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Sultanate of Adal سلطنة عدل
← 1415–1577
Flag
Territory of the Sultanate of Adal and its vassal states circa 1500.
Capital	Zeila (original capital, as Emirate)[1] Dakkar (new capital, as Sultanate)[1] Harar (final capital)[1]
Language(s)	Somali, Oromo, Afar, Arabic, Harar
Government	Monarchy
History
- Established	1415
- Disestablished	1577
Today part of	Djibouti  Eritrea  Ethiopia  Somalia

The Adal Sultanate or the Kingdom of Adal (Somali: Saldaanada Adaal, Ge'ez: አዳል ʾAdāl, Arabic: سلطنة عدل‎) (c. 1415 - 1577^[2]) was a medieval multi-ethnic Muslim state located in the Horn of Africa. At its height, the polity controlled large parts of modern day Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Eritrea.

History[link]

Adal is mentioned by name for the first time in the 14th century, during the battles between the Muslims of the northern Somali and Afar seaboard and the Abyssinian King Amda Seyon's Christian troops.^[3] Adal originally had its capital in the port city of Zeila, situated in the eponymous Awdal region in modern-day northwestern Somalia. The polity at the time was an Emirate in the larger Ifat Sultanate ruled by the Walashma dynasty.^[1]

Ruins of the Adal Sultanate in Zeila, Somalia.

In 1332, the King of Adal was slain in a military campaign aimed at halting Amda Seyon's march toward Zeila.^[3] When the last Sultan of Ifat, Sa'ad ad-Din II, was also killed by Dawit I of Ethiopia at the port city of Zeila in 1410, his children escaped to Yemen, before later returning in 1415.^[4] In the early 15th century, Adal's capital was moved further inland to the town of Dakkar, where Sabr ad-Din II, the eldest son of Sa'ad ad-Din II, established a new sultanate after his return from Yemen.^[5][1] The land beyond the Awash River was left to the Ethiopian Solomonic Emperors.^[6] During this period, Adal emerged as a center of Muslim resistance against the expanding Christian Abyssinian kingdom.^[1]

After 1468, a new breed of rulers emerged on the Adal political scene. The dissidents opposed Walashma rule owing to a treaty that Sultan Muhammad ibn Badlay had signed with Emperor Baeda Maryam of Ethiopia, wherein Badlay agreed to submit yearly tribute. Adal's Emirs, who administered the provinces, interpreted the agreement as a betrayal of their independence and a retreat from the polity's longstanding policy of resistance to Abyssinian incursions. The main leader of this opposition was the Emir of Zeila, the Sultanate's richest province. As such, he was expected to pay the highest share of the annual tribute to be given to the Abyssinian Emperor.^[7] Emir Laday Usman subsequently marched to Dakkar and seized power in 1471. However, Usman did not dismiss the Sultan from office, but instead gave made him a ceremonial position while retaining the real power for himself. Adal now came under the leadership of a powerful Emir who governed from a palace of a nominal Sultan.^[8]

The Sultan of Adal (right) and his troops battling King Yagbea-Sion and his men. From Le Livre des Merveilles, 15th century.

Amir Mahfuz who would fight with successive Emperors caused the death of the emperor called Na'od in 1508. But he was killed by the forces of Emperor Lebna Dengel in 1517. After Mahfuz, a civil war started for the office of Highest Amir of Adal. Five Amirs came to power in only two years. But at last, a matured and powerful leader called Garad Abuun Addus (Garad Abogn) assumed power. Who was loved by the people of Adal. When Garad Abogne was in power, he was defeated and killed by Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad, In 1554, under the initiative of Sultan Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad, Harar became the capital of Adal. This time, not only the young Amirs revolted but the whole country of Adal raised against the deal of Sultan Abubeker because Garad Abogne was loved by the whole people of the Sultanate. Many people went to join the force of a new young knight called "Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi" who claimed a revenge for the beloved Garad Abogne. And this young man assumed the power of Adal in 1527. But he himself didn't remove the Sultan. He let him in his nominal office. When Abubeker waged war on him, the young Ahmed ibn Ibrahim killed the nominal sultan Abubeker and replaced him by his brother Umar Din. ^[9]

Adalite armies under the leadership of rulers such as Sabr ad-Din II, Mansur ad-Din, Jamal ad-Din II, Shams ad-Din and general Mahfuz subsequently continued the struggle against Abyssinian expansionism.

In the 16th century, Adal's headquarters were again relocated, this time to Harar. From this new capital, Adal organised an effective army led by Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi that invaded the Abyssinian empire.^[1] This campaign is historically known as the Conquest of Abyssinia or Futuh al Habash. During the war, Ahmed pioneered the use of cannons supplied by the Ottoman Empire, which were deployed against Solomonic forces and their Portuguese allies led by Cristóvão da Gama. Some scholars argue that this conflict proved, through their use on both sides, the value of firearms such as the matchlock musket, cannons and the arquebus over traditional weapons.^[10]

Ethnicity[link]

History of Somalia
This article is part of a series
Ancient
Laas Gaal
Land of Punt · Macrobians
Malao · Opone · Essina Sarapion · Mosylon · Gondal Damo · Botiala · Amud
Medieval
Sultanate of Mogadishu
Kingdom of Ifat
Warsangali Sultanate
Adal Sultanate
Ajuuraan Empire
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Gobroon Dynasty
Majeerteen Sultanate
Modern
Sultanate of Hobyo
Dervish State
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Somalia Portal v t e

The rulers of the earlier Sultanate of Shewa and the Walashma princes of Ifat and Adal all possessed Arab genealogical traditions.^[11]

During Adal's initial period, when it was centered on the port city of Zeila in present-day northwestern Somalia, the kingdom was primarily composed of Somalis, Afars and Arabs.^[12]

There is some debate over the ethnic composition of Adal after its capital moved to modern-day Ethiopia. I.M Lewis states:

Somali forces contributed much to the Imām’s victories. Shihab ad-Din, the Muslim chronicler of the period, writing between 1540 and 1560, mentions them frequently (Futūḥ al-Ḥabasha, ed. And trs. R. Besset Paris, 1897.). The most prominent Somali groups in the campaigns were the Samaroon or Gadabursi (Dir), Geri, Marrehān, and Harti - all Dārod clans. Shihāb d-Dīn is very vague as to their distribution and grazing areas, but describes the Harti as at the time in possession of the ancient eastern port of Mait. Of the Isāq only the Habar Magādle clan seem to have been involved and their distribution is not recorded. Finally several Dir clans also took part.^[13]

This finding is supported in the more recent Oxford History of Islam:

The sultanate of Adal, which emerged as the major Muslim principality from 1420 to 1560, seems to have recruited its military force mainly from among the Somalis.^[14]

Lewis, on the other hand, notes that the Imam's origins are unknown.^[15] Ewald Wagner connects the name ʿAdäl with the Dankali (Afar) tribe Aḏaʿila and the Somali name for the clan Oda ʿAlï, proposing that the kingdom may have largely been composed of Afars.^[16] Although Afars constituted a significant part of Adal, Didier Morin notes that "the exact influence of the ʿAfar inside the Kingdom of `Adal is still conjectural due to its multi-ethnic basis."^[16] Nevertheless, Franz-Christoph Muth identifies Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi as Somali.^[17]

Language[link]

According to Al umari the people of ifat may have spoken Arabic or an Ethio-Semitic language. ^[18] Although another source states their origin Walasma dynasty's language was Arabic and it was similar to Ge'ez language. ^[19]

Economy[link]

During its existence, Adal had relations and engaged in trade with other polities in Northeast Africa, the Near East, Europe and South Asia. Many of the historic cities in the Horn of Africa such as Maduna, Abasa and Berbera flourished under its reign with courtyard houses, mosques, shrines, walled enclosures and cisterns. Adal attained its peak in the 14th century, trading in slaves, ivory and other commodities with Abyssinia and kingdoms in Arabia through its chief port of Zeila.^[1]. The cities of the empire imported intricately colored glass bracelets and Chinese celadon for palace and home decoration.^[20]

Military[link]

The Adalite military was divided in several sections such as the infantry consisting of swordsmen, archers and lancers that were commanded by various generals and lieutenants. These forces were complimented by a cavalry force and eventually later in the empire's history; by matchlock-technology and cannons during the Conquest of Abyssinia. The various divisions were symbolised with a distinct flag.

The Adalite soldiers donned elaborate helmets and steel-armour made up of chain-mail with overlapping tiers.^[21] The Horsemen of Adal wore protective helmets that covered the entire face except for the eyes, and breastplates on their body, while they harnessed their horses in a similar fashion. In siege warfare, ladders were employed to scale buildings and other high positions such as hills and mountains.

Invasion of Abyssinia[link]

Ruins of the Sultanate of Adal in Zeila.

In the mid-1520s, Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi conquered Adal and launched a holy war against Christian Ethiopia, which was then under the leadership of Lebna Dengel. Supplied by the Ottoman Empire with firearms, Ahmad was able to defeat the Ethiopians at the Battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529 and seize control of the wealthy Ethiopian highlands, though the Ethiopians continued to resist from the highlands. In 1541, the Portuguese, who had vested interests in the Indian Ocean, sent aid to the Ethiopians in the form of 400 musketeers. Adal, in response, received 900 from the Ottomans.

Imam Ahmad was initially successful against the Ethiopians while campaigning in the Autumn of 1542, killing the Portuguese commander Cristóvão da Gama in August that year. However, Portuguese musketry proved decisive in Adal's defeat at the Battle of Wayna Daga, near Lake Tana, in February 1543, where Ahmad was killed in battle. The Ethiopians subsequently retook the Amhara plateau and recouped their losses against Adal. The Ottomans, who had their own troubles to deal with in the Mediterranean, were unable to help Ahmad's successors. When Adal collapsed in 1577, the seat of the Sultanate shifted from Harar to Aussa in the desert region of Afar and a new sultanate began. ^[22]

The Gadaa expansion[link]

After the conflict between Adal and Ethiopia had subsided, the conquest of the highland regions of Ethiopia and Adal by the Oromo (namely, through military expansion and the installation of the Gadaa socio-political system) ended in the contraction of both regional powers and changed the dynamics of the region for centuries to come. In essence, what had happened is that the populations of the highlands had not ceased to exist as a result of the Gadaa expansion, but were simply incorporated into a different socio-political system.

Legacy[link]

The Adal Sultanate left behind many structures and artefacts from its heyday. Numerous such historical edifices and items are found in the northwestern Awdal province of Somalia, as well as other parts of the Horn region where the polity held sway.

Archaeological excavations in the late 1800s and early 1900s at over fourteen sites in the vicinity of Borama in modern-day northwestern Somalia unearthed, among other artefacts, coins identified as having been derived from Kait Bey, the eighteenth Burji Mamluk Sultan of Egypt.^[23] Most of these finds are associated with the medieval Adal Sultanate,^[24] and were sent to the British Museum for preservation shortly after their discovery.^[23]

Notes[link]

See also[link]

• Battle of Amba Sel
• Ifat
• Walashma dynasty
• Zeila
• Harar
• List of Sunni Muslim dynasties

Malik Ambar (1549–1626) was an Ethiopian born in Harar, sold as a child by his parents due to poverty. He eventually arrived in India, where he was educated and given opportunities, but he remained a slave. Nevertheless in time he created an independent army that had up to 1500 men. This army resided in the Deccan region and was hired by many local kings. He also founded the city of Aurangabad, Maharashtra^[3] on the site of a previous village. He eventually rose to become a very popular Prime Minister of the Ahmadnagar Sultanate, showing his administrative acumen in various fields. Malik is also regarded as a pioneer in Guerilla warfare in the Deccan region. He is credited with having carried out a systematic revenue settlement of major portions of the Deccan, which formed the basis for many subsequent settlements. He died in 1626. He is a figure of veneration to the Siddis of Gujarat. He humbled the might of the Mughals and Adil Shah of Bijapur and raised the falling status of the Nizam Shah.^[4][5]

Malik Ambar's Tomb 1860s Khuldabad

Early life[link]

Malik Ambar was born in the city of Alhura in a Habshi tribe of Maya, the capital of the Adal Sultanate, in modern eastern Ethiopia. Both Ethiopia and the rebellious (formerly vassal) Adal sultanate were devastated after two decades of war with each other. According to the Futuhat-i `adil Shahi, Malik Ambar then known as Shambhu or Shan-bu was sold into slavery by his parents. He ended up in al-Mukha in Yemen, where he was sold again for 20 ducats and was taken to the slave market in Baghdad, where he was sold a third time to the Qadi al-Qudat of Mecca and again in Baghdad to Mir Qasim al-Baghdadi, who eventually took him to south-central India. Unlike most slaves sold from Ethiopia,^[6][7] he was ethnically Habesha (by the stricter definitions), as supported by the Dutch merchant Pieter van den Broecke's description of him, "a black kafir from Abyssinia with a stern Roman face."^[8]

His career[link]

Malik Ambar was the regent of the Nizamshahi dynasty of Ahmednagar from 1607 to 1626. During this period he increased the strength and power of Murtaza Nizam Shah and raised a large army. He changed the capital from Paranda to Junar and founded a new city, Khadki which was later on changed to Aurangabad by the Emperor Aurangzeb when he invaded the Deccan (1658 to 1707). Malik Ambar cherished strong love and ability for architecture. Aurangabad was Ambar's architectural achievement and creation. Malik Ambar the founder of the city was always referred to by harsh names by Emperor Jahangir. In his memoirs he never mentions his name without prefixing epithets like wretch, cursed fellow, Habshi, Ambar Siyari, black Ambar, and Ambar Badakhtur. Some historians believe that those words came out of frustration as Malik Ambar had resisted the powerful Mughals and kept them away from Deccan. "^[9]

Pioneer of guerilla warfare[link]

Malik Ambar is said to be the one of proponent of guerilla warfare in the Deccan region. Malik Ambar assisted Shah Jahan wrestle power in Delhi from his stepmother, Nur Jahan, who had ambitions of seating her son-in-law on the throne. Malik Ambar and Shahji had also restored some credibility to the Sultans of Ahmadnagar, who had been subdued by the earlier Mughals (Akbar had annexed Ahmadnagar).^[10]

Malik Ambar designs the neher system[link]

Malik Amber is especially famous for the Neher, the water system, (Aurangabad) the rendering of which to this day is a miracle. His plan for the Nehar was met with sarcasm and ridicule. Vazir Mullah Mohammad declared it as a preposterous fancy which would require 'Um-Re-Noh' (Noh’s life span), 'Sab-Re-Ayub' ( Ayub’s patience), 'Khazana-Kharun' ( Kharun’s treasure). But Malik Ambar completed the Neher within fifteen months, spending a nominal sum of two and a half lakhs. This city is situated on the banks of river Kham, a small perennial stream which takes it’s rise in the neighbouring hill. "^[11]

Conflict with Mughals[link]

Malik Amber thrust defeats on the Mughal General Khan Khanan many times and attacked Ahmadnagar often. Lakhuji Jadhavrao, Maloji Bhosale, Shahaji Bhosale and other Maratha chiefs had gained great prominence during this period. With the help of these Maratha Chiefs, Malik Ambar had captured Ahmednagar Fort and town from the Mughals. But in one of the battles Malik Ambar was defeated by the Mughals and had to lose the fort of Ahmadnagar. Many Maratha Chiefs and especially Lakhuji Jadhavrao joined the Mughals. Shah Jahan once again laid a crushing blow to Malik Ambar in one of the battles and further decreased his power. Malik Ambar was a great statesman and soldier. He humbled the might of the Mughal and Adil Shah of Bijapur and raised the falling status of the Nizam Shah. Though defeated by the Mughals he was never cowed down by their might.

Death[link]

He died in 1626 at the age of 80. Malik Ambar had, by his Siddi wife, Bibi Karima two sons, Fatteh Khan and Changiz Khan and four daughters. Fatteh Khan succeeded his father as the regent of Nizam Shah. One of his daughters was married to a prince of the Ahmednagar royal family who was later, through Malik Ambar's aid crowned as Murtaza Nizam Shah II. The second and third daughters respectivley were called Shahir Banu and Azija Banu, the latter of whom married a nobleman named Siddi Abdullah. The final daughter was married to the commander of the Ahmednagar army, Muqarrab Khan whom later became a general under the Mughal Emperor and received the title Rustam Khan Firauz Jang. He later became famous for his involvement in several important campaigns such as the Kandahar Wars against Shah Abbas of Persia. He was killed in the Battle of Samugarh during the Mughal war of succesion in 1658.

Comments of Historians[link]

A noted historian Dr. Beni Prasad notes: "The chief importance of the Deccan campaigns of the Mughals lies in the opportunities of military training and political power which they afforded to the Marathas. Malik Ambar, who was a great master of the art of guerilla warfare as Shivaji himself, stands as the head of the builders of the Maratha nationality. His primary object was to serve the interest of his own master, but unconsciously he nourished into strength a power which more than avenged the injuries of the South on the Northern power."^{[citation needed]}

Foundation of Aurangabad[link]

He founded/inhabited Aurangabad on the site of the Khirki/Khadke("Big Rock") village in 1610. After his death in 1626, the name was change to Fatehpur by his son Fatehkhan. When Aurangzeb, the mughal emperor invaded Deccan in the year 1653, he made Fatehpur his capital and renamed it as Aurangabad. Since then it is known as Aurangabad. Two capital cities Viz. ‘Pratisthan’ (Paithan) i.e. the capital of Satavahanas (2nd B. C. to 3rd A. D.) and Devagiri - Daulatabad the capital of Yadavas and Muhammad bin Tughluq are located within the limits of Aurangabad.

See also[link]

• Aurangabad Water System
• Siddi

References[link]

External links[link]

• Read full history of the Founder of Aurangabad City - Malik Ambar
• Mentioned on page 9
• Malik Ambar: A remarkable life B.N. Goswamy
• The Tribune, Chandigarh, 13 August 2006, India Online edition
• The African Diaspora in the Indian Ocean World, Omar H. Ali, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture

Medal record
Men's Field Hockey
Competitor for the  Pakistan
Olympic Games
Gold	1984 Los Angeles	Team
Hockey World Cup
Gold	1982 Mumbai	Team
Asian Games
Gold	1982 New Dehli	Team
Silver	1986 Seoul	Team
Asia Cup
Gold	1982 Karachi	Team
Gold	1985 Dhaka	Team
Champions Trophy
Silver	1983 Karachi	Team
Silver	1984 Karachi	Team
Bronze	1986 Karachi	Team

Nasir Ali (born January 1 1959 in Sialkot) is a Pakistani field hockey player. He played at fullback position. He was a player in the National hockey team from 1981 to 1988.

He was captain of the Pakistan Hockey Team which finished 5th in the 1988 Olympics in Seoul, after being a member of the Gold Medal-winning team at the 1984 Olympics in Los Angeles. He was capped 150 times and scored 19 goals.^[1]

References[link]

v t e Pakistan squad – 1984 Summer Olympics 1 Moinuddin 2 Zia 3 Ali 4 Hasan 5 Mehmood 6 Akhtar 7 Kalimullah 8 Hussain II (c) 9 Sardar 10 Hanif Khan 11 Hamid 12 Shahid Ali 13 Dar 14 Ishtiaq 15 Sherwani II 16 Mushtaq II Coach: Zakauddin

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