The Paralympic Games are a major international multi-sport event where athletes with a physical disability compete; this includes athletes with mobility disabilities, amputations, blindness, and cerebral palsy. There are Winter and Summer Paralympic Games, which are held immediately following their respective Olympic Games. All Paralympic Games are governed by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC).
The Paralympics have grown from a small gathering of British World War II veterans in 1948 to become one of the largest international sport events by the early 21st century. Paralympians strive for equal treatment with non-disabled Olympic athletes, but there is a large funding gap between Olympic and Paralympic athletes. There are also sports, such as track and field athletics, that are resistant to Paralympians who wish to compete equally with non-disabled athletes, though there have been Paralympians who have participated in the Olympic Games.[1]
The Paralympic Games include athletes with physical disabilities, and are run in parallel with the Olympic Games, while the IOC–recognized Special Olympics World Games include athletes with intellectual disabilities, and the Deaflympics include deaf athletes.[2][3]
The present formal explanation for the name "Paralympic" is that it derives from the Greek preposition παρά, pará ("beside" or "alongside") and thus refers to a competition held in parallel with the Olympic Games.[4] The Summer Games of 1988 held in Seoul was the first time the term "Paralympic" came into official use.
Given the wide variety of disabilities that Paralympic athletes have, there are several categories in which the athletes compete. The allowable disabilities are broken down into six broad categories. The categories are amputee, cerebral palsy, intellectual disability, wheelchair, visually impaired, and Les Autres (literally "The Others", which are athletes with disabilities that do not fall into the other five categories; these include dwarfism, multiple sclerosis, and congenital deformities). These categories are further broken down into classifications, which vary from sport to sport. The classification system has led to cheating controversies revolving around athletes who over-stated their disabilities, in addition to the use of performance-enhancing drugs seen in other events.
Athletes with disabilities did compete in the Olympic Games prior to the advent of the Paralympics. The first athlete to do so was American gymnast George Eyser in 1904, he had one artificial leg. Hungarian Karoly Takacs competed in shooting events in both the 1948 and 1952 Summer Olympics. He was a right-arm amputee and was able to shoot left-handed. Another disabled athlete to appear in the Olympics prior to the Paralympic Games was Liz Hartel, a Danish equestrian athlete who had contracted polio in 1943 and won a silver medal in the dressage event.[5] The first organized athletic event for disabled athletes that coincided with the Olympic Games took place on the day of the opening of the 1948 Summer Olympics in London, United Kingdom. Dr. Ludwig Guttmann of Stoke Mandeville Hospital[6] hosted a sports competition for British World War II veteran patients with spinal cord injuries. The first games were called the 1948 International Wheelchair Games, and were intended to coincide with the 1948 Olympics.[7] Dr. Guttman's aim was to create an elite sports competition for people with disabilities that would be equivalent to the Olympic Games.[7] The games were held again at the same location in 1952, and Dutch veterans took part alongside the British, making it the first international competition of its kind. These early competitions, also known as the Stoke Mandeville Games, have been described as the precursors of the Paralympic Games.[8]
There have been several milestones in the Paralympic movement. The first official Paralympic Games, no longer open solely to war veterans, was held in Rome in 1960.[9] 400 athletes from 23 countries competed at the 1960 Games. The Games were open only to athletes in wheelchairs.[7] At the 1976 Summer Games, athletes with different disabilities were included for the first time at a Summer Paralympics. With the inclusion of more disability classifications the 1976 Summer Games expanded to 1,600 athletes from 40 countries.[10] The 1988 Summer Paralympics in Seoul, South Korea, was another milestone for the Paralympic movement. It was in Seoul that the Paralympic Summer Games were held directly after the Olympic Summer Games, in the same host city, and using the same facilities. This set a precedent that was followed in 1992 and 1996. It was eventually formalized in an agreement between the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) and the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 2001.[10][11] The 1992 Winter Paralympics were the first Winter Games to use the same facilities as the Winter Olympics. Since 1960, the Paralympic Games have taken place in the same year as the Olympic Games.[10][12]
The first Winter Paralympic Games were held in 1976 in Örnsköldsvik, Sweden. This was the first Paralympics in which multiple categories of athletes with disabilities could compete.[10] The Winter Games were celebrated every four years on the same year as their summer counterpart, just as the Olympics were. This tradition was upheld until the 1992 Games in Albertville, France; after that, beginning with the 1994 Games, the Winter Paralympics and the Winter Olympics have been held in those even numbered years separate from the Summer Games.[10]
The Paralympic Games were designed to emphasize the participants' athletic achievements, not their disability.[4] The movement has grown dramatically since its early days – for example the number of athletes participating in the Summer Paralympic Games has increased from 400 athletes in Rome in 1960 to over 3,900 athletes from 146 countries in Beijing in 2008.[13] Both the Paralympic Summer and Winter Games are recognized on the world stage. The Paralympics is no longer held solely for British war veterans or just for athletes in wheelchairs, but for elite athletes with a wide variety of disabilities from all over the world.[14]
The first organization dedicated to advancement of athletic opportunities for people with a disability was the International Sports Organization for the Disabled (ISOD), founded in 1964. The founders of this organization intended it to be a governing body to disability sports what the IOC was to the Olympic Games.[15] This committee eventually became the International Coordinating Committee of World Sports Organizations for the Disabled (ICC), which was established in 1982. The ICC was tasked with advocating for the rights of athletes with a disability in front of the IOC.[16] After the success of the cooperative effort between the ICC and the IOC, which resulted in the 1988 Summer Paralympics in Seoul, the ICC determined the need to expand and include representatives from all nations that had disability sports programs. They also deemed it necessary to include athletes in the decisions of the Paralympic governing body. Consequently this body was reorganized as the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) in 1989.[10][16]
The IPC is the global governing body of the Paralympic Movement. It comprises 165 National Paralympic Committees (NPC) and four disability-specific international sports federations. The president of the IPC is Philip Craven, a former Paralympian from Great Britain. In his capacity as head of the IPC, Craven is also a member of the International Olympic Committee.[17] The IPC's international headquarters are in Bonn, Germany. The IPC is responsible for organizing the Summer and Winter Paralympic Games. It also serves as the International Federation for nine sports. This requires the IPC to supervise and coordinate the World Championships and other competitions for each of the nine sports it regulates.[4] Subsumed under the authority of the IPC are a large number of national and international sporting organizations and federations. The IPC also recognizes media partners, certifies officials, judges, and is responsible for enforcing the bylaws of the Paralympic Charter.[18]
The IPC has a cooperative relationship with the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Delegates of the IPC are also members of the IOC and participate on IOC committees and commissions. The two governing bodies remain distinct, with separate Games, despite the close working relationship.[19]
The source of the term "Paralympic" is unclear.[20][dead link] The name was originally coined as a portmanteau combining "paraplegic" and "Olympic".[4][not in citation given] The inclusion of other disability groups rendered this explanation inappropriate. The present formal explanation for the name is that it derives from the Greek preposition παρά, pará ("beside" or "alongside") and thus refers to a competition held in parallel with the Olympic Games.[21] The Summer Games of 1988 held in Seoul was the first time the term "Paralympic" came into official use.
“Spirit in Motion” is the motto for the Paralympic movement. The symbol for the Paralympics contains three colors, red, blue, and green, which are the colors most widely represented in the flags of nations. The colors are each in the shape of an Agito (which is Latin for "I move"). The three Agitos circle a central point, which is a symbol for the athletes congregating from all points of the globe.[22] The motto and symbol of the IPC were changed in 2003 to their current versions. The change was intended to convey the idea that Paralympians have a spirit of competition and that the IPC as an organization realizes its potential and is moving forward to achieve it. The vision of the IPC is, "To enable Paralympic athletes to achieve sporting excellence and to inspire and excite the world."[23] The Paralympic anthem is "Hymn de l'Avenir" or "Anthem of the Future". It was composed by Thierry Darnis and adopted as the official anthem in March 1996.[24]
As mandated by the Paralympic Charter, various elements frame the opening ceremony of the Paralympic Games. Most of these rituals were established at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp.[25] The ceremony typically starts with the hoisting of the host country's flag and a performance of its national anthem. The host nation then presents artistic displays of music, singing, dance, and theater representative of its culture.
After the artistic portion of the ceremony, the athletes parade into the stadium grouped by nation. Nations enter the stadium alphabetically according to the host country's chosen language, with the host country's athletes being the last to enter. Speeches are given, formally opening the games. Finally, the Paralympic torch is brought into the stadium and passed on until it reaches the final torch carrier—often a Paralympic athlete from the host nation—who lights the Paralympic flame in the stadium's cauldron.[26]
The closing ceremony of the Paralympic Games takes place after all sporting events have concluded. Flag-bearers from each participating country enter, followed by the athletes who enter together, without any national distinction. The Paralympic flag is taken down. The national flag of the country hosting the next Summer or Winter Paralympic Games is hoisted while the corresponding national anthem is played. The games are officially closed, and the Paralympic flame is extinguished.[27] After these compulsory elements, the next host nation briefly introduces itself with artistic displays of dance and theater representative of its culture.
A medal ceremony is held after each Paralympic event is concluded. The winner, second and third-place competitors or teams stand on top of a three-tiered rostrum to be awarded their respective medals. After the medals are given out by an IPC member, the national flags of the three medalists are raised while the national anthem of the gold medalist's country plays.[28] Volunteering citizens of the host country also act as hosts during the medal ceremonies, as they aid the officials who present the medals and act as flag-bearers.[29] For every Paralympic event, the respective medal ceremony is held, at most, one day after the event's final.
In 2001 the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) signed an agreement which guaranteed that host cities would be contracted to manage both the Olympic and Paralympic Games. This agreement will remain in effect until the 2012 Summer Olympics.[10] The agreement will be extended to the 2014 Winter Olympics and 2016 Summer Olympics.[30]
The IOC has written its commitment to equal access to athletics for all people into its charter, which states,[31]
| “ |
The practice of sport is a human right. Every individual must have the possibility of practising sport, without discrimination of any kind and in the Olympic spirit, which requires mutual understanding with a spirit of friendship, solidarity and fair play....Any form of discrimination with regard to a country or a person on grounds of race, religion, politics, gender or otherwise is incompatible with belonging to the Olympic Movement. |
” |
While the charter is silent on discrimination specifically related to disability; given the language in the charter regarding discrimination it is reasonable to infer that discrimination on the basis of disability would be against the ideals of the Olympic Charter and the IOC.[32] This is also consistent with the Paralympic Charter, which forbids discrimination on the basis of political, religious, economic, disability, gender, sexual orientation or racial reasons.[33]
Chairman of the London organising committee, Lord Coe, said about the 2012 Summer Paralympics and 2012 Summer Olympics in London, England, that
| “ |
We want to change public attitudes towards disability, celebrate the excellence of Paralympic sport and to enshrine from the very outset that the two games are an integrated whole. |
” |
[34]
Paralympic athletes have sought equal opportunities to compete at the Olympic Games. The precedent was set by Neroli Fairhall, a Paralympic archer from New Zealand, who competed at the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles.[1] In 2008 Oscar Pistorius, a South African sprinter, attempted to qualify for the 2008 Summer Olympics. Pistorius had both his legs amputated below the knee and races with two carbon fiber blades. He holds Paralympic records in the 100, 200, and 400 meter events. In 2007 he competed in his first international non-disabled track meet, after which the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF), Track and Field's governing body, banned the use of any technical device that employs "...springs, wheels or any other element that provides a user with an advantage over another athlete not using such a device." The concern amongst athletes and the IAAF was that Pistorius' blades gave him an unfair advantage. The IAAF then ruled that Pistorius was ineligible for the 2008 Summer Games.[35] This ruling was overturned by the Court of Arbitration for Sport who contended that the IAAF had not provided sufficient scientific evidence that Pistorius' prostheses gave him undue advantages. Consequently, if he could achieve an Olympic-qualifying time, he would be allowed to compete.[36] His best opportunity to qualify was in the 400 meter race. Pistorius missed the Olympic-qualifying time at this distance by .70 seconds. He did compete in the 2008 Summer Paralympics where he won gold medals in the 100, 200, and 400 meter sprints.[37]
Athletes without a disability also compete at the Paralympics: The sighted guides for athletes with a visual impairment, are such a close and essential part of the competition, that the athlete with visual impairment and the guide are considered a team, and both athletes are medal candidates.[38]
There has been criticism for not providing equal funding to Paralympic athletes as compared to Olympic athletes. An example of this criticism was a lawsuit filed by Paralympic athletes Tony Iniguez, Scot Hollonbeck and Jacob Heilveil of the United States, in 2003.[39] They alleged that the United States Olympic Committee (USOC), which also include the USOC Paralympic Division (the National Paralympic Committee), was underfunding American Paralympic athletes. Iniguez cited the fact that the USOC made healthcare benefits available to a smaller percentage of Paralympians, the USOC provided smaller quarterly training stipends and paid smaller financial awards for medals won at a Paralympics. US Paralympians saw this as a disadvantage for the US Paralympic athletes, as nations such as Canada and Britain supported Paralympians and Olympians virtually equally. The USOC did not deny the discrepancy in funding and contended that this was due to the fact that it did not receive any government financial support. As a result it had to rely on revenue generated by the media exposure of its athletes. Olympic athletic success resulted in greater exposure for the USOC than Paralympic athletic achievements. The case was heard by lower courts, who ruled that the USOC has the right to allocate its finances to athletes at different rates. The case was appealed to the Supreme Court,[40] where on September 6, 2008 it announced that it would not hear the appeal. However, during the time the lawsuit lasted (from 2003 to 2008), the funding from the USOC had nearly tripled. In 2008 $11.4 million was earmarked for Paralympic athletes, up from $3 million in 2004.[39]
While the Olympic Games have experienced tremendous growth in global media coverage since the 1984 Summer Olympics, the Paralympics have been unable to maintain a consistent international media presence.
Television broadcasts of Paralympic Games began in 1976, but this early coverage was confined to taped-delay releases to one nation or region. At the 1992 Summer Paralympics there was 45 hours of live coverage but it was available only in Europe. Other countries broadcasted highlight packages during the Games. No meaningful improvements in coverage occurred until the 2000 Summer Paralympics in Sydney.[41]
The 2000 Paralympics represented a significant increase in global media exposure for the Paralympic Games. A deal was reached between the Sydney Paralympic Organizing Committee (SPOC) and All Media Sports (AMS) to broadcast the Games internationally. Deals were reached with Asian, South American, and European broadcast companies to distribute coverage to as many markets as possible. The Games were also webcast for the first time. Because of these efforts the Sydney Paralympics reached a global audience estimated at 300 million people.[42] Also significant was the fact that the organizers did not have to pay networks to televise the Games as had been done at the 1992 and 1996 Games.[43] Despite these advances consistent media attention has been a challenge, which was evidenced in the coverage in Great Britain of the 2010 Winter Paralympics.
The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) was criticized for its minimal coverage of the 2010 Winter Paralympics as compared to its coverage of the 2010 Winter Olympics. The BBC announced it would stream some content on its website and show a one-hour highlight program after the Games ended. For the Winter Olympics the BBC aired 160 hours of coverage. The response from the BBC was that budget constraints and the "time zone factor" necessitated a limited broadcast schedule.[44] The reduction in coverage was done in spite of increased ratings for the 2008 Summer Paralympics, which was watched by 23% of the population of Great Britain.[44] In Norway, the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation (NRK) broadcast 30 hours of the 2010 Winter Games live. NRK-sport were critical to parts of the TV production from Vancouver, an issue they notified to the EBU. Issues such as showing biathlon without showing the shooting, and in cross-country skiing with skiers in the distance, making it hard to follow the progress of the competition. NRK were far more pleased with the production of the ice sledge hockey and wheelchair curling events, which they felt reached the same level as the Olympic Games.[45]
A 2010 study by the University of British Columbia (UBC) on the Olympic Games Impact (OGI), showed that of roughly 1,600 Canadian respondents, 41–50 percent believed the 2010 Paralympic and Olympic Games in Vancouver, Canada triggered additional accessibility of buildings, sidewalks and public spaces. 23 percent of employers, said the Games had increased their willingness to hire people with disabilities. [46]
Chief Executive Officer for the International Paralympic Committee, Xavier Gonzalez, said about the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing, China, that [47]
| “ |
In China, the (Paralympic) Games were really a transformation tool for changing attitudes across the board in China towards people with disability, to building accessibility facilities in the city, to changing laws to allow people with a disability to be part of society. |
” |
The International Paralympic Committee (IPC) has established six disability categories. Within the six disability categories, athletes are divided according to their level of impairment, in a functional classification system which differ from sport to sport.
The IPC has established six disability categories. Athletes with one of these physical disabilities are able to compete in the Paralympics though not every sport can allow for every disability category. These categories apply to both Summer and Winter Paralympics.[48]
- Amputee: Athletes with a partial or total loss of at least one limb.
- Cerebral Palsy: Athletes with non-progressive brain damage, for example cerebral palsy, traumatic brain injury, stroke or similar disabilities affecting muscle control, balance or coordination.
- Intellectual Disability: Athletes with a significant impairment in intellectual functioning and associated limitations in adaptive behavior. The IPC primarily serves athletes with physical disabilities, but the disability group Intellectual Disability has been added to some Paralympic Games. This includes only elite athletes with intellectual disabilities, where few qualify. However, the IOC recognized Special Olympics World Games are open to all people with intellectual disabilities.[3]
- Wheelchair: Athletes with spinal cord injuries and other disabilities that require them to compete in a wheelchair.
- Visually Impaired: Athletes with visual impairment ranging from partial vision, sufficient to be judged legally blind, to total blindness. The sighted guides for athletes with a visual impairment are such a close and essential part of the competition that the athlete with visual impairment and the guide are considered a team, and both athletes are medal candidates.[38]
- Les Autres: Athletes with a physical disability that does not fall strictly under one of the other five categories, such as dwarfism, multiple sclerosis or congenital deformities of the limbs such as that caused by thalidomide (the name for this category is the French for "the others").[48]
Within the six disability categories the athletes still need to be divided according to their level of impairment. The classification systems differ from sport to sport, and are intended to open up sports to as many athletes as possible, who can participate in fair competitions against athletes with similar levels of ability. The biggest challenge in the classification system is how to account for the wide variety and severity of disabilities. Consequently within most classifications there is a range of impairment.[49]
From its inception until the 1980s the Paralympic system for classifying athletes consisted of a medical evaluation and diagnosis of impairment. An athlete's medical condition was the only factor used to determine what class they competed in. For example an athlete who had a spinal cord injury that resulted in lower limb paresis, would not compete in the same wheelchair race as an athlete with a double above-knee amputation. The fact that their disability caused the same impairment did not factor into classification determination, the only consideration was their medical diagnosis. It was not until views on disabled athletics shifted from just a form of rehabilitation to an end in itself, that the classification system changed from medical diagnosis to a focus on the functional abilities of the athlete.[50]
While there is no clear date when the shift occurred, a functional classification system became the norm for disabled athletic classification in the 1980s. In a functional system the focus is on what impact the athlete's impairment has on their athletic performance. Under this system athletes with total loss of function in their legs will compete together in most sports, because their function loss is the same and the reason for the loss is immaterial. The only exception to the functional system is the classification format used by International Blind Sport Federation (IBSF0), which still uses a medically based system.[50]
Some sports are only held for certain disability types. For example, goalball is only for visually impaired athletes. The Paralympics recognizes three different grades of visual impairment, consequently all competitors in goalball must wear a visor or "black out mask" so that athletes with less visual impairment will not have an advantage.[51] Other sports, like athletics, are open to athletes with a wide variety of impairments. In athletics participants are broken down into a range of classes based on the disability they have and then they are placed in a classification within that range based on their level of impairment. For example: classes 11–13 are for visually impaired athletes, which class they are in depends on their level of visual impairment.[52] Finally there are team competitions such as wheelchair rugby. In team competitions the members of the team are each given a point value based on their level of impairment. The higher the value the higher the athlete's level of function. The team has a point cap that all the competitors in play at a given time must fit under. For example: in wheelchair rugby the five players' combined disability number must total no more than eight points.[53]
There are twenty paralympic sports on the Summer Paralympic program and there are five paralympic sports on the Winter Paralympics program. Within some of the sports are several events. For example, alpine skiing has a slalom and giant slalom. The IPC has governance over several of the sports but not all of them. Other international organizations, known as International Sports Federations (IF), notably the International Wheelchair and Amputee Sports Federation (IWAS), the International Blind Sports Federation (IBSA), and the Cerebral Palsy International Sports and Recreation Association (CP-ISRA), govern some sports that are specific to certain disability groups.[54] There are national chapters for these International Sport Federations including National Paralympic Committees, which are responsible for recruitment of athletes and governance of sports at the national level.[55]
The Paralympic Games have been damaged by cheating scandals. After the 2000 Sydney Games, a Spanish basketball player alleged that several members of the gold-medal winning Spanish basketball intellectually disabled (ID) team were not disabled. He claimed that only two athletes out of the twelve-member team met the qualifications of an intellectually disabled athlete.[56] A controversy ensued and the IPC called on the Spanish National Paralympic Committee to launch an investigation.[57] The investigation uncovered several Spanish athletes who had flouted the ID rules. In an interview with the president of the federation that oversees ID competition, Fernando Martin Vicente admitted that athletes around the world were breaking the ID eligibility rules. The IPC responded by starting an investigation of its own.[56] The results of the IPC's investigation confirmed the Spanish athlete's allegations and also determined that the incident was not isolated to the basketball ID event or to Spanish athletes.[56] As a result all ID competitions were suspended indefinitely.[58] The ban was lifted after the 2008 Games after work had been done to tighten the criteria and controls governing admission of athletes with intellectual disabilities. Four sports, swimming, athletics, table tennis and rowing, are anticipated to hold competitions for ID athletes at the 2012 Summer Paralympics.[59][60]
The Paralympics have also been tainted by steroid use. At the 2008 Games in Beijing, three powerlifters and a German basketball player were banned after having tested positive for banned substances.[59] This was a decrease in comparison to the ten powerlifters and one track athlete who were banned from the 2000 Games.[61] German skier Thomas Oelsner became the first Winter Paralympian to test positive for steroids. He had won two gold medals at the 2002 Winter Paralympics, but his medals were stripped after his positive drug test.[62] At the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, Swedish curler Glenn Ikonen tested positive for a banned substance and was suspended for six months[63] by the IPC. He was removed from the rest of the curling competition but his team was allowed to continue. The 54-year-old curler said his doctor had prescribed a medication on the banned substances list.[64][65]
Another concern now facing Paralympic officials is the technique of boosting blood pressure, known as autonomic dysreflexia. The increase in blood pressure has been shown to improve performance by 15%. This is most effective in the endurance sports such as cross-country skiing. To increase blood pressure athletes will deliberately cause trauma to limbs below a spinal injury. This trauma can include breaking bones, strapping extremities in too tightly, and using high-pressured compression stockings. The injury is painless but it does have an impact on the athlete's blood pressure.[66]
Another potential concern is the use of gene therapy among Paralympic athletes. All Paralympic athletes are banned from enhancing their abilities through gene doping, but it is extremely difficult to differentiate these concepts.[67] The World Anti-Doping Agency is currently researching both gene doping and gene therapy, in part to discern the boundary between the two closely related concepts.[68]
The IPC have been working with the World Anti-Doping Agency since 2003, to ensure compliance with WADA's anti-doping code among its Paralympic athletes.[69] The IPC has also promised to continue increasing the number of athletes tested at each of its Games, in order to further minimize the possible impact of doping in Paralympic sports.[69] Mandatory in- and out-of competition testing has also been implemented by the IPC to further ensure all of its athletes are performing in compliance with WADA regulations.[69]
Trischa Zorn of the United States is the most decorated Paralympian in history. She competed in the blind swimming events and won a total of 55 medals, 41 of which are gold. Her Paralympic career spanned 24 years from 1980 to 2004. She was also an alternate on the 1980 American Olympic swim team, but did not go to the Olympics due to a boycott by the United States and several of its allies.[70][71] Ragnhild Myklebust of Norway holds the record for the most medals ever won at the Winter Paralympic Games. Competing in a variety of events in 1988, 1992, 1994 and 2002, she won a total of 22 medals, of which 17 were gold. After winning five gold medals at the 2002 Games she retired at the age of 58.[72] Neroli Fairhall, a paraplegic archer from New Zealand, was the first paraplegic competitor, and the first Paralympian, to participate in the Olympic Games, when she competed in the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. She placed thirty-fourth in the Olympic archery competition, and won a Paralympic gold medal in the same event.[1]
Paralympic Games host cities[73]
| Year |
Summer Paralympic Games |
Winter Paralympic Games |
| Olympiad |
Host city |
No. |
Host city |
| 1960 |
I Summer Paralympics |
 Rome, Italy |
|
|
| 1964 |
II Summer Paralympics |
 Tokyo, Japan |
|
|
| 1968 |
III Summer Paralympics |
 Tel Aviv, Israel |
|
|
| 1972 |
IV Summer Paralympics |
 Heidelberg, West Germany |
|
|
| 1976 |
V Summer Paralympics |
 Toronto, Canada |
I Winter Paralympics |
 Örnsköldsvik, Sweden |
| 1980 |
VI Summer Paralympics |
 Arnhem, Netherlands |
II Winter Paralympics |
 Geilo, Norway |
| 1984 |
VII Summer Paralympics |
 Stoke Mandeville, United Kingdom
 New York, United States |
III Winter Paralympics |
 Innsbruck, Austria |
| 1988 |
VIII Summer Paralympics |
 Seoul, South Korea |
IV Winter Paralympics |
Innsbruck, Austria |
| 1992 |
IX Summer Paralympics |
 Barcelona, Spain |
V Winter Paralympics |
 Tignes & Albertville, France |
| 1994 |
|
|
VI Winter Paralympics |
Lillehammer, Norway |
| 1996 |
X Summer Paralympics |
Atlanta, United States |
|
|
| 1998 |
|
|
VII Winter Paralympics |
Nagano, Japan |
| 2000 |
XI Summer Paralympics |
 Sydney, Australia |
|
|
| 2002 |
|
|
VIII Winter Paralympics |
Salt Lake City, United States |
| 2004 |
XII Summer Paralympics |
 Athens, Greece |
|
|
| 2006 |
|
|
IX Winter Paralympics |
Turin, Italy |
| 2008 |
XIII Summer Paralympics |
 Beijing, China |
|
|
| 2010 |
|
|
X Winter Paralympics |
Vancouver, Canada |
| 2012 |
XIV Summer Paralympics |
London, United Kingdom |
|
|
| 2014 |
|
|
XI Winter Paralympics |
 Sochi, Russia |
| 2016 |
XV Summer Paralympics |
 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil |
|
|
| 2018 |
|
|
XII Winter Paralympics |
Pyeongchang, South Korea |
| 2020 |
XVI Summer Paralympics |
To be determined |
|
|
- ^ a b c "Neroli Fairhall, Champion Archer, Dies at 61". The New York Times (NYTimes.com). 2006-06-13. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/13/sports/13fairhall.html. Retrieved 2010-04-07.
- ^ The World Games for the Deaf and the Paralympic Games, International Committee of Sports for the Deaf (CISS), December, 1996
- ^ a b Special Olympics and the Olympic Movement, Official website of the Special Olympics, 2006
- ^ a b c d "About the IPC". International Paralympic Committee. http://www.paralympic.org/IPC/. Retrieved 2010-04-06.
- ^ DePauw and Gavron (2005), p. 38
- ^ Paralympics History[dead link] By Susana Correia in Accessible Portugal Online Magazine
- ^ a b c "History of the Paralympic Movement". Canadian Paralympic Committee. http://www.paralympiceducation.ca/Content/History/11%20History%20of%20the%20Paralympics.asp?langid=1. Retrieved 2010-04-07.
- ^ DePauw and Gavron (2005), pp.38–39
- ^ "Paralympics traces roots to Second World War". Canadian Broadcasting Centre. 2008-09-05. http://www.cbc.ca/olympics/story/2008/09/02/f-paralympics-history.html. Retrieved 2010-04-14.
- ^ a b c d e f g "History of the Paralympic Games". Government of Canada. http://www.canada2010.gc.ca/101/histor/010203-eng.cfm. Retrieved 2010-04-07.
- ^ DePauw and Gavron (2005) p. 92
- ^ Galligan (2000), pp. 89–90
- ^ "Paralympic Games". International Paralympic Committee. http://www.paralympic.org/Paralympic_Games/. Retrieved 2010-04-07.
- ^ Rosner, David (2000-10-18). "Paralympics history". Sports Illustrated (CNNSI.com). http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/paralympics/news/2000/10/18/paralympic_history/. Retrieved 2010-04-06.
- ^ DePauw and Gavron (2005), p. 39
- ^ a b Howe (2008), p. 43
- ^ "Sir Philip Craven". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/en/content/The-IOC/Members/Sir-Philip-CRAVEN-MBE/. Retrieved 2010-04-14.
- ^ "IPC Handbook". International Paralympic Committee. Archived from the original on 2010-04-21. http://web.archive.org/web/20100421005428/http://www.paralympic.org/IPC/IPC_Handbook/. Retrieved 2010-04-29.
- ^ Gilbert and Schantz (2008) p. 170
- ^ http://www.paralympic.org/export/sites/default/Media_Centre/Media_Information/2008_07_History_and_Use_of_Term_Paralympic.pdf
- ^ "History of the Movement". International Paralympic Committee. http://www.paralympic.org/TheIPC/HWA/HistoryoftheMovement. Retrieved 2012-05-04.
- ^ "Paralympic Symbol & Motto". International Paralympic Committee. http://www.paralympic.org/IPC/Paralympic_Symbol_Motto.html. Retrieved 2010-04-07. [dead link]
- ^ Howe (2008), p. 59
- ^ "IPC Intellectual Property Rights" (PDF). International Paralympic Committee. http://www.paralympic.org/export/sites/default/IPC/IPC_Handbook/Section_1/2010_03_10_Intellectual_Property_Bylaws_GB_Approved.pdf. Retrieved 2010-05-03.
- ^ "The Modern Olympic Games" (PDF). International Olympic Committee. p. 5. http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_668.pdf. Retrieved 2008-08-29.
- ^ "Paralympic opening ceremony to be 'family friendly'". The Vancouver Sun. Canwest News Service. 2010-03-12. Archived from the original on 2010-03-17. http://web.archive.org/web/20100317140459/http://www.vancouversun.com/health/Paralympic+opening+ceremony+family+friendly/2676023/story.html. Retrieved 2010-05-03.
- ^ IPC Handbook June 2009 Bylaws Governance and Organizational and Organizational Structure (Google Quick View), International Paralympic Committee (IPC)
- ^ Victory Ceremony podiums at 2010 Winter Games a testament to the mountains athletes have climbed en route to Olympic and Paralympic success, The Official website of the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games
- ^ Ceremonies Volunteers "Ceremony volunteers". Vancouver Organizing Committee for the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games. http://www.vancouver2010.com/more-2010-information/work-and-volunteer/volunteer-opportunities/ceremonies-volunteers/ Ceremonies Volunteers. Retrieved 2010-05-04.
- ^ IPC-IOC Co-operation "IPC-IOC Cooperation". International Paralympic Committee. http://www.paralympic.org/IPC/IPC-IOC_Co-operation.html IPC-IOC Co-operation. Retrieved 2010-05-03. [dead link]
- ^ "The Olympic Charter" (PDF). International Olympic Committee. 2010. p. 11. http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Olympic%20Charter/Charter_en_2010.pdf. Retrieved 2010-04-29.
- ^ Gilbert and Schantz (2008) p. 169
- ^ "Paralympic Vision and Mission" (PDF). International Paralympic Committee. 2003. http://www.paralympic.org/export/sites/default/IPC/IPC_Handbook/Section_1/Sec_i_chapter_1.1_Paralympic_Vision_and_Mission.pdf. Retrieved 2010-04-29.
- ^ Gibson, Owen (2010-05-04). "Sainsbury's announces sponsorship of 2012 Paralympics". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2010/may/04/sainsburys-sponsors-paralympic-games.
- ^ Phillips, Michael (2008-04-28). "Pistorius to begin appeal to CAS". The Guardian (London: Guardian.co.uk). http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2008/apr/28/athletics. Retrieved 2010-04-08.
- ^ "Pistorius is eligible for IAAF competition". International Association of Athletics Federations. 2008-05-16. http://www.iaaf.org/aboutiaaf/news/newsid=44917.html. Retrieved 2010-04-08.
- ^ Longman, Jere (2007-05-15). "An Amputee Sprinter: Is He Disabled to Too-Abled". The New York Times (NYTimes.com). http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/15/sports/othersports/15runner.html. Retrieved 2010-04-08.
- ^ a b Visually impaired skiers put fate in guide's hands, thestar.com, March 13, 2010
- ^ a b Court Lets Ruling Stand in U.S.O.C. Case, New York Times, October 6, 2008
- ^ Schwarz, Alan (2008-09-05). "Paralympic Athletes Add Equality to Their Goals". The New York Times (NYTimes.com). http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/06/sports/othersports/06paralympics.html. Retrieved 2010-04-08.
- ^ Cashman and Darcy (2008), p. 40
- ^ Cashman and Darcy (2008), pp. 100–101
- ^ Goggin and Newell (2003), p. 91
- ^ a b Sweney, Mark (2010-03-12). "BBC criticised for scant coverage of Winter Paralympics". The Guardian (London: Guardian News and Media Limited). http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2010/mar/12/bbc-criticised-coverage-winter-paralympics. Retrieved 2010-04-30.
- ^ Oppgitt over elendig Paralympics-produksjon (Norwegian), Harstad Tidende, March 25, 2010
- ^ Paralympics a force for change, University of British Columbia, March 4, 2010
- ^ 2010 Paralympics about changing minds, not capturing hearts, CablePulse 24, March 12, 2010
- ^ a b "Making sense of the categories". BBC Sport. 2000-10-06. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympics2000/paralympics/959701.stm. Retrieved 2010-04-07.
- ^ "Athlete Classification". Australian Paralympic Committee. Archived from the original on 2010-02-17. http://web.archive.org/web/20100217162608/http://www.paralympic.org.au/Sport/Classification/AthleteClassification.aspx. Retrieved 2010-04-14.
- ^ a b "The history of classification" (PDF). International Paralympic Committee. http://www.paralympic.org/export/sites/default/Sport/Classification/2010_04_22_x1x_History.pdf. Retrieved 2010-04-30.
- ^ "Goalball". International Paralympic Committee. http://www.paralympic.org/Sport/IOSD_Sports/Goalball/index.html. Retrieved 2010-04-08. [dead link]
- ^ "Athletics". Australian Paralympic Committee. Archived from the original on 2010-01-18. http://web.archive.org/web/20100118115126/http://www.paralympic.org.au/Sport/SportProfiles/Athletics.aspx. Retrieved 2010-04-07.
- ^ "Wheelchair Rugby". International Paralympic Committee. http://www.paralympic.org/Sport/IF_Sports/Wheelchair_Rugby/index.html. Retrieved 2010-04-08. [dead link]
- ^ "Organization". International Paralympic Committee. Archived from the original on 2010-04-21. http://web.archive.org/web/20100421005622/http://www.paralympic.org/IPC/Organization/. Retrieved 2010-04-14.
- ^ "Sport". International Paralympic Committee. Archived from the original on 2010-03-05. http://web.archive.org/web/20100305234248/http://www.paralympic.org/Sport/. Retrieved 2010-04-14.
- ^ a b c Slot, Owen (2001-02-03). "Cheating shame of Paralympics". The Daily Telegraph (London: Telegraph Media Group). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/2998162/Cheating-shame-of-Paralympics.html. Retrieved 2010-04-07.
- ^ "IPC Calls For Full Investigation". International Paralympic Committee. 2000-11-27. Archived from the original on 2006-01-18. http://web.archive.org/web/20060118062536/http://www.paralympic.org/release/Main_Sections_Menu/Media/Press_Releases/2000_11_27_a.html. Retrieved 2010-04-07.
- ^ "IPC Suspends INAS-FID from Membership". International Paralympic Committee. 2001-03-09. Archived from the original on 2004-12-24. http://web.archive.org/web/20041224162629/http://www.paralympic.org/release/Main_Sections_Menu/Media/Press_Releases/2001_03_09_a.html. Retrieved 2010-04-07.
- ^ a b Grey-Thompson, Tanni (2008-09-11). "Cheating does happen in the Paralympics". The Daily Telegraph (London: Telegraph Media Group). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/paralympicsport/2798515/Cheating-does-happens-in-the-Paralympics-Paralympics.html. Retrieved 2010-04-07.
- ^ Van de Vliet, Peter (2009-12-15). "Re-Inclusion of Athletes with Intellectual Impairment in Paralympic Sports" (PDF). International Paralympic Committee. http://www.paralympic.org/export/sites/default/Sport/Classification/2009_12_15_Memo_IPC_Membership_ID_Athlete_Reinclusion_FINAL.pdf. Retrieved 2010-04-07.
- ^ "Paralympians can do the same thing as Olympic athletes-including cheating". Sports Illustrated (CNNSI.com). 2002-03-06. http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/more/news/2002/03/06/paralympics_cheating_ap/. Retrieved 2010-04-07.
- ^ Maffly, Bryan (2002-03-13). "Skier Fails Drug Test". Salt Lake 2002 Paralympics. http://saltlake2002.paralympic.org/. Retrieved 2010-04-07.
- ^ Anti-Doping Rule Violation of Swedish Wheelchair Curler, International Paralympic Committee (IPC), May 4, 2010
- ^ Davies, Gareth (2010-03-21). "Winter Paralympics 2010: Wheelchair curler's positive drug test mars closing ceremony". The Telegraph (London: Telegraph Media Group Limited). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/othersports/paralympicsport/7494715/Winter-Paralympics-2010-Wheelchair-curlers-positive-drug-test-mars-closing-ceremony.html. Retrieved 2010-05-03.
- ^ Little, Lyndon (25010-03-19). "Swedish wheelchair curler suspended for use of an illegal drug". The Vancouver Sun. Canwest Publishing Inc.. Archived from the original on 2010-04-24. http://web.archive.org/web/20100424033136/http://www.vancouversun.com/sports/2010wintergames/Swedish+wheelchair+curler+suspended+illegal+drug/2703907/story.html. Retrieved 2010-05-03.
- ^ France-Presse, Agence (2010-03-18). "Cheating probed at paralympic games". The Ottawa Citizen (Canwest Publishing Inc.). http://www.ottawacitizen.com/sports/2010wintergames/paralympics/cross-country-skiing/Cheating+Probed+Paralympic+Games/2697572/story.html. Retrieved 2010-04-14. [dead link]
- ^ Wolbring, G. (2008). Oscar Pistorius and the future nature of Olympic, Paralympic and other sports. SCRIPT-ed, 5(1). doi: 10.2966/scrip.050108.139.
- ^ World Anti Doping Agency. (October 2009). Gene Doping. In World Anti-Doping Agency. Retrieved April 11, 2012, from http://www.wada-ama.org/en/Science-Medicine/Science-topics/Gene-Doping/.
- ^ a b c World Anti-Doping Agency (2008). Beijing 2008. Play True. Retrieved April 13, 2012. From http://www.wada-ama.org/Documents/Resources/Publications/PlayTrue_Magazine/PlayTrue_2008_3_Levelling_the_Playing_Field_EN.pdf
- ^ "Trischa Zorn-Hudson" (PDF). USA Swimming. http://www.usaswimming.org/usasweb/_Rainbow/Documents/f68946b7-d4fc-49b2-a96b-1b0dd3b56f93/Trischa%20Zorn-Hudson%20Resume%202009.pdf. Retrieved 2010-04-08. [dead link]
- ^ "Trischa Zorn". CNN (CNN.com). http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/paralympics/news/2000/09/15/zorn_bios/. Retrieved 2010-04-08.
- ^ "2002 Winter Paralympics". Disabled Sports USA. http://www.dsusa.org/ChallMagarchive/challmag-spring02-winterparalympics.html. Retrieved 2010-04-97.
- ^ "Past Games". International Paralympic Committee. http://www.paralympic.org/Paralympic_Games/Past_Games/. Retrieved 2010-04-07.
- Cashman, Richard; Darcy, Simon (2008). Benchmark Games: The Sydney 2000 Paralympic Games. Petersham, Australia: Walla Walla Press. ISBN 978-1-876718-05-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=IOOEKhrn1IAC&pg=PA36&dq=paralympics+history&ei=oufZS4y2AZOOkATKl9i5CA&cd=8#v=onepage&q=paralympics%20history&f=false. Retrieved 2010-04-29.
- DePauw, Karen P.; Gavron, Susan J. (2005). Disability Sport. Champaign, United States: Human Kinetics. ISBN 0-7360-4638-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=BPsqAoFtG-sC&pg=PA92&dq=paralympics+history&ei=oufZS4y2AZOOkATKl9i5CA&cd=5#v=onepage&q=paralympics%20history&f=false. Retrieved 2010-04-29.
- Galligan, Frank (2000). Advanced PE for Edexcel. Oxford, United Kingdom: Heinemann Educational Publishers. ISBN 0-435-50643-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=XFP_1Z1gKK8C&pg=PT96&dq=paralympics+history&ei=oufZS4y2AZOOkATKl9i5CA&cd=6#v=onepage&q=paralympics%20history&f=false. Retrieved 2010-04-29.
- Gilbert, Keith; Schantz, Otto J. (2008). The Paralympic Games: Empowerment or Side Show?. New York, United States: Meyer and Meyer Ltd.. ISBN 978-1-84126-265-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=JnP_ZJUUdPwC&pg=PA140&dq=paralympics+history&ei=oufZS4y2AZOOkATKl9i5CA&cd=2#v=onepage&q=paralympics%20history&f=false. Retrieved 2010-04-29.
- Goggin, Gerard; Newell, Christopher (2003). Digital disability: the social construction of disability in new media. Oxford, United Kingdom: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 0-7425-1844-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=808HMxDE2pYC&pg=PA91&dq=paralympics+ceremonies&ei=xAnfS5-iNYf4M4_s5dgE&cd=6#v=onepage&q=paralympics%20ceremonies&f=false. Retrieved 2010-05-03.
- Howe, P. David (2008). The cultural politics of the paralympic movement. New York, United States: Routledge. ISBN 020350609. http://books.google.com/books?id=4smWnHHJ1OEC&pg=PA59&dq=paralympic+symbols&ei=BgfaS6HmJI7ikwSet43GCA&cd=3#v=onepage&q=paralympic%20symbols&f=false. Retrieved 2010-04-29.
- Peterson, Cynthia and Robert D. Steadward. Paralympics : Where Heroes Come, 1998, One Shot Holdings, ISBN 0-9682092-0-3.
- Thomas and Smith, Disability, Sport and Society, Routledge, 2008, ISBN 978-0-415-37819-2.
|
Nations that have competed at the Paralympic Games
|
|
| Africa |
|
|
| Americas |
|
|
| Asia |
|
|
| Europe |
|
|
| Oceania |
|
|
| See also |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Global
|
|
|
|
|
| Associations |
|
|
| Communities |
|
|
| Disabled sport |
|
|
| Professions |
|
|
Youth and
students |
|
|
| Other sport |
|
|
| Olympic alternatives1 |
|
|
|
|
Regional
|
|
| Africa |
|
|
| Americas |
|
|
| Asia |
|
|
| Europe |
|
|
| Oceania |
|
|
| Inter-continental |
|
|
|
|
National
|
|
| Asia |
|
|
| Americas |
|
|
| Europe |
|
|
| Oceania |
|
|
National Congress
of State Games2 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
.svg){kind=logo}
