Fall of the Seleucid Empire, Catiline's conspiracy against the Roman Republic is foiled.

Vercingetorix Throws Down His Arms at the Feet of Julius Caesar by Lionel Noel Royer, 1899

• 58–51 BCE, Cyprus becomes a Roman province, Conquest of Celtic Gaul to the Rhine by Julius Caesar, Gallic Wars.^[5]
  • 58 BCE, Caesar decisively defeats the Helvetii in the Battle of the Arar and the Battle of Bibracte, Caesar decisively defeats the Suevi, led by Ariovistus, in the Battle of Vosges.^[6][7]
  • 57 BCE, Battle of the Sabis.
  • 55 BCE, Caesar's intervention against Usipetes and Tencteri, Caesar defeats a Germanic army then massacres the women and children, totalling 430,000 people, somewhere near the Meuse and Rhine rivers, Caesar's first crossing of the Rhine against the Suevi, Caesar's invasions of Britain.
  • 54 BCE, Destruction of the legion Legio XIV Gemina by the Eburones led by Cativolcus and Ambiorix,^[8][9] Lucius Aurunculeius Cotta dies in battle, Quintus Titurius Sabinus dies in battle.
  • 53 BCE, Caesar's retaliation against the Eburones second crossing of the Rhine, Extermination of the Eburones.
  • 52 BCE, Fall of Celtic Gaul, Gaul becomes a Roman province.
• 49–45 BCE, Caesar's Civil War, Caesar appointed Roman dictator in Rome.
• 46 BCE, Execution of Vercingetorix the Celt.^[10]
• 44 BCE, Assassination of Emperor Julius Caesar.

The Death of Cleopatra by Reginald Arthur, 1892

• 32–30 BCE, Final War of the Roman Republic, Suicide of Mark Antony, Suicide of Cleopatra, Fall of the Ptolemaic Kingdom, Egypt becomes the Roman province of Aegyptus.
• 27 BCE, Octavian becomes Emperor under the name of Caesar Augustus, Begin of Julio-Claudian dynasty, Begin of the Principate, End of the Roman Republic, Octavian creates the Praetorian Guard, Construction of the Pantheon begins.
• 23 BCE, Coinage reform begins, Political crisis in Rome.
• 22–19 BCE, Artaxias II recaptures the throne of Armenia, Riots in Rome,^[11] Food shortages in some provinces.^[12]
• 20 BCE, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Governor of Transalpine Gaul, Construction of military roads and especially the military road Lugdunum--Divodurum--Treverorum--Agrippinensium (from Lyon to Cologne), Fall of the Kingdom of Armenia.
• 16 BCE, clades Lolliana,^[13] Destruction of the legion Legio V Alaudae by Sicambri and their allies, Fall of the Kingdom of Noricum.
• 16–13 BCE, Emperor Augustus on the Rhine, Reorganization of the Three Gauls (capital Trier), Decision to fortify the left bank of the Rhine and conquest of Germania to the Elbe, Rome pays tribute to the Frisii, Begin of invasions east of the Rhine by Rome, Construction of the modern city of Mainz begins.
• 12–9 BCE, Invasions of Drusus I up the Elbe from the North Sea, the Lippe and Main, Battle of the Lupia River, Cherusci and Sicambri^[14] subdued, Chatti, Tencteri and Usipetes are overrun, Establishment of new forts by Rome, Arminius and Flavus sent to Rome, Death of Roman General Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.
• 9 BCE, Pannonia is incorporated in the Roman Empire as part of Illyria, Drusus I dies in an accident, Creation of Magna Germania (capital Cologne), Pacification campaigns against the Germanic tribes by the Roman Empire, Deportation of 40,000 Sicambri west of the Rhine.
• c. 7 BCE, The prophet Jesus is born in Judea.
• 6–2 BCE, A rabbit plague breaks out in the Balearic Islands, Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus' invasions to the Elbe, Construction of the Pontes Longi begins.
  • 2 BCE, Emperor Augustus is proclaimed Pater Patriae, or "father of the country" by the Roman Senate,^[15] Julia the Elder and her mother Scribonia are exiled to Pandateria.

[edit] 1st century

• 1–4 CE, Rise of the Chatti^[16][17] and Bructeri (immensum bellum)^[18] suppressed by Tiberius, who reached the Elbe.
• 6–9, Uprising in Illyricum, which cancels the major Roman project of war against Suevic Marcomanni.
• 6, Varus succeeds Saturninus as governor of Germania with the mission of peacekeeping and the implementation of tax and judicial administration.

The Varus battle by Otto Albert Koch, 1909

• 9, clades Variana, Destruction of the legions XVII, XVIII and XIX by Arminius in the Battle of Teutoburg Forest, Suicide of Administrator Varus, Loss of military camps east of the Rhine.,^[19][20][21] Roman Empire is forced to strategically withdraw from Germania.
• 10–13, Military command of Tiberius in Germania and interventions in the valley of the Lippe, replaced by Germanicus, Construction of Limes Germanicus begins.
• 14, Death of Emperor Augustus, Tiberius becomes Emperor, Mutiny of the legions of Germania.
• 14–16, Roman retaliation against Cherusci, Chatti, Bructeri and Marsi, Capture of Arminius' wife.
  • Battle of the Weser River.
• 17, Cessation of military offensives east of the Rhine by Tiberius, Civil war between Germanic tribes.^[22]
• 19, Death of Germanicus.
• 21, Assassination of Arminius.
• 28, Revolt of the Frisii, Tax collectors hanged, Romans defeated in the Battle of Baduhenna Wood.
• 37, Death of Emperor Tiberius and Maroboduus.
• 41, Assassination of Emperor Caligula, Raid against the Chauci under Emperor Claudius, Recovery of third legionary standard lost in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest.
• 43, Invasion of Britain by the Roman Empire, Fall of Britain.
• 50, Raid against the Chatti under Emperor Claudius, Liberation of Roman prisoners.^[23]
• 54, Death of Emperor Claudius.
• 64, Great Fire of Rome.
• 68, Suicide of Emperor Nero, End of Julio-Claudian dynasty.
• 69–70, Revolt of the Batavi, Destruction of 2 Roman legions by the Batavi, Year of the Four Emperors, Assassination of Emperor Galba, Suicide of Emperor Otho, Execution of Emperor Vitellius, Begin of Flavian dynasty, Fall of Jerusalem.
• 72, Construction of the Colosseum begins, Siege of Masada by Rome.
• 79, Downfall of Pompeii and Herculaneum, Death of Emperor Vespasian.
• 81, Death of Emperor Titus.
• 82–83, Raids against the Chatti under Emperor Domitian.
• 89, Lucius Antonius Saturninus, Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax revolt against Rome with aid of the Chatti.^[24]
• 96, Assassination of Emperor Domitian, End of Flavian dynasty, Begin of Nerva–Antonine dynasty.
• 98, Death of Emperor Nerva.

[edit] 2nd century

• c. 165, Invasion of Pannonia by Lombards and Ubii.
• 165–180, A pandemic kills an estimated 5 million people throughout the Roman Empire.
• 166–180, Germanic tribes invade the frontiers of the Roman Empire, specifically the provinces of Raetia and Moesia, Marcomannic Wars.
  • 169, Death of Co-Emperor Lucius Verus.
  • 180, Emperor Marcus Aurelius dies from disease, Goths reach the banks of the Black Sea.
• 192, Assassination of Emperor Commodus, End of Nerva–Antonine dynasty, Roman civil war.
• 193, Year of the Five Emperors, Assassination of Emperor Pertinax by Praetorian Guard, Execution of Emperor Didius Julianus, Begin of Severan dynasty, Silver content of the Roman denarius falls to 50 percent.
• 194, Death of usurper Pescennius Niger.
• 197, Execution of usurper Clodius Albinus.

[edit] 3rd century

• 211, Death of Emperor Septimius Severus, Assassination of Emperor Publius Septimius Geta.
• 217, Assassination of Emperor Caracalla by Praetorian Guard.
• 218, Execution of Emperor Macrinus and his son by Praetorian Guard.
• 222, Assassination of Emperor Elagabalus and his mother.
• 224, Fall of the Parthian Empire.
• 235–284, Crisis of the Third Century.
  • 235, Battle at the Harzhorn, Assassination of Emperor Alexander Severus, End of Severan dynasty.
  • 238, Gothic raid on Istria,^[25] Year of the Six Emperors, Assassination of Emperor Maximinus Thrax and his son Gaius Julius Verus Maximus, Death of Emperor Gordian II, Suicide of Emperor Gordian I, Assassination of Emperor Pupienus, Assassination of Emperor Balbinus.
  • 244, Assassination of Emperor Gordian III.
  • 248–249, Raid in Marcianopolis by Goths.^[25]
  • 249, Assassination of Emperor Philip the Arab.
  • 250, Siege of Philippopolis by Goths led by Cniva.^[26]
  • 251, Battle of Abritus, Emperor Decius dies in battle, Co-Emperor Herennius Etruscus dies in battle.
  • 253, Assassination of Emperor Trebonianus Gallus, Assassination of Emperor Volusianus, Assassination of Emperor Aemilianus.
  • 259, 300,000 Alemanni die in the Battle of Mediolanum (Milan).

The area (Agri Decumates) between Main and Rhine was evacuated in 259 CE, dozens of Roman camps were abandoned.

• • 259–260, Evacuation of the agrarian area Agri Decumates by the Roman Empire, Roman Empire retreats behind the Rhine.
  • 260–274, Germanic usurper Postumus declares himself Emperor of the Gallic Empire including Roman Gaul, Roman Britain, Roman Spain and Germania.
  • 264, Death of Emperor Valerian.
  • c. 267–269, Invasion of the Goths, Battle of Thermopylae, Gothic attacks on Marcianopolis and Chrysopolis, Sack of Byzantium.
  • 268, Siege of Mainz, Battle of Lake Benacus, Assassination of Emperor Gallienus, Death of Aurelius Heraclianus, Assassination of Gallic Emperor Postumus.
  • 269, Siege of Augustodunum Haeduorum, Battle of Naissus,^[27] End of Gothic Invasion, Assassination of Gallic Emperor Marcus Aurelius Marius.
  • 270, Emperor Claudius Gothicus dies from disease,^[28] Suicide of Emperor Quintillus.
  • 271, Battle of Placentia, Battle of Fano, Battle of Pavia, Destruction of Alemannic army, Assassination of Gallic Emperor Victorinus, Emperor Aurelian repelled another Gothic invasion but abandoned the province of Dacia north of Danube forever,^[29] Construction of the Aurelian Wall begins.
  • 273, Fall of the Palmyrene Empire.
  • 274, Battle of Châlons, Surrender of the Gallic Empire.
  • 275, Assassination of Emperor Aurelian by Praetorian Guard.
  • 276, Assassination of Emperor Marcus Claudius Tacitus, Assassination of Emperor Florianus.
  • 282, Assassination of Emperor Marcus Aurelius Probus.
  • 283, Assassination of Emperor Carus.
  • 284, Assassination of Emperor Numerian, Roman Empire divided into Eastern and Western ones, End of the Principate, Begin of the Dominate.
• 285, Assassination of Emperor Carinus, Begin of the Late Antiquity.
• 298, Battle of Lingones.
• 298, Battle of Vindonissa.

[edit] 4th century

• 306, Death of Emperor Constantius Chlorus.
• 306–324, Roman Civil Wars of the Tetrarchy.
  • 307, Execution of Emperor Flavius Valerius Severus.
  • 310, Suicide of Western Emperor Maximian.
  • 311, Emperor Galerius dies from disease, Suicide of Ex-Emperor Diocletian.
  • 312, Emperor Constantine the Great defeats Emperor Maxentius in the Battle of Verona, Ruricius Pompeianus dies in battle, Battle of the Milvian Bridge, Emperor Maxentius dies on the run.
• 325, Execution of Emperor Licinius.
• 332, Roman invasion north of the Danube under Emperor Constantine II, Capture of Gothic Prince Ariaricus.^{[30][31][32][33][34]}
• 337, Death of Emperor Constantine the Great.
• c. 350, Infiltration of Germania Inferior by Franks.
• 353–354, Raids against Alamanni under Emperor Constantius II.
• 356, Recapture of Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) by Julian the Apostate, Siege of Senonae by Alamanni, Siege of Autun by Alemanni, Battle of Reims, Battle of Brumath.
• 357, Invasion of Alemannic territory by Roman General Barbatio and Julian the Apostate, Attack of Lugdunum (Lyon) by Laeti, End of coordinated operation against the Alemanni, Battle of Argentoratum, Capture of Alemannic King Chnodomarius.
• 358, Raid in the province of Raetia by Alemannic Juthungi, Destruction of Castra Regina (Regensburg) by Alemanni.
• 359, Execution of Roman General Barbatio, Recapture of Moguntiacum by Julian the Apostate.
• 361, Death of Emperor Constantius II
• 363, Death of Emperor Julian the Apostate.
• 364, Death of Emperor Jovian.
• 365–366, Invasion of Roman Gaul by Alemanni, Alemanni pushed out of Roman Gaul.
• 367, Sack of Moguntiacum by Alemanni, Battle of Solicinium.
• 367–368, Great Barbarian Conspiracy against Roman Britain and Roman Gaul by Saxons and Franks, Death of Nectaridus.
• 367–369, Attack on Gothic Thervingi under Eastern Emperor Valens.^[35][36]
• 368, Invasion of Alemannic territory under Emperor Valentinian the Great, Crossing of the Rhine by the Roman Empire.
• 369, Destruction of a fortress near Heidelberg by Alemanni.
• 370, Invasion of Roman Gaul by Saxons, Death of all invading Saxons, Invasion of Alemannic territory by Valentinian the Great, Rome captures thousands of Alemannic Bucinobantes, Deposition of Alemannic King Macrian, Hunnic raids on Gothic Greuthungi.^{[37][38][39][40][41][42]}
• 374, Assassination of Quadic King Gabinius^{[disambiguation needed ]}, Invasion of former Illyricum by Quadi and Sarmatians.
• 375, Pillaging of Quadi lands by the Roman Empire, Western Emperor Valentinian the Great dies during peace negotiations.

Empire of the Huns, pushing the Germanic tribes over the Limes into the Roman Empire.

• 376, Invasion of the Huns, Hunnic war against Visigoths and Ostrogoths, Suicide of Gothic King Ermanaric, Gothic King Vithimer dies in battle.^[43][44]
• 376–382, Hunnic raids on Gothic Thervingi (Visigoths),^{[37][38][39][40][41][42]} Gothic War,^{[37][39][40][45][46][47][48]} Plundering and destruction throughout the Balkans by Goths.
  • 377, Battle of the Willows,^[49] Gothic chieftain Farnobius dies in battle.
  • 378, Battle of Adrianople,^[50][51] Eastern Emperor Valens dies in battle, Begin of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire.^[52]
• 377–378, Invasion of Thrace and Moesia by Gothic Greuthungi led by chieftain Alatheus.
• 378, Invasion of Alsace by Alemanni, Battle of Argentovaria, Extermination of Alemannic Lentienses, Alemannic King Priarius dies in battle.
• 380, Battle of Thessalonica, Death of Gothic chieftain Fritigern, Begin of naval raids by Saxons, Begin of the Migration of the Saxons.
• 382, Peace between Rome and the Goths, Large Gothic contingents of Thervingi, Taifali and Victohali settle along the southern Danube frontier in the province of Thrace.
• 383, Assassination of Emperor Gratian, Failed raid in the province of Raetia by Alemannic Juthungi.
• 387, Failed Invasion of Thrace and Moesia by Gothic Greuthungi led by chieftain Alatheus, Greuthungi chieftain Alatheus dies in battle.
• 390, Massacre of Thessalonica.
• 392, Emperor Valentinian II is hanged, Frankish General Arbogast names Eugenius to be Western Emperor.
• 394, 20,000 Gothic mercenaries support Eastern Emperor Theodosius the Great in the Battle of the Frigidus, Suicide of Frankish General Arbogast, Execution of puppet Western Emperor Eugenius.
• 395, Death of Emperor Theodosius the Great, Assassination of Consul Rufinus by Gothic mercenaries.

[edit] 5th century

• 401–402, Raid in Raetia by Vandals.
• 401–403, Invasion of Italy by Visigoths under Alaric I, Gothic War.
  • 402, Battle of Pollentia.
  • 403, Battle of Verona, Visigoths pushed into former Illyricum by Stilicho.
• 405, Siege of Florentina,^[53] Battle of Faesulae,^[54] Execution of Gothic King Radagaisus,^[55] 12,000 Gothic higher-status fighters are drafted into the Roman army.^[53][55]
• 406, War between Franks and Vandals, Battle of Moguntiacum, Vandal King Godigisel dies in battle, Alans under King Respendial rescue the Vandals, Invasion of Gaul by Vandals, Suebi, Burgundians and Alans, Fall of Roman Gaul, Begin of the Fall of Roman Britain, Begin of the Fall of Roman Spain.
• 408, Failed invasion of Moesia by Huns and Germanic mercenaries led by Uldin the Hun, Capture of thousands of Germanic mercenaries, Execution of Roman General Stilicho, Slaughter of wives and children of barbarian foederati, Siege of Rome by Visigoths, Attacks on Roman Britain by Saxons, Death of Eastern Emperor Arcadius.

Kingdom of the Vandals (yellow) and their allies the Sarmatian Alans before the Invasion of Roman Africa, circa 418 CE.

• 409, 2nd Siege of Rome by Visigoths, Invasion of Roman Spain by Vandals, Suebi (Marcomanni, Quadi, Buri) and Alans.
• 410, Sack of Rome by Visigoths, Begin of attacks on Vandals by Visigoths, Visigothic King Alaric I dies from disease, Begin of Barbarian raids by Picts, Scoti and Irish Celts, End of Roman rule in Britain, Fall of Roman Britain, Suevi establish a Kingdom in Galicia.
• 411, Jovinus declares himself Western Roman Emperor with aid of the Burgundians, Franks and Alans, Burgundians establish a Kingdom left of the Rhine under King Gundahar.
• 412, Sarus the Goth is executed, Death of Uldin the Hun.
• 413, Capture of Narbonne and Toulouse by Visigoths led by King Ataulf, Usurper Jovinus is executed, Sack of Trier by Franks.
• 415, Assassination of Visigothic King Ataulf, Assassination of Visigothic King Sigeric.
• 419, Death of Visigothic King Valia.
• 421, Sack of Trier by Franks.
• 422, Capture and Execution of Frankish King Theudemeres by Romans, Attack on Vandals by Romans.
• 423, Death of Western Emperor Honorius.
• 426, War between Visigoths and Alans, Western Alan King Attaces dies in battle, Alans subject to the Vandals.
• 426–436, Campaigns against the Visigoths in southern Gaul under Western Emperor Valentinian III, Battle of Narbonne, Capture of Visigothic chieftain Anaolsus.
• 428, Invasion of Northern Gaul by Salian Franks led by King Chlodio.
• 428–431, Failed Roman campaigns against Salian Franks, Alemannic Juthungi on the Rhine and Danube, Fall of the Kingdom of Armenia.

Kingdom of the Vandals in North Africa, circa 429 CE.

• 429–439, Invasion of Africa by Vandals led by Vandal King Genseric, Siege of Hippo Regius, Capture of Carthage by Vandals, Capture of Roman navy by Vandals, Pillaging of Sicily, Begin of pirate raids by Vandals.
• 431, Invasion to the Somme River by Salian Franks.
• 436–437, Invasion of Burgundian Rhineland by Hun mercenaries controlled by Rome, Burgundian King Gundahar dies in battle.
• c. 443, Britain plunges into civil war, Groans of the Britons, Britain is abandoned by Western Emperor Valentinian III.
• 448, Defeat of the Salian Franks in the Battle of Vicus Helena by Roman General Aëtius, Frankish King Chlodio dies in battle.
• c. 449, Anglo-Saxon elite mercenaries land in Britain.
• 450, Danes defeat the Frisii in the Battle of Finnsburg, Frisian King Finn dies in battle, Danish Prince Hnæf dies in battle, Eastern Emperor Theodosius II dies in an accident.
• 451, Invasion of Gaul by the Huns with Frankish, Gothic and Burgundian mercenaries led by Attila the Hun, Sack of Trier, Attack on Metz, Siege of Orléans, Coalition of Romans, Franks and Visigoths led by General Aëtius stop the Huns in the Battle of Châlons, Visigothic King Theodoric I dies in battle.
• 452, Invasion of northern Italy under Attila the Hun, Sack of Aquileia, Sack of Vicetia, Sack of Verona, Sack of Brixia, Sack of Bergamum, Sack of Milan, Anglo-Saxons push the Picts back to Scotland.
• c. 452–c. 497, Invasion of Roman Britain by Saxons, food shortages, Rebellion of Anglo-Saxon mercenaries in Britain.
• 453, Attila marries Germanic girl Ildico, Hunnic and Germanic attacks on Constantinople, Attila the Hun dies during heavy drinking.
• 454, East Germanic Gepids defeat the Huns in the Battle of Nedao, Hunnic King Ellac dies in battle, Assassination of Roman General Aëtius, Gepids establish a kingdom in Pannonia.
• 455, Assassination of Western Emperor Valentinian III, Sack of Rome by Vandals, Capture of Empress Licinia Eudoxia by Vandals, Stoning of Western Emperor Petronius Maximus.
• 456, Visigoths defeat the Suebic Kingdom of Galicia in the Battle of Órbigo.
• 457, Execution of Western Emperor Avitus, Eastern Emperor Marcian dies from disease.
• 458, Defeat of the Visigoths in southern Gaul in the Battle of Arelate.
• 459, Seizure of Trier by Franks, Begin of decline of Trier until 1697.
• c. 460, Night of the Long Knives, Death of all British chieftains, Begin of violent land grab by Anglo-Saxons.
• 461, Seventeen Vandal ships destroy forty Roman ships in a surprise attack, Execution of Western Emperor Majorian.
• 465, Death of Western Emperor Libius Severus, Ostrogothic King Valamir dies in battle.
• 466, Battle of Wippedesfleot.^[56]
• 468, Invasion of the Vandal Kingdom by the Byzantine Empire, Defeat of the Byzantine Empire by the Vandals in the Battle of Cape Bon, Ostrogoths decisively defeat the Huns in the Battle of Bassianae.^[57]
• 469, Ostrogoths decisively defeat an alliance of Germanic and Roman forces in the Battle of Bolia,^[57] Fall of the Hunnic Empire, Visigoths thwarted an attack by an alliance of Bretons and Romans in the Battle of Déols.
• 472, Execution of Western Emperor Anthemius, Death of puppet Western Emperor Olybrius, Revolt in Thrace by Ostrogoths led by chieftain Theodoric Strabo.
• 474, Deposition of Western Emperor Glycerius, Death of Byzantine Emperor Leo I the Thracian, Poisoning of Byzantine Emperor Leo II.
• 475, Deposition of Western Emperor Julius Nepos.

Europe in the late 5th century (476 CE-486 CE).

• 476, Revolt of Heruli, Scirii and Turcilingi mercenaries, Battle of Ravenna, Execution of Orestes, Deposition of Western Emperor Romulus Augustulus, Germanic Heruli chieftain Odoacer becomes King of Italy, Fall of the Roman Empire, Roman usurper Basiliscus is killed by un-Roman Byzantine Emperor Zeno, End of the Dominate.
• 477, Death of Vandal King Genseric,^[58] Begin of decline of the Vandal Kingdom.
• 480, Assassination of Ex-Emperor Julius Nepos.
• 481, Gothic chieftain Theodoric Strabo dies in an accident.
• 485, Battle of Mercredesburne.^[59]
• 486, Franks under Merovingian King Clovis I defeat the Kingdom of Soissons in the Battle of Soissons, Fall of the Kingdom of Soissons.
• 489, Theodoric the Great defeats Odoacer in the Battle of Isonzo, Battle of Verona.
• 491, Siege of Pevensey by South Saxons (Sussex),^[60] Death of Byzantine Emperor Zeno.
• 493, Assassination of King Odoacer by Ostrogothic King Theodoric the Great, Burgundian civil war, Assassination of Burgundian King Chilperic II.
• 496, War between Merovingians and Alemanni for supremacy on the Rhine, Franks defeat the Alemanni in a decisive battle, Alemannic King Gibuld dies in battle, Alemanni subject to the Merovingians, Begin of Christianization of the Franks, Begin of Christianization of Europe.^{[61][62][63][64][65]}
• c. 497, Defeat of the Anglo-Saxons in the Battle of Mons Badonicus by Britons led by King Arthur.^[66][67][68]

[edit] 6th century

Kingdom of the Visigoths (orange), Kingdom of the Suebi (green), Kingdom of the Burgundians, Kingdom of the Franks (purple), Kingdom of the Vandals (yellow), c. 490.

• 501, Assassination of Burgundian King Godegisel.
• 507, Franks under Merovingian King Clovis I and the Byzantine Empire plot against the Visigoths and defeat them in the Battle of Vouillé,^[69] Visigothic King Alaric II dies in battle, Paris becomes capital of the Frankish Kingdom.
• c. 510, Death of Thuringii King Basinus.
• 511, Death of Merovingian King Clovis I.
• 516, Death of Burgundian King Gundobad.
• 518, Death of Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I.
• c. 520, Anglo-Saxons took control of Sussex, Kent, East Anglia and part of Yorkshire, West Saxons founded a Kingdom in Hampshire under Cerdic, Begin of War between the Kingdoms.
• 523, Assassination of Burgundian Prince Sigerich, Political crisis between Burgundians and Ostrogoths, Merovingian Kings Chlodomer, Childebert I and Chlothar I march against the Burgundians.
• 524, Capture and Execution of Burgundian King Sigismund, Prince Gisald and Prince Gondebaud, Recapture of Burgundy by Burgundian King Godomar with aid of Theodoric the Great, Defeat of the Merovingians in the Battle of Vézeronce, Merovingian King Chlodomer dies in battle, Retreat of the Merovingians.
• 526, Death of Ostrogothic King Theodoric the Great, Burgundians lose the Ostrogoths as allies, Raid against Gothic Gepidae by Byzantine General Belisarius.
• 527, Death of Byzantine Emperor Justin I.
• 529, Thuringii King Bertachar dies in battle, Beheading of Thuringii King Baderic.
• 531, Merovingian King Theuderic I defeats the Thuringii in the Battle of the Unstrut River.
• 532, Thuringii King Hermanfrid falls to death, Fall of the Thuringii Kingdom.
• 532–534, Merovingian Kings Childebert I and Clothar I conquer the Burgundians in the Battle of Autun, Fall of the Burgundian Kingdom.
  • 534, Assassination of Burgundian King Godomar, Destruction of the Burgundian Kingdom by Franks, Burgundians now ruled by Frankish Kings.
• 533–534, Invasion of North Africa by the Byzantine Empire, Vandalic War.
  • 533, Battle of Ad Decimum, Capture of Carthage by the Byzantine Empire.
  • 533, Battle of Tricamarum, Destruction of the Vandal Kingdom by the Byzantine Empire, Fall of the Kingdom of the Vandals.
• 535–554, Invasion of Italy by the Byzantine Empire,^[69] Ostrogothic War.
  • 535, Capture of Sicily by Byzantine General Belisarius.
  • 536, Capture of Naples and Rome by Byzantine General Belisarius.
  • 537–538, Siege of Rome by Ostrogoths.
  • 540, Capture of Mediolanum and the Ostrogothic capital Ravenna by Byzantine General Belisarius, Capture of Ostrogothic King Witiges.
  • 541–542, Bubonic plague wipes out most of the farming community of the former Roman Empire and leaving dead an estimated 25 million people across the world, Begin of territorial decline until the ninth century.
  • 541–544, Recapture of Northern Italy by Ostrogoths.
    • 542, Battle of Faventia, Battle of Mucellium.
    • 543, Siege of Naples.
  • 546, Sack of Rome by Ostrogoths.
  • c. 548, Recapture of Rome by the Byzantine Empire.
  • 549–550, Siege and Capture of Rome by Ostrogoths.
  • 551, Battle of Sena Gallica, Capture of Ostrogothic chieftain Gibal, Demoralization of Gothic army.
  • 552, Byzantine Empire with aid of the Heruli and Lombards defeat the Ostrogoths in the Battle of Taginae, Ostrogothic King Totila dies on the run, Defeat of Gothic Gepids in the Battle of Asfeld against Lombards (Longbeards), Gepid King Thurisind dies in battle.
  • 552–553, Capture of Rome and Siege of Cumae by Byzantine General Narses, Battle of Mons Lactarius, Ostrogothic king Teia dies in battle, Fall of the Ostrogothic Kingdom.
• 554, Byzantine General Narses defeats the Franks and Alemanni in the Battle of the Volturnus.^[70]
• c. 558–561, Failed Uprising of the Ostrogoth Widin.^[71]

The Byzantine Empire at the End of the Antiquity in 565 CE.

• 565, Death of Byzantine Emperor Justinian the Great, Death of Byzantine General Belisarius.
• 567, Lombards decisively defeat the Gepids, Gepid King Cunimund dies in battle, Fall of the Kingdom of the Gepidae.
• 568–c. 572, Invasion of Northern Italy by Lombards, Bavarians, Gepids and Saxons, Longbeards (Lombards) establish a Kingdom in Northern Italy (capital Pavia), Begin of End of Byzantine rule.
  • 569, Seizure of Cividale del Friuli, Vicenza, Verona, Brescia and Mediolanum by Lombards.
  • 570–572, Siege of Ticinum, Seizure of Tuscany by Lombards.
• c. 570, The prophet Muhammad is born in Mecca.
• 573, Death of Byzantine General Narses.
• 574, Byzantine Emperor Justin II went insane.
• 577, Battle of Deorham, Capture of Glevum, Corinium, Aquae Sulis by Anglo-Saxons (Wessex) led by Cealin.^[72]
• 578, Death of Byzantine Emperor Justin II.
• 582, Assassination of Byzantine Emperor Tiberius II Constantine.
• 585, Invasion of Suevic Gallaecia by Visigoths,^[69] Fall of the Suebic Kingdom of Galicia.
• 592, West Saxons are defeated in the Battle of Woden's Burg (Wōden's Burg).
• 596, Angles defeated an alliance of Britons, Scots and Picts in the Battle of Raith.^[73]

See also[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Ancient Germanic history and culture

Ancient Germanic culture portal

• Contact between Germanic tribes and the Roman Empire
• Gothic and Vandal warfare
• Anglo-Saxon warfare
• Furor Teutonicus
• Animal warrior
• Germanic Iron Age
• Germanic Heroic Age
• Timeline of Anglo-Saxon settlement in Britain
• Timeline of Germanic kingdoms in the Iberian peninsula

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Florus on the Germanic wars, translated by E.S. Forster, www.livius.org 2010-10.
• The Germanic Wars, 2nd century, www.unrv.com 2010-10.
• Roman Germanic Wars, 12 BC to 17 AD, www.heritage-history.com 2010-10.
• Timeline of Ancient Europe, www.earth-history.com 2010-10.
• Speidel, Michael, 2004, Ancient Germanic warriors: Warrior styles from Trajan's column to Icelandic sagas. (book)

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