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Geopolitics, from Greek Γη (earth) and Πολιτική (politics) in broad terms, is a theory that describes the relation between politics and territory whether on local or international scale.

It comprises the art and practice of analysing, proscribing, forecasting, and the using of political power over a given territory. Specifically, is a method of foreign policy analysis, which seeks to understand, explain and predict international political behaviour primarily in terms of geographical variables. Those geographical variables generally are: geographic location of the country or countries in question, size of the countries involved, climate of the region the countries are in, topography of the region, demography, natural resources available in the territory, technological development.^[1] Traditionally, the term has applied primarily to the impact of geography on politics (and likewise), but its usage has evolved over the past century to encompass wider connotations.

In the abstract, geopolitics traditionally indicates the links and causal relationships between political power and geographic space; in concrete terms it is often seen as a body of thought assaying specific strategic prescriptions based on the relative importance of land power and sea power in world history. The geopolitical tradition had some consistent concerns, like the geopolitical correlates of power in world politics, the identification of international core areas, and the relationships between naval and terrestrial capabilities.^[2]

Academically, the study of geopolitics involves the analysis of geography, history and social science with reference to spatial politics and patterns at various scales (ranging from the level of the state to international). It is multidisciplinary in its scope, and includes all aspects of the social sciences with particular emphasis on political geography, international relations, the territorial aspects of political science and international law.^[3] Also, the study of geopolitics includes the study of the ensemble of relations between the interests of international political actors, interests focused to an area, space, geographical element or ways, relations which create a geopolitical system.^[4]

Main schools and doctrines[link]

The term was coined at the beginning of the 20th century by Rudolf Kjellén (1864–1922), a Swedish political scientist, inspired by the German geographer Friedrich Ratzel, whose book Politische Geographie (political geography) was published in 1897. It was later popularized in English by the Hungarian historian Emile Reich and later by the American diplomat Robert Strausz-Hupé, a faculty member of the University of Pennsylvania. Although Halford Mackinder had a pioneering role in the field, he actually never used the term geopolitics himself.^[5]

German Geopolitik[link]

German Geopolitik is characterized by the belief that life of States is similar to the one of Human beings and animals, mainly imposed by scientific determinism and Social Darwinism. German geopolitics will thoroughly develop the concept of Lebensraum (vital space) supposedly necessary to the developement of a Nation alike a favorable natural environment would be for animals.

Ratzel[link]

Friedrich Ratzel (1844–1904), influenced by thinkers like Darwin and zoologist Ernst Heinrich Haeckel, contributed to Geopolitik by the expansion on the biological conception of geography, without a static conception of borders. States are instead organic and growing, with borders representing only a temporary stop in their movement. It is not the state proper that is the organism, but the land in its spiritual bond with the people who draw sustenance from it. The expanse of a state’s borders is a reflection of the health of the nation meaning that static countries are in decline.

He published several papers, among which the essay Lebensraum (1901) concerning biogeography, creating a foundation for the uniquely German variant of geopolitics: geopolitik. Influenced by the American geostrategist Alfred Thayer Mahan, Ratzel wrote of aspirations for German naval reach, agreeing that sea power was self-sustaining, as the profit from trade would pay for the merchant marine, unlike land power.

The geopolitical theory of Ratzel has been criticized as being too sweeping, his interpretation of human history and geography too simple and mechanistic. In his analysis of the importance of mobility, and the move from sea to rail transport, he failed to predict the revolutionary impact of air power. Critically also he underestimated the importance of social organization in the development of power.^[6]

The association of German Geopolitiks with Nazism[link]

After World War I, the thoughts of Rudolf Kjellén and Ratzel were picked up and extended by a number of German authors such as Karl Haushofer (1869–1946), Erich Obst, Hermann Lautensach and Otto Maull. In 1923 Karl Haushofer founded the Zeitschrift für Geopolitik (Journal for Geopolitics), which later proved useful to Nazi Germany propaganda. The key concepts of Haushofer's Geopolitik were Lebensraum, autarky, pan-regions and organic borders. States have, Haushofer argued, undeniable right to seek natural borders which would guarantee autarky.

More recently Haushofer's influence within the Nazi Party has been questioned (O'Tuathail, 1996) since Haushofer failed to incorporate the Nazis' racial ideology into his work. Popular views of the role of geopolitics in the Nazi Third Reich suggest a fundamental significance on the part of the geopoliticians in the ideological orientation of the Nazi state. Bassin (1987) reveals that these popular views are in important ways misleading and incorrect. Despite the numerous similarities and affinities between the two doctrines, geopolitics was always held suspect by the National Socialist ideologists. This suspicion was understandable, for the underlying philosophical orientation of geopolitics ran counter to that of National Socialism. Geopolitics, deriving from the political geography of Ratzel, shared his scientific materialism and determinism. Human society was determined by external influences, in the face of which qualities held innately by individuals or groups were of reduced or no significance. National Socialism rejected in principle both materialism and determinism and also elevated innate human qualities, in the form of a hypothesized 'racial character,' to the factor of greatest significance in the constitution of human society. These differences led after 1933 to friction and ultimately to open denunciation of geopolitics by Nazi ideologues.^[7] Nevertheless, German Geopolitik was discredited by its (mis)use in Nazi expansionist policy of World War II and has never achieved standing comparable to the pre-war period.

Anglo-American geopolitical doctrine[link]

Alfred Thayer Mahan and the sea power[link]

Alfred Thayer Mahan, a frequent commentator on world naval strategic and diplomatic affairs, believed that national greatness was inextricably associated with the sea, with its commercial usage in peace and its control in war. His goal was to discover the laws of history that determined who controlled the seas.

Mahan's theoretical framework came from Antoine-Henri Jomini, with an emphasis on strategic locations (such as chokepoints, canals, and coaling stations), as well as quantifiable levels of fighting power in a fleet. He proposed six conditions required for a nation to have sea power:

1. An advantageous geographical position
2. Serviceable coastlines, abundant natural resources, and a favorable climate
3. Extent of territory
4. A population large enough to defend its territory
5. A society with an aptitude for the sea and commercial enterprise
6. A government with the influence to dominate the sea.^[8]

Emil Reich[link]

Hungarian historian Emil Reich (1854–1910) is considered to be the first having coined the acception in English^[9] as early as 1902 and later in 1904 in his book Foundations of Modern Europe.^[10]

Mackinder and the Heartland theory[link]

Sir Halford Mackinder's Heartland concept showing the situation of the "pivot area" established in the Theory of the Heartland. He later revised it to mark Eastern Europe as a pivot while keeping area marked above as Heartland.

The concept of geopolitics initially gained attention through the work of Sir Halford Mackinder in England and his formulation of the Heartland Theory which was set out in his article entitled "The Geographical Pivot of History" in 1904. Mackinder's doctrine of geopolitics involved concepts diametrically opposed to the notion of Alfred Thayer Mahan about the significance of navies (he coined the term sea power) in world conflict. He saw navy as a basis of Colombian era empire (roughly 1492–19^th century) and expected 20^th century to be domain of land power. The Heartland theory hypothesized the possibility for a huge empire being brought into existence in the Heartland, which wouldn't need to use coastal or transoceanic transport to remain coherent.

The basic notions of Mackinder's doctrine involve considering the geography of the Earth as being divided into two sections, the World Island or Core, comprising Eurasia and Africa; the Peripheral "islands", including the Americas, Australia, Japan, the British Isles, and Oceania. Not only was the Periphery noticeably smaller than the World Island, it necessarily required much sea transport to function at the technological level of the World Island, which contained sufficient natural resources for a developed economy.

Also, the industrial centers of the Periphery were necessarily located in widely separated locations. The World Island could send its navy to destroy each one of them in turn. It could locate its own industries in a region further inland than the Periphery could, so they would have a longer struggle reaching them, and would face a well-stocked industrial bastion. Mackinder called this region the Heartland. It essentially comprised Eastern Europe: Ukraine, Western Russia, and Mitteleuropa.^[11] The Heartland contained the grain reserves of Ukraine, and many other natural resources. Mackinder's notion of geopolitics can be summed up in his saying "Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland. Who rules the Heartland commands the World-Island. Who rules the World-Island commands the World." His doctrine was influential during the World Wars and the Cold War, for Germany and later Russia each made territorial strides toward the Heartland.

Spykman and the Rimland[link]

Nicholas J. Spykman could be considered as a disciple and critic of both geostrategists Alfred Mahan, and Halford Mackinder. His work is based on assumptions similar to Mackinder: the unity of world politics, and the unity of the world sea. He extends this to include the unity of the air. Spykman adopts Mackinder's divisions of the world, renaming some:

• the Heartland;
• the Rimland (analogous to Mackinder's "inner or marginal crescent" also an intermediate region, lying between the Heartland and the marginal sea powers); and
• the Offshore Islands & Continents (Mackinder's "outer or insular crescent").^[12]

The purpose of Rimland is to separate Heartland from ports usable throughout the year (not frozen up during winter), therefore any attempts by Heartland nations (Russia) to conquere Rimland must be prevented. Spykman modified Mackinder's formula on relationship between the Heartand and the Rimland (or the inner crescent), he claimed, that "Who controls the rimland rules Eurasia. Who rules Eurasia controls the destinies of the world." This theory can be traced in the origins of Containment, a U.S. policy on preventing the spread of Soviet influence after the World War II (see also Truman Doctrine).

Huntington[link]

Since then, the word geopolitics has been applied to other theories, most notably the notion of the Clash of Civilizations by Samuel Huntington thoroughly inspired from Fernand Braudel in Grammaire des civilisations. In a peaceable world, neither sea lanes nor surface transport are threatened; hence all countries are effectively close enough to one another physically. It is in the realm of the political ideas, workings, and cultures that there are differences, and the term has shifted more towards this arena, especially in its popular usage. Huntington’s geopolitical model, especially the structures for North Africa and Eurasia, is largely derived from the "Intermediate Region" geopolitical model first formulated by Dimitri Kitsikis and published in 1978.^[13]

French approach on Geopolitics[link]

French doctrines mainly relies in opposition to German Geopolitik and rejects the idea of a fixed geography, hence French geography is focused on the evolution of polymorphic territories being the result of mankind actions. It also relies in the consideration of long time periods through refusal of taking specific events into account.

This Method has been theorized by Professor Lacoste according to three principles: Representation, Diachronie; Diatopie.

Montesqieu[link]

In The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu outlined the view that man and societies are influenced by climate. He believed that hotter climates create hot-tempered people and colder climates aloof people, whereas the mild climate of France is ideal for political systems.

Élisée Reclus[link]

Considered as one of the founders of French geopolitics, Reclus, is the author of a book considered as a reference in modern geography (Nouvelle Géographie universelle). Alike Ratzel, he considers geography through a global vision. However, in complete opposition to Ratzel's vision, Reclus considers geography not to be unchanging; it is supposed to evolve in contingent with human actions. His progressive political views got him rejected from the academic establishment.

Jacques Ancel[link]

French geographer and geopolitician Jacques Ancel is considered to be the first theorician of geopolitics in France notably through the lectures he gave at the Carnegie foundation and his book "Géopolitique" published in 1936. Alike Reclus he rejects German determinist views on geopolitics (such as Haushofer's doctrines).

Fernand Braudel, Vidal de la Blache[link]

Braudel's broad view used insights from other social sciences, employed the concept of the longue durée, and downplayed the importance of specific events. This method was inspired by the French geographer Paul Vidal de la Blache (himself influenced by German thought especially by Friedrich Ratzel whom he had met in Germany). Moreover, Braudel's method consisted in analysing the interdependence between individuals and their environment.^[14]

"Vidalian” geography is based on varied forms of cartography and on possibilism (founded on a societal approach of geography i.e. on the principle of spaces polymorphic faces depending from many factors among them mankind, culture, and ideas) as opposed to determinism.

Lacoste and the rebirth of French Geopolitics[link]

Because of the German Geopolitik influence on French Geopolitics, the latter were for a long time banished from academic works, often considered to be a Nazi science.

In the mid-1970s, Yves Lacoste a French geographer who was directly inspired by Ancel, Braudel and Vidal de la Blache founded l'Institut Français de Géopolitique (French Institute for Geopolitics) that publishes the Hérodote revue. While rejecting generalizations and broad abstractions employed by the German and Anglo-American traditions, the school focuses on spatial dimension on different levels of analysis.

In his work, Lacoste set a system of academic principle. According to Lacoste every issue (conflictual situation whether it is local or global) is to be apprehended through three key notions:

• Representation: Each group or individuals is the product of an education, thus, views regarding every issues are oriented, being the product of their beliefs education ethnic group... Therefore one should analyse the representations of the forces in presence with distance in order to understand their motivations and revendications.
• Diachronie: diachronic analyse is a tool that allows to conduct a Braudelian analyse (i.e. through long period of time)
• Diatopie: diatopic analyse is a tool that allows to conduct a cartographic survey through a multiscale mapping.
• Horogenesis: Neologism coined by geographer Michel Foucher, the concept consists in the studying of the birth and death of borders

Russian Geopolitics[link]

The modern day Russian Geopolitcs is centered on Eurasianist tradition and is highly interlinked with politics. The trauma of the disintegration of the Soviet Union left behind various views ranging from moderate – stressing the unique position of Russia between Europe and Asia – to more extreme arguing for Greater Russia aspirations (renaissance of Russian empire in the borders of the former Soviet Union) associated with expansionist views of Alexandr Dugin.

Meta-geopolitics[link]

The concept of geopolitics has evolved over time. Nevertheless, in today’s globalised, interdependent and interconnected world classical geopolitics provide only a partial picture of international relations. New actors and issues, such as environmental policies, health, education and diplomacy influence contemporary geopolitics and need to be taken into account. The framework of Meta-geopolitics proposed by Nayef Al-Rodhan, strives to account for this new and complex reality.^[15] It combines traditional and new dimensions of geopolitics to offer a multidimensional view of power and power relationships. The importance of geography is superseded by the combination of hard- and soft- power tools that states can employ to project power. Meta-geopolitics defines seven key dimensions of state power that include social and health issues, domestic politics, economics, environment, science and human potential, military and security issues, and international diplomacy.^[16]

The first capacity looks at the demographics, ethnic make-up, the degree of social peace and cohesion, and the population’s health within a state. The second capacity refers to a country’s domestic political situation. States that face internal political turmoil can become introverted and incapacitated when it comes to pursuing a strong foreign policy. The economic power is the third capacity of Meta-geopolitics and has significant geopolitical importance. Access to energy and other natural resources are a fundamental part of this capacity. The way a state deals with environmental issues refers to the fourth capacity of Meta-geopolitics and affects a state’s power both, inside and outside its borders. The human potential refers to the fifth dimension of the framework and represents a central measure of a state’s power. Education, a skilled, reliable work force, investments in scientific research and development are key indicators of this capacity. Traditionally, a state’s military power and its ability to deal with national security challenges have been used to gauge a state’s power on the international scene. Increases in military capability can change the relative power balance between states. The seventh and last capacity refers to a state’s influence on the diplomatic front. For example, a state’s membership in international organizations, its ideological leverage and credibility are fundamental indicators of this capacity. The Meta-geopolitics framework allows for the assessment of relative strengths and weaknesses as well as predictions about future trends. Furthermore, while this analytical grid is relevant for states it also applies to private and transnational entities, which are playing an increasingly important role in contemporary geopolitics.^[17]

See also[link]

• Astropolitics
• Balkanization
• Critical geopolitics
• Geopolitik
• Geojurisprudence
• Geostrategy
• Intermediate Region
• Lebensraum
• Natural gas and list of natural gas fields and Category:Natural gas pipelines
• Petroleum politics
• Political geography
• Realpolitik
• Space geostrategy
• Sphere of Influence
• Strategic depth
• Theopolitics
• Water politics

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Ankerl, Guy (2000). Global communication without universal civilization. INU societal research. Vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 2-88155-004-5. 
• O'Loughlin, John / Heske, Henning. "From War to a Discipline for Peace". In: Kliot, N. and Waterman, S. (ed.): The Political Geography of Conflict and Peace. London: Belhaven Press, 1991
• Spang, Christian W.: “As a Factor within Japanese-German Rapprochement in the Inter-War Years?”, in: C. W. Spang, R.-H. Wippich (eds.), Japanese-German Relations, 1895–1945. War, Diplomacy and Public Opinion, London, 2006, pp. 139–157.
• Diamond, Jared, Guns, Germs, and Steel (1997)
• Amineh, Parvizi M. and Henk Houweling, Central Eurasia in Global Politics, (London, Leiden: Brill Academic Publishing. Introduction and Chapeter 11

External links[link]

• International Geopolitics Reporters Association (I.G.R.A.) International association of professionals specialized in geopolitics.
• European network of geopolitical thinking
• Window on Heartland Geopolitical blog focused on security and strategic issues in the post-Soviet space.

Robert Fisk
Robert Fisk at a book festival in Christchurch, New Zealand, in 2008.
Born	(1946-07-12) 12 July 1946 (age 65) Maidstone, Kent, England
Education	Lancaster University (B.A., 1968) Trinity College, Dublin (Ph.D., 1985)
Occupation	Middle East correspondent for The Independent
Notable credit(s)	Jacob's Award, Amnesty International UK Press Awards, British Press Awards, International Journalist of the Year, "Reporter of the Year", David Watt prize, Lannan Cultural Freedom Prize
Website
http://www.independent.co.uk/news/fisk/

Robert Fisk (born 12 July 1946) is an English writer and journalist from Maidstone, Kent. As Middle East correspondent of The Independent, he has primarily been based in Beirut for more than 30 years.^[1] He has published a number of books and has reported on the United States's war in Afghanistan and its 2003 invasion of Iraq. Fisk holds more British and International Journalism awards than any other foreign correspondent.^[2]

Career[link]

The New York Times once described Robert Fisk as "probably the most famous foreign correspondent in Britain."^[3] He reported the Northern Ireland troubles in the 1970s, the Portuguese Revolution in 1974, the Lebanese Civil War, the Iranian revolution in 1979, the Soviet war in Afghanistan, the Iran–Iraq War, the Gulf War and the invasion of Iraq in 2003. A vernacular Arabic speaker,^[4] he is one of few Western journalists to have interviewed Osama bin Laden, and did so three times between 1994 and 1997.^[5][6] His awards include being voted International Journalist of the Year seven times.

Fisk has said that journalism must "challenge authority, all authority, especially so when governments and politicians take us to war." He has quoted with approval the Israeli journalist Amira Hass: "There is a misconception that journalists can be objective ... What journalism is really about is to monitor power and the centres of power."^[7] Speaking on "Lies, Misreporting, and Catastrophe in the Middle East," at the First Congregational Church of Berkeley, 22 September 2010, Fisk stated, "I think it is the duty of a foreign correspondent to be neutral and unbiased on the side of those who suffer, whoever they may be." ^[8]

He has written at length on how much of contemporary conflict has its origin, in his view, in lines drawn on maps: "After the allied victory of 1918, at the end of my father's war, the victors divided up the lands of their former enemies. In the space of just seventeen months, they created the borders of Northern Ireland, Yugoslavia and most of the Middle East. And I have spent my entire career—in Belfast and Sarajevo, in Beirut and Baghdad—watching the people within those borders burn."^[9]

Fisk is a pacifist and has never voted.^[10]

The blogosphere term fisking originates from various American conservative blogs, which have taken particular issue with Mr. Fisk, who holds a "very skeptical view of U.S. foreign policy", and his articles and reports. Many of these bloggers have responded by reprinting his dispatches on their blogs, adding their own paragraph-by-paragraph commentary, purportedly dissecting and debunking Fisk's facts and opinions.^[11] Irrespective of the success of their endeavour, the term "fisking" has come to denote the practice of "savaging an argument and scattering the tattered remnants to the four corners of the internet".^[12]

In a 2002 appearance at the Cambridge Union Society, actor John Malkovich when asked whom he would most like to "fight to the death", replied that he would "rather just shoot" journalist Robert Fisk and British MP George Galloway.^[13] Both Fisk and Galloway reacted with outrage.^[14][15]

Early career[link]

Fisk was educated at Yardley Court preparatory school,^[16] Sutton Valence School and at Lancaster University ^[17] and has a PhD in Political Science, from Trinity College, Dublin in 1983.^[18] The title of his doctoral thesis was "A condition of limited warfare: Éire’s neutrality and the relationship between Dublin, Belfast and London, 1939–1945".^[18] He worked on the Sunday Express diary column before a disagreement with the editor, John Junor, prompted a move to The Times.^[19] From 1972–75, the height of The Troubles, Fisk served as Belfast correspondent for The Times, before becoming its correspondent in Portugal covering the aftermath of the Carnation Revolution. He then was appointed Middle East correspondent (1976–1988). When a story of his was spiked (Iran Air Flight 655) after Rupert Murdoch's takeover, he moved to The Independent, with his first report published there on 28 April 1989.

Lebanon, and other conflicts[link]

Fisk has been living in Beirut since 1976,^[20] and was present in Beirut throughout the Lebanese civil war. He was one of the first journalists to visit the scene of the Sabra and Shatila massacre in Lebanon, as well as the Syrian Hama Massacre. His book on the Lebanese conflict, Pity the Nation, was first published in 1990. Fisk also reported on the Arab-Israeli conflict, the Kosovo war, the Algerian civil war, and the Iran-Iraq War. Fisk suffered partial but permanent hearing loss as a result of being close to Iraqi heavy artillery in the Shatt-al-Arab when covering the early stages of the Iran-Iraq conflict.^{[citation needed]}

Osama bin Laden[link]

Fisk is one of the few Western journalists to have interviewed Osama bin Laden—three times (all published by The Independent: 6 December 1993, 10 July 1996, and 22 March 1997). During one of Fisk's interviews with Bin Laden, Fisk noted an attempt by Bin Laden to convert him. Bin Laden said; "Mr Robert, one of our brothers had a dream. He dreamed ... that you were a spiritual person ... this means you are a true Muslim." Fisk replied; "Sheikh Osama, I am not a Muslim ... I am a journalist ... A journalist's task is to tell the truth." Bin Laden replied: "If you tell the truth, that means you are a good Muslim."^[21][22]

During the 1996 interview, Bin Laden accused the Saudi royal family of corruption. During the 1997 (and final) interview, Bin Laden said he sought God's help "to turn America into a shadow of itself".^[23]

11 September attacks[link]

Fisk condemned the 11 September 2001 attacks, describing them as a "hideous crime against humanity." He also denounced the Bush administration's response to the attacks, arguing that "a score of nations" were being identified and positioned as "haters of democracy" or "kernels of evil," and urged a more honest debate on U.S. policy in the Middle East. He argued that such a debate had hitherto been avoided "because, of course, to look too closely at the Middle East would raise disturbing questions about the region, about our Western policies in those tragic lands, and about America's relationship with Israel."^[24]

In August 2007 Fisk expressed personal doubts about the official historical record of the 11 September attacks. In an article for The Independent, he claimed that, while the Bush administration was incapable of successfully carrying out such attacks due to its organisational incompetence: "I am increasingly troubled at the inconsistencies in the official narrative of 9/11." He proceeded to raise his concerns about a lack of aircraft debris, the melting point of steel, the collapse of World Trade Center 7, misidentified suicide-hijackers, the authenticity of correspondence attributed by the CIA to Mohamed Atta, and other familiar questions that have circulated within the 9/11 Truth Movement. He added that he does not condone the "crazed 'research' of David Icke [...] I am talking about scientific issues".^[25] Fisk had earlier addressed similar concerns in a speech at Sydney University in 2006.^[26] During the speech, Fisk said: "Partly I think because of the culture of secrecy of the White House, never have we had a White House so secret as this one. Partly because of this culture, I think suspicions are growing in the United States, not just among Berkeley guys with flowers in their hair [...] But there are a lot of things we don’t know, a lot of things we’re not going to be told [...] perhaps the plane was hit by a missile, we still don’t know."^[27]

War in Afghanistan[link]

After the United States launched its attack on Afghanistan, Fisk was for a time transferred to Pakistan to provide coverage of that conflict. While reporting from there, he was attacked and beaten by a group of Afghan refugees fleeing heavy bombing by the United States Air Force. He was saved from this attack by another Afghan refugee. In his graphic account of his own beating, Fisk pardoned the attackers of responsibility and pointed out that their "brutality was entirely the product of others, of us—of we who had armed their struggle against the Russians and ignored their pain and laughed at their civil war and then armed and paid them again for the 'War for Civilisation' just a few miles away and then bombed their homes and ripped up their families and called them 'collateral damage.'"^[28]

Iraq[link]

During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, Fisk was stationed in Baghdad and filed many eyewitness reports. He has criticized other journalists based in Iraq for what he calls their "hotel journalism", literally reporting from one's hotel room without interviews or first hand experience of events.^[29] His opposition to the war brought criticism from both Irish Sunday Independent columnist and senator, Eoghan Harris,^[30] and The Guardian columnist, Simon Hoggart.^[31]

Fisk has criticised the American handling of the sectarian violence in post-invasion Iraq, and argued that the official narrative of sectarian conflict is not possible: "The real question I ask myself is: who are these people who are trying to provoke the civil war? Now the Americans will say it's Al Qaeda, it's the Sunni insurgents. It is the death squads. Many of the death squads work for the Ministry of Interior. Who runs the Ministry of Interior in Baghdad? Who pays the Ministry of the Interior? Who pays the militia men who make up the death squads? We do, the occupation authorities [...] We need to look at this story in a different light."^[32]

Books and other works[link]

Books[link]

Fisk has published a number of books. His 2005 work, The Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East, with its criticism of Western and Israeli approaches to the Middle East, was well-received by critics and students of international affairs, and is perhaps his best-known work.

• The Point of No Return: The Strike which Broke the British in Ulster (1975). London: Times Books/Deutsch. ISBN 0-233-96682-X
• In Time of War: Ireland, Ulster and the Price of Neutrality, 1939–1945 (2001). London: Gill & Macmillan. ISBN 0-7171-2411-8 (1st ed. was 1983).
• Pity the Nation : Lebanon at War (3rd ed. 2001). London: Oxford University Press; xxi, 727 pages. ISBN 0-19-280130-9 (1st ed. was 1990).
• The Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East (October 2005) London. Fourth Estate; xxvi, 1366 pages. ISBN 1-84115-007-X
• The Age of the Warrior: Selected Writings (2008) London, Fourth Estate ISBN 978-0-00-727073-6

Video documentary[link]

Fisk produced a three-part series titled From Beirut To Bosnia in 1993 which Fisk says was an attempt "to find out why an increasing number of Muslims had come to hate the West."^[33] Fisk says that the Discovery Channel did not show a repeat of the films, after initially showing them in full, due to a letter campaign launched by pro-Israel groups such as CAMERA.^[33][34]

Forgery misattributed to Robert Fisk[link]

• Saddam Hussein—From Birth to Martyrdom (2007). Egypt: Ibda; 272 pages.^[35]

Awards[link]

In 1991, Fisk won a Jacob's Award for his RTÉ Radio coverage of the first Gulf War.^[36] He received Amnesty International UK Press Awards in 1998 for his reports from Algeria and again in 2000 for his articles on the NATO air campaign against Yugoslavia in 1999. In 1999, Fisk won the Orwell Prize for journalism.^[37]

He has received the British Press Awards' International Journalist of the Year seven times, and twice won its "Reporter of the Year" award.^[38] In 2001, he was awarded the David Watt Prize for "outstanding contributions towards the clarification of political issues and the promotion of their greater understanding" for his investigation into the Armenian Genocide by the Turks in 1915.^[39] In 2002 he was the fourth recipient of the Martha Gellhorn Prize for Journalism. More recently, Fisk was awarded the 2006 Lannan Cultural Freedom Prize along with $350,000.^[40]

He was made an honorary Doctor of Laws by the University of St Andrews on 24 June 2004. The Political and Social Sciences department of Ghent University (Belgium) awarded Fisk an honorary doctorate on 24 March 2006. He was awarded an honorary doctorate by the American University of Beirut in June 2006. Trinity College Dublin awarded him a second, honorary, Doctorate in July 2008.^[41]

Fisk gave the 2005 Edward Said Memorial lecture at Adelaide University.^[42]

In 2011, Fisk was awarded the International Prize at the Amalfi Coast Media Awards in Italy.^[43]

Fisk is also a recipient of the College Historical Society's "Gold Medal for Outstanding Contribution to Public Discourse".^{[citation needed]}

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Robert Fisk on Shakespeare and war
• Man of War by Rachel Cooke of The Observer, 13 April 2008
• Journalism and 'the words of power': Robert Fisk address to the fifth Al Jazeera annual forum on 23 May

External links[link]

	England portal
	Biography portal

• Column archive at The Independent
• Robert Fisk at ZSpace
• Article archive at Journalisted
• Appearances on C-SPAN
• Robert Fisk on Charlie Rose
• Robert Fisk at the Internet Movie Database
• Works by or about Robert Fisk in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
• Robert Fisk on the Gap Between U.S. Rhetoric and Action in the Egyptian Uprising—video interview by Democracy Now!, 2011
• Interview with Robert Fisk in Lebanon - 16 May 2011 (The Student Journals)

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George Friedman is an American political scientist and author. He is the founder, chief intelligence officer, financial overseer, and CEO of the private intelligence corporation Stratfor.^[1] He has authored several books, including The Next 100 Years, The Next Decade, America's Secret War, The Intelligence Edge, The Coming War With Japan and The Future of War.^[2]

Biography[link]

Friedman’s childhood was shaped directly by international conflict. He was born in Hungary to Holocaust survivors. His family fled Hungary when he was a child to escape the Communist regime, settling first in a camp for displaced persons in Austria and then immigrating to the United States, where he attended public schools in New York City, and was an early designer of computerized war games. Friedman describes his family’s story as “a very classic story of refugees making a new life in America." He received a B.A. at the City College of New York, where he majored in political science, and a Ph.D. in government at Cornell University.^[2]

Prior to joining the private sector, Friedman spent almost twenty years in academia, teaching political science at Dickinson College. During this time, he also regularly briefed senior commanders in the armed services as well as the Office of Net Assessments, SHAPE Technical Center, the U.S. Army War College, National Defense University and the RAND Corporation, on security and national defense matters.^{[citation needed]}

Friedman pursued political philosophy with his early work focusing on Marxism, as well as international conflict, including examination of the U.S.-Soviet relationship from a military perspective. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Friedman studied potential for a U.S.-Japan conflict and co-authored The Coming War with Japan in 1991. He is also the author or co-author of books examining topics as diverse as the Frankfurt School and warfare, including The Future of War, The next hundred years, The Intelligence Edge, and America’s Secret War.

In 1996, he founded STRATFOR, a private intelligence and forecasting company, and has served as the company's CEO and Chief Intelligence Officer.

Personal life[link]

Friedman is married to Meredith Friedman (née LeBard), has four children, and lives in Austin, Texas.

Books[link]

• The Political Philosophy of the Frankfurt School (1981). Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-1279-X.
• Coming War With Japan, with Meredith LeBard (1991). St Martins Press. Reprint edition, 1992, ISBN 0-312-07677-0.
• The Future of War: Power, Technology and American World Dominance in the Twenty-First Century with Meredith Friedman (1996). 1st ed., Crown Publishers, ISBN 0-517-70403-X. St. Martin's Griffin, 1998, ISBN 0-312-18100-0.
• The Intelligence Edge: How to Profit in the Information Age with Meredith Friedman, Colin Chapman, and John Baker (1997). Crown, 1st edition. ISBN 0-609-60075-3.
• America's Secret War: Inside the Hidden Worldwide Struggle Between the United States and Its Enemies (2004). Doubleday, 1st ed, ISBN 0-385-51245-7. Broadway, reprint edition (2005). ISBN 0-7679-1785-5.
• The Next 100 Years: A Forecast for the 21st Century (2009). Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-51705-X.
• The Next Decade: What the World Will Look Like (2010). ISBN 0-385-53294-6.

External links[link]

• Bio of Friedman at STRATFOR's website.
• Bio of Friedman at America's Secret War's website.
• Bio of Friedman at New Global Initiative's website.
• Friedman quotes at ThinkExist.com.
• The Iranian Election and the Revolution Test. George Friedman writes on Ahmadinejad's election and revolt against alleged fraud.
• Booknotes interview with Friedman and Meredith LeBard on The Coming War With Japan, June 9, 1991.

References[link]

Robert K. Crane
Robert K. Crane circa 1960.
Born	(1919-12-20)20 December 1919 Palmyra, New Jersey, United States
Died	31 October 2010(2010-10-31) (aged 90) Williston, Tennessee, USA
Nationality	U.S.
Fields	Biochemistry
Institutions	Washington University in St. Louis Chicago Medical School Rutgers Medical School of the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey
Alma mater	Washington College
Known for	Cotransport
Notable awards	American Gastroenterological Association Distinguished Achievement Award (1969) Dr. Harold Lamport Award, New York Academy of Sciences (1977)

Robert Kellogg Crane (December 20, 1919 – October 31, 2010) was an American biochemist best known for his discovery of sodium-glucose cotransport.

Biography[link]

Crane was born on December 20, 1919 in Palmyra, New Jersey, to Wilbur Fiske Crane, architect and engineer, and Mary Elisabeth Crane. He is the grandson of Stephen Crane's brother Wilbur.^[1]

He received a B.S. from Washington College in 1942. After serving in the Navy during World War II, Crane studied in biochemistry with Eric Ball at Harvard from 1946 to 1949, then spent a year with Fritz Lipmann at Harvard Medical School, and received a Ph.D. in Medical Sciences in 1950. He then joined Carl Cori’s Department of Biological Chemistry at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, where he began his long interest in glucose metabolism and worked until 1962. After that, he was professor and chairman of the department of Biochemistry at the Chicago Medical School until 1966 and then became professor and chairman of the department of Physiology and Biophysics at Rutgers Medical School (now known as Robert Wood Johnson Medical School) of the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey until 1986. He received a Sc.D. from Washington College in 1982.^[2]

Discovery of cotransport[link]

In the 1950s, Crane played a central role in establishing that glucose transport into the cell was the first step in glucose metabolism and its control. He demonstrated that neither the phosphorylation-dephosphorylation nor other covalent reactions accounted for glucose transport in the intestine.

Model of cotransport coupling of glucose transport to an Na+ pump by an Na+ circuit. Redrawn from Crane et al.^[2][3]

In August 1960, in Prague, Crane presented for the first time his discovery of the sodium-glucose cotransport as the mechanism for intestinal glucose absorption.^[3] Cotransport was the first ever proposal of flux coupling in biology and was the most important event concerning carbohydrate absorption in the 20th century.^[4][5]

Application in oral rehydration therapy[link]

Crane’s discovery of cotransport led directly to the development of oral rehydration therapy.^[6][7] This treatment counter-balances the loss of water and electrolytes caused by cholera via a glucose containing salt solution that accelerates water and electrolyte absorption. This is possible because cholera does not interfere with sodium-glucose cotransport.^[8][9]

Oral rehydration therapy saves the lives of millions of cholera patients in underdeveloped countries since the 1980s.^[10] In 1978, The Lancet wrote : “the discovery that sodium transport and glucose transport are coupled in the small intestine, so that glucose accelerates absorption of solute and water, was potentially the most important medical advance this century.”^[11]

Applications in pharmaceutical drugs[link]

Crane’s discovery is also used in block buster drugs, such as the SSRI Prozac, which treat depression by inhibiting the Na/serotonin cotransporters in the brain.

Furthermore, major pharmaceutical companies are developing inhibitors of the Na/glucose cotransporters to treat diabetes and obesity.^[12]

Awards and honors[link]

• First Place, Southeast Regional Scholarship Competition, Lehigh University, 1938.
• Kent County Scholar, Washington College, 1941-42.
• Atomic Energy Commission Predoctoral Fellow, 1948-49.
• Fellow, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1957.
• Headmaster's Alumni Medal, St. Andrew's School, 1963.
• Alumni Award, Washington College, 1963.
• Fellow, American Institute of Chemists, 1968.
• Distinguished Achievement Award, American Gastroenterological Association, 1969.^[13]
• Sir Arthur Hurst Memorial Lectureship, British Society of Gastroenterology, 1969.^[14]
• Gastrointestinal Section Lectureship, American Physiological Society, 1971.^[15][16]
• Fellow, New York Academy of Sciences, 1976.
• Dr. Harold Lamport Award, New York Academy of Sciences, 1977.
• Doctor of Science (honoris causa), Washington College, 1982.
• Honorary Chairman, International Symposium on the 25th Anniversary of the Gradient Hypothesis, Aussois, France, 18, 19 and 20 September 1985.^[17]

Selected bibliography[link]

• Robert K. Crane and Anna K. Keltch. “Dinitrocresol and phosphate stimulation of the oxygen consumption of a cell-free oxidative system obtained from sea urchin eggs”. The Journal of General Physiology 32, 1949, pp. 503-509.
• Robert K. Crane and Eric G. Ball. “Factors affecting the fixation of C1402 by animal tissues.“ Journal of Biological Chemistry 188, 1951, pp. 819-832.
• Robert K. Crane and Eric G. Ball. “Relationship of C1402 fixation to carbohydrate metabolism in retina.“ Journal of Biological Chemistry 189, 1951, pp. 269-276.
• Robert K. Crane and Fritz Lipmann. “The relationship of mitochondrial phosphate to aerobic phosphate bond generation”. Journal of Biological Chemistry 201, 1953, pp. 245-246.
• Robert K. Crane and Fritz Lipmann. “The effect of arsenate on aerobic phosphorylation”. Journal of Biological Chemistry 201, 1953, pp. 235-243.
• Robert K. Crane and Alberto Sols. “The association of hexokinase with particulate fractions of brain and other tissue homogenates”. Journal of Biological Chemistry 203, 1953, pp. 273-292.
• Alberto Sols and Robert K. Crane. “The inhibition of brain hexokinase by adenosinediphosphate and sulfhydryl reagents“. Journal of Biological Chemistry 206, 1954, pp. 925-936.
• Robert K. Crane and Alberto Sols. “The non-competitive inhibition of brain hexokinase by glucose 6-phosphate and related compounds”. Journal of Biological Chemistry 210, 1954, pp. 597-606.
• Alberto Sols and Robert K. Crane. “Substrate specificity of brain hexokinase”. Journal of Biological Chemistry 210, 1954, pp. 581-595.
• Robert K. Crane, Richard A. Field and Carl F. Cori. “Studies of tissue permeability I. The penetration of sugars into Ehrlich ascites tumor cells“. Journal of Biological Chemistry 224, 1957, pp. 649-662.
• Robert K. Crane and T. Hastings Wilson. “In vitro method for the study of the rate of intestinal absorption of sugars”. Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 12, 1958, pp. 145–146.
• Stephen M. Krane and Robert K. Crane. “The accumulation of D-galactose against a concentration gradient by slices of rabbit kidney cortex“. Journal of Biological Chemistry 234, 1959, pp. 211-216.
• Robert K. Crane. “Intestinal absorption of sugars”. Physiological Reviews, Vol. 40, 1960, pp. 789–825.
• Robert K. Crane, D. Miller and I. Bihler. “The restrictions on possible mechanisms of intestinal transport of sugars”. In: Membrane Transport and Metabolism. Proceedings of a Symposium held in Prague, August 22–27, 1960. Edited by A. Kleinzeller and A. Kotyk. Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, 1961, pp. 439–449.
• D. Miller and Robert K. Crane. “The digestive function of epithelium of the small intestine. 1. An intracellular locus of disaccharide and sugar phosphate ester hydrolysis”. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 52, 1961, pp. 281–293.
• Robert K. Crane. “Hypothesis for mechanism of intestinal active transport of sugars” Federation Proc. 21, 1962, pp. 891–895.
• David Miller and Robert K. Crane. “The digestion of carbohydrates in the small intestine“. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 12, 1963, pp. 220-227.
• Alexander Eichholz and Robert K. Crane. “Studies on the organization of the brush border in intestinal epithelial cells I. Tris density gradient disruption of isolated hamster brush borders and separation of fractions” Journal of Cell Biology 26, 1965, pp. 687-691.
• Jane Overton, Alexander Eichholz and Robert K. Crane. ”Studies on the organization of the brush border in intestinal epithelial cells II. Fine structure of fractions of tris-disrupted hamster brush borders“ Journal of Cell Biology 26, 1965, pp. 693-706.
• Robert K. Crane. “Structural and functional organization of an epithelial cell brush border”. Intracellular Transport, Symp. Intnl. Soc. Cell BioI. Vol. 5, B. Warren, Ed., Academic Press, 1966, pp. 71–102.
• Alexander Eichholz, K.E. Howell and Robert K. Crane. “Studies on the organization of the brush border in intestinal epithelial cells VI. Glucose binding to isolated intestinal brush borders and their subfractions”. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 193, 1969, pp. 179–192.
• Robert K. Crane. “A perspective of digestive-absorptive function“. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 22, 1969, pp. 242-249.
• Robert K. Crane. “Speculations about mechanism: The ecstasy of transport”. 21st annual meeting of the Gastrointestinal Section, American Physiological Society, 1971, pp. 1–16.
• Alexander Eichholz and Robert K. Crane. “Isolation of plasma membranes from intestinal brush borders in Methods in Enzymology”. Vol. 31, part A, Biomembranes, S. Fleischer and L. Packer, Eds., Academic Press, 1974, pp. 123–134.
• Robert K. Crane. “The gradient hypothesis and other models of carrier-mediated active transport”. Reviews of Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Vol. 78, 1977, pp. 99–159.
• Robert K. Crane. “Digestion and absorption: water-soluble organics”. International review of physiology, Gastrointestinal physiology II, Vol. 12, Robert K. Crane, Ed., University Park Press, 1977, pp. 325–365.
• Robert K. Crane. “Intestinal structure and function related to toxicity“. Environmental Health Perspectives 33, 1979, pp. 3-8.
• Robert K. Crane. “The road to ion-coupled membrane processes.” Comprehensive Biochemistry. Vol 35: Selected Topics in the History of Biochemistry, Personal Recollections l. (Neuberger, A., van Deenen, L. L. M. and Semenga, G., Eds.), Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1983, pp. 43–69.
• Robert K. Crane. “Questions”. In : the proceedings of an International symposium on 25 years of Research on the Brush Border Membrane and Na+ gradient-coupled transport, Editors: Francisco Alvarado and others, INSERM symposium, No. 26, Elsevier-North Holland, Amsterdam, 1986, pp. 431–438.
• Robert K. Crane. “Robert Kellogg Crane: A Scientist Remembers”. IUBMB Life, Volume 62, Issue 8, August 2010, pp. 642–645.

Further reading[link]

• C. A. Pasternak. “A Glance Back Over 30 Years”. Bioscience Reports, Vol. 13, No. 4, 1993, pp. 183-190.
• Robert Joseph Paton Williams. “The History of Proton-Driven ATP Formation”. Bioscience Reports, Vol. 13, No. 4, 1993, pp.193, 200-201, 203, 207.
• Daphne A Christie, E M. Tansey (eds). “Intestinal absorption”. Wellcome Witnesses to Twentieth Century Medicine, Vol. 8, The Wellcome Trust, London, 2000, pp. 17-35.
• Stephen M. Kavica, Eric J. Frehmb and Alan S. Segalc. “Case Studies in Cholera: Lessons in Medical History and Science”. Yale Journal Of Biology And Medicine, Vol. 72, Issue 6, 1999, p. 404.

See also[link]

• Cotransport
• Cotransporter
• Sodium-glucose transport proteins
• Glucose transporter
• Oral rehydration therapy

References[link]

External links[link]

• Video interview of Robert K. Crane by Martin Frank, Ph.D., on November 17, 2009, for the American Physiological Society's Living History of Physiology Project. In this interview Crane describes his training, career and professional interactions.
• "For Living History" by Robert K. Crane : article for the American Physiological Society's Living History of Physiology Project.
• List of published works of Robert K. Crane for the American Physiological Society's Living History of Physiology Project.

Noam Chomsky

Noam Chomsky visiting Vancouver, British Columbia in 2004
Other names	Avram Noam Chomsky
Born	(1928-12-07) December 7, 1928 (age 83) Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Era	20th / 21st-century philosophy
Region	Western philosophy
School	Generative linguistics, Analytic philosophy
Main interests	Linguistics · Psychology Philosophy of language Philosophy of mind Politics · Ethics
Notable ideas	Generative grammar, universal grammar, transformational grammar, government and binding, X-bar theory, Chomsky hierarchy, context-free grammar, principles and parameters, Minimalist program, language acquisition device, poverty of the stimulus, Chomsky–Schützenberger theorem, Chomsky Normal Form, propaganda model[1]
Influenced by Dwight Macdonald,[2] Pāṇini, Bertrand Russell,[3] Ludwig Wittgenstein, John Dewey, Mikhail Bakunin, Wilhelm von Humboldt, Adam Smith, Zellig Harris, Rudolf Rocker, Immanuel Kant, René Descartes, George Orwell, C. West Churchman, Alan Turing, W. V. O. Quine, Russian literature, Hebrew literature[4]
Influenced Colin McGinn, Edward Said, Christopher Hitchens, Steven Pinker, Peter Ludlow, Tanya Reinhart, Morris Halle, Gilbert Harman, Jerry Fodor, Howard Lasnik, Robert Fisk, Neil Smith, Ray Jackendoff, Norbert Hornstein, Jean Bricmont, Marc Hauser, Norman Finkelstein, Robert Lees, Hugo Chavez, Mark Baker, Julian Boyd, Ray C. Dougherty, Derek Bickerton, Amy Goodman, Michael Albert

Avram Noam Chomsky (/ˈnoʊm ˈtʃɒmski/; born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher,^[5][6] cognitive scientist, historian, and activist. He is an Institute Professor and Professor (Emeritus) in the Department of Linguistics & Philosophy at MIT, where he has worked for over 50 years.^[7] Chomsky has been described as the "father of modern linguistics"^[8][9][10] and a major figure of analytic philosophy.^[5] His work has influenced fields such as computer science, mathematics, and psychology.^[11][12]

Ideologically identifying with anarcho-syndicalism and libertarian socialism, Chomsky is known for his critiques of U.S. foreign policy^[13] and contemporary capitalism,^[14] and he has been described as a prominent cultural figure.^[15] His media criticism has included Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (1988), co-written with Edward S. Herman, an analysis articulating the propaganda model theory for examining the media.