Dionysus

Tuesday, 25 December 2012

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Achaea
Achaea (Greek: Αχαΐα Achaïa, [axaˈia]) is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the region of West Greece. It is situated in the northwestern part of the Peloponnese peninsula. The capital is Patras. The population exceeds 300,000 since 2001.
Achaea borders on Elis to the southwest, Arcadia to the south and Corinthia to the southeast. The Gulf of Corinth lies to its northeast, and the Gulf of Patras to its northwest. The mountain Panachaiko (1926m), though not the highest of Achaea, dominates the coastal area near Patras. Higher mountains are found in the south, notably Aroania (2341m) and Erymanthos (2224m). Other mountain ranges in Achaea are Omplos and Movri. Its main rivers ordered from west to east are the Larissos, Tytheus, Peiros, Charadros, Selinountas and Vouraikos. Most of the forests are in the mountain ranges, though several are in the plains including the extreme west. There are grasslands around the mid-elevation areas and barren lands in the highest areas.
Achaea has hot summers and mild winters. Sunny days dominate during the summer months in areas near the coast, while the summer can be cloudy and rainy in the mountains. Snow is very common during the winter in the mountains of Erymanthos, Panachaiko and Aroania. Winter high temperatures are around the 10°C mark throughout the low lying areas.

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Apulia
Coordinates: 41°0′31″N 16°30′46″E / 41.00861°N 16.51278°E / 41.00861; 16.51278
Apulia is a region in Southern Italy bordering the Adriatic Sea in the east, the Ionian Sea to the southeast, and the Strait of Òtranto and Gulf of Taranto in the south. Its most southern portion, known as Salento peninsula, forms a high heel on the "boot" of Italy. The region comprises 19,345 square kilometers (7,469 sq mi), and its population is about 4.1 million. It is bordered by the other Italian regions of Molise to the north, Campania to the west, and Basilicata to the southwest. It neighbors Greece and Albania, across the Ionian and Adriatic Seas, respectively. The region extends as far north as Monte Gargano, and was the scene of the last stages in the Second Punic War.
Situated at the south-eastern tip of the Italian peninsula, Apulia covers over 19,000 square kilometers (7,336 sq mi) in succession of broad plains and low-lying hills. The central area of the region is occupied by the Murge, a vast, semi-arid karst plateau. The only mountainous areas, the Gargano promontory and the Monti Dauni, do not exceed 1,150 m (3,800 ft) and are to be found in the north of Apulia, which is the least mountainous region in Italy.

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Arcadia
Arcadia (Greek: Αρκαδία - Arkadía) is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the administrative region of Peloponnese. It is situated in the central and eastern part of the Peloponnese peninsula. It takes its name from the mythological character Arcas. In Greek mythology, it was the home of the god Pan. In European Renaissance arts, Arcadia was celebrated as an unspoiled, harmonious wilderness.
Arcadia has its present-day capital at Tripoli. It covers about 18% of the Peloponnese peninsula, making it the largest regional unit on the peninsula. Arcadia has a ski resort on Mount Mainalo, located about 20 km NW of Tripoli. Other mountains of Arcadia are the Parnon in the southeast and the Lykaion in the west.
The climate consists of hot summers and mild winters in the eastern part, the southern part, the low lying areas and the central area at altitudes lower than 1,000 m. The area primarily receives rain during fall and winter months in the rest of Arcadia. Winter snow occurs commonly in the mountainous areas for much of the west and the northern part, the Taygetus area, the Mainalon.

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Argidava

Argidava (Argidaua, Arcidava, Arcidaua, Argedava, Argedauon, Argedabon, Sargedava, Sargedauon, Zargedava, Zargedauon, Ancient Greek: Ἀργίδαυα, Αργεδαυον, Αργεδαβον, Σαργεδαυον) was a Dacian fortress town close to the Danube, inhabited and governed by the Albocense. Located in today's Vărădia, Caraş-Severin County, Romania.
After the Roman conquest of Dacia, it became both a military and a civilian center, with a castrum (see Arcidava) built in the area. The fort was used to monitor the shores of the Danube.
The oldest found potential reference to Argidava is in the form Argedauon or Argedabon (Ancient Greek: Αργεδαυον, Αργεδαβον), written in stone, in the Decree of Dionysopolis (48 BC). This decree was written by the citizens of Dionysopolis to Akornion, who traveled far away in a diplomatic mission to meet somebody's farther in Argedauon/Argedabon. The decree, a fragmentary marble inscription, is presently located in the National Museum in Sofia.
The inscription also refers to the Dacian king Burebista, and one interpretation is that Akornion was his chief adviser (Ancient Greek: πρῶτοσφίλος, literally "first friend") in Dionysopolis.. Other sources indicate that Akornion was sent as an ambassador of Burebista to Pompey, to discuss an alliance against Julius Caesar.

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Aventine Hill
The Aventine Hill is one of the seven hills on which ancient Rome was built. It belongs to Ripa, the twelfth rione, or ward, of Rome.
The Aventine hill (in Latin, Collis Aventinus) is the southernmost of Rome's seven hills. It comprises two distinct heights, one greater to the northwest and one lesser to the southeast, divided by a steep cleft that provides the base for an ancient roadway between the heights. During the Republican era the two hills may have been recognised as a single entity.
The Augustan reforms of Rome's urban neighbourhoods (vici) recognised the ancient road between the two heights (the modern Viale Aventino) as a common boundary between the new Regio XIII, which absorbed Aventinus Maior, and the part of Regio XII known as Aventinus Minor.
Most Roman sources trace the name of the hill to a legendary king Aventinus. Servius identifies two kings of that name, one ancient Italic, and one Alban, both said to have been buried on the hill in remote antiquity. The hill, he says, was named after the first, Italic Aventinus or after the birds (aves) of ill omen that "rising from the Tiber" nested there. The Alban king would have been named after the hill. He cites and rejects Varro's proposition that the Sabines named the hill after the nearby Aventus river; likewise, he believes, the Aventinus fathered by Hercules on Rhea Silvia was likely named after the Aventine hill, not vice versa.

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Boeotia
Boeotia, also spelled Beotia ( /biːˈoʊʃiə/ or /biːˈoʊʃə/; Greek: Βοιωτία, Modern Greek: [vi.oˈti.a], Ancient Greek: [bojɔːtía]; modern transliteration Voiotía, also Viotía, formerly Cadmeis), is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the region of Central Greece. It was also a region of ancient Greece. Its capital is Livadeia, the largest city being Thebes.
Boeotia lies to the north of the eastern part of the Gulf of Corinth. It also has a short coastline on the Gulf of Euboea. It bordered on Megaris (now West Attica) in the south, Attica in the southeast, Chalcis (now part of the regional unit Euboea) in the northeast, Opuntian Locris (now part of Phthiotis) in the north and Phocis in the west.
The main mountain ranges of Boeotia are Mount Parnassus in the west, Mount Helicon in the southwest, Kithairon in the south and Parnitha in the east. Its longest river, the Cephissus (Kifisos), flows in the central part, where most of the low-lying areas of Boeotia are found. Lake Copais was a large lake in the center of Boeotia. It was drained in the 19th century. Lake Yliki is a large lake near Thebes.

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British Museum
Coordinates: 51°31′10″N 0°07′37″W / 51.519459°N 0.126931°W / 51.519459; -0.126931
The British Museum, in London, is widely considered to be one of the world's greatest museums of human history and culture. Its permanent collection, numbering some eight million works, is amongst the finest, most comprehensive, and largest in existence and originates from all continents, illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its beginnings to the present.
The British Museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the physician and scientist Sir Hans Sloane. The museum first opened to the public on 15 January 1759 in Montagu House in Bloomsbury, on the site of the current museum building. Its expansion over the following two and a half centuries was largely a result of an expanding British colonial footprint and has resulted in the creation of several branch institutions, the first being the British Museum (Natural History) in South Kensington in 1887. Some objects in the collection, most notably the Elgin Marbles from the Parthenon, are the objects of intense controversy and of calls for restitution to their countries of origin.

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Buridava

Buridava (Burridava) was a Dacian town. situated in Dacia, later Dacia Apulensis, now Romania, on the banks of the river Aluta now Olt
The name is Geto-Thracian
Buridava was the chief trading center of the tribe of the Buri It was located at Ocnita
Romans built the Buridava castra at Stolniceni (7 km from Ocnita)

A fragment of a vase carrying the inscription BUR, indicates the name of the Dacian tribe Buridavensi In addition to the inscriptions in Latin capitals and cursives uncovered in 1973 and 1978, two inscriptions in Greek were discovered in the same years. They both date from the time of Augustus

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Calydon
Calydon (Greek: Καλυδών; gen.: Καλυδῶνος) was an ancient Greek city in Aetolia, situated on the west bank of the river Evenus. According to Greek mythology, the city took its name from its founder Calydon, son of Aetolus. Close to the city stood Mount Zygos, the slopes of which provided the setting for the hunt of the Calydonian Boar. The city housed the important Aetolian sanctuary known as the Laphrion, dedicated to Artemis Laphria and Apollo Laphrios. In 31 BC, the Roman Emperor Octavian removed the population of the city to the new colony of Nicopolis, founded to commemorate his victory at the Battle of Actium earlier that year. At the same time, the Romans removed most of the art and treasures of the city to Patras, including the gold and ivory cultic statue of Artemis. Strabo, in his Geographia, comments on the former beauty of Calydon, which by his time lay desolate: '...Calydon and Pleuron, which are now indeed reduced, though in early times these settlements were an ornament to Greece.'

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Cumidava
Cumidava (also Comidava, Komidava, Ancient Greek: Κομίδαυα) was originally a Dacian settlement, and later a Roman military camp on the site of the modern city of Râşnov (15 km from Braşov) in Romania.
After Roman conquest of Dacia, the Dacian name Comidava had been modified by the Latin writers to Cumidava. (Note: It is very common in the Late Latin inscriptions to express the letter "o" by "u" , e.g. patrunus instead of patronus 'protector', and Latin rumpia instead of Greek ρομφαια (Rhomphaia) 'Thracian claymore / sword'.)
The name Comidava is a compound of dava ‘town’ and “comi”. The scholars' opinions about the meaning of the Dacian word “Comi/Cumi” include:
Another town named Comidava / Cumidava was situated in the Remesiana’s territory
Early references to Cumidava are made by the geographer Ptolemy in his Geographia, in the form Komidava (Ancient Greek: Κομίδαυα).
An inscription on stone dedicated to Julia Avita Mamaea, the mother of the Roman Emperor Alexander Severus (dated 222-235 AD), allows the localization of the Dacian settlement Cumidava in the area of present-day Râşnov.

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Dodona
Dodona (Doric Greek: Δωδώνᾱ, Dōdṓnā, Ionic and Attic Greek: Δωδώνη,Dōdṓnē) in Epirus in northwestern Greece, was an oracle devoted to a Mother Goddess identified at other sites with Rhea or Gaia, but here called Dione, who was joined and partly supplanted in historical times by the Greek god Zeus.
The shrine of Dodona was regarded as the oldest Hellenic oracle, possibly dating to the second millennium BCE according to Herodotus. Situated in a remote region away from the main Greek poleis, it was considered second only to the oracle of Delphi in prestige. Priestesses and priests in the sacred grove interpreted the rustling of the oak (or beech) leaves to determine the correct actions to be taken. Aristotle considered the region around Dodona to have been part of Hellas and the region where the Hellenes originated. The oracle was first under the control of the Thesprotians before it passed into the hands of the Molossians. It remained an important religious sanctuary until the rise of Christianity during the Late Roman era.

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Egypt
Egypt ⁱ/ˈiːdʒɪpt/ (Arabic: مصر, Miṣr, Egyptian Arabic: [mɑsˤɾ] ; Coptic: Ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, Kīmi ; Sahidic Coptic: ⲕⲏⲙⲉ, Kēme), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: جمهوريّة مصر العربيّة (help·info), is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Covering an area of about 1,010,000 square kilometers (390,000 sq mi), Egypt is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south and Libya to the west.
Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa and the Middle East. The great majority of its over 81 million people live near the banks of the Nile River, in an area of about 40,000 square kilometers (15,000 sq mi), where the only arable land is found. The large areas of the Sahara Desert are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residents live in urban areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.

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Ethiopia
Ethiopia ( /ˌiːθiˈoʊpiə/) (Ge'ez: ኢትዮጵያ ʾĪtyōṗṗyā), officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country located in the Horn of Africa. It is the second-most populous nation in Africa, with over 82 million inhabitants, and the tenth largest by area, occupying 1,100,000 km². Ethiopia is bordered by Eritrea to the north, Djibouti and Somalia to the east, Sudan and South Sudan to the west, and Kenya to the south. With its capital at Addis Ababa, it is also the most populous landlocked nation in the world.
Ethiopia was a monarchy for most of its history, and the Ethiopian dynasty traces its roots to the 2nd century BC. Ethiopia is also one of the oldest sites of human existence known to scientists today, having yielded some of humanity's oldest traces. It may be the region from which Homo sapiens first set out for the Middle East and points beyond. Alongside Rome, Persia, China and India, the Ethiopian Aksum Empire was considered one of the great world powers of the 3rd century. During the Scramble for Africa, Ethiopia was the only African country beside Liberia that retained its sovereignty as a recognized independent country, and was one of only four African members of the League of Nations. After a brief period of Italian occupation, Ethiopia became a charter member of the United Nations. When other African nations received their independence following World War II, many of them adopted the colors of Ethiopia's flag, and Addis Ababa became the location of several international organizations focused on Africa.

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India
India (ⁱ/ˈɪndiə/), officially the Republic of India (Bhārat Gaṇarājya), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the south-west, and the Bay of Bengal on the south-east, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west;China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Burma and Bangladesh to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; in addition, India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia.
Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history. Four of the world's major religions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism—originated here, whereas Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived in the 1st millennium CE and also helped shape the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by and brought under the administration of the British East India Company from the early 18th century and administered directly by the United Kingdom from the mid-19th century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by non-violent resistance led by Mahatma Gandhi.

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Lerna
In classical Greece, Lerna (Greek: Λέρνη) was a region of springs and a former lake near the east coast of the Peloponnesus, south of Argos. Its site near the village Mili at the Argolic Gulf is most famous as the lair of the Lernaean Hydra, the chthonic many-headed water snake, a creature of great antiquity when Heracles killed it, as the second of his labors. The strong Karstic springs remained; the lake, diminished to a silt lagoon by the 19th century, has vanished.
Lerna is notable for several archaeological sites, including an Early Bronze Age structure known as House of the Tiles, dating to the Early Helladic period II (2500–2300 BC).
The secret of the Lernaean spring was the gift of Poseidon when he lay with the "blameless" daughter of Danaus, Amymone. The geographer Strabo attests that the Lernaean waters were considered healing:
Lake Lerna, the scene of the story of the Hydra, lies in Argeia and the Mycenaean territory; and on account of the cleansings that take place in it there arose a proverb, 'A Lerna of ills.' Now writers agree that the county has plenty of water, and that, although the city itself lies in a waterless district, it has an abundance of wells. These wells they ascribe to the daughters of Danaus, believing that they discovered them ... but they add that four of the wells not only were designated as sacred but are especially revered, thus introducing the false notion that there is a lack of water where there is an abundance of it.

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Lesbos
Lesbos (Greek pronunciation: [ˈle̞zvo̞s]) (Greek: Λέσβος, transliterated from Modern Greek as Lesvos, sometimes also referred to as Mytilini after its major city Mytilene) is a Greek island located in the northeastern Aegean Sea. It has an area of 1,632 km² (630 sq mi) with 320 kilometres (almost 200 miles) of coastline, making it the third largest Greek island. It is separated from Turkey by the narrow Mytilini Strait.
Lesbos is a separate regional unit of the North Aegean region, and the only municipality of the regional unit. Its population is approximately 90,000, a third of which lives in its capital, Mytilene, in the southeastern part of the island. The remaining population is distributed in small towns and villages. The largest are Kalloni, the Gera Villages, Plomari, Agiassos, Eresos, and Molyvos (the ancient Mythymna).
Mytilene was founded in the 11th century BC by the family Penthilidae, who arrived from Thessaly, and ruled the city-state until a popular revolt (590–580 BC) led by Pittacus of Mytilene ended their rule. In early Middle Ages, it was under Byzantine and Genovese rule. Lesbos was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1462, who ruled the island until the First Balkan War in 1912, when it became part of the Kingdom of Greece.

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Museo del Prado
The Museo del Prado is the main Spanish national art museum, located in central Madrid. It features one of the world's finest collections of European art, from the 12th century to the early 19th century, based on the former Spanish Royal Collection, and unquestionably the best single collection of Spanish art. Founded as a museum of paintings and sculpture, it also contains important collections of other types of works. A new, recently opened wing enlarged the display area by about 400 paintings, and it is currently used mainly for temporary expositions. El Prado is one of the most visited sites in the world, and it is considered to be among the greatest museums of art. The large numbers of works by Velázquez and Francisco de Goya (the artist more extensively represented in the collection), Titian, Rubens and Bosch are among the highlights of the collection.
The collection currently comprises around 7,600 paintings, 1,000 sculptures, 4,800 prints and 8,200 drawings, in addition to a large number of other works of art and historic documents. By 2012 the Museum will be displaying about 1300 works in the main buildings, while around 3,100 works are on temporary loan to various museums and official institutions. The remainder are in storage.

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Pactolus
Pactolus (Turkish: Sart Çayı) is a river near the Aegean coast of Turkey. The river rises from Mount Tmolus, flows through the ruins of the ancient city of Sardis, and empties into the Gediz River, the ancient Hermus. The Pactolus once contained electrum that was the basis of the economy of the ancient state of Lydia. According to legend, King Midas divested himself of the golden touch by washing himself in the river.

Coordinates: 38°31′24″N 28°02′34″E / 38.52327°N 28.042774°E / 38.52327; 28.042774

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Pella
Pella (Greek: Πέλλα), an ancient Greek city located in the current Pella regional unit of Central Macedonia in Greece, was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Macedonia.
A common folk etymology is traditionally given for the name Pella, ascribing it to a form akin to the Doric Apella, originally meaning a ceremonial location where decisions were made. However, the local form of Greek was not Doric, and the word exactly matches standard Greek pélla "stone", possibly referring to a famous landmark from the time of its foundation. Another proposed etymology is that Pella originally meant "defensible citadel on a cliff", and this etymology is backed by the numerous ancient cities throughout Greece with similar name i.e. Pellana, Pallene, Palle, Pelle, Pelion, Palamede, Pellene, etc. The word Polis is most probably derived from that ancient meaning.
The city was founded in 399 BC by King Archelaus (413–399 BC) as the capital of his kingdom, replacing the older palace-city of Aigai. After this, it was the seat of the king Philip II and of Alexander, his son. In 168 BC, it was sacked by the Romans, and its treasury transported to Rome. Later, the city was destroyed by an earthquake and eventually was rebuilt over its ruins. By 180 AD, Lucian could describe it in passing as "now insignificant, with very few inhabitants".

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Piroboridava

Piroboridava (Ancient Greek: Πιροβορίδαυα) was a Dacian town mentioned by Ptolemy, and archaeologically identified at Poiana, Galați, Romania. Second part name of the city Dacian dava shows significance of the tribal city.

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Rome
Rome (/ˈroʊm/; Italian: Roma pronounced [ˈroːma] ( listen); Latin: Rōma) is a city and special comune ("Roma Capitale") in Italy. Rome is the capital of Italy and the capital of Lazio (Latin: Latium). With 2.8 million residents in 1,285.3 km² (496.3 sq mi), it is also the country's largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. Between 3.2 and 3.7 million people live in the Rome metropolitan area. The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.
Rome's history spans two and a half thousand years. It was the capital city of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, which was the dominant power in Western Europe and the lands bordering the Mediterranean for over seven hundred years from the 1st century BC until the 7th century AD and the city is regarded as one of the birthplaces of western civilization. Since the 1st century AD Rome has been the seat of the Papacy and, after the end of Byzantine domination, in the 8th century it became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870. In 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic.

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Samos
Samos (Greek: Σάμος) is a Greek island in the eastern Aegean Sea, south of Chios, north of Patmos and the Dodecanese, and off the coast of Asia Minor, from which it is separated by the 1.6 kilometres (0.99 mi)-wide Mycale Strait. It is also a separate regional unit of the North Aegean region, and the only municipality of the regional unit.
In ancient times Samos was a particularly rich and powerful city-state. It is home to Pythagoreion and the Heraion of Samos, a UNESCO World Heritage Site that includes the Eupalinian aqueduct, a marvel of ancient engineering. Samos is the birthplace of the Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras, after whom the Pythagorean theorem is named, the philosopher Epicurus, and the astronomer Aristarchus of Samos, the first known individual to propose that the Earth revolves around the sun. Samian wine was well known in antiquity, and is still produced on the island.
The island was an autonomous principality from 1835 until it joined Greece in 1912.
The area of the island is 478 km² (184.6 sq mi) 43 km (27 mi) long and 13 km (8 mi) wide. It is separated from Anatolia, by the approximately 1 mile (1.6 km)-wide Mycale Strait. While largely mountainous, Samos has several relatively large and fertile plains.

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Sarmizegetusa Regia

Sarmizegetusa Regia (also Sarmisegetusa, Sarmisegethusa, Sarmisegethuza, Ζαρμιζεγεθούσα (Zarmizegethousa), Ζερμιζεγεθούση (Zermizegethouse)) was the capital and the most important military, religious and political center of the Dacians. Erected on top of a 1,200 meter high mountain, the fortress was the core of the strategic defensive system in the Orăştie Mountains (in present-day Romania), comprising six citadels. Sarmizegetusa Regia was the capital of Dacia prior to the wars with the Roman Empire.
It should not be confused with Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa, the Roman capital of Dacia built by Roman Emperor Trajan, which was not the Dacian capital, located some 40 km away. Sarmizegetusa Ulpia was discovered earlier, was known already in the early 1900s, and initially confused with the Dacian capital. This inevitably led to inaccuracies regarding Dacian wars and Dacians military system based solely on insufficient information.
Several hypotheses have been advanced to explain the origin of the name Sarmizegetusa. The most important are the following:

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Sicily
Sicily (Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia, [siˈtʃiːlja]; [sɪˈɕilja]) is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea; along with surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana (Sicilian Autonomous Region).
Sicily is located in the central Mediterranean. It extends from the tip of the Apennine peninsula from which it is separated only by the narrow Strait of Messina, towards the North African coast. Its most prominent landmark is Mount Etna, which is at 3,320 m (10,890 ft) the tallest active volcano in Europe and one of the most active in the world. The island has a typical Mediterranean climate.
The earliest archeological evidence of human dwelling on the island dates from 8000 BC. At around 750 BC, Sicily became a Greek colony and for the next 600 years it was the site of the Greek-Punic and Roman-Punic wars, which ended with the Roman destruction of Carthage. After the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century AD, Sicily often changed hands, and during the early Middle Ages it was ruled in turn by the Vandals, Ostrogoths, Byzantines, Arabs and Normans. Later on, the Kingdom of Sicily lasted between 1130 and 1816, subordinated to the crowns of Aragon, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and finally the Bourbons, as the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. It was united with the rest of Italy in 1860, but a subsequent economic collapse led to a wave of emigration, separatism, and the emergence of the Mafia, whose criminal activities pose problems to this day. After the birth of the Italian Republic in 1946, Sicily was given special status as an autonomous region.

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Sicyon
Sikyon (Greek: Σικυών; gen.: Σικυῶνος) was an ancient Greek city situated in the northern Peloponnesus between Corinth and Achaea on the territory of the present-day prefecture of Corinthia. The king-list given by Pausanias comprises twenty-four kings, beginning with the autochthonous Aegialeus. The penultimate king of the list, Agamemnon, compels the submission of Sicyon to Mycenae; after him comes the Dorian usurper Phalces. Pausanias shares his source with Castor of Rhodes, who used the king-list in compiling tables of history; the common source was convincingly identified by F. Jacoby as a lost Sicyonica by the late fourth-century poet Menaechmus of Sicyon.
Sicyon was built on a low triangular plateau about two miles from the Corinthian Gulf. Between the city and its port lay a fertile plain with olive groves and orchards. After the Dorian invasion the community was divided into the ordinary three Dorian tribes and an equally privileged tribe of Ionians, besides which a class of serfs lived on and worked the land.

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Sucidava
Sucidava (Sykibid after Procopius, Σucidava after Pârvan, where Σ is pronounced "sh") is a Dacian and Daco-Roman historical site, situated in Corabia, Romania on the north bank of the Danube. There can be found: the first Christian Basilica in Romania and the foot of a Roman bridge over the Danube built by Constantine the Great to link Sucidava with Oescus (today in Bulgaria, in Moesia); there is also a secret underground fountain which flows under the walls of the town to a water spring situated outside.
From archeological point of view the coins found at Sucidava show an uninterrupted series from Aurelian (270-275) to Theodosius II (408-450). The archeological evidence show that in AD 443 or 447 the city suffered from attacks of the Huns, still the city was restored under Justin I 518-527 or Justinian I 527-565. Around 600, it seems that the Roman garrison abandoned the city.

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Theatre of Dionysus
The Theatre of Dionysus Eleuthereus is a major open-air theatre and one of the earliest preserved in Athens. It was used for festivals in honor of the god Dionysus. It is sometimes confused with the later and better-preserved Odeon of Herodes Atticus, located nearby on the southwest slope of the Acropolis.
The site of the Theater of Dionysus Eleuthereus, on the south slope of the Athenian Acropolis, has been known since the 18th century. The Greek Archaeological Society excavated the remains of the theater beginning in 1838 and throughout most of the following century. Early remains in the area relating to the cult of Dionysus Eleuthereus have been dated to the sixth century BCE, during the rule of Peisistratus and his successors, but a theater was apparently not built on the site until the fifth century BCE. The only certain evidence of this early theater consists of a few stone blocks that were reused in the fourth century BCE.
During the sixth century BCE, performances associated with the festivals of Dionysus were probably held in the Athenian agora, with spectators seated on wooden bleachers (ikria) set up around a flat circular area, the orchestra, until the ikria collapsed in the early fifth century BCE, an event attested in ancient sources. After the collapse of the stands, the dramatic and musical contests were moved to the precinct of Dionysus on the slope of the Acropolis.

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Themis
Themis (Greek: Θέμις) is an ancient Greek Titaness. She is described as "of good counsel", and is the embodiment of divine order, law, and custom. Themis means "divine law" rather than human ordinance, literally "that which is put in place", from the verb τίθημι, títhēmi, "to put".</ref>
To the ancient Greeks she was originally the organizer of the "communal affairs of humans, particularly assemblies".Moses Finley remarked of themis, as the word was used by Homer in the 8th century, to evoke the social order of the 10th- and 9th-century Greek Dark Ages:
Themis is untranslatable. A gift of the gods and a mark of civilized existence, sometimes it means right custom, proper procedure, social order, and sometimes merely the will of the gods (as revealed by an omen, for example) with little of the idea of right.
Finley adds, "There was themis—custom, tradition, folk-ways, mores, whatever we may call it, the enormous power of 'it is (or is not) done'. The world of Odysseus had a highly developed sense of what was fitting and proper."

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Vienna
Vienna ( /viːˈɛnə/; German: Wien (help·info) [viːn]) is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.723 million (2.4 million within the metropolitan area, more than 25% of Austria's population), and is by far the largest city in Austria, as well as its cultural, economic, and political centre. It is the 9th-largest city by population in the European Union. Until the beginning of the 20th century it was the largest German speaking city in the world, and before the first world war and the splitting of the Austro-Hungarian empire the city had 2 million inhabitants. Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city lies in the east of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region. Along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

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Achilles
In Greek mythology, Achilles (Ancient Greek: Ἀχιλλεύς, Akhilleus, pronounced [akʰillěu̯s]) was a Greek hero of the Trojan War, the central character and the greatest warrior of Homer's Iliad.
Plato named Achilles the most handsome of the heroes assembled against Troy.
Later legends (beginning with a poem by Statius in the 1st century AD) state that Achilles was invulnerable in all of his body except for his heel. As he died because of a small wound on his heel, the term Achilles' heel has come to mean a person's principal weakness.
Achilles' name can be analyzed as a combination of ἄχος (akhos) "grief" and λαός (Laos) "a people, tribe, nation, etc." In other words, Achilles is an embodiment of the grief of the people, grief being a theme raised numerous times in the Iliad (frequently by Achilles). Achilles' role as the hero of grief forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of Achilles as the hero of kleos (glory, usually glory in war).
Laos has been construed by Gregory Nagy, following Leonard Palmer, to mean a corps of soldiers, a muster. With this derivation, the name would have a double meaning in the poem: When the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring grief to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief of war. The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership.

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Aedi
Aedi (Greek: Αἶδοι) was a tribe of Getae.

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Aeschylus
Aeschylus (Ancient Greek: Αἰσχύλος, Aiskhulos; c. 525/524 BC – c. 456/455 BC) was the first of the three ancient Greek tragedians whose plays can still be read or performed, the others being Sophocles and Euripides. He is often described as the father of tragedy: our knowledge of the genre begins with his work and our understanding of earlier tragedies is largely based on inferences from his surviving plays. According to Aristotle, he expanded the number of characters in plays to allow for conflict amongst them whereas, previously, characters had interacted only with the chorus.
Only seven of his estimated seventy to ninety plays have survived into modern times, and there is a longstanding debate about his authorship of one of these plays, Prometheus Bound. Fragments of some other plays have survived in quotes and more continue to be discovered on Egyptian papyrus, often giving us surprising insights into his work. He was probably the first dramatist to present plays as a trilogy and his Oresteia is the only ancient example of the form to have survived.

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Amazons
The Amazons (Ancient Greek: Ἀμαζόνες, Amazónes, singular Ἀμαζών, Amazōn) are a nation of all-female warriors in Greek mythology and Classical antiquity. Herodotus placed them in a region bordering Scythia in Sarmatia (modern territory of Ukraine). Other historiographers place them in Asia Minor, or Libya.
Notable queens of the Amazons are Penthesilea, who participated in the Trojan War, and her sister Hippolyta, whose magical girdle, given to her by her father Ares, was the object of one of the labours of Hercules. Amazonian raiders were often depicted in battle with Greek warriors in amazonomachies in classical art.
The Amazons have become associated with various historical peoples throughout the Roman Empire period and Late Antiquity. In Roman historiography, there are various accounts of Amazon raids in Asia Minor. From the Early Modern period, their name has become a term for woman warriors in general.
The origin of the word is uncertain. It may be derived from an Iranian ethnonym *ha-mazan-, "warriors", a word attested as a denominal verb (formed with the Indo-Iranian root kar- "make" also in kar-ma) in Hesychius of Alexandria's gloss ἁμαζακάραν· πολεμεῖν. Πέρσαι ("hamazakaran: 'to make war' (Persian)"). Alternatively, a Greek derivation from *ṇ-mṇ-gw-jon-es "manless, without husbands" (a- privative and a derivation of *man- also found in Slavic muzh) has been proposed, an explanation deemed "unlikely" by Hjalmar Frisk. 19th century scholarship also connected the term to the ethnonym Amazigh. A further explanation proposes Iranian *ama-janah "virility-killing" as source.

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Anartes
The Anartes a.k.a. Anarti, Anartii or Anartoi were Celtic tribes, or, in the case of those sub-groups of Anartes which penetrated the ancient region of Dacia (roughly mod. Romania), Celts culturally assimilated by the Dacians.
Ptolemy's Geographia locates the Anartoi in Dacia. Some groups of Anartes occupied parts of modern Slovakia and southeastern Poland.
The Dacian town of Docidava was situated in the territory of the Anartes, according to Pârvan.
The Anartophracti (or Anartofraktoi) are mentioned by Ptolemy. This tribe's name appears to be compound Latin-Greek name and may be related to the Anartoi resident in Dacia, Czarnecki argues. . The Anartofraktoi were a northern Dacian tribe, according to Braune or mixed Dacian-Celtic, according to Pârvan.
In ancient sources, the earliest mention of the Anartes is in the Elogium of Tusculum (10 BC).^{[citation needed]}
In De Bello Gallico, an account of his own campaigns in the Gallic Wars (58-51 BC), Julius Caesar wrote (VI.25.1): "The Hercynian Forest begins in the territories of the Helvetii, Nemeti and Rauraci and stretches, for a distance of 9 days' journey for a fast traveler, along the Danube as far as the borders of the Daci and the Anartes".

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Aristophanes
Aristophanes (English pronunciation: /ˌærɨˈstɒfəniːz/; Ancient Greek: [aristopʰánɛːs]; Ἀριστοφάνης, ca. 446 BC – ca. 386 BC), son of Philippus, of the deme Cydathenaus, was a comic playwright of ancient Athens. Eleven of his 40 plays survive virtually complete. These, together with fragments of some of his other plays, provide the only real examples of a genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy, and they are in fact used to define the genre. Also known as the Father of Comedy and the Prince of Ancient Comedy, Aristophanes has been said to recreate the life of ancient Athens more convincingly than any other author. His powers of ridicule were feared and acknowledged by influential contemporaries; Plato singled out Aristophanes' play The Clouds as slander contributing to the trial and execution of Socrates although other satirical playwrights had also caricatured the philosopher. His second play, The Babylonians (now lost), was denounced by the demagogue Cleon as a slander against the Athenian polis. It is possible that the case was argued in court but details of the trial are not recorded and Aristophanes caricatured Cleon mercilessly in his subsequent plays, especially The Knights, the first of many plays that he directed himself. "In my opinion," he says through the Chorus in that play, "the author-director of comedies has the hardest job of all." (κωμῳδοδιδασκαλίαν εἶναι χαλεπώτατον ἔργον ἁπάντων)

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Arnobius
Arnobius of Sicca (died c. 330) was an Early Christian apologist, during the reign of Diocletian (284–305). According to Jerome's Chronicle, Arnobius, before his conversion, was a distinguished Numidian rhetorician at Sicca Veneria (El Kef, Tunisia), a major Christian center in Proconsular Africa, and owed his conversion to a premonitory dream. Arnobius writes dismissively of dreams in his surviving book, so perhaps Jerome was projecting his own respect for the content of dreams. According to Jerome, to overcome the doubts of the local bishop as to the earnestness of his Christian belief he wrote (ca 303, from evidence in IV:36) an apologetic work in seven books that St. Jerome callsAdversus Gentes but which is entitled Adversus Nationes in the only (9th-century) manuscript that has survived. Jerome's reference, his remark that Lactantius was a pupil of Arnobius and the surviving treatise are all that we know about Arnobius.

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Artakioi
Artakioi (Greek: Ἀρτακοί, also Artakai or Artakoi) was a Thracian-Moesian tribe.

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Athenaeus
Athenaeus (^{[pronunciation?]}; Ancient Greek Ἀθήναιος Nαυκρατίτης - Athếnaios Naukratítês, Latin Athenaeus Naucratita), of Naucratis in Egypt, Greek rhetorician and grammarian, flourished about the end of the 2nd and beginning of the 3rd century AD. The Suda says only that he lived in the times of Marcus Aurelius, but the contempt with which he speaks of Commodus, who died in 192, shows that he survived that emperor.
Several of his publications are lost, but the fifteen volume Deipnosophistae mostly survives.
Athenaeus himself states that he was the author of a treatise on the thratta — a kind of fish mentioned by Archippus and other comic poets—and of a history of the Syrian kings. Both works are lost.
The Deipnosophistae, which mean "dinner-table philosophers" or perhaps "authorities on banquets", survives in fifteen books. The first two books, and parts of the third, eleventh and fifteenth, are extant only in epitome, but otherwise the work seems to be entire. It is an immense store-house of information, chiefly on matters connected with dining, but also containing remarks on music, songs, dances, games, courtesans, and luxury. Nearly 800 writers and 2500 separate works are referred to by Athenaeus; one of his characters (not necessarily to be identified with the historical author himself) boasts of having read 800 plays of Athenian Middle Comedy alone. Were it not for Athenaeus, much valuable information about the ancient world would be missing, and many ancient Greek authors such as Archestratus would be almost entirely unknown. Book XIII, for example, is an important source for the study of sexuality in classical and Hellenistic Greece.

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Ausonius
Decimius Magnus Ausonius (ca. 310–ca. 394) was a Latin poet and teacher of rhetoric at Burdigala (Bordeaux, France). For a time he was tutor to the future emperor Gratian, who afterwards bestowed the Consulship on him. His best-known poems are Mosella, a description of the river Moselle, and Ephemeris, an account of a typical day in his life. His many other verses show his concern for his family, friends, teachers and circle of well-to-do acquaintances, and his delight in the technical handling of meter.
Decimus Magnus Ausonius was born ca. 310 in Bordeaux, the son of Julius Ausonius, a physician of Greek ancestry, and Aemilia Aeonia, daughter of Caecilius Argicius Arborius, descended on both sides from established, land-owning Gallo-Roman families of southwestern Gaul. Ausonius was given a strict upbringing by his aunt and grandmother, both named Aemilia. He received an excellent education at Bordeaux and at Toulouse, where his maternal uncle, Aemilius Magnus Arborius, was a professor. Ausonius did well in grammar and rhetoric, but professed that his progress in Greek was unsatisfactory. When his uncle was summoned to Constantinople to tutor one of the sons of emperor Constantine I, Ausonius accompanied him to the capital.

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Biephi
Biephi was a Dacian tribe.

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Buridava

Buridava (Burridava) was a Dacian town. situated in Dacia, later Dacia Apulensis, now Romania, on the banks of the river Aluta now Olt
The name is Geto-Thracian
Buridava was the chief trading center of the tribe of the Buri It was located at Ocnita
Romans built the Buridava castra at Stolniceni (7 km from Ocnita)

A fragment of a vase carrying the inscription BUR, indicates the name of the Dacian tribe Buridavensi In addition to the inscriptions in Latin capitals and cursives uncovered in 1973 and 1978, two inscriptions in Greek were discovered in the same years. They both date from the time of Augustus

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Burt Shevelove
Burt Shevelove (September 19, 1915 - April 8, 1982) was an American musical theater playwright, lyricist, librettist, and director. Born in Newark, New Jersey, he graduated from Brown University and Yale (Master's degree). At Brown in 1935, he acted in the first ever Brownbrokers musical titled Something Bruin. After serving as a volunteer ambulance driver in WWII, he began working as a writer, director and producer for radio and television. At the time of his death he had lived in London for many years.
His Broadway career started in 1948 with writing material, co-producing and directing for the revue Small Wonder. Among his successes were A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum and No, No, Nanette, for which he won the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Book of a Musical.

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Callimachus
Callimachus (Ancient Greek: Καλλίμαχος, Kallimachos; 310/305–240 BC) was a native of the Greek colony of Cyrene, Libya. He was a noted poet, critic and scholar at the Library of Alexandria and enjoyed the patronage of the Egyptian–Greek Pharaohs Ptolemy II Philadelphus and Ptolemy III Euergetes. Although he was never made chief librarian, he was responsible for producing a bibliographic survey based upon the contents of the Library. This, his Pinakes, 120 volumes long, provided the foundation for later work on the history of Greek literature. As one of the earliest critic-poets, he typifies Hellenistic scholarship.
Callimachus was of Libyan Greek origin. He was born and raised in Cyrene, as member of a distinguished family, his parents being Mesatme (or Mesatma) and Battus, supposed descendant of the first Greek king of Cyrene, Battus I, through whom Callimachus claimed to be a descendant of the Battiad dynasty, the Libyan Greek monarchs that ruled Cyrenaica for eight generations and the first Greek Royal family to have reigned in Africa. He was named after his grandfather, an "elder" Callimachus, who was highly regarded by the Cyrenaean citizens and had served as a general.

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Cardinal Richelieu
Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal-Duc de Richelieu et de Fronsac (French pronunciation: [ʁiʃəljø]; 9 September 1585 – 4 December 1642) was a French clergyman, noble and statesman.
Consecrated as a bishop in 1608, he later entered politics, becoming a Secretary of State in 1616. Richelieu soon rose in both the Catholic Church and the French government, becoming a Cardinal in 1622, and King Louis XIII's chief minister in 1624. He remained in office until his death in 1642; he was succeeded by Cardinal Mazarin, whose career he had fostered.
The Cardinal de Richelieu was often known by the title of the King's "Chief Minister" or "First Minister". As a result, he is considered to be the world's first Prime Minister, in the modern sense of the term.^[who?] He sought to consolidate royal power and crush domestic factions. By restraining the power of the nobility, he transformed France into a strong, centralized state. His chief foreign policy objective was to check the power of the Austro-Spanish Habsburg dynasty, and to ensure French dominance in the Thirty Years' War that engulfed Europe. Although he was a cardinal, he did not hesitate to make alliances with Protestant rulers in attempting to achieve his goals.

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Ciaginsi
Ciaginsi was a Dacian tribe.

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Clariae
Clariae was a tribe of Getae.

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Coson
Due to the lack of written information regarding the Getae-Dacians' history, many important names related to their civilization remain either unknown or controversial. The controversy regarding the name of this king was prompted after the discovery of golden coins inscribed with the word KOSON in Greek characters. Such coins were discovered in great numbers in Transylvania and the discovery captured the attention of writers starting the 16th century. Thus, there are comments from Erasmus of Rotterdam in 1520 and Stephanus Zamosius (István Szamosközy) in 1593.
Coins inscribed KOSON were discovered in several large stashes in Transylvania. The first group was discovered in 1543, and contained several thousands coins and objects made of gold. It was rumored that this stash was revealed in a bolted chamber under the river Strei, identified as the river Sargetia, and also mentioned by Dio Cassius. Further research disproved this, and placed the treasure in one of the Dacian castles in the Orăştie mountains, probably in Sarmisegetusa.

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Cotini
Cotini was a Celtic tribe most probably living in today's Slovakia, and (according to occasional opinions) in Moravia and southern Poland. They were probably identical or constituted a significant part of the archaeological Púchov culture, with the center in Havránok.
The tribe was first time mentioned in 10 BC in the Elogium of Tusculum. According to Tacitus, both Sarmatians (present-day Ukraine) and Quadi (present-day southwestern Slovakia, and eastern Czech Republic) extracted tribute from the iron mines of the Cotini in the 1st century AD. The Cotini are later mentioned in connection with the Marcomannic Wars: Around 172 AD, they did not help Romans in their fight against Marcomanni. To punish them, Marcus Aurelius had moved (all?) the Cotini to Lower Pannonia, which happened not later than 180 AD. In Lower Pannonia, they are mentioned as "cives Cotini" - the Cotini people - in 223-251 AD.

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Cotiso
Cotiso (approximately 30 BC) was a Dacian king who ruled the mountains between Banat and Oltenia (modern-day Romania). Horatius calls him king of the Dacians.Suetonius calls him king of the Getae. He is mentioned also by Florus, who wrote that Cotiso and his armies used to attack towards south when the Danube froze.
After the death of Burebista, the Dacian kingdom fell apart amid turnoil and civil strife. Yet, the people of the Dacians now under king Cotiso found itself courted by the two Roman antagonists. Octavian / Augustus worried about the frontier and possible alliance between Mark Antony and the Dacians, and plotted an expedition around 35 BC. Because of Antony, he had to propose a marriage with the daughter of Cotiso. The war with Antony prevented his plan from completion, and no settlement of the Dacian question was forthcoming during Augustus's reign. Despite several small conflicts, no serious campaigns were mounted. Augustus claimed in his Res Gestae that the Dacians had been subdued. This was mere propaganda, because Dacian troops frequently crossed the Danube to ravage parts of Pannonia and Moesia.

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Dacians
The Dacians (^{[pronunciation?]}; Latin: Daci, Ancient Greek: Δάκοι Dakoi, Δάοι Daoi, Δάκες "Dakes"; Medieval Greek Δάκαι Dákai^{[citation needed]}) were an Indo-European people, very close or part of the Thracians.^{[citation needed]} Dacians were the ancient inhabitants of Dacia (located in the area in and around the Carpathian Mountains and east of there to the Black Sea). This area includes the present-day countries of Romania and Moldova, as well as parts of Sarmatia (mostly in eastern Ukraine), Moesia (Eastern Serbia, Northern Bulgaria), Slovakia and Poland. They spoke the Dacian language, believed to have been closely related to Thracian, but were culturally influenced by the neighbouring Scythians and by the Celtic invaders of the 4th century BC.

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Damascius
Damascius (^{[pronunciation?]}; Δαμάσκιος, born in Damascus ca. AD 458, died after AD 538), known as "the last of the Neoplatonists," was the last scholarch of the School of Athens. He was one of the pagan philosophers persecuted by Justinian in the early 6th century, and was forced for a time to seek refuge in the Persian court, before being allowed back into the empire. His surviving works consist of three commentaries on the works of Plato, and a metaphysical text entitled Difficulties and Solutions of First Principles.
Damascius was born in Damascus in Syria, whence he derived his name: his Syrian name is unknown. In his early youth he went to Alexandria, where he spent twelve years partly as a pupil of Theon, a rhetorician, and partly as a professor of rhetoric. He then turned to philosophy and science, and studied under Hermias and his sons, Ammonius and Heliodorus. Later on in life he migrated to Athens and continued his studies under Marinus, the mathematician, Zenodotus, and Isidore, the dialectician. He became a close friend of Isidore, succeeded him as head of the School of Athens in ca. 515, and wrote his biography, part of which is preserved in the Bibliotheca of Photius.

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Dapyx
Dapyx was a 1st century BC chieftain of a Getae tribe or a tribe union in Scythia Minor (nowadays in Dobruja). Cassius Dio talks about him in the campaigns of Marcus Licinius Crassus on the Lower Danube region, being said to be a king on the region of central Scythia Minor who went to war with Rholes, a Roman ally. Crassus came in Roles' help and utterly defeated Dapyx's army, with their leader taking refuge in a fort, being betrayed and killed.

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Decebalus
Decebalus or "The Brave" (originally named Diurpaneus) was a king of Dacia (ruled the Dacians 87–106) and is famous for fighting three wars and negotiating two interregnums of peace without being eliminated against the Roman Empire under two emperors. In the later short peace (end of 102-105) granted by Trajan, Decebalus continued to act as an independent king, rather than a conquered client and repeatedly annoyed or infuriated the Romans.
Consequently, the Legions under Trajan's orders went on the offensive again in 105 AD, reducing the Dacian capital Sarmizegetusa in 106. After that, Decebalus committed suicide.
After the death of Great King Burebista, Dacia split into four then five smaller states. The situation lasted until Diurpaneus managed to consolidate the core of Dacia around Sarmizegetusa, in today's Hunedoara county. Though not yet king, he reorganized the Dacian army, which in 85 began minor raids upon the heavily fortified Roman province of Moesia, located south of the Danube under Dacian king Duras.

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Deceneus
Deceneus (or Dicineus, Dekaineos) refers in The Origin and Deeds of the Goths (Getica) by Jordanes to two different men in Dacia:

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Diodorus Siculus
Diodorus Siculus (^{[pronunciation?]}; Greek: Διόδωρος Σικελιώτης, Diodoros Sikeliotes) was a Greek historian who flourished between 60 and 30 BC. According to Diodorus' own work, he was born at Agyrium in Sicily (now called Agira). With one exception, antiquity affords no further information about Diodorus' life and doings beyond what is to be found in his own work, Bibliotheca historica. Only Jerome, in his Chronicon under the "year of Abraham 1968" (i.e., 49 BC), writes, "Diodorus of Sicily, a writer of Greek history, became illustrious". His English translator, Charles Henry Oldfather, remarks on the "striking coincidence" that one of only two known Greek inscriptions from Agyrium (I.G. XIV, 588) is the tombstone of one "Diodorus, the son of Apollonius".
Diodorus' universal history, which he named Bibliotheca historica ("Historical Library"), consisted of 40 books, of which 1–5 and 11–20 survive, and were divided into three sections. The first six books treat the mythic history of the non-Hellenic and Hellenic tribes to the destruction of Troy and are geographical in theme, and describe the history and culture of Ancient Egypt (book I), of Mesopotamia, India, Scythia, and Arabia (II), of North Africa (III), and of Greece and Europe (IV–VI).

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Eddie Campbell
Eddie Campbell (born 10 August 1955) is a Scottish comics artist and cartoonist who now lives in Australia. Probably best known as the illustrator and publisher of From Hell (written by Alan Moore), Campbell is also the creator of the semi-autobiographical Alec stories collected in Alec: The Years Have Pants, and Bacchus (aka Deadface), a wry adventure series about the few Greek gods who have survived to the present day. His graphic novel The Fate of the Artist, which playfully investigates Campbell's own sudden disappearance, was published in May 2006 by First Second Books.
His scratchy pen-and-ink style is influenced by the impressionists, illustrators of the age of "liberated penmanship" such as Phil May, Charles Dana Gibson, John Leech and George du Maurier, and cartoonists Milton Caniff and Frank Frazetta (particularly his Johnny Comet strip). His writing has been compared to that of Jack Kerouac and Henry Miller.
Campbell made his earliest attempts at autobiographical comics in the late 1970s with In the Days of the Ace Rock and Roll Club. This evolved into Alec, with the character of Alec MacGarry standing in for the author. Campbell self-published these early comics in the amateur press association BAPA and then as short-run photocopied pamphlets in London in the early 1980s, selling them at conventions and comic marts and via Paul Gravett's "Fast Fiction" market stall. When Gravett founded Escape Magazine, Campbell was one of the artists featured. In 1984 Escape published Alec, a slim collection of his semi-autobiographical stories. This was followed by two further collections, Love and Beerglasses (1985) and Doggie in the Window (1986). In 1990 all three were collected, together with some unpublished material, as The Complete Alec (republished as The King Canute Crowd in 2000).

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Enyeus
In Greek mythology, the name Enyeus (Ἐνυεύς) may refer to:

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Euripides
Euripides (Ancient Greek: Εὐριπίδης) (ca. 480 – 406 BC) was one of the three great tragedians of classical Athens, the other two being Aeschylus and Sophocles. Some ancient scholars attributed ninety-five plays to him but according to the Suda it was ninety-two at most. Of these, eighteen or nineteen have survived complete (there has been debate about his authorship of Rhesus, largely on stylistic grounds) and there are also fragments, some substantial, of most of the other plays. More of his plays have survived intact than those of Aeschylus and Sophocles together, partly due to mere chance and partly because his popularity grew as theirs declined — he became, in the Hellenistic Age, a cornerstone of ancient literary education, along with Homer, Demosthenes and Menander.
Euripides is identified with theatrical innovations that have profoundly influenced drama down to modern times, especially in the representation of traditional, mythical heroes as ordinary people in extraordinary circumstances. This new approach led him to pioneer developments that later writers adapted to comedy, some of which are characteristic of romance. Yet he also became "the most tragic of poets", focusing on the inner lives and motives of his characters in a way previously unknown. He was "the creator of...that cage which is the theatre of Shakespeare's Othello, Racine's Phèdre, of Ibsen and Strindberg," in which "...imprisoned men and women destroy each other by the intensity of their loves and hates", and yet he was also the literary ancestor of comic dramatists as diverse as Menander and George Bernard Shaw.

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Fred Saberhagen
Fred Thomas Saberhagen (May 18, 1930–June 29, 2007) was an American science fiction and fantasy author most famous for his Berserker series of science fiction short stories and S.F. novels.
Saberhagen also wrote a series of vampire novels in which the vampires (including the famous Dracula) are the protagonists, and a series of post-apocalyptic mytho-magical novels beginning with his popular Empire of the East and continuing through a long series of Swords and Lost Swords novels. Saberhagen died of cancer, in Albuquerque, New Mexico.
Saberhagen was born in and grew up in the area of Chicago, Illinois. Saberhagen served as an enlisted man in the U.S. Air Force during the Korean War while he was in his early twenties. Back in civilian life, Saberhagen worked as an electronics technician for the Motorola Corporation from 1958 to 1962, when he was around 30 years old.
It was while he was working for Motorola that Saberhagen started writing fiction seriously at the age of about 30. His first sale was to Galaxy Magazine, which published his short story "Volume PAA-PYX" in 1961. "Fortress Ship", his first "Berserker" short shory, was published in 1963. Then, in 1964, Saberhagen saw the publication of his first novel, The Golden People.

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Friedrich Hölderlin
Johann Christian Friedrich Hölderlin (German pronunciation: [ˈjoːhan ˈkʁɪsti.aːn ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈhœldɐliːn]; 20 March 1770 – 7 June 1843) was a major German lyric poet, commonly associated with the artistic movement known as Romanticism. Hölderlin was also an important thinker in the development of German Idealism, particularly his early association with and philosophical influence on his seminary roommates and fellow Swabians Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling.
Hölderlin was born in Lauffen am Neckar in the Duchy of Württemberg. His father, the manager of a church estate, died when the boy was two years old. He was brought up by his mother, who in 1774 married the Mayor of Nürtingen and moved there. He had a full sister, born after their father's death, and a half-brother. His stepfather died when he was nine. He went to school in Denkendorf and Maulbronn and then studied theology at the Tübinger Stift, where his fellow-students included Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (who had been a fellow-pupil at his first school) and Isaac von Sinclair.

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Friedrich Nietzsche
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche ( /ˈniːtʃə/;German pronunciation: [ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈvɪlhɛlm ˈniːtsʃə]; October 15, 1844 – August 25, 1900) was a German philosopher, poet, cultural critic and classical philologist. He wrote critical texts on religion, morality, contemporary culture, philosophy and science, displaying a fondness for metaphor, irony and aphorism.
Nietzsche's influence remains substantial within and beyond philosophy, notably in existentialism, nihilism and postmodernism. His style and radical questioning of the value and objectivity of truth have resulted in much commentary and interpretation, mostly in the continental tradition. His key ideas include the death of God, the Übermensch, the eternal recurrence, the Apollonian and Dionysian dichotomy, perspectivism and the will to power. Central to his philosophy is the idea of "life-affirmation", which involves an honest questioning of all doctrines that drain life's expansive energies, however socially prevalent and radical those views might be.

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George Bernard Shaw
George Bernard Shaw (26 July 1856 – 2 November 1950) was an Irish playwright and a co-founder of the London School of Economics. Although his first profitable writing was music and literary criticism, in which capacity he wrote many highly articulate pieces of journalism, his main talent was for drama, and he wrote more than 60 plays. Nearly all his writings address prevailing social problems, but have a vein of comedy which makes their stark themes more palatable. Shaw examined education, marriage, religion, government, health care, and class privilege.
He was most angered by what he perceived as the exploitation of the working class. An ardent socialist, Shaw wrote many brochures and speeches for the Fabian Society. He became an accomplished orator in the furtherance of its causes, which included gaining equal rights for men and women, alleviating abuses of the working class, rescinding private ownership of productive land, and promoting healthy lifestyles. For a short time he was active in local politics, serving on the London County Council.

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Grant Morrison
Grant Morrison (born 31 January 1960) is a Scottish comic book writer, playwright and occultist. He is known for his nonlinear narratives and counter-cultural leanings, as well as his successful runs on titles like Animal Man, Doom Patrol, JLA, The Invisibles, New X-Men, Fantastic Four, Action Comics, All-Star Superman, and Batman.
Grant Morrison was born in Glasgow, Scotland in 1960. His first published works were Gideon Stargrave strips for Near Myths in 1978 (when he was about 17), one of the first British alternative comics. His work appeared in four of the five issues of Near Myths and he was suitably encouraged to find more comic work. This included a weekly comic strip Captain Clyde, an unemployed superhero based in Glasgow, for The Govan Press, a local newspaper, plus various issues of DC Thomson's Starblazer, a science fiction version of that company's Commando title.
Morrison spent much of the early 1980s touring and recording with his band The Mixers, writing the occasional Starblazer for D. C. Thompson and contributing to various UK indie titles. In 1982 he submitted a proposal involving the Justice League of America and Jack Kirby's New Gods entitled Second Coming to DC Comics, but it was not commissioned. After writing The Liberators for Dez Skinn's Warrior in 1985, he started work for Marvel UK the following year. There he wrote a number of comic strips for Doctor Who Magazine, his final one a collaboration with a then-teenage Bryan Hitch, as well as a run on the Zoids strip in Spider-Man and Zoids. 1986 also saw publication of Morrison's first of several two- or three-page Future Shocks for 2000AD.

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Guido Reni
Guido Reni (4 November 1575 – 18 August 1642) was an Italian painter of high-Baroque style.
Born in Bologna into a family of musicians, Guido Reni was the son of Daniele Reni and Ginevra de’ Pozzi. As a child of nine, he was apprenticed under the Bolognese studio of Denis Calvaert. Soon after, he was joined in that studio by Albani and Domenichino. He may also have trained with a painter by the name of Ferrantini. When Reni was about twenty years old, the three Calvaert pupils migrated to the rising rival studio, named Accademia degli Incamminati (Academy of the "newly embarked", or progressives), led by Lodovico Carracci. They went on to form the nucleus of a prolific and successful school of Bolognese painters who followed Annibale Carracci to Rome. Like many other Bolognese painters, Reni's painting was thematic and eclectic in style.
By late 1601, Reni and Albani had moved to Rome to work with the teams led by Annibale Carracci in fresco decoration of the Farnese Palace. During 1601-1604, his main patron was Cardinal Paolo Emilio Sfondrati. By 1604-1605, he received an independent commission for an altarpiece of the Crucifixion of St. Peter. After a few year sojourn in Bologna, he returned to Rome to become one of the premier painters during the papacy of Paul V (Borghese). From 1607-1614, he was one of the painters patronized by the Borghese family.

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Herodotus
Herodotus ( /hɨˈrɒdətəs/; Ancient Greek: Ἡρόδοτος Hēródotos) was an ancient Greek historian who was born in Halicarnassus, Caria (modern day Bodrum, Turkey) and lived in the fifth century BC (circa 484 – 425 BC). He has been called the "Father of History", and was the first historian known to collect his materials systematically, test their accuracy to a certain extent and arrange them in a well-constructed and vivid narrative.The Histories—his masterpiece and the only work he is known to have produced—is a record of his "inquiry" (or ἱστορία historía, a word that passed into Latin and acquired its modern meaning of "history"), being an investigation of the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars and including a wealth of geographical and ethnographical information. Although some of his stories were fanciful, he claimed he was reporting only what had been told to him. Little is known of his personal history.
The Histories, otherwise known as The Researches or The Inquiries, were divided by later Alexandrian editors into nine books, named after the nine Muses: the "Muse of History", Clio, representing the first book, then Euterpe, Thaleia, Melpomene, Terpsichore, Erato, Polymnia, Ourania and Calliope for books 2 to 9, respectively. At its simplest and broadest level of meaning, The Histories is structured as a dynastic history of four Persian kings:

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Jesus
Jesus ( /ˈdʒiːzəs/; Greek: Ἰησοῦς; 7–2 BC/BCE to 30–36 AD/CE), also referred to as Jesus Christ or simply Christ, is the central figure of Christianity and most Christian denominations venerate him as God the Son incarnated. In Islam, Jesus (in Arabic: عيسى‎ in Islamic usage, commonly transliterated as Isa) is considered one of God's important prophets.
Most modern historians agree that Jesus existed and was a Jewish teacher from Galilee in Roman Judaea, who was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified in Jerusalem on the orders of the Roman Prefect, Pontius Pilate. Scholars have offered competing descriptions and portraits of Jesus, which at times share a number of overlapping attributes, such as a rabbi, a charismatic healer, the leader of an apocalyptic movement, a self-described Messiah, a sage and philosopher, or a social reformer who preached of the "Kingdom of God" as a means for personal and egalitarian social transformation. Scholars have correlated the New Testament accounts with non-Christian historical records to arrive at an estimated chronology of Jesus' life.

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Károly Kerényi
Károly (Carl, Karl) Kerényi [ˈkaːroj ˈkɛreːɲi] (January 19, 1897 – April 14, 1973) was a Hungarian scholar in classical philology, one of the founders of modern studies in Greek mythology.
Károly Kerényi was born in Temesvár, Austria-Hungary (now Timişoara, Romania) to Hungarian parents of German origin. His father’s family was of Swabian peasant descent. Kerényi learnt German as a foreign language at school, and chose it as his language for scientific work. He identified himself with the city of Arad, where he attended secondary school, because of its liberal spirits as the city of the 13 martyrs of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848/49. He moved on to study classical philology at the University of Budapest where he mostly appreciated the teaching of the Latinist Géza Némethy as well as of the Indo-Germanist Josef Schmidt. After graduation Kerényi travelled extensively in the Mediterranean region and spent time as a visiting student at the Universities of Greifswald, Berlin and Heidelberg, learning from the professors of antiquity and classical philology, Eduard Norden, Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff and Franz Boll. In 1919 Kerényi earned his doctorate in Budapest with a dissertation on Plato and Longinus, Investigations in Classical Literary and Aesthetic History. Subsequently he taught Greek and Latin in a secondary school. He earned his postdoctoral lecture qualification (habilitation) in 1927, and then was asked in 1934 to become a professor of classical philology and ancient history (Griechische und Lateinische Philologie und Alte Geschichte) at the University of Pécs. In Budapest he continued to lecture as private docent on the history of religions, classical literature and mythology, weekly events that were attended by many intellectuals because of their liberal connotations.

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Livy
Titus Livius Patavinus (59 BC – AD 17) — known as Livy in English — was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people. Ab Urbe Condita Libri, "Books from the Foundation of the City," covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome well before the traditional foundation in 753 BC through the reign of Augustus in Livy's own time. He was on familiar terms with the Julio-Claudian family, advising Augustus's grandnephew, the future emperor Claudius, as a young man not long before 14 AD in a letter to take up the writing of history. Livy and Augustus's wife, Livia, were from the same clan in different locations, although not related by blood.
Livy was born as Titus Livius in Patavium in northern Italy, now modern Padua. There is a debate about the year of Titus Livius' birth, 64 BC or more likely 59 BC. At the time of Livy’s birth, his home city of Patavium was the second wealthiest city in the Italian peninsula. Patavium was a part of the province of Cisalpine Gaul at the time. In his works, Livy often expressed his deep affection and pride for Patavium, and the city was well known for its conservative values in morality and politics.

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Marcel Detienne
Marcel Detienne (born 1935) is a Belgian historian and specialist in the study of ancient Greece. He is Professor Emeritus at The Johns Hopkins University, where he held the Basil L. Gildersleeve chair in Classics.
Along with Jean-Pierre Vernant and Pierre Vidal-Naquet, Detienne has sought to apply an anthropological approach, informed by the structuralism of Claude Lévi-Strauss, to classical and archaic Greece.
Detienne received his Doctorat en sciences religieuses at the École des Hautes Études in 1960, and his Doctorat en philosophie et lettres from the University of Liège in 1965.
Detienne was at one time a directeur d'études at the École pratique des hautes études, where he taught until 1998. He was also a founder of the Centre de recherches comparées sur les sociétés anciennes in Paris. Detienne began teaching in the Department of Classics at Johns Hopkins University in 1992.
As editor or co-editor:

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Marcomannic Wars
The Marcomannic Wars (called by the Romans bellum Germanicum or expeditio Germanica) were a series of wars lasting over a dozen years from about AD 166 until 180. These wars pitted the Roman Empire against the Marcomanni, Quadi and other Germanic peoples, along both sides of the upper and middle Danube. The struggle against the Germanic invasions occupied the major part of the reign of Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius, and it was during his campaigns against them that he started writing his philosophical work Meditations, whose second book bears the note "Among the Quadi at the Granua".
During the years succeeding the rule of Antoninus Pius, the Roman Empire began to be attacked upon all sides. A war with Parthia lasted from 161 to 166 (under the joint rule of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus), and although it ended successfully, its unforeseen consequences for the Empire were great. The returning troops brought with them a plague (the so-called Antonine Plague), which would eventually kill an estimated 5 million people, severely weakening the Empire. At the same time, in Central Europe, the first movements of the Great Migrations were occurring, as the Goths moved westwards, putting pressure on the Germanic tribes of the area. As a result, Germanic tribes and other nomadic people launched raids along Rome's northern border, particularly into Gaul and across the Danube.

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Martin Hengel
Martin Hengel (14 December 1926 – 2 July 2009) was a German historian of religion, focusing on the "Second Temple Period" or "Hellenistic Period" of early Judaism.
Hengel was born in Reutlingen, south of Stuttgart, in 1926 and grew up in nearby Aalen. In 1943 he was conscripted as a 17 year-old schoolboy into the German Army and served in an anti-aircraft battery on the Western Front. In 1945, after one of the final battles of World War II, he threw away his weapons and uniform and walked home from France, completing his schooling in 1946. In late 1947 Hengel began his theological studies in Tübingen, moving to the University of Heidelberg in 1949. In 1951 he qualified as a Lutheran parish minister, but in 1954 his father voiced his opposition to this and insisted that he join 'Hengella', the family textile business in Aalen, which makes women’s underwear and lingerie.
This caused a ten year struggle for Hengel, who had to study when he could based around his working hours. The strain on his health led to a serious breakdown. He later referred to these ten years as "wasted years" and gave the impression of almost having an inferiority complex about the amount of study he had been forced to miss. However, he remained a director of the company until his death. In August 1957 he married Marianne Kistler.

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Michelangelo
Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni (6 March 1475 – 18 February 1564), commonly known as Michelangelo (Italian pronunciation: [mikeˈlandʒelo]), was an Italian Renaissance sculptor, painter, architect, poet, and engineer who exerted an unparalleled influence on the development of Western art. Despite making few forays beyond the arts, his versatility in the disciplines he took up was of such a high order that he is often considered a contender for the title of the archetypal Renaissance man, along with fellow Italian Leonardo da Vinci.
Michelangelo was considered the greatest living artist in his lifetime, and ever since then he has been held to be one of the greatest artists of all time. A number of his works in painting, sculpture, and architecture rank among the most famous in existence. His output in every field during his long life was prodigious; when the sheer volume of correspondence, sketches, and reminiscences that survive is also taken into account, he is the best-documented artist of the 16th century. Two of his best-known works, the Pietà and David, were sculpted before he turned thirty. Despite his low opinion of painting, Michelangelo also created two of the most influential works in fresco in the history of Western art: the scenes from Genesis on the ceiling and The Last Judgment on the altar wall of the Sistine Chapel in Rome. As an architect, Michelangelo pioneered the Mannerist style at the Laurentian Library. At 74 he succeeded Antonio da Sangallo the Younger as the architect of St. Peter's Basilica. Michelangelo transformed the plan, the western end being finished to Michelangelo's design, the dome being completed after his death with some modification.

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Nonnus
Nonnus of Panopolis (^{[pronunciation?]}; Greek Νόννος), was a Greek epic poet. He was a native of Panopolis (Akhmim) in the Egyptian Thebaid, and probably lived at the end of the 4th or early 5th century. He is known as the composer of the Dionysiaca, an epic tale of the god Dionysus, and the Metabole, a paraphrase of the Gospel of John.
There is almost no evidence for the life of Nonnus. It is known that he was a native of Panopolis (Akhmim) in Upper Egypt, by his naming in manuscripts. Scholars have generally dated him from the end of the 4th to the early part of the 5th century AD. He must have lived after a poem of Claudian's which he appears to be familiar with (after 394–397 AD) but before Agathias Scholasticus' reference to him as a "recent author." (before 530–580) He is known chiefly for his 48-book poem the Dionysiaca, the longest surviving poem in Greek from antiquity (it is only 7,000 lines shorter than the Iliad and Odyssey combined). A poetic paraphrase of the Gospel of John, the Metabole is attributed to him as well, which is thought by certain verbal echoes to have been composed after the Dionysiaca. At least two other works by Nonnus are lost. Only four lines of the Bassarica (also on the subject of Dionysus) have been preserved in a commentary by Stephanus of Byzantium, and according to an epigram in the Palatine Anthology (9.198), Nonnus was the author of a work titled the Battle of the Giants.

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Oroles
Oroles was a king of Dacia during the first half of the 2nd century BC.
He successfully opposed the Bastarnae, blocking their invasion into Transylvania. The Roman historian Trogus Pompeius wrote about king Oroles punishing his soldiers into sleeping at their wives' feet and doing the household chores, because of their initial failure in defeating the invaders. Subsequently, the now "highly motivated" Dacian army defeated the Bastarnae and king Oroles lifted all sanctions.

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Pherecydes of Syros
Pherecydes of Syros (^{[pronunciation?]}; In Greek: Φερεκύδης ) was a Greek thinker from the island of Syros, of the 6th century BC. Pherecydes authored the Pentemychos or Heptamychos, one of the first attested prose works in Greek literature, which formed an important bridge between mythic and pre-Socratic thought.
Aristotle wrote in Met xii 4 of Pherecydes being in part a mythological writer and Plutarch in Parallel Lives (Sulla 36), instead wrote of him being a Theologus (theologian). He was considered to have had the greater significance in teaching on the subject of metampsychosis, and in writings extant in the time of Alexander although no longer so. This having been written in prose language, he is, in fact, considered the first to have communicated or conveyed discourse on philosophical musings in the prose (Smith 1870). According to tradition he floruit 544-541 B.C.E It has been said that he was a son of Babys, and that he was most likely active in ca. 540 BC.
Pherecydes' book is in some sources said to have been titled "Pentemychos" translated as five (πέντε) "recesses" or alternatively, "the five sanctuaries", in some sources said to have been titled "Heptamycho" translated as "seven (ἑπτά) recesses". There seems to be no complete agreement among scholars on which sources to trust regarding the title of Pherecydes' book, the standard survey reference on the Presocratic philosophers by Kirk, Raven and Schofield, opts for "Heptamychos". The author of the only modern scholarly book devoted entirely to Pherecydes, Hermann S. Schibli, argues that "Pentemychos" was the true title. In this work, Pherecydes taught his philosophy through the medium of mythic representations. Although it is lost, the fragments that survive are enough to reconstruct a basic outline.

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Phrygia
In antiquity, Phrygia ( /ˈfrɪdʒiə/; Greek: Φρυγία, Ancient Greek: [pʰryɡía]) Turkish: Frigya) was a kingdom in the west central part of Anatolia, in what is now modern-day Turkey, centered around the Sakarya River.
The Phrygians are most famous for their legendary kings of the heroic age of Greek mythology: Gordias whose Gordian Knot would later be untied by Alexander the Great, Midas who turned whatever he touched to gold, and Mygdon who warred with the Amazons. According to Homer's Iliad, the Phrygians were close allies of the Trojans and participants in the Trojan War against the Achaeans. Phrygian power reached its zenith in the late 8th century BC under another, historical King Midas, who dominated most of western and central Anatolia and rivaled Assyria and Urartu for power in eastern Anatolia. This later Midas was however also the last independent king of Phrygia before its capital Gordium was sacked by Cimmerians around 695 BC. Phrygia then became subject to Lydia, and then successively to Persia, Alexander and his Hellenistic successors, Pergamon, Rome and Byzantium. Phrygians were gradually assimilated into other cultures by the early medieval era, and the name Phrygia passed out of usage as a territorial designation after the Turkish conquest of Anatolia.

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Piephigi
Piephigi was a Dacian tribe.

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Piroboridava

Piroboridava (Ancient Greek: Πιροβορίδαυα) was a Dacian town mentioned by Ptolemy, and archaeologically identified at Poiana, Galați, Romania. Second part name of the city Dacian dava shows significance of the tribal city.

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Potulatense
Potulatense was a Dacian tribe.

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Praxiteles
Praxiteles ( /prækˈsɪtɨliːz/; Ancient Greek: Πραξιτέλης) of Athens, the son of Cephisodotus the Elder, was the most renowned of the Attic sculptors of the 4th century BC. He was the first to sculpt the nude female form in a life-size statue. While no indubitably attributable sculpture by Praxiteles is extant, numerous copies of his works have survived; several authors, including Pliny the Elder, wrote of his works; and coins engraved with silhouettes of his various famous statuary types from the period still exist.
A supposed relationship between Praxiteles and his beautiful model, the Thespian courtesan Phryne, has inspired speculation and interpretation in works of art ranging from painting (Gérôme) to comic opera (Saint-Saëns) to shadow puppetry (Donnay).
Some writers have maintained that there were two sculptors of the name Praxiteles. One was a contemporary of Pheidias, and the other his more celebrated grandson. Though the repetition of the same name in every other generation is common in Greece, there is no certain evidence for either position.

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Predasense
The Predasense were a Dacian tribe.

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Rhadacense
Rhadacense was a Dacian tribe.

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Rick Riordan
Richard Russell "Rick" Riordan (/ˈraɪərˌdɛn/), Jr. (born June 5, 1964) is an American author best known for writing the Percy Jackson & the Olympians series. He also wrote the Tres Navarre mystery series for adults and helped to edit Demigods and Monsters, a collection of essays on the topic of his Percy Jackson series. He helped develop the ten books in The 39 Clues series, published by Scholastic Corporation, and wrote the first book in the series, The Maze of Bones. He recently completed a trilogy that focuses on Egyptian mythology, The Kane Chronicles, and is working on The Heroes of Olympus, which is the sequel to the Percy Jackson series and focuses on Greek and Roman mythology.
Rick was raised in Texas. He graduated from Alamo Heights High School in 1982 and the University of Texas at Austin in 1986, where he double-majored in English and Social Studies. Riordan taught English and Social Studies in Presidio Hill School in San Francisco for eight years. He was awarded St. Mary's Hall's first Master Teacher Award in 2002.

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Rubobostes
Rubobostes was a Dacian king in Transylvania, during the 2nd century BC.
He was mentioned in Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus's Prolegomena. Trogus wrote that during his rule, the Dacians' power increased, as they defeated the Celts who previously held the power in the region.
Trogus Pompeius and Justin mention a rise in Dacian authority under the leadership of King Rubobostes (before 168 BC) which probably suggests the end of Celtic dominance in Transylvania, that is, that they were possibly thrust out of Dacia by the growing power of an indigenous dynasty. Alternatively, some scholars have proposed that the Transylvanian Celts remained but merged into the local culture context and thus ceased to be distinctive archaeologically. It is possible that both processes were partially responsible for the disappearance of La Tene material in Romania.

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Russians
The Russian people (Russian: русские, russkiye) are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Russia, speaking the Russian language and primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries.
The English term Russians is also used to refer to the citizens of Russia, regardless of their ethnicity; the demonym Russian is translated into Russian as rossiyanin (россиянин, plural rossiyane), while the ethnic Russians are referred to as russkiye (sg. русский, russkiy).
According to the 2010 census, ethnic Russians make up about 81% of the population of Russia.
The modern Russian is formed from two groups, Northern and Southern, which were made up of Kriviches, Ilmen Slavs, Radimichs, Vyatiches and Severians East Slavic tribes. Genetic studies show that modern Russians do not differ significantly from Poles or Slovenians or Ukrainians. Some ethnographers, like Zelenin, affirm that Russians are more similar to Belarusians and Ukrainians than southern Russians to northern Russians. Russians in northern European Russia share moderate genetic similarities with Uralic peoples, who lived in modern north central European Russia and were partly assimilated by the Slavs as the Slavs migrated northeastwards. Among those peoples were Merya and Muromian.

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Saldense
Saldense was a Dacian tribe.

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Scaugdae
Scaugdae was a tribe of Getae.

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Sophocles
Sophocles ( /ˈsɒfəkliːz/; Ancient Greek: Σοφοκλῆς, Sophoklēs, Greek pronunciation: [sopʰoklɛ̂ːs]; c. 497/6 BC – winter 406/5 BC) is one of three ancient Greek tragedians whose plays have survived. His first plays were written later than those of Aeschylus, and earlier than or contemporary with those of Euripides. According to the Suda, a 10th century encyclopedia, Sophocles wrote 123 plays during the course of his life, but only seven have survived in a complete form: Ajax, Antigone, The Women of Trachis, Oedipus the King, Electra, Philoctetes and Oedipus at Colonus. For almost 50 years, Sophocles was the most-fêted playwright in the dramatic competitions of the city-state of Athens that took place during the religious festivals of the Lenaea and the Dionysia. He competed in around 30 competitions, won perhaps 24, and was never judged lower than second place. Aeschylus won 14 competitions, and was sometimes defeated by Sophocles, while Euripides won only 4 competitions.
The most famous tragedies of Sophocles feature Oedipus and Antigone: they are generally known as the Theban plays, although each play was actually a part of a different tetralogy, the other members of which are now lost. Sophocles influenced the development of the drama, most importantly by adding a third actor, thereby reducing the importance of the chorus in the presentation of the plot. He also developed his characters to a greater extent than earlier playwrights such as Aeschylus.

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Stephen Howarth
Stephen Purbeck Howarth known as S.P. (born 23 July 1981) is a poet, Stuckist artist and actor. He was expelled from college for his paintings. He has demonstrated against the Turner prize at the Tate gallery.
Stephen Howarth was born in Lewisham, London and educated at St Christopher School, Letchworth. He is severely dyslexic. In 2000, he attended Camberwell College of Arts and was in the Students for Stuckism group. In 2002, he was "expelled from the painting course for doing paintings." He said:
The incident was reported in The Times with the headline "Art students accuse college of failing to teach them the basics". Other students supported him and there were also letters of support in the newspaper.
Howarth was then given the inaugural show at the Stuckism International Gallery in Shoreditch, with the title I Don't Want a Painting Degree if it Means Not Painting. He was in the first group show at the gallery, The Stuckists First International, and subsequent shows.
Sarah Kent in Time Out called his painting, Midnight in the hotel Suburbia, "soft porn". He responded that it was "hard porn".

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Stephen Sondheim
Stephen Joshua Sondheim ( /ˈsɒnd.haɪm/) (born March 22, 1930) is an American composer and lyricist known for his contributions to musical theatre. He is the winner of an Academy Award, eight Tony Awards (more than any other composer) including the Special Tony Award for Lifetime Achievement in the Theatre, multiple Grammy Awards, a Pulitzer Prize and the Laurence Olivier Award. Described by Frank Rich of the New York Times as "the greatest, and perhaps best-known artist working in musical theatre", his most famous works include (as composer/lyricist) A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum, Company, Follies, A Little Night Music, Sweeney Todd, Sunday in the Park with George and Into the Woods. He also wrote the lyrics for West Side Story and Gypsy.
Sondheim has also written material for movies, including the 1981 Warren Beatty film Reds, contributing the song "Goodbye For Now". He also wrote five songs for the 1990 movie Dick Tracy, including "Sooner or Later (I Always Get My Man)", which won the Academy Award for Best Song.

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Teurisci
Teurisci was a Dacian tribe at the time of Ptolemy (140 AD). They are considered originally Celts, a branch of the Celtic Taurisci (Noricum), who moved to Upper Tisza. However, the archaeology shows that Celts have been absorbed by Dacians, at some extent both creating a Celto-Dacian cultural horizon in the upper Tisza.
The name Teurisci is considered a variant of Taurisci or Tauristae.
The Celtic Taurisci were settled in the south-eastern Alps and were known from the name of Mount Taurus. Due to iron mining, their centers (i.e. Noreia - now Newmarkt and Virunum now Magdalensburg) enjoyed great success in trade and commerce with the Balkans. The lowland Taurisci gradually grew in power and became largely separate from their mountain relatives. Therefore, the inhabitants of this eastern area became known collectively – from the place name Noreia – as Norici and the territory under their control as Noricum.
Teurisci, attested by Ptolemy in Dacia, were originally a group of the Celtic Taurisci from the Austrian Alps established in North-Western Dacia at the end of Iron Age.

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Titian
Tiziano Vecelli or Tiziano Vecellio (c. 1488/1490 – 27 August 1576) known in English as Titian ( /ˈtɪʃən/) was an Italian painter, the most important member of the 16th-century Venetian school. He was born in Pieve di Cadore, near Belluno (in Veneto), in the Republic of Venice. During his lifetime he was often called da Cadore, taken from the place of his birth.
Recognized by his contemporaries as "The Sun Amidst Small Stars" (recalling the famous final line of Dante's Paradiso), Titian was one of the most versatile of Italian painters, equally adept with portraits, landscape backgrounds, and mythological and religious subjects. His painting methods, particularly in the application and use of color, would exercise a profound influence not only on painters of the Italian Renaissance, but on future generations of Western art.
During the course of his long life, Titian's artistic manner changed drastically but he retained a lifelong interest in color. Although his mature works may not contain the vivid, luminous tints of his early pieces, their loose brushwork and subtlety of polychromatic modulations are without precedent in the history of Western art.

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Tori Amos
Tori Amos (born Myra Ellen Amos; August 22, 1963) is an American pianist, singer-songwriter and composer. Amos originally served as the lead singer of 1980s synthpop group Y Kant Tori Read, and as a solo artist was at the forefront of a number of female singer-songwriters in the early 1990s. She was also noteworthy early in her solo career as one of the few alternative rock performers to use a piano as her primary instrument. Some of her charting singles include "Crucify", "Silent All These Years", "God", "Cornflake Girl", "Caught a Lite Sneeze", "Professional Widow", "Spark", "1000 Oceans", and "A Sorta Fairytale", her most commercially successful single in the U.S. to date.
As of 2005, Amos had sold 12 million albums worldwide. She has been nominated for 8 Grammy Awards. Amos was also named one of People Magazine's 50 Most Beautiful People in 1996.
Amos was born in Newton, North Carolina. When she was two, her family moved to Baltimore, Maryland, where she began to play the piano. By age five, she had begun composing instrumental pieces on piano and, while living in Rockville, Maryland, she won a full scholarship to the Preparatory Division of the Peabody Conservatory of Music. Her scholarship was discontinued at age 11 and she was asked to leave. Amos has asserted that she lost the scholarship because of her interest in rock and popular music, coupled with her dislike for reading from sheet music. In 1972, The Amos family moved to Silver Spring, Maryland, where her father, Reverend Edison Amos, became pastor of the Good Shepherd United Methodist church. At the age of 13 she began playing at gay bars and piano bars, chaperoned by her father.

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Trajan
Trajan ( /ˈtreɪdʒən/; Latin: Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus Augustus; 18 September 53 – 9 August 117), was Roman Emperor from 98 to 117 AD. Born into a non-patrician family in the province of Hispania Baetica, Trajan rose to prominence during the reign of emperor Domitian. Serving as a legatus legionis in Hispania Tarraconensis, in 89 Trajan supported the emperor against a revolt on the Rhine led by Antonius Saturninus.
In September 96, Domitian was succeeded by Marcus Cocceius Nerva, an old and childless senator who proved to be unpopular with the army. After a brief and tumultuous year in power, a revolt by members of the Praetorian Guard compelled him to adopt the more popular Trajan as his heir and successor. Nerva died on 27 January 98, and was succeeded by his adopted son without incident.
As a civilian administrator, Trajan is best known for his extensive public building program which reshaped the city of Rome and left multiple enduring landmarks such as Trajan's Forum, Trajan's Market and Trajan's Column. Early in his reign, he annexed the Nabataean kingdom, creating the province of Arabia Petraea. His conquest of Dacia enriched the empire greatly — the new province possessed many valuable gold mines.

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Trixae
Trixae was a Dacian tribe.

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Trojan War
In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans (Greeks) after Paris of Troy took Helen from her husband Menelaus king of Sparta. The war is one of the most important events in Greek mythology and has been narrated through many works of Greek literature, most notably through Homer's Iliad and the Odyssey. The Iliad relates a part of the last year of the siege of Troy; the Odyssey describes Odysseus's journey home. Other parts of the war are contained in a cycle of epic poems, which have survived through fragments. Episodes from the war provided material for Greek tragedy and other works of Greek literature, and for Roman poets including Virgil and Ovid.
The war originated from a quarrel between the goddesses Athena, Hera, and Aphrodite, after Eris, the goddess of strife and discord, gave them a golden apple, sometimes known as the Apple of Discord, marked "for the fairest". Zeus sent the goddesses to Paris, who judged that Aphrodite, as the "fairest", should receive the apple. In exchange, Aphrodite made Helen, the most beautiful of all women and wife of Menelaus, fall in love with Paris, who took her to Troy. Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and the brother of Helen's husband Menelaus, led an expedition of Achaean troops to Troy and besieged the city for ten years because of Paris' insult. After the deaths of many heroes, including the Achaeans Achilles and Ajax, and the Trojans Hector and Paris, the city fell to the ruse of the Trojan Horse. The Achaeans slaughtered the Trojans (except for some of the women and children whom they kept or sold as slaves) and desecrated the temples, thus earning the gods' wrath. Few of the Achaeans returned safely to their homes and many founded colonies in distant shores. The Romans later traced their origin to Aeneas, one of the Trojans, who was said to have led the surviving Trojans to modern day Italy.

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Tyrrhenians
The Tyrrhenians (Attic Greek: Τυρρηνοί - Turrhēnoi) or Tyrsenians (Ionic: Τυρσηνοί - Tursēnoi; Doric: Τυρσανοί - Tursānoi) is an exonym used by Greek authors to refer to a non-Greek people.
The origin of the name is uncertain. It is only known to be used by Greek authors, but apparently not of Greek origin. It has been connected to tursis, also a "Mediterranean" loan into Greek, meaning "tower" (see there). Direct connections with Tusci, the Latin exonym for the Etruscans, from Turs-ci have also been attempted. See also Turan, tyrant.
The earliest instances in literature are in Hesiod and the Homeric hymn to Dionysus. Hesiod has
And they [the sons of Circe] ruled over the famous Tyrsenians, very far off in a recess of the holy islands.
The Homeric hymn to Dionysus has Tyrsenian pirates seizing Dionysus,
Presently there came swiftly over the sparkling sea Tyrsenian pirates on a well-decked ship — a miserable doom led them on.
Later, in the 6th to 5th centuries BC, the name referred specifically to the Etruscans, for whom the Tyrrhenian Sea is named, according to Strabo. In Pindar, the Tyrsanoi appear grouped with the Carthaginians as a threat to Magna Graecia:

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Walt Disney
Walter Elias "Walt" Disney (December 5, 1901 – December 15, 1966) was an American film producer, director, screenwriter, voice actor, animator, entrepreneur, entertainer, international icon, and philanthropist, well known for his influence in the field of entertainment during the 20th century. Along with his brother Roy O. Disney, he was co-founder of Walt Disney Productions, which later became one of the best-known motion picture producers in the world. The corporation is now known as The Walt Disney Company and had an annual revenue of approximately US$36 billion in the 2010 financial year.
Disney is particularly noted as a film producer and a popular showman, as well as an innovator in animation and theme park design. He and his staff created some of the world's most well-known fictional characters including Mickey Mouse, for whom Disney himself provided the original voice. During his lifetime he received four honorary Academy Awards and won 22 Academy Awards from a total of 59 nominations, including a record four in one year, giving him more awards and nominations than any other individual in history. Disney also won seven Emmy Awards and gave his name to the Disneyland and Walt Disney World Resort theme parks in the U.S., as well as the international resorts Tokyo Disney Resort, Disneyland Paris, and Hong Kong Disneyland.

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Walter Burkert
Walter Burkert (born 2 February 1931 in Neuendettelsau) is a German scholar of Greek mythology and cult.
An emeritus professor of classics at the University of Zurich, Switzerland, he also has taught in the United Kingdom and the United States. He has influenced generations of students of religion since the 1960s, combining in the modern way the findings of archaeology and epigraphy with the work of poets, historians, and philosophers.
He has published books on the balance between lore and science among the followers of Pythagoras, and more extensively on ritual and archaic cult survival, on the ritual killing at the heart of religion, on mystery religions, and on the reception in the Hellenic world of Near Eastern and Persian culture, which sets Greek religion in its wider Aegean and Near Eastern context.
Burkert was born at Neuendettelsau, Bavaria.
Burkert married Maria Bosch in 1957 and has three children, Reinhard, Andrea and Cornelius. His career as a successful scholar was clearly foreseen in his early years, as a student in higher education. He studied classical philology, history, and philosophy at the Universities of Erlangen and Munich (1950–1954), and obtained his doctorate in philosophy at Erlangen in 1955. He became an Assistant in course teaching at Erlangen for five years (1957–1961) and, following his marriage, returned to his former University as Lecturer for another five years (until 1966). From early 1965 he worked as a Junior Fellow in the Center for Hellenic Studies in Washington, D.C. for one year. The first academic era of his life ended with a placement as Professor of Classical Philology at the Technical University of Berlin (1966–1969), and as Guest Professor at Harvard University for a year (1968).

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William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare (baptised 26 April 1564; died 23 April 1616) was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon". His surviving works, including some collaborations, consist of about 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and several other poems. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright.
Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children: Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Between 1585 and 1592, he began a successful career in London as an actor, writer, and part owner of a playing company called the Lord Chamberlain's Men, later known as the King's Men. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613 at age 49, where he died three years later. Few records of Shakespeare's private life survive, and there has been considerable speculation about such matters as his physical appearance, sexuality, religious beliefs, and whether the works attributed to him were written by others.

wn.com/William_Shakespeare
Zalmoxis
Zalmoxis (Greek Ζάλμοξις, also known as Salmoxis, Σάλμοξις, Zamolxis, Ζάμολξις, or Samolxis, Σάμολξις), is a divinity of the Getae, mentioned by Herodotus in his Histories IV, 93-96. In later interpretations, which begin with Jordanes (6th century AC) and have proliferated during the 19th and 20th century, mainly in Romania, he was regarded as the sole god of the Getae (not to be confounded in this context with the Thracians or their relatives, the Dacians) or as a legendary social and religious reformer of the Getae people to which he would have taught, following Herodotus, the belief in immortality, so that they considered dying merely as going to Zalmoxis. Herodotus states that Zalmoxis was also called by some of the Getae Gebeleizis, which made some searchers conclude that Getae were actually henotheists or even polytheists. Another discussion exists about the chthonic, infernal, or uranian, heavenly, character of Zalmoxis.

wn.com/Zalmoxis

Dionysus - Anima Mundi

Great song !!!...

published: 26 Apr 2009

author: yukiusan81

DIONYSUS

The Greek God Dionysus does not only stand for revelry. He stands for the oppressed in an ...

published: 24 Jul 2011

author: briellesg

Jocelyn Pook - Dionysus

Gangs of New York soundtrack (as well as Jocelyn Pook's "Untold Things")...

published: 21 May 2008

author: 1michelemichele1

Dionysus

God of wine, merriment, and fertility...

published: 18 Jan 2008

author: witch2b

Gallery of the Gods: Dionysus

Troy DVD's profile of the God of Wine....

published: 14 Aug 2007

author: Tebor2

Dionysus - "March for Freedom"

"March for Freedom" by Dionysus. From the album 'Anima Mundi', released in 2004 on AFM Rec...

published: 30 Oct 2007

author: pEuAsTsSy

Pagan God : Dionysus

Mal Corvus Witchcraft Paganism and Folklore www.malcorvus.blogspot.co.uk Pagan God Dionysu...

published: 08 May 2009

author: mywitchcraft

Dionysus - Time Will Tell

Dionysus Live 2002...

published: 26 Nov 2006

author: Andherson

Dionysus - Holy war [Lyrics]

Dionysus - Holy war, from album Sign of truth. Enjoy!...

published: 12 Mar 2009

author: Lerppasd

Dionysus - "Forever More"

"Forever More" by Dionysus. From the album 'Anima Mundi', released in 2004 on AFM Records ...

published: 10 Nov 2007

author: pEuAsTsSy

Dionysus - my heart is crying

Never thought I'd be caught in the web Like a lamb lying down to be slaughtered Put down y...

published: 30 Dec 2008

author: Katusutariina

Dionysus - The World

The World by Dionysus "Fairytales And Reality"...

published: 12 Apr 2008

author: MacSebbe

Dionysus - Don't Forget

The song Don't Forget from Dionysus first album Sign Of Truth....

published: 07 Apr 2008

author: MacSebbe

Illusion Of Life - Dionysus

From thealbum Fairytales and Reality, released in August 23, 2006 by ATM Records. ATM Reco...

published: 19 Dec 2007

author: MetalRevolutionRadio

Bacchus Racchus - The What

www.revolutionisforlovers.com A long lost underground classic video from The What, the gre...

published: 19 Aug 2010

author: Lucas Revolution

March Issue 2011 Surfing Magazine

MES AMIES: I WRITE TO YOU SURROUNDED BY AMERICAN FAST-FOOD WRAPPERS AND UNOPENED BILLS....

published: 27 Jan 2011

author: SURFING Magazine

Dionysus

Short film from Ted Michalowski's birthday party at Dionysus. Credits: Drawing: Ted Mic...

published: 08 Feb 2009

author: Bob Sweeney

Dionysus

On an insignificant space station in the distant future, one crew member has an important ...

published: 08 May 2008

author: Christian Lapidge

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photo: AP / Virginie Nguyen Huang

In this Monday, Dec. 17, 2012 photo, a Free Syrian Army fighter takes cover during fighting with the Syrian Army in Azaz, Syria.

Syria's chemical weapons safe for now: Russia

Newstrack India

23 Dec 2012

Tweet. Moscow, Dec 23 (IANS/RIA Novosti) Chemical weapons in Syria are under the control of the government, which has consolidated them in one or two locations, Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov said. "As of right now, the (Syrian) government is doing all it can to safeguard those weapons," he said. "We are following all leads concerning chemical weapons," Lavrov said ... "My answer is very simple. Why use us as a postman ... pm/ ... ) .. ). ... . ....(size: 3.2Kb)

photo: Creative Commons / Giorgione

Anbetung der Hirten (Adoration of the Shepherds) (c. 1500–10), by Italian painter Giorgio da Castelfranco. Christians celebrate the birth of Jesus to the Virgin Mary as a fulfillment of the Old Testament's Messianic prophecy.

Liberating Burdensome and Tortuous Beasts (An Animal Liberation Theology)

WorldNews.com

24 Dec 2012

Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. A deadly silence immediately followed after a bullet penetrated the calf's skull. Against my wishes, Vic had decided against either amputating its leg or contacting a veterinarian-something he reasoned would have been too expensive. The unfortunate calf had slid down into a ravine where its hind leg, which was mangled and torn, became wrapped in barbed wire ... But it was more than a bellow ... 9....(size: 6.3Kb)

photo: AP / Musadeq Sadeq

A member of security escorts a U.S. convoy in to the Kabul police headquarters, where a an American advisor was killed in Kabul, Afghanistan, Monday, Dec. 24, 2012.

Afghan policewoman kills US adviser in Kabul

my SA

24 Dec 2012

KABUL, Afghanistan (AP) — An Afghan policewoman shot and killed an American adviser outside the police headquarters in Kabul on Monday, the latest in a rising tide of insider attacks by Afghans against their foreign allies, senior Afghan officials said. The woman, identified as Afghan police Sgt ... The woman was taken into Afghan custody shortly after the attack ... As many Afghans, the policewoman uses only one name ... Air Force Lt. Col ... Gen ... ....(size: 4.6Kb)

photo: AP / Altaf Qadri

Indian police officers baton charge protesters near the Presidential Palace in New Delhi, India, Saturday, Dec. 22, 2012.

India govt to probe gang-rape, enhance punishment

Khaleej Times

23 Dec 2012

A commission will be set up to probe the gang-rape and torture of a 23-year-old woman in Delhi and measures to ensure such crimes do not recur while laws will be amended to enhance punishment for rape, Home Minister Sushilkumar Shinde said . He also appealed the thousands of protesters on the capital’s streets, demanding justice for the victim, to withdraw ... “The government is serious on the issue. ...  . . ....(size: 2.4Kb)

photo: AP

Members of Myanmar Fire Brigade team gather near a damaged Air Bagan passenger plane in Heho, Shan State, Myanmar, Tuesday, Dec. 25, 2012.

Two killed and 11 injured in Burma emergency landing

BBC News

25 Dec 2012

Two people, including a young child, have been killed and another 11 injured during an emergency landing in Burma, officials say. The Air Bagan plane was carrying more than 60 passengers, many of whom were foreign nationals ... "The cause of the accident is not clear yet ... ....(size: 1.4Kb)

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The week ahead: Giles Fraser's guide to midnight mass – and Doctor Who

IMDb

23 Dec 2012

I generally prefer the gods of Dionysus – and yes, even Bacchus — to the chillier marble of Apollo. Much more human, which I guess is unsurprising given that Dionysus is half god ......(size: 1.0Kb)

Magical Correspondences for December Magic

The Examiner

21 Dec 2012

If you are looking to do magical works in the month of December, here are a few correspondences to strengthen and fire up your workings. December is also known as.. Aerra Geola (Anglo Saxaon). “The Month Before Yule”. Heilagmanoth (Frankish tradition) “Holy Month”. Wolfmoon (Asatru). Mi na Nollag (Irish) Christmas Month ... Gods include Attis, Dionysus, Freyr, the Horned God, Odin, Osiris, Poseidon and Saturn ... Cold Moon (Algonquian) ... Sources. ... ....(size: 3.2Kb)

END OF YEAR TRADING STATEMENT, 2012 (Providence Resources plc)

noodls

20 Dec 2012

(Source. Providence Resources plc). Embargo 7.00am. 20th December 2012 PROVIDENCE RESOURCES P.l.c. END OF YEAR TRADING STATEMENT 2012. HIGHLIGHTS. 2012 was a landmark year for Providence Resources P.l.c. ("Providence" or the "Company"), the Irish oil and gas exploration, appraisal and development company, whose shares are listed in London (AIM) and Dublin (IEX) ... 2012 at the Barryroe oil field in the Celtic Sea Basin ... OIP REC ... 287. 16% ... Dionysus....(size: 29.3Kb)

A history of Yule

The Examiner

19 Dec 2012

The holiday of Yule or Yuletide is just around the corner and Mother Nature has been sharing her joy of the season here in the Puget Sound with a light dusting of snow. Yule is a Pagan holiday that was later absorbed and combined with the Christian holiday of Christmas ... The Yule holiday is closely associated with Pagan gods such as Oedipus, Theseus, Hercules, Perseus, Jason, Dionysus, Apollo, Mithra, Horus, and Arthur ... ....(size: 2.9Kb)

Six true Champagnes bargains

The Washington Post

18 Dec 2012

Recommended champagnes. r r rExceptional r rExcellent rVery Good. Prices are approximate. Check Winesearcher.com to verify availability, or ask a favorite wine store to order through a distributor. The half-dozen bottles on this list will make your celebrations — annual or daily — quite satisfying. A few are in limited supply. And four will cost you $40 or less. — D.M ... A few are in limited supply ... ★★★ ... Dionysus ... R ... ....(size: 6.9Kb)

Twelve Months of Reading

Wall Street Journal

15 Dec 2012

Judd Apatow. I am honored to have been asked to recommend books because I love books. I mean, I love buying books. I can't say I read most of the books I buy. Recently I decided to believe that buying books is as good as reading them ... Close ... 21) ... Mr ... "Apollo and Dionysus," the author's little essay on Cézanne and Picasso, goes a long way to explicating both the lives and careers of the two painters, a few words illuminating much canvas....(size: 74.3Kb)

Christmas is an ancient celebration of light, with many gods born on December 25

The Examiner

10 Dec 2012

Some of these solstice-born or resurrected gods included Mithra, Horus/Osiris, the Greek god Dionysus and the Phrygian savior Attis ... The sun, whom they call with the surname Dionysus ... Zeus is one, Hades is one, the sun is one, Dionysus is one ... Dionysus....(size: 5.4Kb)

Choosing a good name for your cat (Video)

The Examiner

10 Dec 2012

So you've decided to get a new cat for your house, but you're having trouble deciding on a name for him or her. Vetstreet.com has compiled a list of trendy names for both male and female cats ... Photo credit.  ... Another good mythological pair would be Ariadne and Dionysus, although both names certainly stand alone. Ariadne was Dionysus' wife in Greek mythology, but was a princess abandoned in Naxos by Theseus, and rescued by Dionysus ... ....(size: 3.5Kb)

Guest Post by Author, Elisabeth Storrs!

The Examiner

08 Dec 2012

Warding off Evil. The Power of A Loving Embrace ... The image of the lovers remained with me ... Etruscan women were afforded education, high status and independence ... Etruscan women dined with their husbands at banquets and drank wine ... Many worshipped the religion of Fufluns, the Greek Dionysus and Roman Bacchus, whose later cult adherents were famous for indulging in debauchery but in its purest form was a belief in the power of regeneration ... ....(size: 6.2Kb)

Recommended sparkling wines

The Washington Post

07 Dec 2012

Here are some sparkling wines that will brighten your holidays but not lighten your wallet. Next week I’ll offer champagne recommendations. — D.M. Loading... Comments Weigh In Corrections?. Recommend. Personal Post. Free Range on Food. Free Range on Food is a forum for discussion of all things culinary. Join us every Wednesday at noon. More from Food. Imported sparkling wines to try ... On a wine lover’s wish list ... ★★★ ... Bacchus ... Dionysus ... ....(size: 5.8Kb)

Today I'd go ... to the Greek islands

STL Today

06 Dec 2012

Heck, I have a degree in classical studies ... From the email. ... Tour includes a dinner at the legendary Dionysus Restaurant with breathtaking views of the Acropolis, exclusive lecture by a historian at the Delphi Museum, wine tasting, and a donkey ride along up the spectacular cliffs of Santorini ... ....(size: 1.4Kb)

Museum returns stolen artefacts

Independent online (SA)

06 Dec 2012

Dallas - The Dallas Museum of Art has returned an ancient piece of artwork to Turkish officials after learning that the piece was likely looted from an archeological site ... The museum bought the piece at public auction in 1999, officials said ... The piece dates from 194 A.D ... O ... These pieces include. ... acquired by the museum in 1998 ... * A Greek krater decorated with a design of myrtle and grape vine leaves, symbols of the Greek god Dionysus ... ....(size: 4.3Kb)

Dallas art museum returns stolen mosaic to Turkish officials

Reuters

04 Dec 2012

DALLAS (Reuters) - The Dallas Museum of Art has returned an ancient piece of artwork to Turkish officials after learning that the piece was likely looted from an archeological site ... The museum bought the piece at public auction in 1999, officials said ... The piece dates from 194 A.D. and measures approximately 64 inches by 60 inches ... A Greek krater decorated with a design of myrtle and grape vine leaves, symbols of the Greek god Dionysus....(size: 3.8Kb)

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"Bacchus" redirects here. For other uses, see Bacchus (disambiguation).

This article is about the Greco-Roman deity. For other uses of the names "Dionysus" and "Dionysos", see Dionysos (disambiguation). For other uses of the theophoric name "Dionysius", see Dionysius (disambiguation).

Dionysus
2nd century Roman statue of Dionysus, after a Hellenistic model (ex-coll. Cardinal Richelieu, Louvre)^[1]
God of Wine, Theatre, and Ecstasy
Abode	Mount Olympus
Symbol	Thyrsus, grapevine, leopard skin, panther, tiger, leopard
Consort	Ariadne
Parents	Zeus and Semele
Mount	Mount Olympus
Roman equivalent	Bacchus, Liber

Dionysus /daɪ.əˈnaɪsəs/ dy-ə-NY-səs (Ancient Greek: Διόνυσος, Dionysos) was the god of the grape harvest, winemaking and wine, of ritual madness and ecstasy in Greek mythology. His name in Linear B tablets shows he was worshipped from c. 1500—1100 BC by Mycenean Greeks: other traces of Dionysian-type cult have been found in ancient Minoan Crete.^[2] His origins are uncertain, and his cults took many forms; some are described by ancient sources as Thracian, others as Greek.^[3]^[4]^[5] In some cults, he arrives from the east, as an Asiatic foreigner; in others, from Ethiopia in the South. He is a god of epiphany, "the god that comes", and his "foreignness" as an arriving outsider-god may be inherent and essential to his cults. He is a major, popular figure of Greek mythology and religion, and is included in some lists of the twelve Olympians. His festivals were the driving force behind the development of Greek theatre. He is an example of a dying god.^[6]^[7]

The earliest cult images of Dionysus show a mature male, bearded and robed. He holds a fennel staff, tipped with a pine-cone and known as a thyrsus. Later images show him as a beardless, sensuous, naked or half-naked androgynous youth: the literature describes him as womanly or "man-womanish".^[8] In its fully developed form, his central cult imagery shows his triumphant, disorderly arrival or return, as if from some place beyond the borders of the known and civilized. His procession (thiasus) is made up of wild female followers (maenads) and ithyphallic, bearded satyrs. Some are armed with the thyrsus, some dance or play music. The god himself is drawn in a chariot, usually by exotic beasts such as lions or tigers, and is sometimes attended by a bearded, drunken Silenus. This procession is presumed to be the cult model for the human followers of his Dionysian Mysteries. In his Thracian mysteries, he wears the bassaris or fox-skin, symbolizing a new life. Dionysus is represented by city religions as the protector of those who do not belong to conventional society and thus symbolizes everything which is chaotic, dangerous and unexpected, everything which escapes human reason and which can only be attributed to the unforeseeable action of the gods.^[9]

He was also known as Bacchus ( /ˈbækəs/ or /ˈbɑːkəs/; Greek: Βάκχος, Bakkhos), the name adopted by the Romans^[10] and the frenzy he induces, bakkheia. His thyrsus is sometimes wound with ivy and dripping with honey. It is a beneficent wand but also a weapon, and can be used to destroy those who oppose his cult and the freedoms he represents. He is also the Liberator (Eleutherios), whose wine, music and ecstatic dance frees his followers from self-conscious fear and care, and subverts the oppressive restraints of the powerful. Those who partake in his mysteries are possessed and empowered by the god himself.^[11] His cult is also a "cult of the souls"; his maenads feed the dead through blood-offerings, and he acts as a divine communicant between the living and the dead.^[12]

In Greek mythology, he is presented as a son of Zeus and the mortal Semele, thus semi-divine or heroic: and as son of Zeus and Persephone or Demeter, thus both fully divine, part-chthonic and possibly identical with Iacchus of the Eleusinian Mysteries. Some scholars believe that Dionysus is a syncretism of a local Greek nature deity and a more powerful god from Thrace or Phrygia such as Sabazios^[13] or Zalmoxis.^[14]

Names [link]

Etymology [link]

Dionysian procession on a marble sarcophagus, possibly indicating that the deceased was an initiate into Dionysian mysteries

The dio- element has been associated since antiquity with Zeus (genitive Dios). The earliest attested form of the name is Mycenaean Greek di-wo-nu-so, written in Linear B syllabic script, presumably for /Diwo(h)nūsos/, found on two tablets at Mycenaean Pylos and dated to the 12th or 13th century BC.^[15]^[16]

Later variants include Dionūsos and Diōnūsos in Boeotia; Dien(n)ūsos in Thessaly; Deonūsos and Deunūsos in Ionia; and Dinnūsos in Aeolia, besides other variants. A Dio- prefix is found in other names, such as that of the Dioscures, and may derive from Dios, the genitive of the name of Zeus.^[17]

The second element -nūsos is associated with Mount Nysa, the birthplace of the god in Greek mythology, where he was nursed by nymphs (the Nysiads),^[18] but according to Pherecydes of Syros, nũsa was an archaic word for "tree".^[19]

The cult of Dionysus was closely associated with trees, specifically the fig tree, and some of his bynames exhibit this, such as Endendros "he in the tree" or Dendritēs, "he of the tree". Peters suggests the original meaning as "he who runs among the trees", or that of a "runner in the woods". Janda (2010) accepts the etymology but proposes the more cosmological interpretation of "he who impels the (world-)tree." This interpretation explains how Nysa could have been re-interpreted from a meaning of "tree" to the name of a mountain: the axis mundi of Indo-European mythology is represented both as a world-tree and as a world-mountain.^[20]

Epithets [link]

Dionysus was variably known with the following epithets:

Acratophorus, ("giver of unmixed wine"), at Phigaleia in Arcadia.^[21]

Acroreites at Sicyon.^[22]

Adoneus ("ruler") in his Latinised, Bacchic cult.^{[citation needed]}^[23]

Aegobolus ("goat killer") at Potniae, in Boeotia.^[24]

Aesymnetes ("ruler" or "lord") at Aroë and Patrae in Achaea.

Agrios ("wild"), in Macedonia.

Bromios ("the thunderer" or "he of the loud shout").

Dendrites ("he of the trees"), as a fertility god.

Dithyrambos, form of address used at his festivals, referring to his premature birth.

Eleutherios ("the liberator"), an epithet for both Dionysus and Eros.

Endendros ("he in the tree").^[25]

Enorches ("with balls",^[26] with reference to his fertility, or "in the testicles" in reference to Zeus' sewing the baby Dionysus into his thigh, i.e., his testicles).^[27] used in Samos and Lesbos.

Erikryptos ("completely hidden"), in Macedonia.

Evius, in Euripides' play, The Bacchae.

Iacchus, possibly an epithet of Dionysus and associated with the Eleusinian Mysteries. In Eleusis, he is known as a son of Zeus and Demeter. The name "Iacchus" may come from the Ιακχος (Iakchos), a hymn sung in honor of Dionysus.

Liknites ("he of the winnowing fan"), as a fertility god connected with the mystery religions. A winnowing fan was used to separate the chaff from the grain.

Lyaeus ("he who unties") or releases from care and anxiety.

Melanaigis ("of the black goatskin") at the Apaturia festival.

Oeneus, as god of the wine press.

Pseudanor ("false man"), in Macedonia.

In the Greek pantheon, Dionysus (along with Zeus) absorbs the role of Sabazios, a Thracian/Phrygian deity. In the Roman pantheon, Sabazius became an alternate name for Bacchus.^[28]

Mythology [link]

Birth [link]

The top course of this Roman sarcophagus shows Dionysus's birth. In the top center, the baby god comes out of Zeus's thigh.

Dionysus had a strange birth that evokes the difficulty in fitting him into the Olympian pantheon. His mother was a mortal woman, Semele, the daughter of king Cadmus of Thebes, and his father was Zeus, the king of the gods. Zeus' wife, Hera, discovered the affair while Semele was pregnant. Appearing as an old crone (in other stories a nurse), Hera befriended Semele, who confided in her that Zeus was the actual father of the baby in her womb. Hera pretended not to believe her, and planted seeds of doubt in Semele's mind. Curious, Semele demanded of Zeus that he reveal himself in all his glory as proof of his godhood.

Though Zeus begged her not to ask this, she persisted and he agreed. Therefore he came to her wreathed in bolts of lightning; mortals, however, could not look upon an undisguised god without dying, and she perished in the ensuing blaze. Zeus rescued the fetal Dionysus by sewing him into his thigh. A few months later, Dionysus was born on Mount Pramnos in the island of Ikaria, where Zeus went to release the now-fully-grown baby from his thigh. In this version, Dionysus is born by two "mothers" (Semele and Zeus) before his birth, hence the epithet dimētōr (of two mothers) associated with his being "twice-born".

In the Cretan version of the same story, which Diodorus Siculus follows,^[29] Dionysus was the son of Zeus and Persephone, the queen of the Greek underworld. Diodorus' sources equivocally identified the mother as Demeter.^[30] A jealous Hera again attempted to kill the child, this time by sending Titans to rip Dionysus to pieces after luring the baby with toys. It is said that he was mocked by the Titans who gave him a thyrsus (a fennel stalk) in place of his rightful sceptre.^[31] Zeus turned the Titans into dust with his thunderbolts, but only after the Titans ate everything but the heart, which was saved, variously, by Athena, Rhea, or Demeter. Zeus used the heart to recreate him in his thigh, hence he was again "the twice-born". Other versions claim that Zeus recreated him in the womb of Semele, or gave Semele the heart to eat to impregnate her.

The rebirth in both versions of the story is the primary reason why Dionysus was worshipped in mystery religions, as his death and rebirth were events of mystical reverence. This narrative was apparently used in several Greek and Roman cults, and variants of it are found in Callimachus and Nonnus, who refer to this Dionysus with the title Zagreus, and also in several fragmentary poems attributed to Orpheus.^{[citation needed]}

The myth of the dismemberment of Dionysus by the Titans, is alluded to by Plato in his Phaedo (69d) in which Socrates claims that the initiations of the Dionysian Mysteries are similar to those of the philosophic path. Late Neo-Platonists such as Damascius explore the implications of this at length.^[32]

Infancy at Mount Nysa [link]

Hermes and the Infant Dionysus by Praxiteles, (Archaeological Museum of Olympia).

According to the myth Zeus gave the infant Dionysus into the charge of Hermes. One version of the story is that Hermes took the boy to King Athamas and his wife Ino, Dionysus' aunt. Hermes bade the couple raise the boy as a girl, to hide him from Hera's wrath.^[33] Another version is that Dionysus was taken to the rain-nymphs of Nysa, who nourished his infancy and childhood, and for their care Zeus rewarded them by placing them as the Hyades among the stars (see Hyades star cluster). Other versions have Zeus giving him to Rhea, or to Persephone to raise in the Underworld, away from Hera. Alternatively, he was raised by Maro.

Dionysus in Greek mythology is a god of foreign origin, and while Mount Nysa is a mythological location, it is invariably set far away to the east or to the south. The Homeric hymn to Dionysus places it "far from Phoenicia, near to the Egyptian stream". Others placed it in Anatolia, or in Libya ('away in the west beside a great ocean'), in Ethiopia (Herodotus), or Arabia (Diodorus Siculus).

According to Herodotus:

As it is, the Greek story has it that no sooner was Dionysus born than Zeus sewed him up in his thigh and carried him away to Nysa in Ethiopia beyond Egypt; and as for Pan, the Greeks do not know what became of him after his birth. It is therefore plain to me that the Greeks learned the names of these two gods later than the names of all the others, and trace the birth of both to the time when they gained the knowledge.

—Herodotus, Histories 2.146

The Bibliotheca seems to be following Pherecydes, who relates how the infant Dionysus, god of the grapevine, was nursed by the rain-nymphs, the Hyades at Nysa.

Childhood [link]

Kylix (6th century BC) depicting Dionysus among the sailors transformed to dolphins after attempting to kidnap him

When Dionysus grew up, he discovered the culture of the vine and the mode of extracting its precious juice; but Hera struck him with madness, and drove him forth a wanderer through various parts of the earth. In Phrygia the goddess Cybele, better known to the Greeks as Rhea, cured him and taught him her religious rites, and he set out on a progress through Asia teaching the people the cultivation of the vine. The most famous part of his wanderings is his expedition to India, which is said to have lasted several years. Returning in triumph he undertook to introduce his worship into Greece, but was opposed by some princes who dreaded its introduction on account of the disorders and madness it brought with it (e.g. Pentheus or Lycurgus).

North African Roman mosaic: Panther-Dionysus scatters the pirates, who are changed to dolphins, except for Acoetes, the helmsman. (Bardo National Museum)

Dionysus was exceptionally attractive. One of the Homeric hymns recounts how, while disguised as a mortal sitting beside the seashore, a few sailors spotted him, believing he was a prince. They attempted to kidnap him and sail him far away to sell for ransom or into slavery. They tried to bind him with ropes, but no type of rope could hold him. Dionysus turned into a fierce lion and unleashed a bear onboard, killing those he came into contact with. Those who jumped off the ship were mercifully turned into dolphins. The only survivor was the helmsman, Acoetes, who recognized the god and tried to stop his sailors from the start.^[34]

In a similar story, Dionysus desired to sail from Icaria to Naxos. He then hired a Tyrrhenian pirate ship. However, when the god was on board, they sailed not to Naxos but to Asia, intending to sell him as a slave. So Dionysus turned the mast and oars into snakes, and filled the vessel with ivy and the sound of flutes so that the sailors went mad and, leaping into the sea, were turned into dolphins.

Consorts and children [link]

Topics in Greek mythology

Gods

Primordial gods and Titans
Zeus and the Olympians
Pan and the nymphs
Apollo and Dionysus
Sea-gods and Earth-gods

Heroes

Heracles and his Labors
Achilles and the Trojan War
Odysseus and the Odyssey
Jason and the Argonauts
Perseus and Medusa/Gorgon
Oedipus and Thebes
Theseus and the Minotaur
Triptolemus and the
Eleusinian Mysteries

Related

Satyrs, centaurs and dragons
Religion in Ancient Greece

Greek mythology portal

Aphrodite
1. Charites (Graces)
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1. Oenopion
2. Staphylus
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5. Phanus
6. Eurymedon
7. Euanthes
8. Latramys
9. Tauropolis
10. Ceramus
11. Maron
12. Enyeus
Nyx
1. Phthonus
Althaea
1. Deianeira
Circe
1. Comus
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1. Iacchus
2. twin of Iacchus, killed by Aura instantly upon birth
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Araethyrea or Chthonophyle (or again Ariadne)
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Genealogy of the Olympians in Greek mythology [link]

Genealogy of the Olympians in Greek mythology

Dionysus

Parallels with Christianity [link]

Main article: Jesus Christ in comparative mythology

The earliest discussions of mythological parallels between Dionysus and the figure of the Christ in Christian theology can be traced to Friedrich Hölderlin, whose identification of Dionysus with Christ is most explicit in Brod und Wein (1800–1801) and Der Einzige (1801–1803).^[42]

Modern scholars such as Martin Hengel, Barry Powell, and Peter Wick, among others, argue that Dionysian religion and Christianity have notable parallels. They point to the symbolism of wine and the importance it held in the mythology surrounding both Dionysus and Jesus Christ;^[43]^[44] though, Wick argues that the use of wine symbolism in the Gospel of John, including the story of the Marriage at Cana at which Jesus turns water into wine, was intended to show Jesus as superior to Dionysus.^[45]

Scholars of comparative mythology identify both Dionysus and Jesus with the dying-and-returning god mythological archetype.^[7] Other elements, such as the celebration by a ritual meal of bread and wine, also have parallels.^[46] Powell, in particular, argues precursors to the Christian notion of transubstantiation can be found in Dionysian religion.^[46]

Another parallel can be seen in The Bacchae where Dionysus appears before King Pentheus on charges of claiming divinity which is compared to the New Testament scene of Jesus being interrogated by Pontius Pilate.^[45]^[46]^[47]

E. Kessler in a symposium Pagan Monotheism in the Roman Empire, Exeter, 17–20 July 2006, states that Dionysian cult had developed into strict monotheism by the 4th century CE; together with Mithraism and other sects the cult formed an instance of "pagan monotheism" in direct competition with Early Christianity during Late Antiquity.^[48]

Symbolism [link]

Satyr giving a grapevine to Bacchus as a child; cameo glass, first half of the 1st century AD; from Italy

The bull, the serpent, the ivy and the wine are the signs of the characteristic Dionysian atmosphere, and Dionysus is strongly associated with satyrs, centaurs, and sileni. He is often shown riding a leopard, wearing a leopard skin, or in a chariot drawn by panthers, and may also be recognized by the thyrsus he carries. Besides the grapevine and its wild barren alter-ego, the toxic ivy plant, both sacred to him, the fig was also his symbol. The pinecone that tipped his thyrsus linked him to Cybele. The Dionysia and Lenaia festivals in Athens were dedicated to Dionysus. Initiates worshipped him in the Dionysian Mysteries, which were comparable to and linked with the Orphic Mysteries, and may have influenced Gnosticism^{[citation needed]}. Orpheus was said to have invented the Mysteries of Dionysus.^[49]

Dionysus was another god of resurrection who was strongly linked to the bull. In a cult hymn from Olympia, at a festival for Hera, Dionysus is invited to come as a bull; "with bull-foot raging." Walter Burkert relates, "Quite frequently [Dionysus] is portrayed with bull horns, and in Kyzikos he has a tauromorphic image," and refers also to an archaic myth in which Dionysus is slaughtered as a bull calf and impiously eaten by the Titans.^[7] In the Classical period of Greece, the bull and other animals identified with deities were separated from them as their agalma, a kind of heraldic show-piece that concretely signified their numinous presence.^[7]

Bacchanalia [link]

Main article: Bacchanalia

Bacchus by Caravaggio

Introduced into Rome (c. 200 BC) from the Greek culture of southern Italy or by way of Greek-influenced Etruria, the bacchanalia were held in secret and attended by women only, in the grove of Simila, near the Aventine Hill, on March 16 and 17. Subsequently, admission to the rites was extended to men and celebrations took place five times a month. The mystery-cult may have been seen as a threat to the political status quo.

The notoriety of these festivals, where many kinds of crimes and political conspiracies were supposed to be planned, led to a decree by the Senate in 186 BC — the so-called Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus, inscribed on a bronze tablet discovered in Calabria (1640), now in Vienna — by which the Bacchanalia were prohibited throughout all Italy except in special cases that required specific approval by the Senate. In spite of the severe punishment inflicted on those found in violation of this decree, the Bacchanalia were not stamped out, at any rate in the south of Italy, for a very long time.

Dionysus is equated with both Bacchus and Liber (also Liber Pater). Liber ("the free one") was a god of male fertility, wine, and growth, whose female counterpart was Libera. His festival was the Liberalia, celebrated on March 17, but in some myths the festival was also held on March 5.

In art [link]

Main article: Bacchic art

"Bacchus" by Michelangelo (1497)

Classical [link]

The god appeared on many kraters and other wine vessels from classical Greece. His iconography became more complex in the Hellenistic period, between severe archaising or Neo Attic types such as the Dionysus Sardanapalus and types showing him as an indolent and androgynous young man and often shown nude (see the Dionysus and Eros, Naples Archeological Museum). The 4th century Lycurgus Cup in the British Museum is a spectacular cage cup which changes colour when light comes through the glass; it shows the bound King Lycurgus (Thrace) being taunted by the god and attacked by a satyr.

Elizabeth Kessler has theorized that a mosaic appearing on the triclinium floor of the House of Aion in Nea Paphos, Cyprus, details a monotheistic worship of Dionysus.^[50] In the mosaic, other gods appear but may only be lesser representations of the centrally imposed Dionysus.

Modern views [link]

Dionysus has remained an inspiration to artists, philosophers and writers into the modern era. In The Birth of Tragedy (1872), the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche contrasted Dionysus with the god Apollo as a symbol of the fundamental, unrestrained aesthetic principle of force, music, and intoxication versus the principle of sight, form, and beauty represented by the latter. Nietzsche also claimed that the oldest forms of Greek Tragedy were entirely based on suffering of Dionysus. Nietzsche continued to contemplate the character of Dionysus, which he revisited in the final pages of his 1886 work Beyond Good and Evil. This reconceived Nietzschean Dionysus was invoked as an embodiment of the central will to power concept in Nietzsche's later works The Twilight of the Idols, The Antichrist and Ecce Homo.

Károly Kerényi, a scholar in classical philology and one of the founders of modern studies in Greek mythology characterized Dionysus as representative of the psychological life force (Zoê).^[51] Other scholars proposing psychological interpretations have placed Dionysus' emotionality in the foreground by focusing on the joy, terror or hysteria associated with the god.^[52]^[53]^[54]^[55]^[56]

The Russian poet and philosopher Vyacheslav Ivanov elaborated the theory of Dionysianism, which traces the roots of literary art in general and the art of tragedy in particular to ancient Dionysian mysteries. His views were expressed in the treatises The Hellenic Religion of the Suffering God (1904), and Dionysus and Early Dionysianism (1921).

Inspired by James Frazer, some have labeled Dionysus a life-death-rebirth deity. The mythographer Karl Kerenyi devoted much energy to Dionysus over his long career; he summed up his thoughts in Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life (Bollingen, Princeton, 1976).

Dionysus is the main character of Aristophanes' play The Frogs, later updated to a modern version by Burt Shevelove (libretto) and Stephen Sondheim (music and lyrics) ("The time is the present. The place is ancient Greece. ... "). In the play, Dionysus and his slave Xanthius venture to Hades to bring a famed writer back from the dead, with the hopes that the writer's presence in the world will fix all nature of earthly problems. In Aristophanes' play, Euripides competes against Aeschylus to be recovered from the underworld; In Sondheim and Shevelove's, George Bernard Shaw faces William Shakespeare.

The Romanised equivalent of Dionysus was referenced in the 1852 plantation literature novel Aunt Phillis's Cabin, which featured a character named Uncle Bacchus, who was so-named due to his excessive alcoholism.

Both Eddie Campbell and Grant Morrison have utilised the character. Morrison claims that the myth of Dionysus provides the inspiration for his violent and explicit graphic novel Kill Your Boyfriend, whilst Campbell used the character in his Deadface series to explore both the conventions of super-hero comic books and artistic endeavour.

Dionysus is one of the central myths explored in the 2011 Weaponized anthology The Immanence of Myth. ^[57]

Walt Disney has depicted the character on a number of occasions. The first such portrayal of Dionysus, as the Roman Bacchus, was in the "Pastoral" segment of Walt Disney's third classic Fantasia. In keeping with the more fun-loving Roman god, he is portrayed as an overweight, happily drunk man wearing a tunic and cloak, grape leaves on his head, carrying a goblet of wine, and riding a drunken donkey named Jacchus ("jackass"). He is friends with the fauns and centaurs, and is shown celebrating a harvest festival. Other portrayals have appeared in both the Disney movie and spin-off TV series of Hercules. He was depicted as an overweight drunkard as opposed to his youthful descriptions in myths. He has bright pink skin and rosy red cheeks hinting at his drunkenness. He always carries either a bottle or glass of wine in his hand, and like in the myths, wears a wreath of grape leaves upon his head. In the series he is known by his Roman name "Bacchus", and in one episode headlines his own festival known as the "Bacchanal".

In music Dionysius (together with Demeter) was used as an archetype for the character Tori by contemporary artist Tori Amos in her 2007 album American Doll Posse, and the Canadian rock band Rush refer to a confrontation and hatred between Dionysus and Apollo in the Cygnus X-1 duology.

Dionysus along with Lilith are central characters in James Curcio's 2011 novel Fallen Nation: Party At The World's End.

In literature, Dionysius has proven equally inspiring. Rick Riordan's series of books Percy Jackson & The Olympians presents Dionysus as an uncaring, childish and spoilt god who as a punishment has to work in Camp Half-Blood. In Fred Saberhagen's 2001 novel, God of the Golden Fleece, a young man in a post-apocalyptic world picks up an ancient piece of technology shaped in the likeness of the Dionysus. Here, Dionysus is depicted as a relatively weak god, albeit a subversive one whose powers are able to undermine the authority of tyrants.

A version of Bacchus also appears in C. S. Lewis' Prince Caspian, part of The Chronicles of Narnia. Lewis depicts him as dangerous-looking, androgynous young boy who helps Aslan awaken the spirits of the Narnian trees and rivers. He does not appear in the 2008 film version.

In 2009 the poet Stephen Howarth and veteran theatre producer Andrew Hobbs collaborated on a play entitled Bacchus in Rehab with Dionysus as the central character. The authors describe the piece as "combining highbrow concept and lowbrow humour".^[58]

The second season of True Blood involves a plot line wherein a maenad, Maryann, causes mayhem in the Louisiana town of Bon Temps in attempt to summon Dionysus.

Dionysus, going by his Roman name "Bacchus", is a character in the 2011 video game Rock of Ages.

[edit] Names originating from Dionysus

Dion (also spelled Deion, Deon and Dionne)
Denise (also spelled Denice, Daniesa, Denese, and Denisse)
Dennis, Denis or Denys (including the derivative surnames Denison and Dennison), Denny
Denis (Croatian), Dionis, Dionisie (Romanian)
Dénes (Hungarian)
Dionisio/Dyonisio (Spanish), Dionigi (Italian)
Διονύσιος, Διονύσης, Νιόνιος (Dionysios, Dionysis, Nionios Modern Greek)
Deniska (diminutive of Russian Denis, itself a derivative of the Greek)
Dionísio (Portuguese)
Dionizy (Polish)

Gallery [link]

The Ludovisi Dionysus with panther, satyr and grapes on a vine (Palazzo Altemps, Rome)
Dionysos riding a leopard, 4th century BC mosaic from Pella
Statue of Dionysus (Sardanapalus) (Museo Palazzo Massimo Alle Terme, Rome)
Dionysus extending a drinking cup (kantharos), late 6th century BC
Drinking Bacchus (1623) Guido Reni

Notes [link]

^ Another variant, from the Spanish royal colledtion, is at the Museo del Prado, Madrid: illustration.
^ Kerenyi 1976.
^ Thomas McEvilley, The Shape of Ancient Thought, Allsworth press, 2002, pp.118-121. Google Books preview
^ Reginald Pepys Winnington-Ingram, Sophocles: an interpretation, Cambridge University Press, 1980, p.109 Google Books preview
^ Zofia H. Archibald, in Gocha R. Tsetskhladze (Ed.) Ancient Greeks west and east, Brill, 1999, p.429 ff.Google Books preview
^ Dionysus, greekmythology.com
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Burkert, Walter, Greek Religion, 1985 pp. 64, 132
^ Otto, Walter F. (1995). Dionysus Myth and Cult. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-20891-2.
^ Gods of Love and Ecstasy, Alain Danielou p.15
^ In Greek "both votary and god are called Bacchus." Burkert, Greek Religion 1985:162. For the initiate as Bacchus, see Euripides, Bacchantes 491. For the god, who alone is Dionysus, see Sophocles Oedipus the King 211 and Euripides Hippolytus 560.
^ Sutton, p.2, mentions Dionysus as The Liberator in relation to the city Dionysia festivals. In Euripides, Bacchae 379-385: "He holds this office, to join in dances, [380] to laugh with the flute, and to bring an end to cares, whenever the delight of the grape comes at the feasts of the gods, and in ivy-bearing banquets the goblet sheds sleep over men." [1]
^ Xavier Riu, Dionysism and Comedy, Rowman and Littlefield, 1999, p.105 ff. Google Books preview
^ Dictionary of Ancient Deities by Patricia Turner and the late Charles Russell Coulter, 2001, p.152.
^ Dictionary of Ancient Deities by Patricia Turner and the late Charles Russell Coulter, 2001, p.520.
^ John Chadwick, The Mycenaean World, Cambridge University Press, 1976, 99ff: "But Dionysos surprisingly appears twice at Pylos, in the form Diwonusos, both times irritatingly enough on fragments, so that we have no means of verifying his divinity."
^ Palaeolexicon, Word study tool of ancient languages
^ This is the view of Garcia Ramon (1987) and Peters (1989), summarised and endorsed in Janda (2010:20).
^ Fox, p. 217, "The word Dionysos is divisible into two parts, the first originally Διος (cf. Ζευς), while the second is of an unknown signification, although perhaps connected with the name of the Mount Nysa which figures in the story of Lykourgos: (...) when Dionysos had been reborn from the thigh of Zeus, Hermes entrusted him to the nymphs of Mount Nysa, who fed him on the food of the gods, and made him immortal".
^ Testimonia of Pherecydes in an early 5th c. BC fragment, FGrH 3, 178, in the context of a discussion on the name of Dionysus: "Nũsas (acc. pl.), he [Pherecydes] said, was what they called the trees."
^ see Janda (2010), 16-44 for a detailed account.
^ Pausanias, 8.39.6.
^ Stephanus of Byzantium, s.v. Ακρωρεία
^ Ausonius, Epigr. xxix. 6.
^ Pausanias, ix. 8. § 1.
^ Janda (2010), 16-44.
^ Kerenyi 1976:286.
^ Jameson 1993, 53. Cf.n16 for suggestions of Devereux on "Enorkhes",
^ Rosemarie Taylor-Perry, The God Who Comes: Dionysian Mysteries Revisited. Algora Press 2003, p.89, cf. Sabazius.
^ Diorodus V 75.4, noted by Karl Kerényi, Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life (Princeton University Press) 1976, "The Cretan core of the Dionysos myth" p 110 note 213 and pp 110-114.
^ Diodorus III 64.1, also noted by Kerény (110 note 214.)
^ Damascius, Commentary on the Phaedo, I, 170, see in translation Westerink, The Greek Commentaries on Plato's Phaedo, vol. II (The Prometheus Trust, Westbury) 2009
^ Damascius, Commentary on the Phaedo, I, 1-13 and 165-172, see in translation Westerink, The Greek Commentaries on Plato's Phaedo, vol. II, The Prometheus Trust, Westbury, 2009
^ Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. Includes Frazer's notes. ISBN 0-674-99135-4, ISBN 0-674-99136-2
^ Theoi.com" Homeric Hymn to Dionysus
^ British Museum on the Lycurgus Cup
^ Hyginus, Astronomy 2.5.
^ Clement of Alexandria, Protreptikos, II-30 3-5
^ Arnobius, Against the Gentiles 5.28 (Dalby 2005, pp. 108–117)
^ Nonnus, Dionysiaca (X.175-430; XI; XII.1-117); (Dalby 2005, pp. 55–62).
^ Photius, Library; "Ptolemy Chennus, New History"
^ Hesychius of Alexandria s. v. Priēpidos
^ The mid-19th century debates are traced in G.S. Williamson, The Longing for Myth in Germany, 2004.
^ Pausanias, Description of Greece 6. 26. 1 - 2
^ Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae 2. 34a
^ ^a ^b Wick, Peter (2004). "Jesus gegen Dionysos? Ein Beitrag zur Kontextualisierung des Johannesevangeliums". Biblica (Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute) 85 (2): 179–198. http://www.bsw.org/?l=71851&a=Comm06.html. Retrieved 2007-10-10.
^ ^a ^b ^c Powell, Barry B., Classical Myth Second ed. With new translations of ancient texts by Herbert M. Howe. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1998.
^ Studies in Early Christology, by Martin Hengel, 2005, p.331 (ISBN 0567042804)
^ E. Kessler, Dionysian Monotheism in Nea Paphos, Cyprus: "two monotheistic religions, Dionysian and Christian, existed contemporaneously in Nea Paphos during the 4th century C.E. [...] the particular iconography of Hermes and Dionysos in the panel of the Epiphany of Dionysos [...] represents the culmination of a pagan iconographic tradition in which an infant divinity is seated on the lap of another divine figure; this pagan motif was appropriated by early Christian artists and developed into the standardized icon of the Virgin and Child. Thus the mosaic helps to substantiate the existence of pagan monotheism." (Abstract)
^ Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca Library and Epitome, 1.3.2. "Orpheus also invented the mysteries of Dionysus, and having been torn in pieces by the Maenads he is buried in Pieria."
^ Kessler, E., Dionysian Monotheism in Nea Paphos, Cyprus,
^ Kerenyi, K. - Dionysus; Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life, Princeton/Bollingen (1976)
^ Jeanmaire, H. Dionysus: histoire du culte de Bacchus, (p.106ff) Payot, (1951)
^ Johnson, R. A. 'Ecstasy; Understanding the Psychology of Joy' HarperColling (1987)
^ Hillman, J. 'Dionysus Reimagined' in The Myth of Analysis (pp.271-281) HarperCollins (1972); Hillman, J. 'Dionysus in Jung's Writings' in Facing The Gods, Spring Publications (1980)
^ Thompson, J. 'Emotional Intelligence/Imaginal Intelligence' in Mythopoetry Scholar Journal, Vol 1, 2010
^ Lopez-Pedraza, R. 'Dionysus in Exile: On the Repression of the Body and Emotion', Chiron Publications (2000)
^ Immanence of Myth
^ Facsimile Productions - Current Productions

References [link]

Dalby, Andrew (2005). The Story of Bacchus. London: British Museum Press. ISBN 0-7141-2255-6 (US ISBN 0-89236-742-3)
Farnell, Lewis Richard, The Cults of the Greek States, 1896. Volume V, cf. Chapter IV, Cults of Dionysos; Chapter V, Dionysiac Ritual; Chapter VI, Cult-Monuments of Dionysos; Chapter VII, Ideal Dionysiac Types.
Fox, William Sherwood, The Mythology of All Races, v.1, Greek and Roman, 1916, General editor, Louis Herbert Gray.
Janda, Michael, Die Musik nach dem Chaos, Innsbruck 2010.
Jameson, Michael. "The Asexuality of Dionysus." Masks of Dionysus. Ed. Thomas H. Carpenter and Christopher A. Faraone. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1993. ISBN 0-8014-8062-0. 44-64.
Kerényi, Karl, Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life, (Princeton: Bollingen) 1976. Google Books preview
Pickard-Cambridge, Arthur, The Theatre of Dionysus at Athens, 1946.
Powell, Barry B., Classical Myth, 5th edition, 2007.
Ridgeway, William, Origin of Tragedy, 1910. Kessinger Publishing (June 2003). ISBN 0-7661-6221-4.
Ridgeway, William, The Dramas and Dramatic Dances of non-European Races in special reference to the origin of Greek Tragedy, with an appendix on the origin of Greek Comedy, 1915.
Riu, Xavier, Dionysism and Comedy, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers (1999). ISBN 0-8476-9442-9. [2]
Seaford, Richard. "Dionysos", Routledge (2006). ISBN 0-415-32488-2.
Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1870, article on Dionysus, [3]
Sutton, Dana F., Ancient Comedy, Twayne Publishers (August 1993). ISBN 0-8057-0957-6.

External links [link]

	Hellenismos portal
	Greek mythology portal

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Dionysus

Theoi Project, Dionysos myths from original sources, cult, classical art
Ca 2000 images of Bacchus at the Warburg Institute's Iconographic Database
Iconographic Themes in Art: Bacchus | Dionysos
Thomas Taylor's treatise on the Bacchic Mysteries
Dionysos Links and Booklist (A huge list of links.)
Mosaic of Dionysus at Ephesus Terrace Home-2
The birth of Dionysus from the thigh of Zeus - Volute crater from Apulia

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Zeus Hera Poseidon Dionysus Demeter Aphrodite Athena Apollo Artemis Ares Hephaestus Hermes Hestia

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This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (February 2011)

Jocelyn Pook (born 14 February 1960, Birmingham, England) is a British composer, pianist and viola player.

1 Biography
- 1.1 Miscellaneous
- 1.2 Career highlights
2 Key works
3 Selected recordings
4 References
5 External links

Biography [link]

Jocelyn Pook’s distinctive style is a product of her diverse experiences in classical, commercial, and so-called world music. After graduating from London’s Guildhall School of Music and Drama, she performed with many pop artists including The Communards and Massive Attack, and formed Electra Strings for whom she wrote original material. She has worked extensively with eminent dance companies such as DV8 and Shobana Jeyasingh, and in 2002 she was commissioned by the BBC Proms to write a work for The King’s Singers in collaboration with Poet Laureate Andrew Motion.

As one of the Leytonstone Contingent, Pook recorded on two occasions with pianist Jeremy Peyton Jones for Rough Trade and later for Century XXI. About a year later, she joined Anne Stephenson and Audrey Riley to accompany Virginia Astley both on stage and record. Session work followed and alternated with her co-founding of the Electra Strings with Australian violinist Sonia Slany and an album on the Village Life label. This neoclassical chamber quartet later transformed into the Brilliant Strings after she and Slany had gone their separate ways.

As a solo recording artist, Pook released several albums for the Virgin // Realworld labels. These included Deluge (1997), Flood (1999) and Untold Things (2003). Her career as a film composer took flight when cuts from her album Flood were used in Stanley Kubrick's film Eyes Wide Shut. The piece Masked Ball, which incorporates a fragment of an Orthodox Liturgy played backwards and lyrics sung (or chanted) in Romanian, underscored the infamous masked ball sequence.

Further scores have subsequently been contributed to several European films, notably the 2004 film version of William Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice, Peter Kosminsky's film on David Kelly, The Government Inspector, "Brick Lane" and 2007's Chaotic Ana. Pook was commissioned to write a short opera, Ingerland, for ROH2 (the contemporary producing arm of London's Royal Opera House) which was performed in the Royal Opera House's Linbury Studio Theatre in June 2010.^[1]

Miscellaneous [link]

In 1983 she appeared in the ABC movie Mantrap as one of many string players for the album The Lexicon of Love. Most of her sessions were for Indie bands throughout the 1980s.

Pook frequently works with vocalist Melanie Pappenheim, whom she describes as her long-time musical collaborator, and who does the majority of vocal work on Pook's music.

Career highlights [link]

1991 - Viola on "Chaostrophy" on the Coil album Love's Secret Domain.
1997 - Blow the Wind: Pie Jesu, used by Orange in TV advertising campaign.
1999 - score for the Stanley Kubrick film Eyes Wide Shut nominated for Golden Globe Award.
2001 - wrote score for Laurent Cantet’s film L'Emploi du temps.
2002 - Phantasmaton premiered by the Shobana Jeyasingh Dance Company.
2003 - Multimedia Award for Speaking in Tunes at the first British Composer Awards.
2004 - wrote score for Michael Radford’s film adaptation of The Merchant of Venice.
2007 - score for Caótica Ana.
2008 - score for Saint Joan at The National Theatre won Olivier Award.
2008 - score for PBS Frontline episode Storm Over Everest.
2010 - score for Julio Medem's film Habitación en Roma (Room in Rome).

Key works [link]

Blow the Wind: Pie Jesu (1994; mezzo-soprano, string quartet, tape)
Portraits in Absentia (1999; answerphonemessage samples, orchestra)
Eyes Wide Shut (1999; film score)
Saints and Sinners (2000; Persian singer (Parvin Cox), chorus, ensemble)
L’emploi du temps (2001; film score)
Speaking in Tunes (2002; string quartet, tape)
The Merchant of Venice (2004; film score)

Selected recordings [link]

Deluge - Venture/Virgin/EMI CDVE 933
Flood - Virgin/EMI 7243 8 48150 2 8/V2-48150
Untold Things - Real World CDRW93

References [link]

^ O'Mahony, John. "Operas about wags? Why not, says the Royal Opera House". The Guardian, 10 June 2010

External links [link]

Persondata
Name	Pook, Jocelyn
Alternative names
Short description
Date of birth	14 February 1960
Place of birth
Date of death
Place of death

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Ayn Rand
File:Ayn Rand1.jpg Ayn Rand in 1957
Born	Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum (1905-02-02)February 2, 1905 Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire
Died	March 6, 1982(1982-03-06) (aged 77) New York City, United States
Resting place	Kensico Cemetery
Occupation	Philosopher, writer
Language	English
Ethnicity	Russian Jew
Citizenship	United States
Alma mater	Petrograd State University
Period	1934–1982
Subjects	Philosophy
Notable work(s)	The Fountainhead Atlas Shrugged
Notable award(s)	Prometheus Award – Hall of Fame 1983 Atlas Shrugged 1987 Anthem
Spouse(s)	Frank O'Connor (m. 1929-1979, his death)
Influences Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, O. Henry, Victor Hugo, Ludwig von Mises, H.L. Mencken, Friedrich Nietzsche, Isabel Paterson
Influenced Martin Anderson, Bob Barr, Andrew Bernstein, Harry Binswanger, Barbara Branden, Nathaniel Branden, Steve Ditko, Edith Efron, Terry Goodkind, Allan Gotthelf, Alan Greenspan, Robert Hessen, Erika Holzer, John Hospers, David Kelley, Anton LaVey, Liu Junning, Edwin A. Locke, Tibor Machan, Stefan Molyneux, Ron Paul, Neil Peart, Leonard Peikoff, George Reisman, Murray Rothbard, John Ridpath, Paul Ryan, Chris Matthew Sciabarra, George H. Smith, Kay Nolte Smith, L. Neil Smith, Tara Smith, John Stossel, Clarence Thomas, Jimmy Wales

Signature

Ayn Rand ( /ˈaɪn ˈrænd/;^[1] born Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum, February 2 [O.S. January 20] 1905 – March 6, 1982) was a Russian-American novelist, philosopher,^[2] playwright, and screenwriter. She is known for her two best-selling novels The Fountainhead and Atlas Shrugged and for developing a philosophical system she called Objectivism.

Born and educated in Russia, Rand moved to the United States in 1926. She worked as a screenwriter in Hollywood and had a play produced on Broadway in 1935–1936. After two initially unsuccessful early novels, she achieved fame with her 1943 novel The Fountainhead. In 1957, she published her best-known work, the philosophical novel Atlas Shrugged. Afterward she turned to nonfiction to promote her philosophy, publishing her own magazines and releasing several collections of essays until her death in 1982.

Rand advocated reason as the only means of acquiring knowledge and rejected all forms of faith and religion. She supported rational and ethical egoism, and rejected ethical altruism. In politics, she condemned the initiation of force as immoral and opposed all forms of collectivism and statism, instead supporting laissez-faire capitalism, which she believed was the only social system that protected individual rights. She promoted romantic realism in art. She was sharply critical of the philosophers and philosophical traditions known to her besides Aristotle.

Rand's fiction was poorly received by many literary critics,^[3] and academia generally ignored or rejected her philosophy. The Objectivist movement attempts to spread her ideas, both to the public and in academic settings.^[4] She is a major influence among libertarians and American conservatives.

1 Life
2 Philosophy
3 Reception and legacy
4 Selected works
5 References
- 5.1 Works cited
6 External links

Life [link]

Early life [link]

Rand was born Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum (Russian: Алиса Зиновьевна Розенбаум) on February 2, 1905, to a bourgeois family living in Saint Petersburg. She was the eldest of the three daughters of Zinovy Zakharovich Rosenbaum and Anna Borisovna Rosenbaum, largely non-observant Jews. Rand's father was a successful pharmacist, eventually owning a pharmacy and the building in which it was located.^[5] Rand was twelve at the time of the Russian Revolution of 1917, during which her sympathies were with Alexander Kerensky. Rand's family life was disrupted by the rise of the Bolshevik party under Vladimir Lenin. Her father's pharmacy was confiscated by the Bolsheviks, and the family fled to the Crimea, which was initially under the control of the White Army during the Russian Civil War. She later recalled that while in high school she determined that she was an atheist and that she valued reason above any other human attribute. After graduating from high school in the Crimea, at 16 Rand returned with her family to Petrograd (the new name for Saint Petersburg), where they faced desperate conditions, on occasion nearly starving.^[6]^[7]

A black-and-white engraving shows a large building along the bank of a river, with numerous people and carriages nearby

Rand completed a three-year program at Petrograd State University.

After the Russian Revolution, universities were opened to women, including Jews, allowing Rand to be in the first group of women to enroll at Petrograd State University,^[8] where she studied in the department of social pedagogy, majoring in history.^[9] At the university she was introduced to the writings of Aristotle and Plato,^[10] who would form two of her greatest influences and counter-influences, respectively.^[11] A third figure whose philosophical works she studied heavily was Friedrich Nietzsche.^[12] Able to read French, German and Russian, Rand also discovered the writers Fyodor Dostoevsky, Victor Hugo, Edmond Rostand, and Friedrich Schiller, who became her perennial favorites.^[13]

Along with many other "bourgeois" students, Rand was purged from the university shortly before graduating. However, after complaints from a group of visiting foreign scientists, many of the purged students were allowed to complete their work and graduate,^[14] which Rand did in October 1924.^[15] She subsequently studied for a year at the State Technicum for Screen Arts in Leningrad. For one of her assignments, she wrote an essay about the actress Pola Negri, which became her first published work.^[16]

By this time she had decided her professional surname for writing would be Rand,^[17] possibly as a Cyrillic contraction of her birth surname,^[18] and she adopted the first name Ayn, either from a Finnish name or from the Hebrew word עין (ayin, meaning "eye").^[19]

A brown book cover with black-and-white drawings and text in Russian. The drawing on the left is a portrait of a woman with dark hair; the drawing on the right is of skyscrapers.

Cover of Rand's first published work, a 2,500-word monograph on the Polish femme fatale Pola Negri published in 1925.^[16]

In the fall of 1925, Rand was granted a visa to visit American relatives. Rand was so impressed with the skyline of Manhattan upon her arrival in New York Harbor that she cried what she later called "tears of splendor".^[20] Intent on staying in the United States to become a screenwriter, she lived for a few months with relatives in Chicago, one of whom owned a movie theater and allowed her to watch dozens of films for free. She then set out for Hollywood, California.^[21]

Initially, Rand struggled in Hollywood and took odd jobs to pay her basic living expenses. A chance meeting with famed director Cecil B. DeMille led to a job as an extra in his film, The King of Kings, and to subsequent work as a junior screenwriter.^[22] While working on The King of Kings, she met an aspiring young actor, Frank O'Connor; the two were married on April 15, 1929. Rand became an American citizen in 1931. Taking various jobs during the 1930s to support her writing, Rand worked for a time as the head of the costume department at RKO Studios.^[23] She made several attempts to bring her parents and sisters to the United States, but they were unable to acquire permission to emigrate.^[24]

Early fiction [link]

Rand's first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay Red Pawn to Universal Studios in 1932, although it was never produced.^[25] This was followed by the courtroom drama Night of January 16th, first produced by E.E. Clive in Hollywood in 1934 and then successfully reopened on Broadway in 1935. Each night the "jury" was selected from members of the audience, and one of the two different endings, depending on the jury's "verdict", would then be performed.^[26] In 1941, Paramount Pictures produced a movie version of the play. Rand did not participate in the production and was highly critical of the result.^[27]

Rand's first novel, the semi-autobiographical We the Living, was published in 1936. Set in Soviet Russia, it focused on the struggle between the individual and the state. In a 1959 foreword to the novel, Rand stated that We the Living "is as near to an autobiography as I will ever write. It is not an autobiography in the literal, but only in the intellectual sense. The plot is invented, the background is not..."^[28] Initial sales were slow and the American publisher let it go out of print,^[29] although European editions continued to sell.^[30] After the success of her later novels, Rand was able to release a revised version in 1959 that has since sold over three million copies.^[31] Without Rand's knowledge or permission, the novel was made into a pair of Italian films, Noi vivi and Addio, Kira, in 1942. Rediscovered in the 1960s, these films were re-edited into a new version which was approved by Rand and re-released as We the Living in 1986.^[32]

Her novella Anthem was written during a break from the writing of her next major novel, The Fountainhead. It presents a vision of a dystopian future world in which totalitarian collectivism has triumphed to such an extent that even the word 'I' has been forgotten and replaced with 'we'.^[33] It was published in England in 1938, but Rand initially could not find an American publisher. As with We the Living, Rand's later success allowed her to get a revised version published in 1946, which has sold more than 3.5 million copies.^[34]

[edit] The Fountainhead and political activism

During the 1940s, Rand became politically active. Both she and her husband worked full time in volunteer positions for the 1940 Presidential campaign of Republican Wendell Willkie. This work led to Rand's first public speaking experiences, including fielding the sometimes hostile questions from New York City audiences who had just viewed pro-Willkie newsreels, an experience she greatly enjoyed.^[35] This activity also brought her into contact with other intellectuals sympathetic to free-market capitalism. She became friends with journalist Henry Hazlitt and his wife, and Hazlitt introduced her to the Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises. Despite her philosophical differences with them, Rand strongly endorsed the writings of both men throughout her career, and both of them expressed admiration for her. Once von Mises referred to Rand as "the most courageous man in America," a compliment that particularly pleased her because he said "man" instead of "woman."^[36] Rand also developed a friendship with libertarian writer Isabel Paterson. Rand questioned the well-informed Paterson about American history and politics long into the night during their numerous meetings and gave Paterson ideas for her only nonfiction book, The God of the Machine.^[37]

Rand's first major success as a writer came with The Fountainhead in 1943, a romantic and philosophical novel that she wrote over a period of seven years.^[38] The novel centers on an uncompromising young architect named Howard Roark and his struggle against what Rand described as "second-handers"—those who attempt to live through others, placing others above self. It was rejected by twelve publishers before finally being accepted by the Bobbs-Merrill Company on the insistence of editor Archibald Ogden, who threatened to quit if his employer did not publish it.^[39] While completing the novel, Rand was prescribed the amphetamine Benzedrine to fight fatigue.^[40] The drug helped her to work long hours to meet her deadline for delivering the finished novel, but when the book was done, she was so exhausted that her doctor ordered two weeks' rest.^[41] Her continued use of the drug for a number of years may have contributed to what some of her later associates described as volatile mood swings.^[42]

The Fountainhead eventually became a worldwide success, bringing Rand fame and financial security.^[43] In 1943, Rand sold the rights for a film version to Warner Bros., and she returned to Hollywood to write the screenplay. Finishing her work on that screenplay, she was hired by producer Hal Wallis as a screenwriter and script-doctor. Her work for Wallis included the screenplays for the Oscar-nominated Love Letters and You Came Along.^[44] This role gave Rand time to work on other projects, including a planned nonfiction treatment of her philosophy to be called The Moral Basis of Individualism. Although the planned book was never completed, a condensed version was published as an essay titled "The Only Path to Tomorrow", in the January 1944 edition of Reader's Digest magazine.^[45]

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Ayn Rand's testimony before the House of Representatives Committee on Un-American Activities

While working in Hollywood, Rand extended her involvement with free-market and anti-communist activism. She became involved with the Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals, a Hollywood anti-Communist group, and wrote articles on the group's behalf. She also joined the anti-Communist American Writers Association.^[46] A visit by Isabel Paterson to meet with Rand's California associates led to a final falling out between the two when Paterson made comments that Rand saw as rude to valued political allies.^[47] In 1947, during the Second Red Scare, Rand testified as a "friendly witness" before the United States House Un-American Activities Committee. Her testimony described the disparity between her personal experiences in the Soviet Union and the portrayal of it in the 1944 film Song of Russia.^[48] Rand argued that the film grossly misrepresented conditions in the Soviet Union, portraying life there as being much better and happier than it actually was.^[49] When asked about her feelings on the effectiveness of the investigations after the hearings, Rand described the process as "futile".^[50]

After several delays, the film version of The Fountainhead was released in 1949. Although it used Rand's screenplay with minimal alterations, she "disliked the movie from beginning to end," complaining about its editing, acting, and other elements.^[51]

[edit] Atlas Shrugged and Objectivism

After the publication of The Fountainhead, Rand received numerous letters from readers, some of whom it had profoundly influenced. In 1951 Rand moved from Los Angeles to New York City, where she gathered a group of these admirers around her. This group (jokingly designated "The Collective") included future Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan, a young psychology student named Nathan Blumenthal (later Nathaniel Branden) and his wife Barbara, and Barbara's cousin Leonard Peikoff. At first the group was an informal gathering of friends who met with Rand on weekends at her apartment to discuss philosophy. Later she began allowing them to read the drafts of her new novel, Atlas Shrugged, as the manuscript pages were written. In 1954 Rand's close relationship with the much younger Nathaniel Branden turned into a romantic affair, with the consent of their spouses.^[52]

Atlas Shrugged, published in 1957, was Rand's magnum opus.^[53] Rand described the theme of the novel as "the role of the mind in man's existence—and, as a corollary, the demonstration of a new moral philosophy: the morality of rational self-interest."^[54] It advocates the core tenets of Rand's philosophy of Objectivism and expresses her concept of human achievement. The plot involves a dystopian United States in which the most creative industrialists, scientists and artists go on strike and retreat to a mountainous hideaway where they build an independent free economy. The novel's hero and leader of the strike, John Galt, describes the strike as "stopping the motor of the world" by withdrawing the minds of the individuals most contributing to the nation's wealth and achievement. With this fictional strike, Rand intended to illustrate that without the efforts of the rational and productive, the economy would collapse and society would fall apart. The novel includes elements of mystery and science fiction,^[55] and it contains Rand's most extensive statement of Objectivism in any of her works of fiction, a lengthy monologue delivered by Galt. Atlas Shrugged became an international bestseller, and in an interview with Mike Wallace, Rand declared herself "the most creative thinker alive."^[56] Atlas Shrugged was to be Rand's last work of fiction; a turning point in her life, it marked the end of Rand's career as a novelist and the beginning of her role as a popular philosopher.^[57] After completing the novel of more than one thousand pages, however, Rand fell into a severe depression that may have been aggravated by her use of prescription amphetamines.^[58]

In 1958 Nathaniel Branden established Nathaniel Branden Lectures, later incorporated as the Nathaniel Branden Institute (NBI), to promote Rand's philosophy. Collective members gave lectures for NBI and wrote articles for Objectivist periodicals that she edited. Rand later published some of these articles in book form. Critics, including some former NBI students and Branden himself, have described the culture of NBI as one of intellectual conformity and excessive reverence for Rand, with some describing NBI or the entire Objectivist movement as a cult or religion.^[59] Rand expressed opinions on a wide range of topics, including literature, music, sexuality, even facial hair, and some of her followers mimicked all her preferences, wearing clothes to match characters from her novels and buying furniture like hers.^[60] Rand was unimpressed with many of the NBI students^[61] and held them to strict standards, sometimes reacting coldly or angrily to those who disagreed with her.^[62] However, some former NBI students believe the extent of these behaviors has been exaggerated, with the problem being concentrated among Rand's closest followers in New York.^[63]

Later years [link]

Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through her nonfiction works and by giving talks to students at institutions such as Yale University, Princeton University, Columbia University,^[64] Harvard University and MIT.^[65] She received an honorary doctorate from Lewis & Clark College in 1963.^[66] She also began delivering annual lectures at the Ford Hall Forum, responding afterward to questions from the audience.^[67] During these speeches and Q&A sessions, she often took controversial stances on political and social issues of the day. These included supporting abortion rights,^[68] opposing the Vietnam War and the military draft (but condemning many draft dodgers as "bums"),^[69] supporting Israel in the Arab-Israeli War of 1973 as "civilized men fighting savages",^[70] saying European colonists had the right to take land from American Indians,^[71] and calling homosexuality "immoral" and "disgusting", while also advocating the repeal of all laws against it.^[72] She also endorsed several Republican candidates for President of the United States, most strongly Barry Goldwater in 1964, whose candidacy she promoted in several articles for The Objectivist Newsletter.^[73]

A twin gravestone bearing the name "Frank O'Connor" on the left, and "Ayn Rand O'Connor" on the right

Grave marker for Rand and her husband at Kensico Cemetery in Valhalla, New York

In 1964 Nathaniel Branden began an affair with the young actress Patrecia Scott, whom he later married. Nathaniel and Barbara Branden kept the affair hidden from Rand. When she learned of it in 1968, though her romantic relationship with Branden had already ended,^[74] Rand terminated her relationship with both Brandens, which led to the closure of NBI.^[75] Rand published an article in The Objectivist repudiating Nathaniel Branden for dishonesty and other "irrational behavior in his private life."^[76] Branden later apologized in an interview to "every student of Objectivism" for "perpetuating the Ayn Rand mystique" and for "contributing to that dreadful atmosphere of intellectual repressiveness that pervades the Objectivist movement."^[77] In subsequent years, several more of her closest associates parted company with her.^[78]

Rand underwent surgery for lung cancer in 1974 after decades of heavy smoking.^[79] In 1976 she retired from writing her newsletter and, despite her initial objections, reluctantly allowed Evva Pryor, a consultant from her attorney's office, to sign her up for Social Security and Medicare.^[80] During the late 1970s her activities within the Objectivist movement declined, especially after the death of her husband on November 9, 1979.^[81] One of her final projects was work on a never-completed television adaptation of Atlas Shrugged.^[82]

Rand died of heart failure on March 6, 1982, at her home in New York City,^[83] and was interred in the Kensico Cemetery, Valhalla, New York.^[84] Rand's funeral was attended by some of her prominent followers, including Alan Greenspan. A six-foot floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed near her casket.^[85] In her will, Rand named Leonard Peikoff the heir to her estate.^[86]

Philosophy [link]

Objectivist movement

Philosophy Objectivism Rational egoism Individualism Capitalism Romantic realism
Organizations Ayn Rand Institute Atlas Society Nathaniel Branden Institute Objectivist Party Libertarianz
Theorists Ayn Rand Andrew Bernstein Harry Binswanger Nathaniel Branden · Yaron Brook Allan Gotthelf · David Kelley Tibor R. Machan Leonard Peikoff · George Reisman John Ridpath · Richard Salsman Tara Smith
Literature Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal For the New Intellectual Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology The New Left Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand Philosophy: Who Needs It The Romantic Manifesto The Virtue of Selfishness The Voice of Reason Objectivist periodicals Journal of Ayn Rand Studies
Related topics Libertarianism and Objectivism Objectivism and homosexuality Objectivist movement in India Randian hero Philosophical movement

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Main article: Objectivism (Ayn Rand)

Rand called her philosophy "Objectivism", describing its essence as "the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute."^[87] She considered Objectivism a systematic philosophy and laid out positions on metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political philosophy and esthetics.^[88]

In metaphysics, Rand supported philosophical realism, and opposed anything she regarded as mysticism or supernaturalism, including all forms of religion.^[89] In epistemology, she considered all knowledge to be based on sense perception, the validity of which she considered axiomatic,^[90] and reason, which she described as "the faculty that identifies and integrates the material provided by man's senses."^[91] She rejected all claims of non-perceptual or a priori knowledge, including "'instinct,' 'intuition,' 'revelation,' or any form of 'just knowing.'"^[92] In her Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology, Rand presented a theory of concept formation and endorsed the rejection of the analytic–synthetic dichotomy.^[93]

In ethics, Rand argued for rational egoism (rational self-interest), as the guiding moral principle. She said the individual should "exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself."^[94] She referred to egoism as "the virtue of selfishness" in her book of that title,^[95] in which she presented her solution to the is-ought problem by describing a meta-ethical theory that based morality in the needs of "man's survival qua man".^[96] She condemned ethical altruism as incompatible with the requirements of human life and happiness,^[97] and held that the initiation of force was evil and irrational, writing in Atlas Shrugged that "Force and mind are opposites".^[98]

Rand's political philosophy emphasized individual rights (including property rights),^[99] and she considered laissez-faire capitalism the only moral social system because in her view it was the only system based on the protection of those rights.^[100] She opposed statism, which she understood to include theocracy, absolute monarchy, Nazism, fascism, communism, democratic socialism, and dictatorship.^[101] Rand believed that rights should be enforced by a constitutionally limited government.^[102] Although her political views are often classified as conservative or libertarian, she preferred the term "radical for capitalism". She worked with conservatives on political projects, but disagreed with them over issues such as religion and ethics.^[103] She denounced libertarianism, which she associated with anarchism.^[104] She rejected anarchism as a naïve theory based in subjectivism that could only lead to collectivism in practice.^[105]

Rand's esthetics defined art as a "selective re-creation of reality according to an artist's metaphysical value-judgments." According to Rand, art allows philosophical concepts to be presented in a concrete form that can be easily grasped, thereby fulfilling a need of human consciousness.^[106] As a writer, the art form Rand focused on most closely was literature, where she considered Romanticism to be the approach that most accurately reflected the existence of human free will.^[107] She described her own approach to literature as "romantic realism".^[108]

Rand acknowledged Aristotle as her greatest influence^[109] and remarked that in the history of philosophy she could only recommend "three A's"—Aristotle, Aquinas, and Ayn Rand.^[110] She also found early inspiration in Friedrich Nietzsche,^[111] and scholars have found indications of his influence in early notes from Rand's journals,^[112] in passages from the first edition of We the Living (which Rand later revised),^[113] and in her overall writing style.^[114] However, by the time she wrote The Fountainhead, Rand had turned against Nietzsche's ideas,^[115] and the extent of his influence on her even during her early years is disputed.^[116] Among the philosophers Rand held in particular disdain was Immanuel Kant, whom she referred to as a "monster",^[117] although philosophers George Walsh^[118] and Fred Seddon^[119] have argued that she misinterpreted Kant and exaggerated their differences.

Rand said her most important contributions to philosophy were her "theory of concepts, [her] ethics, and [her] discovery in politics that evil—the violation of rights—consists of the initiation of force."^[120] She believed epistemology was a foundational branch of philosophy and considered the advocacy of reason to be the single most significant aspect of her philosophy,^[121] stating, "I am not primarily an advocate of capitalism, but of egoism; and I am not primarily an advocate of egoism, but of reason. If one recognizes the supremacy of reason and applies it consistently, all the rest follows."^[122]

Reception and legacy [link]

Reviews [link]

During Rand's lifetime, her work evoked both extreme praise and condemnation. Rand's first novel, We the Living, was admired by the literary critic H.L. Mencken,^[123] her Broadway play Night of January 16th was both a critical and popular success,^[124] and The Fountainhead was hailed by a reviewer in The New York Times as "masterful".^[125] Rand's novels were derided by some critics when they were first published as being long and melodramatic.^[3] However, they became bestsellers largely through word of mouth.^[126]

The first reviews Rand received were for Night of January 16th. Reviews of the production were largely positive, but Rand considered even positive reviews to be embarrassing because of significant changes made to her script by the producer.^[124] Rand believed that her first novel, We the Living, was not widely reviewed, but Rand scholar Michael S. Berliner says "it was the most reviewed of any of her works," with approximately 125 different reviews being published in more than 200 publications. Overall these reviews were more positive than the reviews she received for her later work.^[127] Her 1938 novella Anthem received little attention from reviewers, both for its first publication in England and for subsequent re-issues.^[128]

Rand's first bestseller, The Fountainhead, received far fewer reviews than We the Living, and reviewers' opinions were mixed.^[129] There was a positive review in The New York Times that Rand greatly appreciated.^[130] The reviewer called Rand "a writer of great power" who wrote "brilliantly, beautifully and bitterly," and stated that "you will not be able to read this masterful book without thinking through some of the basic concepts of our time."^[125] There were other positive reviews, but Rand dismissed most of them as either not understanding her message or as being from unimportant publications.^[129] Some negative reviews focused on the length of the novel,^[3] such as one that called it "a whale of a book" and another that said "anyone who is taken in by it deserves a stern lecture on paper-rationing." Other negative reviews called the characters unsympathetic and Rand's style "offensively pedestrian."^[129]

Rand's 1957 novel Atlas Shrugged was widely reviewed, and many of the reviews were strongly negative.^[3]^[131] In the National Review, conservative author Whittaker Chambers called the book "sophomoric" and "remarkably silly". He described the tone of the book as "shrillness without reprieve" and accused Rand of supporting a Godless system (which he related to that of the Soviets), claiming "From almost any page of Atlas Shrugged, a voice can be heard, from painful necessity, commanding: 'To a gas chamber—go!'"^[132] Atlas Shrugged received positive reviews from a few publications, including praise from the noted book reviewer John Chamberlain,^[131] but Rand scholar Mimi Reisel Gladstein later wrote that "reviewers seemed to vie with each other in a contest to devise the cleverest put-downs," calling it "execrable claptrap" and "a nightmare;" they said it was "written out of hate" and showed "remorseless hectoring and prolixity."^[3] Author Flannery O'Connor wrote in a letter to a friend that "The fiction of Ayn Rand is as low as you can get re fiction. I hope you picked it up off the floor of the subway and threw it in the nearest garbage pail."^[133]

Rand's nonfiction received far fewer reviews than her novels had. The tenor of the criticism for her first nonfiction book, For the New Intellectual, was similar to that for Atlas Shrugged,^[134]^[135] with philosopher Sidney Hook likening her certainty to "the way philosophy is written in the Soviet Union",^[136] and author Gore Vidal calling her viewpoint "nearly perfect in its immorality".^[137] Her subsequent books got progressively less attention from reviewers.^[134]

On the 100th anniversary of Rand's birth in 2005, Edward Rothstein, writing for The New York Times, referred to her fictional writing as quaint utopian "retro fantasy" and programmatic neo-Romanticism of the misunderstood artist, while criticizing her characters' "isolated rejection of democratic society".^[138] In 2007, book critic Leslie Clark described her fiction as "romance novels with a patina of pseudo-philosophy".^[139] In 2009, GQ's critic columnist Tom Carson described her books as "capitalism's version of middlebrow religious novels" such as Ben-Hur and the Left Behind series.^[140]

Popular interest [link]

An engraving in all capital letters that reads: "Throughout the centuries there were men who took first steps down new roads armed with nothing but their own vision." Ayn Rand

A quote from Rand's book The Fountainhead, on the wall directly across from the entrance to The American Adventure rotunda at Walt Disney World's Epcot

In 1991, a survey conducted for the Library of Congress and the Book-of-the-Month Club asked club members what the most influential book in the respondent's life was. Rand's Atlas Shrugged was the second most popular choice, after the Bible.^[141] Rand's books continue to be widely sold and read, with 25 million copies sold as of 2007^[142] and another 800,000 sold in 2008. (This includes approximately 300,000 copies distributed for free by the Ayn Rand Institute.)^[143] Although Rand's influence has been greatest in the United States, there has been international interest in her work.^[144]

Rand's contemporary admirers included fellow novelists, such as Ira Levin, Kay Nolte Smith and L. Neil Smith, and later writers such as Erika Holzer and Terry Goodkind have been influenced by her.^[145] Other artists who have cited Rand as an important influence on their lives and thought include comic book artist Steve Ditko^[146] and musician Neil Peart of Rush.^[147] Rand provided a positive view of business, and in response business executives and entrepreneurs have admired and promoted her work.^[148] John Allison of BB&T and Ed Snider of Comcast Spectacor have funded the promotion of Rand's ideas,^[149] while Mark Cuban, owner of the Dallas Mavericks, and John P. Mackey, CEO of Whole Foods, among others, have said they consider Rand crucial to their success.^[150]

Rand and her works have been referred to in a variety of media. References to her have appeared on television shows including animated sitcoms, live-action comedies, dramas, and game shows.^[151] She, or characters based on her, figure prominently (in positive and negative lights) in literary and science fiction novels by prominent American authors.^[152] Nick Gillespie, editor in chief of Reason, has remarked that "Rand's is a tortured immortality, one in which she's as likely to be a punch line as a protagonist..." and that "jibes at Rand as cold and inhuman, run through the popular culture."^[153] Two movies have been made about Rand's life. A 1997 documentary film, Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life, was nominated for the Academy Award for Documentary Feature.^[154] The Passion of Ayn Rand, a 1999 television adaptation of the book of the same name, won several awards.^[142] Rand's image also appears on a U.S. postage stamp designed by artist Nick Gaetano.^[155]

Political influence [link]

In a large outdoor crowd, a man holds up a poster with the words "I am John Galt" in all capital letters

A protester at an April 2009 Tea Party rally carries a sign referring to John Galt, the hero of Rand's novel Atlas Shrugged

Although she rejected the labels "conservative" and "libertarian,"^[156] Rand has had continuing influence on right-wing politics and libertarianism.^[157] Jim Powell, a senior fellow at the Cato Institute, considers Rand one of the three most important women (along with Rose Wilder Lane and Isabel Paterson) of modern American libertarianism,^[158] and David Nolan, one of the founders of the Libertarian Party, stated that "without Ayn Rand, the libertarian movement would not exist."^[159] In his history of the libertarian movement, journalist Brian Doherty described her as "the most influential libertarian of the twentieth century to the public at large,"^[141] and biographer Jennifer Burns referred to her as "the ultimate gateway drug to life on the right."^[160]

She faced intense opposition from William F. Buckley, Jr. and other contributors for the National Review magazine. They published numerous attacks in the 1950s and 1960s by Whittaker Chambers, Garry Wills, and M. Stanton Evans. Nevertheless, her influence among conservatives forced Buckley and other National Review contributors to reconsider how traditional notions of virtue and Christianity could be integrated with support for capitalism.^[161]

The political figures who cite Rand as an influence are most often members of the United States Republican Party^[162] despite Rand being a pro-choice atheist.^[163] A 1987 article in The New York Times referred to her as the Reagan administration's "novelist laureate".^[164] Republican Congressmen and conservative pundits have acknowledged her influence on their lives and recommended her novels.^[165]

The late-2000s financial crisis spurred renewed interest in her works, especially Atlas Shrugged, which some saw as foreshadowing the crisis,^[166] and opinion articles compared real-world events with the plot of the novel.^[167] During this time, signs mentioning Rand and her fictional hero John Galt appeared at Tea Party protests.^[168] There was also increased criticism of her ideas, especially from the political left, with critics blaming the economic crisis on her support of selfishness and free markets, particularly through her influence on Alan Greenspan.^[169] For example, Mother Jones remarked that "Rand's particular genius has always been her ability to turn upside down traditional hierarchies and recast the wealthy, the talented, and the powerful as the oppressed",^[163] while The Nation alleged similarities between the "moral syntax of Randianism" and fascism.^[170]

Academic reaction [link]

During Rand's lifetime her work received little attention from academic scholars.^[4] When the first academic book about Rand's philosophy appeared in 1971, its author declared writing about Rand "a treacherous undertaking" that could lead to "guilt by association" for taking her seriously.^[171] A few articles about Rand's ideas appeared in academic journals prior to her death in 1982, many of them in The Personalist.^[172] One of these was "On the Randian Argument" by respected libertarian philosopher Robert Nozick, who argued that her meta-ethical argument is unsound and fails to solve the is–ought problem posed by David Hume.^[173] Some responses to Nozick by other academic philosophers were also published in The Personalist arguing that Nozick misstated Rand's case.^[172] Academic consideration of Rand as a literary figure during her life was even more limited. Gladstein was unable to find any scholarly articles about Rand's novels when she began researching her in 1973, and only three such articles appeared during the rest of the 1970s.^[174]

Since Rand's death, interest in her work has gradually increased.^[175] Historian Jennifer Burns has identified "three overlapping waves" of scholarly interest in Rand, the most recent of which is "an explosion of scholarship" since the year 2000.^[176] However, few universities currently include Rand or Objectivism as a philosophical specialty or research area, with many literature and philosophy departments dismissing her as a pop culture phenomenon rather than a subject for serious study.^[177]

Academics Mimi Gladstein, Chris Sciabarra, Allan Gotthelf, Edwin A. Locke and Tara Smith have taught her work in academic institutions. Sciabarra co-edits the Journal of Ayn Rand Studies, a nonpartisan peer-reviewed journal dedicated to the study of Rand's philosophical and literary work.^[178] In 1987 Gotthelf helped found the Ayn Rand Society, and has been active in sponsoring seminars about Rand and her ideas.^[179] Smith has written several academic books and papers on Rand's ideas, including Ayn Rand's Normative Ethics: The Virtuous Egoist, a volume on Rand's ethical theory published by Cambridge University Press. Rand's ideas have also been made subjects of study at Clemson and Duke universities.^[180] Scholars of English and American literature have largely ignored her work,^[181] although attention to her literary work has increased since the 1990s.^[182]

Some academic philosophers have criticized Rand for what they consider her lack of rigor and limited understanding of philosophical subject matter.^[4]^[95] The Philosophical Lexicon, a satirical web site maintained by philosophers Daniel Dennett and Asbjørn Steglich-Petersen, defines a 'rand' as: "An angry tirade occasioned by mistaking philosophical disagreement for a personal attack and/or evidence of unspeakable moral corruption."^[183] Chris Matthew Sciabarra has called into question the motives of some of Rand's critics because of the unusual hostility of their criticisms.^[184] Sciabarra writes, "The left was infuriated by her anti-communist, pro-capitalist politics, whereas the right was disgusted with her atheism and civil libertarianism."^[4]

Rand scholars Douglas Den Uyl and Douglas B. Rasmussen, while stressing the importance and originality of her thought, describe her style as "literary, hyperbolic and emotional."^[185] Philosopher Jack Wheeler says that despite "the incessant bombast and continuous venting of Randian rage," Rand's ethics are "a most immense achievement, the study of which is vastly more fruitful than any other in contemporary thought."^[186] In the Literary Encyclopedia entry for Rand written in 2001, John Lewis declared that "Rand wrote the most intellectually challenging fiction of her generation".^[187] In a 1999 interview in the Chronicle of Higher Education, Rand scholar Chris Matthew Sciabarra commented, "I know they laugh at Rand," while forecasting a growth of interest in her work in the academic community.^[188]

Objectivist movement [link]

Main article: Objectivist movement

In 1985, Rand's heir Leonard Peikoff established the Ayn Rand Institute, a nonprofit organization dedicated to spreading Rand's ideas and promoting her works. In 1990, philosopher David Kelley founded the Institute for Objectivist Studies, now known as The Atlas Society.^[189] In 2001 historian John McCaskey organized the Anthem Foundation for Objectivist Scholarship, which provides grants for scholarly work on Objectivism in academia.^[190] The charitable foundation of BB&T Corporation has also given grants for teaching Rand's ideas or works. The University of Texas at Austin, the University of Pittsburgh, and University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill are among the schools that have received grants. In some cases these grants have been controversial due to their requiring research or teaching related to Rand.^[191]

Selected works [link]

Wikisource has original works written by or about:
Ayn Rand

Main article: Bibliography for Ayn Rand and Objectivism

Novels

Other fiction

1934 Night of January 16th
1938 Anthem

Non-fiction

1961 For the New Intellectual
1964 The Virtue of Selfishness
1966 Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal
1969 The Romantic Manifesto
1971 The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution
1979 Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology
1982 Philosophy: Who Needs It

References [link]

^ Branden 1986, p. 71; Gladstein 1999, p. 9
^ Den Uyl & Rasmussen 1986, p. x; Sciabarra 1995, pp. 1–2; Kukathas 1998, p. 55; Badhwar & Long 2010.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Gladstein 1999, pp. 117–119
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Sciabarra 1995, pp. 1–2
^ Heller 2009, pp. 3–5; Britting 2004, pp. 2–3; Burns 2009, pp. 9
^ Branden 1986, pp. 35–39
^ Britting 2004, pp. 14–20
^ Burns 2009, p. 15
^ Sciabarra 1995, p. 77
^ Sciabarra 1999, pp. 5–8
^ Heller 2009, p. 41; Peikoff 1991, pp. 451–460
^ Britting 2004, pp. 17–18, 22–24
^ Britting 2004, pp. 17, 22
^ Heller 2009, p. 47; Britting 2004, p. 24
^ Sciabarra 1999, p. 1
^ ^a ^b Heller 2009, pp. 49–50
^ Britting 2004, p. 33
^ Gladstein 2009, p. 7; Heller 2009, p. 55
^ Rand said the origin of Ayn was Finnish (Rand 1995, p. 40), but some biographical sources question this, suggesting it may come from a Hebrew nickname. Heller 2009, pp. 55–57 provides a detailed discussion.
^ Heller 2009, p. 53
^ Heller 2009, pp. 57–60
^ Britting 2004, pp. 34–36
^ Britting 2004, pp. 35–40; Paxton 1998, pp. 74, 81, 84
^ Heller 2009, pp. 96–98; Britting 2004, pp. 43–44, 52
^ Britting 2004, pp. 40, 42
^ Heller 2009, pp. 76, 92
^ Heller 2009, pp. 78; Gladstein 2009, p. 87
^ Rand, Ayn (1995) [1936]. "Foreword". We the Living (60th Anniversary ed.). New York: Dutton. p. xviii. ISBN 0-525-94054-5. OCLC 32780458.
^ Gladstein 2009, p. 13
^ Ralston, Richard E. "Publishing We the Living". In Mayhew 2004, p. 141
^ Ralston, Richard E. "Publishing We the Living". In Mayhew 2004, p. 143
^ Paxton 1998, p. 104
^ Burns 2009, p. 50; Heller 2009, p. 102
^ Ralston, Richard E. "Publishing Anthem". In Mayhew 2005a, pp. 24–27
^ Britting 2004, p. 57
^ Burns 2009, p. 114; Heller 2009, p. 249; Branden 1986, pp. 188–189
^ Burns 2009, pp. 75–78
^ Britting 2004, pp. 61–78
^ Britting 2004, pp. 58–61
^ Burns 2009, p. 85
^ Burns 2009, p. 89
^ Burns 2009, p. 178; Heller 2009, pp. 304–305
^ Doherty 2007, p. 149; Branden 1986, pp. 180–181
^ Britting 2004, pp. 68–80; Branden 1986, pp. 183–198
^ Sciabarra 1995, p. 112; Heller 2009, p. 171
^ Burns 2009, pp. 100–101, 123
^ Burns 2009, pp. 130–131; Heller 2009, pp. 214–215
^ Mayhew 2005b, pp. 91–93
^ Mayhew 2005b, pp. 188–189
^ Mayhew 2005b, p. 83
^ Britting 2004, p. 71
^ Branden 1986, pp. 256–264, 331–343
^ Sciabarra 1995, p. 113; Mayhew 2005b, p. 78
^ Salmieri, Gregory. "Atlas Shrugged on the Role of the Mind in Man's Existence". In Mayhew 2009, p. 248
^ Gladstein 1999, p. 42
^ Burns 2009, p. 2
^ Younkins 2007, p. 1
^ Burns 2009, p. 178; Heller 2009, pp. 303–306
^ Gladstein 2009, pp. 105–106; Burns 2009, pp. 232–233
^ Burns 2009, pp. 236–237
^ Heller 2009, p. 303
^ Doherty 2007, pp. 237–238; Heller 2009, p. 329; Burns 2009, p. 235
^ Doherty 2007, p. 235; Burns 2009, p. 235
^ Branden 1986, pp. 315–316
^ Gladstein 1999, p. 14
^ Branden 1986, p. 318
^ Gladstein 1999, p. 16
^ Heller 2009, pp. 320–321
^ Burns 2009, pp. 228–229, 265; Heller 2009, p. 352
^ Rand 2005, p. 96; Burns 2009, p. 266
^ Burns 2009, p. 266; Heller 2009, p. 391
^ Heller 2009, pp. 362, 519
^ Burns 2009, pp. 204–206; Heller 2009, pp. 322–323
^ Britting 2004, p. 101
^ Branden 1986, pp. 344–358
^ Heller 2009, pp. 378–379
^ Heller 2009, p. 411
^ Branden 1986, pp. 386–389
^ Heller 2009, pp. 391–393
^ McConnell 2010, pp. 520-521
^ Branden 1986, pp. 392–395
^ Heller 2009, p. 406
^ Heller 2009, p. 410
^ Heller 2009, pp. 405, 410
^ Branden 1986, p. 403
^ Heller 2009, p. 400
^ Rand 1992, pp. 1170–1171
^ Peikoff 1991, pp. 2–3; Den Uyl & Rasmussen 1986, p. 224; Gladstein & Sciabarra 1999, p. 2
^ Den Uyl, Douglas J. & Rasmussen, Douglas B. "Ayn Rand's Realism". In Den Uyl & Rasmussen 1986, pp. 3–20
^ Peikoff 1991, pp. 38–39; Gotthelf 2000, p. 54
^ Rand 1964, p. 22
^ Rand 1982, pp. 62–63
^ Salmieri & Gotthelf 2005, p. 1997; Gladstein 1999, pp. 85–86
^ Rand 1989, p. 3
^ ^a ^b Kukathas 1998, p. 55
^ Rand 1964, p. 25; Badhwar & Long 2010; Peikoff 1991, pp. 207, 219
^ Badhwar & Long 2010
^ Rand 1992, p. 1023; Peikoff 1991, pp. 313–320
^ Peikoff 1991, pp. 350–352
^ Gotthelf 2000, pp. 91–92; Peikoff 1991, pp. 379–380
^ Peikoff 1991, pp. 369
^ Peikoff 1991, p. 367
^ Burns 2009, pp. 174–177, 209, 230–231; Den Uyl & Rasmussen 1986, pp. 225–226; Doherty 2007, pp. 189–190; Branden 1986, p. 252
^ Sciabarra 1995, pp. 266–267; Burns 2009, pp. 268–269
^ Sciabarra 1995, pp. 280–281; Peikoff 1991, pp. 371–372; Merrill 1991, p. 139
^ Sciabarra 1995, pp. 204–205
^ Peikoff 1991, p. 428
^ Sciabarra 1995, p. 207; Peikoff 1991, p. 437
^ Rand 1992, p. 1171
^ Sciabarra 1995, p. 12
^ Heller 2009, p. 42; Burns 2009, pp. 16, 22; Sciabarra 1995, pp. 100–106
^ Rand 1997, pp. 21; Burns 2009, pp. 24–25; Sciabarra 1998, pp. 136, 138–139
^ Merrill 1991, pp. 38–39; Sciabarra 1998, p. 135; Loiret-Prunet, Valerie. "Ayn Rand and Feminist Synthesis: Rereading We the Living". In Gladstein & Sciabarra 1999, p. 97
^ Badhwar & Long 2010; Sheaffer, Robert. "Rereading Rand on Gender in the Light of Paglia". In Gladstein & Sciabarra 1999, p. 313.
^ Burns 2009, pp. 41, 68; Heller 2009, p. 42; Merrill 1991, pp. 47–49
^ Burns 2009, pp. 303–304; Sciabarra 1998, pp. 135, 137–138; Mayhew, Robert. "We the Living '36 and '59". In Mayhew 2004, p. 205.
^ Rand 1971, p. 4
^ Walsh 2000
^ Seddon 2003, pp. 63–81
^ Rand 2005, p. 166
^ Rand, Ayn (1999). "The Left: Old and New". Return of the Primitive: The Anti-Industrial Revolution. Edited by Peter Schwartz. New York: Meridian. p. 62. ISBN 0-452-01184-1. OCLC 39281836.
^ Rand 1971, p. 1
^ Rand 1995, pp. 10, 13–14
^ ^a ^b Branden 1986, pp. 122–124
^ ^a ^b Pruette, Lorine (May 16, 1943). "Battle Against Evil". The New York Times: p. BR7. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20610FD3D5C167B93C4A8178ED85F478485F9. Retrieved April 15, 2011. Reprinted in McGrath, Charles, ed. (1998). Books of the Century. New York: Times Books. pp. 135–136. ISBN 0-8129-2965-9. OCLC 38439024.
^ Paxton 1998, p. 120; Britting 2004, p. 87
^ Berliner, Michael S. "Reviews of We the Living". In Mayhew 2004, pp. 147–151
^ Berliner, Michael S. "Reviews of Anthem". In Mayhew 2005a, pp. 55–60
^ ^a ^b ^c Berliner, Michael S. "The Fountainhead Reviews". In Mayhew 2006, pp. 77–82
^ Rand 1995, p. 74
^ ^a ^b Berliner, Michael S. "The Atlas Shrugged Reviews". In Mayhew 2009, pp. 133–137
^ Chambers, Whittaker (December 8, 1957). "Big Sister is Watching You". National Review: 594–596. http://www.nationalreview.com/articles/222482/big-sister-watching-you/flashback. Retrieved April 15, 2011.
^ O'Connor, Flannery (1979). Fitzgerald, Sally. ed. The Habit of Being: Letters of Flannery O'Connor. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. p. 398. ISBN 0-374-52104-2. OCLC 18175642.
^ ^a ^b Gladstein 1999, p. 119
^ Burns 2009, pp. 193–194
^ Hook, Sidney (April 9, 1961). "Each Man for Himself". The New York Times Book Review: p. 28. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70914F83B5B147A93CBA9178FD85F458685F9. Retrieved April 15, 2011.
^ Vidal, Gore (1962). "Two Immoralists: Orville Prescott and Ayn Rand". Rocking the Boat. Boston: Little, Brown. p. 234. OCLC 291123. Reprinted from Esquire, July 1961.
^ Rothstein, Edward (February 2, 2005). "Considering the Last Romantic, Ayn Rand, at 100". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/02/books/02rand.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved April 15, 2011.
^ Clark, Leslie (February 17, 2007). "The philosophical art of looking out number one". The Herald. http://www.heraldscotland.com/the-philosophical-art-of-looking-out-number-one-1.835066. Retrieved April 2, 2010.
^ Corsello, Andrew (October 27, 2009). "The Bitch is Back". GQ (Condé Nast Publications). http://www.gq.com/entertainment/books/200911/ayn-rand-dick-books-fountainhead?printable=true. Retrieved April 9, 2011.
^ ^a ^b Doherty 2007, p. 11
^ ^a ^b Gladstein 2009, p. 122
^ Burns 2009, pp. 2, 299n.3
^ Gladstein 2003, pp. 384–386; Delbroy, Bibek (2006). "Ayn Rand—The Indian Connection". In Machan, Tibor R. Ayn Rand at 100. New Delhi, India: Pragun Publications. pp. 2–4. ISBN 81-89645-57-9. OCLC 76829742. ; Cohen, David (December 7, 2001). "A growing concern". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2001/dec/07/internationaleducationnews.highereducation. Retrieved April 15, 2011.
^ Riggenbach, Jeff (Fall 2004). "Ayn Rand's Influence on American Popular Fiction". The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies 6 (1): 91–144. http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars6-1/jars6_1jriggenbach.pdf. Retrieved April 20, 2011.
^ Sciabarra 2004, pp. 8–11
^ Sciabarra, Chris Matthew (Fall 2002). "Rand, Rush, and Rock". The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies 4 (1): 161–185. http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/rush.htm. Retrieved April 20, 2011.
^ Burns 2009, pp. 168–171
^ Burns 2009, p. 298; Branden 1986, p. 419
^ Rubin, Harriet (September 15, 2007). "Ayn Rand's Literature of Capitalism". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/15/business/15atlas.html?_r=3&oref=slogin&pagewanted=print. Retrieved April 15, 2011.
^ Sciabarra 2004, pp. 4–5
^ Sciabarra 2004, p. 3
^ Alex Chadwick (host), Nick Gillespie (contributor) (February 2, 2005). "Book Bag: Marking the Ayn Rand Centennial". Day to Day. National Public Radio. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4475441.
^ Gladstein 1999, p. 128
^ Wozniak, Maurice D., ed. (2001). Krause-Minkus Standard Catalog of U.S. Stamps (5th ed.). Krause Publications. p. 380. ISBN 0-87349-321-4. OCLC 48663542.
^ Burns 2009, p. 258; Rand 2005, p. 73
^ Burns 2009, p. 4; Gladstein 2009, pp. 107–108, 124
^ Powell, Jim (May 1996). "Rose Wilder Lane, Isabel Paterson, and Ayn Rand: Three Women Who Inspired the Modern Libertarian Movement". The Freeman: Ideas on Liberty 46 (5): 322. http://www.thefreemanonline.org/featured/rose-wilder-lane-isabel-paterson-and-ayn-rand-three-women-who-inspired-the-modern-libertarian-movement/. Retrieved April 15, 2011.
^ Branden 1986, p. 414
^ Burns 2009, p. 4
^ Burns 2004
^ Doherty 2009, pp. 54
^ ^a ^b Benfer, Amy (July/August 2009). "And the Rand Played On". Mother Jones. http://motherjones.com/media/2009/07/and-rand-played. Retrieved April 15, 2011.
^ Burns 2009, p. 279
^ Gladstein 2009, p. 124; Heller 2009, p. xi; Doherty 2009, p. 51; Burns 2009, p. 283
^ Burns 2009, pp. 283–284; Doherty 2009, pp. 51–52; Gladstein 2009, p. 125
^ Gladstein 2009, p. 125; Doherty 2009, pp. 54
^ Doherty 2009, pp. 51–52
^ Burns 2009, p. 283
^ Robin, Corey (June 7, 2010). "Garbage and Gravitas". The Nation. http://www.thenation.com/article/garbage-and-gravitas. Retrieved April 15, 2011.
^ O'Neill 1977, p. 3
^ ^a ^b Gladstein 1999, p. 115
^ Nozick, Robert (Spring 1971). "On the Randian Argument". The Personalist 52: 282–304.
^ Gladstein 2003, pp. 373–374, 379–381
^ Gladstein 2009, pp. 114–122; Salmieri & Gotthelf 2005, p. 1995; McLemee, Scott (September 1999). "The Heirs Of Ayn Rand: Has Objectivism Gone Subjective?". Lingua Franca 9 (6): 45–55. http://linguafranca.mirror.theinfo.org/9909/rand.html. Retrieved April 15, 2011.
^ Burns 2009, pp. 295–296
^ Gladstein 2009, p. 116
^ Gladstein 2009, p. 118
^ Gotthelf 2000, pp. 2, 25
^ Harvey, Benjamin (May 15, 2005). "Ayn Rand at 100: An 'ism' struts its stuff". Rutland Herald. Columbia News Service. http://www.rutlandherald.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20050515/NEWS/505150346/1014. Retrieved June 4, 2009.
^ Gladstein 2003, p. 375
^ Gladstein 2003, pp. 384–391
^ Dennett, Daniel; Steglich-Petersen, Asbjørn (2008). "The Philosophical Lexicon: R". http://www.philosophicallexicon.com/#R. Retrieved August 2, 2009.
^ Sciabarra 1995, pp. 9–14
^ Den Uyl & Rasmussen 1978, p. 203
^ Wheeler, Jack. "Rand and Aristotle". In Den Uyl & Rasmussen 1986, p. 96
^ Lewis, John David (October 20, 2001). "Ayn Rand". The Literary Encyclopedia. http://www.litencyc.com/php/speople.php?rec=true&UID=3705. Retrieved August 2, 2009.
^ Sharlet, Jeff (April 9, 1999). "Ayn Rand Has Finally Caught the Attention of Scholars". The Chronicle of Higher Education 45 (31): A17–A18. http://chronicle.com/article/Ayn-Rand-Has-Finally-Caught/20237/. Retrieved April 15, 2011.
^ Burns 2009, pp. 280–281; Gladstein 2009, pp. 19, 114
^ Gladstein 2009, p. 117
^ Gladstein 2009, pp. 116–117; Burns 2009, p. 297

Works cited [link]

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Branden, Barbara (1986). The Passion of Ayn Rand. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company. ISBN 0-385-19171-5. OCLC 12614728.
Britting, Jeff (2004). Ayn Rand. Overlook Illustrated Lives series. New York: Overlook Duckworth. ISBN 1-58567-406-0. OCLC 56413971.
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Den Uyl, Douglas & Rasmussen, Douglas (April 1978). "Nozick On the Randian Argument". The Personalist 59: 184–205.
Den Uyl, Douglas & Rasmussen, Douglas, eds. (1986) [1984]. The Philosophic Thought of Ayn Rand (paperback ed.). Chicago: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-01407-3. OCLC 15669115.
Doherty, Brian (2007). Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement. New York: Public Affairs. ISBN 1-58648-350-1. OCLC 76141517.
Doherty, Brian (December 2009). "She's Back!". Reason 41 (7): 51–58. http://reason.com/archives/2009/11/09/ayn-rand-is-back/singlepage. Retrieved April 15, 2011.
Gladstein, Mimi Reisel (1999). The New Ayn Rand Companion. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-30321-5. OCLC 40359365.
Gladstein, Mimi Reisel (Spring 2003). "Ayn Rand Literary Criticism". The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies 4 (2): 373–394. http://www.aynrandstudies.com/jars/archives/jars4-2/jars4_2mgladstein.pdf. Retrieved April 20, 2011.
Gladstein, Mimi Reisel (2009). Ayn Rand. Major Conservative and Libertarian Thinkers series. New York: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-4513-1. OCLC 319595162.
Gladstein, Mimi Reisel & Sciabarra, Chris Matthew, eds. (1999). Feminist Interpretations of Ayn Rand. Re-reading the Canon series. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0-271-01830-5. OCLC 38885754.
Gotthelf, Allan (2000). On Ayn Rand. Wadsworth Philosophers Series. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN 0-534-57625-7. OCLC 43668181.
Heller, Anne C. (2009). Ayn Rand and the World She Made. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-51399-9. OCLC 229027437.
Kukathas, Chandran (1998). "Rand, Ayn (1905–82)". In Craig, Edward (ed). Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 8. New York: Routledge. pp. 55–56. ISBN 0-415-07310-3. OCLC 318280731.
Mayhew, Robert, ed. (2004). Essays on Ayn Rand's We the Living. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-0697-X. OCLC 52979186.
Mayhew, Robert, ed. (2005a). Essays on Ayn Rand's Anthem. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-1031-4. OCLC 57577415.
Mayhew, Robert (2005b). Ayn Rand and Song of Russia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-5276-4. OCLC 55474309.
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Mayhew, Robert, ed. (2009). Essays on Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-2780-3. OCLC 315237945.
McConnell, Scott (2010). 100 Voices:An Oral History of Ayn Rand. New York: New American Library. ISBN 978-0-451-23130-7. OCLC 555642813.
Merrill, Ronald E. (1991). The Ideas of Ayn Rand. La Salle, Illinois: Open Court Publishing. ISBN 0-8126-9157-1. OCLC 23254190.
O'Neill, William F. (1977) [1971]. With Charity Toward None: An Analysis of Ayn Rand's Philosophy. New York: Littlefield, Adams & Company. ISBN 0-8226-0179-6. OCLC 133489.
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Ayn Rand

Bibliography

Novels	We the Living (1936) Anthem (1938) The Fountainhead (1943) Atlas Shrugged (1957)

Non-fiction books	For the New Intellectual (1961) Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology (1979) The Art of Fiction (2000)

Screenplays	Red Pawn (1932) Love Letters (1945) You Came Along (1945) The Fountainhead (1949)

Essay collections	The Virtue of Selfishness (1964) Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal (1966) The Romantic Manifesto (1969) The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution (1971) Philosophy: Who Needs It (1982) The Voice of Reason (1989)

Other	Night of January 16th (1934) The Early Ayn Rand (1984) Letters of Ayn Rand (1995) Journals of Ayn Rand (1997) Objectivist periodicals

Philosophy

Biographical depictions

Notable adaptations

We the Living (1942 film)
The Fountainhead (1949 film)
Atlas Shrugged: Part I (2011 film)

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v t e Criticism of religion

Criticism of religions	Buddhism Christianity Hinduism Islam Jainism Jehovah's Witnesses Judaism Latter Day Saint movement Monotheism Mormonism Roman Catholic Scientology Seventh-day Adventist Twelver Shi’ism Unification Church

Religious texts	Bible Book of Mormon Quran Talmud Upanishads

Religious figures	Jesus Moses Muhammad Charles Taze Russell Joseph Smith Ellen White

Critical books and movements	Atheist Manifesto God Is Not Great Letter to a Christian Nation The End of Faith The God Delusion The Dawkins Delusion? Why I Am Not a Christian Why I Am Not a Muslim The Rage Against God Antitheism Atheism Church of the SubGenius Criticism of Atheism Flying Spaghetti Monster Invisible Pink Unicorn Nontheistic religions

Violence and terrorism	Violence Terrorism Persecution War Neo-fascism Sectarian violence Christianity Mormonism Judaism Islam India

Critics	This is an incomplete list, which may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by expanding it with reliably sourced entries. Dan Barker Pat Condell Richard Dawkins Daniel Dennett Denis Diderot Epicurus Ludwig Feuerbach Sigmund Freud Annie Laurie Gaylor Sam Harris Christopher Hitchens Baron d'Holbach David Hume Walter Kaufman Bill Maher Karl Marx PZ Myers Friedrich Nietzsche Michel Onfray Thomas Paine Penn & Teller Ayn Rand James Randi Bertrand Russell Carl Sagan Michael Shermer David Silverman Robert Spencer Max Stirner Socrates Mark Twain Voltaire Ibn Warraq

Persondata
Name	Rand, Ayn
Alternative names	Rosenbaum, Alisa Zinov'yevna; Алиса Зиновьевна Розенбаум (Russian)
Short description	novelist, philosopher, playwright, screenwriter
Date of birth	February 2, 1905
Place of birth	Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire
Date of death	March 6, 1982
Place of death	New York City

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