- published: 13 Jul 2010
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- Adalbert Stifter
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Austria
Austria (
i/ˈɒstriə/ or /ˈɔːstriə/; German: Österreich [ˈøːstɐˌʁaɪç] (
listen)), officially the Republic of Austria (German: 
Republik Österreich (help·info)), is a landlocked country of roughly 8.47 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The territory of Austria covers 83,855 square kilometres (32,377 sq mi) and has a temperate and alpine climate. Austria's terrain is highly mountainous due to the presence of the Alps; only 32% of the country is below 500 metres (1,640 ft), and its highest point is 3,798 metres (12,461 ft). The majority of the population speak local Austro-Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, and German in its standard form is the country's official language. Other local official languages are Burgenland Croatian, Hungarian and Slovene.
The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty when the vast majority of the country was a part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Austria became one of the great powers of Europe and, in response to the coronation of Napoleon I as the Emperor of the French, the Austrian Empire was officially proclaimed in 1804. In 1867, the Austrian Empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary.
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Charles University
Charles University in Prague (also simply Charles University; Czech: Univerzita Karlova v Praze; Latin: Universitas Carolina Pragensis; German: Karls-Universität zu Prag) is the oldest and largest university in the Czech Republic. Founded in 1348, it was the first university in Central Europe. It is one of the oldest universities in Europe in continuous operation, and a top university in Central and Eastern Europe that also ranks among the 1.5 percent world’s best universities.
Its seal shows its protector Emperor Charles IV, with his coats of arms as King of the Romans and King of Bohemia, kneeling in front of St. Wenceslas, the patron saint of Bohemia. It is surrounded by the inscription, Sigillum Universitatis Scolarium Studii Pragensis (English: Seal of the Prague academia, Czech: Pečeť studentské obce pražského učení).
The establishment of a medieval university in Prague was inspired by Holy Roman Emperor Charles of Luxembourg. He asked his friend and ally, Pope Clement VI, to do so. On 26 January 1347 the pope issued the bull establishing a university in Prague, modeled on the University of Paris, with the full (4) number of faculties, that is including theological. On 7 April 1348 Charles, the king of Bohemia, gave to the established university privileges and immunities from the secular power in a Golden Bull and on 14 January 1349 he repeated that as the King of the Romans. Most Czech sources since the 19th century—encyclopedias, general histories, materials of the University itself—prefer to give 1348 as the year of the founding of the university, rather than 1347 or 1349. This was caused by an anticlerical shift in the 19th century, shared by both Czechs and Germans.
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Krakow
Kraków (Polish pronunciation: [ˈkrakuf] ( listen)) also Cracow, or Krakow (English /ˈkrækaʊ/), is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River (Polish: Wisła) in the Lesser Poland region, the city dates back to the 7th century. Kraków has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic, cultural, and artistic life and is one of Poland's most important economic hubs. It was the capital of Poland from 1038 to 1569; the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1596; the Grand Duchy of Kraków from 1846 to 1918; and Kraków Voivodeship from the 14th century to 1999. It is now the capital of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship.
The city has grown from a Stone Age settlement to Poland's second most important city. It began as a hamlet on Wawel Hill and was already being reported as a busy trading centre of Slavonic Europe in 965. With the establishment of new universities and cultural venues at the emergence of the Second Polish Republic and throughout the 20th century, Kraków reaffirmed its role as a major national academic and artistic centre. The city has a population of approximately 760,000 whereas about 8 million people live within a 100 km radius of its main square.
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Lower Austria
Lower Austria (German: Niederösterreich (help·info)) is the northeasternmost state of the nine states in Austria. The capital of Lower Austria since 1986 is Sankt Pölten, the most recently designated capital town in Austria. The capital of Lower Austria had formerly been Vienna, even though Vienna is not officially part of Lower Austria. With a land area of 19,186 km² and a population of 1.612 million people, it is the largest state in Austria, and in terms of population second only to the federal state of Vienna.
Situated east of Upper Austria, Lower Austria derives its name from its downriver location on the Danube River, which flows from west to east. Lower Austria has an international border, 414 km long, with the Czech Republic (South Moravia) and Slovakia. The state has the second longest external border of all Austrian states. It borders on other Austrian states of Upper Austria, Styria and Burgenland. The state surrounds Vienna.
Lower Austria is divided four regions, known as Viertel (quarters):
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Prague
Prague ( /ˈprɑːɡ/; Czech: Praha pronounced [ˈpraɦa] ( listen)) is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic and fourteenth largest city in European Union. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava river, the city is home to about 1.3 million people, while its metropolitan area is estimated to have a population of nearly 2.0 million. The city has a temperate oceanic climate with warm summers and chilly winters.
Prague has been a political, cultural, and economic centre of central Europe with waxing and waning fortunes during its 1,100 year existence. Founded during the Romanesque and flourishing by the Gothic and Renaissance eras, Prague was the seat of two Holy Roman Emperors and thus then also the capital of the Holy Roman Empire. It was an important city to the Habsburg Monarchy and its Austro-Hungarian Empire and after World War I became the capital of Czechoslovakia. The city played major roles in the Protestant Reformation, the Thirty Years' War, and in modern history generally as the principal conurbation in Bohemia and Moravia whose second city is Brno.
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Ringstraße
The Ringstraße (or Ringstrasse) is a circular road surrounding the Innere Stadt district of Vienna, Austria and is one of its main sights. It is typical of the historical style called Ringstraßenstil (Ringstraße Style) of the 1860s to 1890s.
The street was built to replace the city walls, which had been built during the 13th century and funded by the ransom payment derived from the release of Richard I of England, and reinforced as a consequence of the First Turkish Siege in 1529, and instead of the glacis, which was about 500m wide. The fortification had been obsolete since the late 18th century, but the Revolution of 1848 was required to trigger a significant change.
In 1850, the Vorstädte (today the Districts II to IX) were incorporated into the municipality, which made the city walls a simple impediment to traffic. In 1857, Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria issued his famous decree "It is My will" (Es ist Mein Wille at Wikisource) ordering the demolition of the city walls and moats. In his decree, he laid out the exact size of the boulevard, as well as the geographical positions and functions of the new buildings. The Ringstraße and the planned buildings were intended to be a showcase for the grandeur and glory of the Habsburg Empire. On the practical level, Emperor Napoléon III of France's boulevard construction in Paris had already demonstrated how enlarging the size of streets effectively made the erection of revolutionary barricades impossible.
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Salzburg (state)
Salzburg (pronounced [ˈzaltsbʊʁk]; Austro-Bavarian: Såizburg; literally: "Salt Castle") is a state or Land of Austria with an area of 7,156 km2, located adjacent to the German border. It is also known as Salzburgerland, to distinguish it from its capital city, also named Salzburg. With 529,085 inhabitants it is one of the country's smaller states in terms of population.
The Salzburger Land (the Austrian state of Salzburg) — with its primary river, the Salzach — lies between Upper Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol, South Tyrol (Italy) and Bavaria (Germany).
Running through the south are the main ranges of the Central Alps (incl. the Hohe Tauern mountains) with numerous 3,000m peaks. The Dachstein Massif and the Berchtesgaden Alps border the Salzburger Land to the east and north.
Salt has played an important role in the region's development; Salzburg means "salt castle".
Independence from Bavaria was secured in the late 14th century. The Archbishopric of Salzburg was an independent prince-bishopric within the Holy Roman Empire until German Mediatisation in 1813.
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University of Paris
The University of Paris (French: Université de Paris) was a university located in Paris, France, and one of the earliest to be established in Europe. It was founded in the mid-12th century, and officially recognized as a university probably between 1160 and 1250. After many changes, including a century of suspension (1793–1896), it ceased to exist in 1970 and 13 autonomous universities (University of Paris I–XIII) were created from it. The university is often referred to as the Sorbonne or La Sorbonne after the collegiate institution (Collège de Sorbonne) founded about 1257 by Robert de Sorbon. In fact, the university as such was older and was never completely centered on the Sorbonne. Of the 13 current successor universities, the first four have a presence in the historical Sorbonne building, and three include "Sorbonne" in their names.
The universities in Paris are now essentially independent of each other, and some fall under the Académie of Créteil or the Académie of Versailles rather than the Académie of Paris. Some residual administrative functions of the 13 universities are formally supervised by a common chancellor, the Rector of the Académie of Paris, with offices in the Sorbonne. As of 2006, Maurice Quénet is the Rector of the Academy of Paris and Chancellor of the Universities of Paris. The Vice-Chancellor of the Universities of Paris is Pierre Gregory. Despite this link, and the historical ties, there is no University of Paris system that binds the universities at an academic level.
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Upper Austria
Upper Austria (German: Oberösterreich (help·info), Czech: Horní Rakousy, Austro-Bavarian: Obaöstarreich) is one of the nine states or Bundesländer of Austria. Its capital is Linz. Upper Austria borders on Germany and the Czech Republic, as well as on the other Austrian states of Lower Austria, Styria, and Salzburg. With an area of 11,980 km² and 1.412 million inhabitants, Upper Austria is the fourth-largest Austrian state by land area and third-largest by population.
For a long period of the Middle Ages, much of Upper Austria belonged to the Duchy of Styria. In the mid 13th century the Traungau was removed from it by King Ottokar II of Bohemia, and it became known as the Principality above the Enns River, this name being first recorded in 1264. (At the time the term "Upper Austria" also included Tyrol and various scattered Habsburg possessions in South Germany.)
In 1490, the area was given a measure of independence within the Holy Roman Empire, with the status of a principality. By 1550 there was a Protestant majority. In 1564, Upper Austria, together with Lower Austria and the Bohemian territories, fell under Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II.
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Vienna
Vienna ( /viːˈɛnə/; German: Wien (help·info) [viːn]) is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.723 million (2.4 million within the metropolitan area, more than 25% of Austria's population), and is by far the largest city in Austria, as well as its cultural, economic, and political centre. It is the 9th-largest city by population in the European Union. Until the beginning of the 20th century it was the largest German speaking city in the world, and before the first world war and the splitting of the Austro-Hungarian empire the city had 2 million inhabitants. Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city lies in the east of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region. Along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
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Vienna Observatory
Coordinates: 48°13′54.78″N 16°20′1.49″E / 48.2318833°N 16.3337472°E / 48.2318833; 16.3337472
Universitäts-Sternwarte Wien (Vienna Observatory) is an astronomical observatory in Vienna, Austria. It is part of the University of Vienna. The first observatory was built in 1753–1754 on the roof of one of the university buildings.
A new observatory was built between 1874 and 1879, and was finally inaugurated by Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria in 1883. The main dome houses a refractor with a diameter of 68 centimetres (27 in) and a focal length of 10.5 metres (34 ft) built by the Grubb Telescope Company. At that time, it was the world's largest refracting telescope.
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Adalbert Stifter
Adalbert Stifter (23 October 1805 – 28 January 1868) was an Austrian writer, poet, painter, and pedagogue. He was especially notable for the vivid natural landscapes depicted in his writing, and has long been popular in the German-speaking world, while almost entirely unknown to English readers.
Born in Oberplan in Bohemia (now Horní Planá in the Czech Republic), he was the eldest son of Johann Stifter, a wealthy linen weaver, and his wife, Magdalena. Johann died in 1817 after being crushed by an overturned wagon. Stifter was educated at the Benedictine Gymnasium at Kremsmünster, and went to the University of Vienna in 1826 to study law. In 1828 he fell in love with Fanny Greipl, but after a relationship lasting five years, her parents forbade further correspondence, a loss from which he never recovered. In 1835 he became engaged to Amalia Mohaupt, and they married in 1837, but the marriage was not a happy one. Stifter and his wife, unable to conceive, tried adopting three of Amalia's nieces at different times. One of the children ran away, and another, Juliana, disappeared and was found drowned in the Danube four weeks later.
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Albin Schram
Albin Schram (1926-2005) was one of the greatest collectors of autograph letters by shapers of world history. He was born in Prague to Austrian parents. He studied law at Vienna University and worked in Vienna, Germany and Switzerland. After the annexation of Czechoslovakia, he was conscripted into the Wehrmacht in 1943.
Schram was a voracious collector of letters, owning manuscripts written by literary, historical, musical, political and scientific figures across 500 years. He was a wealthy Austrian banker who pursued his hobby from his mansion in Lausanne, Switzerland. The letters were kept in a filing cabinet adjoining the laundry in the basement of the house.
He is said to have collected some 1000 letters, written by royals, scientists, writers and philosophers. They date between the 15th and 20th Centuries, and represent a broad range of countries and languages.
A list of known authors of letters in the collection
Napoleon, Elizabeth I, John Donne, Charlotte Brontë, Ludvig van Beethoven, Albert Einstein, Isaac Newton, Frederick the Great, Ernest Hemingway, Charles Darwin, Lewis Carroll, Voltaire, Alexander Pushkin, Claude Monet, Winston Churchill (aged 16), Mahatma Gandhi, Daniel Defoe, Tchaikovsky, Dostoevsky, Ezra Pound, Garcia Lorca, Oliver Cromwell, T. S. Eliot, Lord Byron, Sigmund Freud, Charles Dickens, Peter the Great, John Calvin, William Bligh, Oscar Wilde, Joséphine de Beauharnais.
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Alcide De Gasperi
Alcide De Gasperi (Italian pronunciation: [alˈtʃiːde de ˈɡasperi]; April 3, 1881 – August 19, 1954) was an Italian statesman and politician and founder of the Christian Democratic Party. From 1945 to 1953 he was the prime minister of eight successive coalition governments. His eight-year rule remains a landmark of political longevity for a leader in modern Italian politics. A conservative Catholic, he was one of the Founding fathers of the European Union, along with the Frenchman Robert Schuman and the German Konrad Adenauer.
De Gasperi was born in Pieve Tesino in Tyrol, which at that time belonged to Austria-Hungary, now part of the Trentino in Italy. His father was a local police officer of limited financial means. From 1896 De Gasperi was active in the Social Christian movement. In 1900 he joined the Faculty of Literature and Philosophy in Vienna, where he played an important role in the inception of the Christian student movement. He was very much inspired by the Rerum Novarum encyclical issued by Pope Leo XIII in 1891. In 1904 he took an active part in the student demonstrations in favour of an Italian-language university. Imprisoned with other protesters during the inauguration of the Italian juridical faculty in Innsbruck, he was released after twenty days. In 1905, De Gasperi obtained a degree in philology.
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Alois Mock
Alois Mock (born June 10, 1934) is a politician and member of the Austrian People's Party (ÖVP). He was Vice Chancellor of Austria from 1987 to 1989. As foreign minister he helped take Austria into the European Union.
Born in Euratsfeld, Lower Austria, Mock went on to study law at the University of Vienna and later international law in Bologna and Brussels. In Vienna, he became a member of K.A.V. Norica Wien, a Roman Catholic student fraternity, which is a member of the Cartellverband.
From 1961 to 1966 Alois Mock advised the Bundeskanzler Josef Klaus on European Economic Community and EFTA policy and for the OECD in Paris. In 1966 he became Klaus' cabinet secretary and from 1969-1970 was the youngest education minister Austria had ever had.
After the Nationalrat elections of 1971 - where the Social Democratic Party of Austria (SPÖ) under Bruno Kreisky won a majority — he became a member of parliament and mayor of Euratsfeld. From 1971 to 1978, "Lois" chaired the ÖAAB, the most important grouping of the ÖVP. From 1978 to 1987 he was chairman of the parliamentary party and from 1979 was also federal party chairman. He was later to be succeeded by Josef Riegler, Erhard Busek and Wolfgang Schüssel.
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Anton Bruckner
Anton Bruckner (help·info) ((1824-09-04)4 September 1824 – 11 October 1896(1896-10-11)) was an Austrian composer known for his symphonies, masses, and motets. The first are considered emblematic of the final stage of Austro-German Romanticism because of their rich harmonic language, strongly polyphonic character, and considerable length. Bruckner's compositions helped to define contemporary musical radicalism, owing to their dissonances, unprepared modulations, and roving harmonies.
Unlike other musical radicals, such as Richard Wagner or Hugo Wolf who fit the enfant terrible mould, Bruckner showed extreme humility before other musicians, Wagner in particular. This apparent dichotomy between Bruckner the man and Bruckner the composer hampers efforts to describe his life in a way that gives a straightforward context for his music.
His works, the symphonies in particular, had detractors, most notably the influential Austrian critic Eduard Hanslick, and other supporters of Johannes Brahms, who pointed to their large size, use of repetition, and Bruckner's propensity to revise many of his works, often with the assistance of colleagues, and his apparent indecision about which versions he preferred. On the other hand, Bruckner was greatly admired by subsequent composers, including his friend Gustav Mahler, who described him as "half simpleton, half God".
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Arthur Koestler
Arthur Koestler CBE (5 September 1905, Budapest – 1 March 1983, London) was a Hungarian-British author and journalist. Koestler was born in Budapest and, apart from his early school years, was educated in Austria. In 1931 Koestler joined the Communist Party of Germany but, disillusioned by Stalinist atrocities, he resigned in 1938. In 1940 he published his novel Darkness at Noon, an anti-totalitarian work, which gained him international fame.
Over the next 43 years from his residence in Great Britain, Koestler espoused many political causes and wrote novels, memoirs, biographies, and numerous essays. In 1968, he was awarded the prestigious Sonning Prize "for outstanding contribution to European culture" and, in 1972, he was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE). In 1976, Koestler was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease and, in 1979, with terminal leukaemia. In 1983 he and his wife committed suicide at home in London.
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Arthur Schnitzler
Dr. Arthur Schnitzler (15 May 1862, Leopoldstadt, Vienna – 21 October 1931, Vienna) was an Austrian author and dramatist.
Arthur Schnitzler, son of a prominent Hungarian-Jewish laryngologist Johann Schnitzler (1835-1893) and Luise Markbreiter (1838-1911) a daughter of the Viennese doctor Philipp Markbreiter, was born in Praterstraße 16, Leopoldstadt, Vienna, in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He began studying medicine at the University of Vienna in 1879 and received his doctorate of medicine in 1885 and worked at the Vienna's General Hospital (German: Allgemeines Krankenhaus der Stadt Wien, AKH), but ultimately abandoned medicine in favour of writing.
On 26 August 1903, Schnitzler married 21-year old aspiring actress and singer Olga Gussmann (1882-1970) who came from a Jewish middle class. They had a son together, Heinrich (1902-1982), who had been born on 9 August 1902. In 1909 they had a daughter, Lili (1909-1928), who committed suicide. The Schnitzlers separated in 1921. Schnitzler died on 21 October 1931, in Vienna, of a brain hemorrhage. Heinrich went to the United States in 1938, following the Anschluss, and did not return to Austria until 1959. Heinrich is the father of the Austrian musician and ecologist Michael Schnitzler, born in 1944 in Berkeley, California. He moved to Vienna with his parents in 1959.
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August Schleicher
August Schleicher (19 February 1821 – 6 December 1868) was a German linguist. His great work was A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European Languages, in which he attempted to reconstruct the Proto-Indo-European language. To show how Indo-European might have looked he created a short tale, Schleicher's fable, to exemplify the reconstructed vocabulary and aspects of Indo-European society inferred from it.
August Schleicher was born in Meiningen (Duchy Saxe-Meiningen, southwest of Weimar in the Thuringian Forest). He died from tuberculosis at the age of 47 in Jena (Duchy Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, Thuringia).
August Schleicher began his career studying theology and Oriental languages especially Arabic, Hebrew, Sanskrit and Persian. Influenced by Hegel, he formed the theory that a language is an organism, with periods of development, maturity, and decline. In 1850 Schleicher completed a monograph systematically describing the languages of Europe, Die Sprachen Europas in systematischer Übersicht (The languages of Europe in systematic perspective). He explicitly represented languages as perfectly natural organisms that could most conveniently be described using terms drawn from biology e.g., genus, species, and variety.
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Austria
Austria (i/ˈɒstriə/ or /ˈɔːstriə/; German: Österreich [ˈøːstɐˌʁaɪç] ( listen)), officially the Republic of Austria (German: Republik Österreich (help·info)), is a landlocked country of roughly 8.47 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The territory of Austria covers 83,855 square kilometres (32,377 sq mi) and has a temperate and alpine climate. Austria's terrain is highly mountainous due to the presence of the Alps; only 32% of the country is below 500 metres (1,640 ft), and its highest point is 3,798 metres (12,461 ft). The majority of the population speak local Austro-Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, and German in its standard form is the country's official language. Other local official languages are Burgenland Croatian, Hungarian and Slovene.
The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty when the vast majority of the country was a part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Austria became one of the great powers of Europe and, in response to the coronation of Napoleon I as the Emperor of the French, the Austrian Empire was officially proclaimed in 1804. In 1867, the Austrian Empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary.
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Bruno Kreisky
Bruno Kreisky (January 22, 1911 – July 29, 1990) was an Austrian politician who served as Foreign Minister from 1959 to 1966 and as Chancellor from 1970 to 1983. Aged 72 at the end of his chancellorship, he was the oldest acting Chancellor after World War II.
Kreisky was born in Margareten, a district of Vienna, to a liberal Jewish family. His parents were Max Kreisky (1876-1944) and Irene Felix Kreisky (1884-1969). His father worked as a textile manufacturer. Shocked by the level of poverty and violence in Austria during the 1920s, he joined the youth wing of the Socialist Party of Austria (SPÖ) in 1925 at age 15. In 1927, he joined the Young Socialist Workers against the wishes of his parents. In 1929, he began studying law at the University of Vienna at the advice of Otto Bauer, who urged him to study law rather than medicine, as he had originally planned. He remained politically active during this period. In 1931, he left the Jewish religious community, becoming agnostic. In 1934, when the Socialist Party was banned by the Dollfuss dictatorship, he became active in underground political work. He was arrested in January 1935 and convicted of high treason, but was released in June 1936. In March 1938 the Austrian state was incorporated in Germany, and in September Kreisky escaped the Nazi persecution of Austrian Jews during Holocaust by emigrating to Sweden, where he remained until 1945. In 1942 he married Vera Fürth.
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Carl Menger
Carl Menger (February 28, 1840 – February 26, 1921) was the founder of the Austrian School of economics, famous for contributing to the development of the theory of marginal utility, which contested the cost-of-production theories of value, developed by the classical economists such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo.
Menger was born in Nowy Sącz in Austrian Galicia, now in Poland. He was the son of a wealthy family of minor nobility; his father, Anton, was a lawyer. His mother, Caroline, was the daughter of a wealthy Bohemian merchant. He had two brothers, Anton and Max, both prominent as lawyers. After attending Gymnasium he studied law at the Universities of Prague and Vienna and later received a doctorate in jurisprudence from the Jagiellonian University in Kraków. In the 1860s Menger left school and enjoyed a stint as a journalist reporting and analyzing market news, first at the Lemberger Zeitung in Lwów, Ukraine and later at the Wiener Zeitung in Vienna.
During the course of his newspaper work he noticed a discrepancy between what the classical economics he was taught in school said about price determination and what real world market participants believed. In 1867 Menger began a study of political economy which culminated in 1871 with the publication of his Principles of Economics (Grundsätze der Volkswirtschaftslehre), thus becoming the father of the Austrian School of economic thought. It was in this work that he challenged classical cost-based theories of value with his theory of marginality - that price is determined at the margin.
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Christian Doppler
Christian Andreas Doppler (pronounced [ˈkʁɪsti̯aːn ˈdɔplɐ]) (29 November 1803 – 17 March 1853) was an Austrian mathematician and physicist.
Christian Doppler was raised in Salzburg, Austria, the son of a stonemason. Doppler could not work in his father's business because of his generally weak physical condition. After completing high school Doppler studied philosophy in Salzburg and mathematics and physics at the k. k. Polytechnisches Institut (now Vienna University of Technology) where he worked as an assistant since 1829. In 1835 started to work at the Prague Polytechnic (now Czech Technical University), where he was appointed in 1841.
Only a year later, at the age of 39, Doppler published his most notable work, "Über das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer Gestirne des Himmels" (On the coloured light of the binary stars and some other stars of the heavens). There is a facsimile edition with an English translation by Alec Eden. In this work, Doppler postulated his principle (later coined the Doppler effect) that the observed frequency of a wave depends on the relative speed of the source and the observer, and he tried to use this concept for explaining the colour of binary stars. The Doppler effect of sound was verified by Buys Ballot in 1845. In Doppler's time in Prague as a professor he published over 50 articles on mathematics, physics and astronomy. In 1847 he left Prague for the professorship of mathematics, physics, and mechanics at the Academy of Mines and Forests in Schemnitz (Banská Štiavnica, Slovakia), and in 1849 he moved to Vienna.
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Conrad Celtes
Conrad Celtes (or Celtis), also Konrad Celtis and Latin Conradus Celtis (1 February 1459 – 4 February 1508), was a German Renaissance humanist scholar and Neo-Latin poet.
Born at Wipfeld, near Schweinfurt in Lower Franconia under his original name Konrad Bickel, Celtes pursued his studies at Cologne and the Heidelberg. While at Heidelberg, he received instruction from Dalberg and Agricola. As customary in those days for humanists, he Latinized his name, to Conradus Celtis. For some time he delivered humanist lectures during his travels to Erfurt, Rostock and Leipzig. His first work was titled Ars versificandi et carminum (The Art of Writing Verses and Poems, 1486). He further undertook lecture tours to Rome, Florence, Bologna and Venice.
The elector Frederick of Saxony approached the emperor Frederick III, who named Conrad Celtes Poet Laureate (Honored Poet) upon his return. At this great imperial ceremonial gathering in Nuremberg, Celtes was at the same time presented with a doctoral degree. Celtes again made a lecturing tour throughout the empire. Later he traveled to Kraków where, in 1488, he applied himself to mathematics, astronomy and the natural sciences and befriended many other humanists such as Lorenz Rabe and Bonacursius. He also founded a learned society, based on the Roman academies. The local branch of the society was called Sodalitas Litterarum Vistulana (the "Literary Society at the Vistula River").
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Edmund Husserl
Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl (German pronunciation: [ˈhʊsɛʁl]; April 8, 1859, Proßnitz, Moravia, Austrian Empire – April 26, 1938, Freiburg, Germany) was a philosopher and mathematician and the founder of the 20th century philosophical school of phenomenology. He broke with the positivist orientation of the science and philosophy of his day, yet he elaborated critiques of historicism and of psychologism in logic. Not limited to empiricism, but believing that experience is the source of all knowledge, he worked on a method of phenomenological reduction by which a subject may come to know directly an essence.
Although born into a Jewish family, Husserl was baptized as a Lutheran in 1886. He studied mathematics under Karl Weierstrass and Leo Königsberger, and philosophy under Franz Brentano and Carl Stumpf. Husserl himself taught philosophy as a Privatdozent at Halle from 1887, then as professor, first at Göttingen from 1901, then at Freiburg from 1916 until he retired in 1928. Thereafter he gave two notable lectures: at Paris in 1929, and at Prague in 1935. The notorious 1933 race laws of the Nazi regime took away his academic standing and privileges. Following an illness, he died at Freiburg in 1938.
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Eduard Hanslick
Eduard Hanslick (11 September 1825 – 6 August 1904) was a Bohemian-Austrian music critic.
Hanslick was born in Prague, the son of Joseph Adolph Hanslick, a bibliographer and music teacher from a German-speaking family, and one of his piano pupils, the daughter of a Jewish merchant from Vienna. At the age of 18 Hanslick went to study music with Václav Tomášek, one of Prague's renowned musicians. He also studied law at Prague University and obtained a degree in that field, but his amateur study of music eventually led to writing music reviews for small town newspapers, then the Wiener Musik-Zeitung and eventually the Neue Freie Presse, where he was music critic until retirement. Whilst still a student, in 1845, he met with Richard Wagner in Marienbad; the composer, noting the young man's enthusiasm, invited him to Dresden to hear his opera Tannhäuser; here Hanslick also met with Robert Schumann.
In 1854 he published his influential book On the Beautiful in Music. By this time his interest in Wagner had begun to cool; he had written a disparaging review of the first Vienna production of Lohengrin. From this point on, Hanslick found his sympathies moving away from the so-called 'music of the Future' associated with Wagner and Liszt, and more towards music he conceived as directly descending from the traditions of Mozart, Beethoven and Schumann — in particular the music of Johannes Brahms (who dedicated to him his set of waltzes opus 39 for piano duet). In 1869, in a revised edition of his essay Jewishness in Music, Wagner attacked Hanslick as 'of gracefully concealed Jewish origin', and asserted that his Jewish style of criticism was anti-German. It is sometimes claimed that Wagner caricatured Hanslick in his opera Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg as the carping critic Beckmesser.
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Elfriede Jelinek
Elfriede Jelinek (German pronunciation: [ɛlˈfʀiːdə ˈjɛlinɛk]; born October 20, 1946) is an Austrian playwright and novelist. She was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2004 for her "musical flow of voices and counter-voices in novels and plays that, with extraordinary linguistic zeal, reveal the absurdity of society's clichés and their subjugating power."
Jelinek was born on October 20, 1946, in Mürzzuschlag, Styria, Austria, the daughter of Olga Ilona (née Buchner), a personnel director, and Friedrich Jelinek. She was raised in Vienna by her Romanian-German Catholic mother and Czech Jewish father (whose surname "Jelinek" means "little deer" in Czech).
Her father was a chemist, who managed to avoid persecution during the Second World War by working in strategically important industrial production. However, several dozen family members became victims of the Holocaust. Her mother, with whom she shared the household even as an adult, and with whom she had a difficult relationship, was from a formerly prosperous Vienna family. As a child, Elfriede suffered from what she considered an over-restrictive education in a Roman Catholic convent school in Vienna. Her mother planned a career for her as a musical wunderkind. Elfriede was instructed in piano, organ, guitar, violin, viola and recorder from an early age. Later, she went on to study at the Vienna Conservatory, where she graduated with an organist diploma. Jelinek also studied art history and drama at the University of Vienna. However, she had to discontinue her studies due to an anxiety disorder that prevented her from following courses.
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Elias Canetti
Elias Canetti (Bulgarian: Елиас Канети; 25 July 1905 – 14 August 1994) was a Bulgarian-born modernist novelist, playwright, memoirist, and non-fiction writer. He wrote in German and won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1981, "for writings marked by a broad outlook, a wealth of ideas and artistic power".
Born to Jacques Canetti and Mathilde née Arditti in Ruse, a city on the Danube in Bulgaria, Elias Canetti was the eldest of three sons of a Jewish businessman. His ancestors were Sephardi Jews who had been expelled from Spain in 1492. His paternal ancestors had settled in Ruse from Ottoman Adrianople. The original family name was Cañete, named after a village in Spain. In Ruse, Elias' father and grandfather were successful merchants who operated out of a commercial building, which they had built in 1898. Canetti's mother descended from one of the oldest Sephardi families in Bulgaria, Arditti, who were among the founders of the Ruse Jewish colony in the late 18th century. The Ardittis can be traced back to the 14th century, when they were court physicians and astronomers to the Aragonese royal court of Alfonso IV and Pedro IV. Before settling in Ruse, they had lived in Livorno in the 17th century.
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Elisabeth Kehrer
Elisabeth Kehrer (born February 15, 1961 in Vienna) is the Austrian Consul General in Chicago.
In 1984 Kehrer was awarded a Doctorate of Laws (LL.D.) from the University of Vienna, and during 1984 and1985 undertook postgraduate studies in Comparative Constitutional Law for which she was awarded a "Diplome Superieure" by the University of Paris II in France.
From 1983 to 1986, Kehrer worked as a tutor and assistant professor in the Department of Constitutional and Administrative Law within the University of Vienna, and from 1986 to 1988 she worked as a Research Assistant in the Austrian Constitutional Court. From 1988 to 1990 she worked for the Department of International Law in the Austrian Federal Ministry for Foreign Affairs, and from 1990 to 1994 was posted as the First Secretary/Counsellor at the Permanent Representation of Austria to the United Nations in New York. From 1994 to 1997 she was the Counsellor and DCM at the Austrian Embassy in Dublin, and from 1997 to 2001 she was the Head of the Coordination Desk for Common Foreign and Security Policy of the European Union and European Correspondent in the Political Division of the Federal Ministry for Foreign Affairs in Vienna.
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Elise Richter
Elise Richter (2 March 1865 – 23 June 1943) was a philologist. Born in Vienna to a middle-class Jewish family, the daughter of Dr. Maximilian (died 1891) and Emelie Richter (d. 1889), sister of Helene Richter who wrote on and translated English literature and drama, she studied Philosophy at the University of Vienna and received a Doctorate in 1901.
In 1905 she was the first woman to receive the Habilitation for her work on Romance languages. She became the first female Dozent (or assistant professor) in 1907, and was appointed an "Extra-Ordinary Professor" in 1921, although she never received an Ordinary Professorship. From 1920 she chaired the Association of Austrian Academic Women (Verband der Akademikerinnen Österreichs).
After the Anschluss, and the introduction of Nazi anti-semitic policies in Austria, which excluded people of Jewish origin from public life, Richter was dismissed from her post. Along with her sister Helene, who lived with her, she was deported to the Theresienstadt concentration camp on 9 October 1942. She died there on 23 June 1943.
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Erich Göstl
Dr. jur. Erich Göstl was a member of the Waffen SS who was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross, which was awarded to recognise extreme battlefield bravery or successful military leadership.
Göstl was born in Vienna on April 17, 1925. In World War II, he was a member of the 1st SS Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler during the Normandy Campaign where he was in the 6th Company, 1st SS Panzergrenadier Regiment, deployed near the French town of Tilly, a few kilometers from Caen.
Then a 19 year old, Göstl was a machine gunner, manning an MG-42, defending his position against a British (possibly Canadian) attack. During heavy fighting he was shot in his left eye. Shrapnel then wounded him in his upper left arm. Undaunted he continued to fire and was then hit in the other eye, which "almost tore his head off". Even then, completely blinded, he continued to return fire from his machine gun post, alone and shooting at what he could hear, as he was completely unable to see anything. He continued to hold out behind his machine gun and received another hit in his right cheek and nose area of his torn-up face. Göstl held until the enemy attack was ultimately repelled, but it is believed that only because of a jam in the machine gun was Göstl's machine gun silenced. His friend Elmar Bonn worked his way forward to him and with the help of some other men was able to bring him back to a safe position, while under fire. Throughout, he "was suffering horrible pain" and was bleeding heavily from the face.
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Ernst Gombrich
Sir Ernst Hans Josef Gombrich, OM, CBE (30 March 1909 – 3 November 2001) was an Austrian-born art historian who became a naturalized British citizen in 1947. He spent most of his working life in the United Kingdom. He is the author of many works of cultural history and art history, including The Story of Art, a book widely regarded as one of the most accessible introductions to the visual arts.
The son of Karl Gombrich and Leonie Hock, Gombrich was born in Vienna, Austria-Hungary, into an assimilated bourgeois family of Jewish origin who were part of a sophisticated social and musical milieu. His father was a lawyer and former classmate of Hugo von Hofmannsthal and his mother was distinguished pianist who graduated from the Vienna Conservatoire with the School's Medal of Distinction. At the Conservatoire she was a pupil of, amongst others, Anton Bruckner. However, rather than follow a career as a concert pianist (which would have been difficult to combine with her family life in this period) she became an assistant of Theodor Leschetizky. She also knew Arnold Schoenberg, Gustav Mahler, Hugo Wolf and Johannes Brahms . Rudolf Serkin was a close family friend. Adolf Busch and members of the Busch Quartet regularly met and played in the family home. Throughout his life Gombrich maintained a deep love and knowledge of classical music. He was a competent cellist and in later life at home in London regularly played the chamber music of Haydn, Mozart, Schubert, Beethoven and others with his wife and elder sister Dea Forsdyke, a concert violinist.
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Erwin Schrödinger
Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger ( /ˈʃroʊdɪŋər/; German: [ˈɛʁviːn ˈʃʁøːdɪŋɐ]; 12 August 1887 – 4 January 1961) was an Austrian born physicist and theoretical biologist who was one of the fathers of quantum mechanics, and is famed for a number of important contributions to physics, especially the Schrödinger equation, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1933. In 1935 he proposed the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment.
In 1887 Schrödinger was born in Vienna, Austria to Rudolf Schrödinger (cerecloth producer, botanist) and Georgine Emilia Brenda (daughter of Alexander Bauer, Professor of Chemistry, Technische Hochschule Vienna).
His mother was half Austrian and half English; His father was Catholic and his mother was Lutheran. Despite having a religious background, he was later said to be an atheist.
In 1898 he attended the Akademisches Gymnasium. Between 1906 and 1910 Schrödinger studied in Vienna under Franz Serafin Exner(1849–1926) and Friedrich Hasenöhrl (1874–1915). He also conducted experimental work with Karl Wilhelm Friedrich "Fritz" Kohlrausch 1884–1953.
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F. F. Bruce
Frederick Fyvie Bruce (12 October 1910 – 11 September 1990) was a Biblical scholar and one of the founders of the modern evangelical understanding of the Bible. His first book New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable? (1943) was voted by the American evangelical periodical Christianity Today in 2006 as one of the top fifty books "which had shaped evangelicals".
Bruce was born in Elgin, Moray, in Scotland and educated at the University of Aberdeen, Cambridge University and the University of Vienna. After teaching Greek for several years first at the University of Edinburgh and then at the University of Leeds he became head of the Department of Biblical History and Literature at the University of Sheffield in 1947. Aberdeen University bestowed an honorary "Doctor of Divinity" degree upon him in 1957. In 1959 he moved to the University of Manchester where he became Rylands Professor of Biblical Criticism and Exegesis. In his career he wrote over forty books and served as editor of The Evangelical Quarterly and the Palestine Exploration Quarterly. He retired from teaching in 1978. Bruce was a distinguished scholar on the life and ministry of Paul the Apostle, and wrote several studies the best known of which is Paul: Apostle of the Free Spirit (published in the USA as Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free). He also wrote commentaries on several biblical books including Romans, Acts of the Apostles, 1 & 2 Corinthians, Galatians, The Gospel and Epistles of John, and the Epistle to the Hebrews.
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Fran Miklošič
Fran Miklošič (also known in German as Franz von Miklosich) (20 November 1813 – 7 March 1891) was a Slovene philologist.
Miklošič was born in the small village of Radomerščak near the Lower Styrian town of Ljutomer, then part of the Austrian Empire.
He graduated from the University of Graz as a doctor of philosophy, and was for a time professor of philosophy there. In 1838 he went to the University of Vienna, where he received the degree of doctor of law. During his studies, he became influenced by the works of the Slovenian philologist and linguist Jernej Kopitar. He abandoned law, devoting most of his later life to the study of Slavic languages.
In 1844, he obtained a post at the Imperial Library of Vienna, where he remained to 1862. In 1844, he published a review of Franz Bopp's book Comparative Grammar, which attracted attention from the Viennese academic circles. This publication then launched a long series of works, in which Miklošič showed an immense erudition. His works led to a revolutiony change in the study of Slavic languages.
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Franc Miklošič
Fran Miklošič (also known in German as Franz von Miklosich) (20 November 1813 – 7 March 1891) was a Slovene philologist.
Miklošič was born in the small village of Radomerščak near the Lower Styrian town of Ljutomer, then part of the Austrian Empire.
He graduated from the University of Graz as a doctor of philosophy, and was for a time professor of philosophy there. In 1838 he went to the University of Vienna, where he received the degree of doctor of law. During his studies, he became influenced by the works of the Slovenian philologist and linguist Jernej Kopitar. He abandoned law, devoting most of his later life to the study of Slavic languages.
In 1844, he obtained a post at the Imperial Library of Vienna, where he remained to 1862. In 1844, he published a review of Franz Bopp's book Comparative Grammar, which attracted attention from the Viennese academic circles. This publication then launched a long series of works, in which Miklošič showed an immense erudition. His works led to a revolutiony change in the study of Slavic languages.
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Franz Brentano
Franz Clemens Honoratus Hermann Brentano (January 16, 1838 – March 17, 1917) was an influential German philosopher and psychologist whose influence was felt by other such luminaries as Sigmund Freud, Edmund Husserl, Kazimierz Twardowski and Alexius Meinong, who followed and adapted his views.
Brentano was born at Marienberg am Rhein, near Boppard. He studied philosophy at the universities of Munich, Würzburg, Berlin (with Adolf Trendelenburg) and Münster. He had a special interest in Aristotle and scholastic philosophy. He wrote his dissertation in Tübingen On the manifold sense of Being in Aristotle. Subsequently he began to study theology and entered the seminary in Munich and then Würzburg. He was ordained a Catholic priest on August 6, 1864. In 1865/66 he wrote and defended his habilitation essay and thesis and began to lecture at the University of Würzburg. His students in this period included, among others, Carl Stumpf and Anton Marty. Between 1870 and 1873 Brentano was heavily involved in the debate on papal infallibility. A strong opponent of such dogma, he eventually gave up his priesthood and his tenure in 1873 and in 1879 left the church altogether.
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Franz Mesmer
Franz Anton Mesmer (May 23, 1734 – March 5, 1815), sometimes, albeit incorrectly, referred to as Friedrich Anton Mesmer, was a German physician with an interest in astronomy, who theorised that there was a natural energetic transference that occurred between all animated and inanimate objects that he called magnétisme animal (animal magnetism) and other spiritual forces often grouped together as mesmerism. Mesmerism is considered to be a form of vitalism and shares features with other vitalist theories that also emphasize the movement of life "energy" through distinct channels in the body. In 1843 James Braid, a Scottish physician proposed the term hypnosis for a technique derived from magnetism but more limited in its claimed effects, and also different in its conception. Mesmer's name is the root of the English verb "mesmerize".
Mesmer was born in the village of Iznang, on the shore of Lake Constance in Swabia, Germany a son of master forester Anton Mesmer (1701—after 1747) and his wife Maria/Ursula (1701—1770), née Michel. After studying at the Jesuit universities of Dillingen and Ingolstadt, he took up the study of medicine at the University of Vienna in 1759. In 1766 he published a doctoral dissertation with the Latin title De planetarum influxu in corpus humanum (On the Influence of the Planets on the Human Body), which discussed the influence of the Moon and the planets on the human body and on disease. This was not medical astrology—relying largely on Newton's theory of the tides—Mesmer expounded on certain tides in the human body that might be accounted for by the movements of the sun and moon. Evidence assembled by Frank A. Pattie suggests that Mesmer plagiarized his dissertation from a work by Richard Mead, an eminent English physician and Newton's friend. That said, in Mesmer's day doctoral theses were not expected to be original.
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Friedrich Hayek
Friedrich August Hayek CH (German pronunciation: [ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈaʊ̯ɡʊst ˈhaɪ̯ɛk]; 8 May 1899 – 23 March 1992), born in Austria-Hungary as Friedrich August von Hayek, was an economist and philosopher best known for his defense of classical liberalism. In 1974, Hayek shared the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (with his political rival, Gunnar Myrdal) for his "pioneering work in the theory of money and economic fluctuations and... penetrating analysis of the interdependence of economic, social and institutional phenomena." He considered the efficient allocation of capital to be the most important factor leading to sustainable and optimal GDP growth, and warned of harms from monetary authority manipulation of interest rates. Interest rates should be set naturally by equilibrium between consumption of goods or capital stock.
Hayek is considered to be a major economist and political philosopher of the twentieth century. Along with his mentor Ludwig von Mises, he was an important contributor to the Austrian school of economic thought. Hayek's account of how changing prices communicate information which enable individuals to coordinate their plans is widely regarded as an important achievement in economics. He also contributed to the fields of systems thinking, jurisprudence, neuroscience and the history of ideas.
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Friedrich von Wieser
Friedrich Freiherr von Wieser (July 10, 1851–July 22, 1926) was an early member of the Austrian School of economics. Born in Vienna, the son of Privy Councillor Leopold von Wieser, a high official in the war ministry, he first trained in sociology and law. In 1872, the year he took his degree, he encountered Austrian-school founder Carl Menger's Grundsätze and switched his interest to economic theory. Wieser held posts at the universities of Vienna and Prague until succeeding Menger in Vienna in 1903, where, with brother-in-law Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, he shaped the next generation of Austrian economists including Ludwig von Mises, Friedrich Hayek and Joseph Schumpeter in the late 1890s and early 20th century. He became Austrian finance minister in 1917.
Wieser is renowned for two main works, Natural Value, which carefully details the alternative-cost doctrine and the theory of imputation, and his Social Economics (1914), an ambitious attempt to apply it to the real world. His explanation of marginal utility theory was decisive, at least terminologically: It was his term Grenznutzen that developed into the standard term, "marginal utility," not William Stanley Jevons's "final degree of utility" or Menger's "value." His use of the modifier "natural" indicates that he regarded value as a "natural category" that would pertain to any society, no matter what institutions of property had been established.
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Gerard van Swieten
Gerard van Swieten (May 7, 1700 – June 18, 1772) was a Dutch-Austrian physician.
Van Swieten was born in Leiden. He was a pupil of Hermann Boerhaave and became in 1745 the personal physician of the Austrian Empress Maria Theresa. In this position he implemented a transformation of the Austrian health service and medical university education. He founded a botanical garden, a chemical laboratory and introduced clinical instruction. Since 1745 he was also librarian for Maria Theresa in what was then the Imperial Library.
Beside his medical activities, Gerard van Swieten was also active as a reformer. Especially the censorship was organized in a different way under his direction. He drove out the Jesuits that were in charge of the censorship before and carried out a centralization of the censorship that was only partly successful. He also tried to use scientific and rational aspects for the judgement of literature.
Especially important is his part in the fight against superstition during the enlightenment, particularly in the case of the vampires, that were reported from villages in Eastern Europe in the years between 1718 and 1732. After the last of the wars against the Turks in 1718 some parts of the land, e.g. Northern Serbia and a part of Bosnia, went to Austria. These parts were settled with refugees that had the special status of duty-free farmers. But for that they had to take care of the agricultural development and secure the frontier. Because of that the reports about the vampires reached for the first time German-speaking area. In the year 1755 Gerard van Swieten was sent by Empress Maria Theresa to Moravia to investigate the situation relating to vampires. He viewed the vampire myth as a "barbarism of ignorance" and his aim was to eradicate it.
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Gregor Mendel
Gregor Johann Mendel (July 20, 1822 – January 6, 1884) was an Austrian scientist and Augustinian friar who gained posthumous fame as the founder of the new science of genetics. Mendel demonstrated that the inheritance of certain traits in pea plants follows particular patterns, now referred to as the laws of Mendelian inheritance. Although the significance of Mendel's work was not recognized until the turn of the 20th century, the independent rediscovery of these laws formed the foundation of the modern science of genetics.
Mendel was born into an ethnic German family in Heinzendorf bei Odrau, Austrian Silesia, Austrian Empire (now Hynčice, Czech Republic), and was baptized two days later as Johann. He was the son of Anton and Rosine (Schwirtlich) Mendel, and had one older sister (Veronica) and one younger (Theresia). They lived and worked on a farm which had been owned by the Mendel family for at least 130 years. During his childhood, Mendel worked as a gardener, studied beekeeping, and as a young man attended Gymnasium (school) in Opava. From 1840 to 1843, he studied practical and theoretical philosophy as well as physics at the University of Olomouc Faculty of Philosophy, taking a year off because of illness.
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Gustav Mahler
Gustav Mahler (German pronunciation: [ˈɡʊstaf ˈmaːlɐ]; 7 July 1860 – 18 May 1911) was a late-Romantic Austrian composer and one of the leading conductors of his generation. He was born in the village of Kalischt, Bohemia, in what was then the Austrian Empire, now Kaliště in the Czech Republic. Then his family moved to nearby Iglau (now Jihlava) where Mahler grew up.
As a composer, he acted as a bridge between the 19th century Austro-German tradition and the modernism of the early 20th century. While in his lifetime his status as a conductor was established beyond question, his own music gained wide popularity only after periods of relative neglect which included a ban on its performance in much of Europe during the Nazi era. After 1945 the music was discovered and championed by a new generation of listeners; Mahler then became one of the most frequently performed and recorded of all composers, a position he has sustained into the 21st century.
Born in humble circumstances, Mahler displayed his musical gifts at an early age. After graduating from the Vienna Conservatory in 1878, he held a succession of conducting posts of rising importance in the opera houses of Europe, culminating in his appointment in 1897 as director of the Vienna Court Opera (Hofoper). During his ten years in Vienna, Mahler—who had converted to Catholicism from Judaism to secure the post—experienced regular opposition and hostility from the anti-Semitic press. Nevertheless, his innovative productions and insistence on the highest performance standards ensured his reputation as one of the greatest of opera conductors, particularly as an interpreter of the stage works of Wagner and Mozart. Late in his life he was briefly director of New York's Metropolitan Opera and the New York Philharmonic.
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Hans Fischer
Hans Fischer (July 27, 1881 – March 31, 1945) was a German organic chemist and the recipient of the 1930 Nobel Prize for Chemistry.
Fischer was born in Höchst on Main. His parents were Dr. Eugen Fischer, Director of the firm of Kalle & Co, Wiesbaden, and Privatdozent at the Technical High School, Stuttgart, and Anna Herdegen. He went to a primary school in Stuttgart, and later to the "Humanistisches Gymnasium" in Wiesbaden, matriculating in 1899. He read chemistry and medicine, first at the University of Lausanne and then at Marburg. He graduated in 1904, and in 1908 he qualified for his M.D.
He worked first at a Medical Clinic in Munich and then at the First Berlin Chemical Institute under Emil Fischer. He returned to Munich in 1911 and qualified as lecturer on internal medicine one year later. In 1913 he became a lecturer in physiology at the Physiological Institute in Munich. In 1916 he became Professor of Medical Chemistry at the University of Innsbruck and from there he went to the University of Vienna in 1918.
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Hans Kelsen
Hans Kelsen (October 11, 1881 – April 19, 1973) was a jurist and legal philosopher. He has been regarded as one of the most important legal scholars of the 20th century.
Kelsen was born in Prague to Jewish parents. He moved to Vienna with his family when he was three years old. Having graduated from the Akademisches Gymnasium, he studied law at the University of Vienna, taking his doctorate in 1906. In 1911, he achieved his habilitation (license to hold university lectures) in public law and legal philosophy and published his first major work, Main Problems in the Theory of Public Law (Hauptprobleme der Staatsrechtslehre).
In 1912, Kelsen married Margarete Bondi, and the couple had two daughters.
In 1919, he became full professor of public and administrative law at the University of Vienna. He established and edited the Journal of Public Law (Zeitschrift für öffentliches Recht) in Vienna. At the behest of Chancellor Karl Renner, Kelsen worked on drafting a new Austrian Constitution, enacted in 1920. The document still forms the basis of Austrian constitutional law. Kelsen was appointed to the Constitutional Court, for a life term. In 1925, he published General Theory of the State (Allgemeine Staatslehre) in Berlin.
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Heinrich Ferstel
Heinrich von Ferstel (July 7, 1828, Vienna - 14 July 1883, Grinzing, near Vienna (now a part of Döbling) was an architect who helped build late 19th-century Vienna.
His father Ignaz Ferstel was a bank clerk. After wavering for some time between the different arts, he finally decided on architecture which he studied at the Academy under Eduard van der Nüll, August Sicard von Sicardsburg, and Rösner. After several years during which he was in disrepute because of his part in the 1848 Revolution, he entered the atelier of his uncle, Stache, where he worked at the votive altar for the chapel of St. Barbara in St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna and co-operated in the restoration and construction of many castles, chiefly in Bohemia. Journeys of some length into Germany, Belgium, Holland, and England confirmed him in his tendency towards Romanticism. It was in Italy, however, where he was sent as a bursar in 1854, that he was converted to the Renaissance style of architecture, and his admiration for Bramante. He began to use of polychromy by means of Graffito decoration and terracotta. This device, adapted from the Early Renaissance and intended to convey a fuller sense of life, he employed later in the Austrian Museum.
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Heinrich von Ferstel
Heinrich von Ferstel (July 7, 1828, Vienna - 14 July 1883, Grinzing, near Vienna (now a part of Döbling) was an architect who helped build late 19th-century Vienna.
His father Ignaz Ferstel was a bank clerk. After wavering for some time between the different arts, he finally decided on architecture which he studied at the Academy under Eduard van der Nüll, August Sicard von Sicardsburg, and Rösner. After several years during which he was in disrepute because of his part in the 1848 Revolution, he entered the atelier of his uncle, Stache, where he worked at the votive altar for the chapel of St. Barbara in St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna and co-operated in the restoration and construction of many castles, chiefly in Bohemia. Journeys of some length into Germany, Belgium, Holland, and England confirmed him in his tendency towards Romanticism. It was in Italy, however, where he was sent as a bursar in 1854, that he was converted to the Renaissance style of architecture, and his admiration for Bramante. He began to use of polychromy by means of Graffito decoration and terracotta. This device, adapted from the Early Renaissance and intended to convey a fuller sense of life, he employed later in the Austrian Museum.
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Heinz Fischer
Heinz Fischer, GColIH (German pronunciation: [haɪnts ˈfɪʃɐ]; born 9 October 1938) is the President of Austria. He took office on 8 July 2004 and was re-elected for a second and last term on 25 April 2010. Fischer previously served as Minister of Science from 1983 to 1987 and as President of the National Council of Austria from 1990 to 2002. A member of the Social Democratic Party of Austria (SPÖ), he suspended his party membership for the duration of his Presidency.
Fischer was born in Graz, Styria, in what had recently become Nazi Germany following the Anschluss of March 1938. Fischer attended the Gymnasium, focusing on humanities, and taking his Matura exams in 1956. He studied law at the University of Vienna, earning a doctorate in 1961. In 1963 at the age of 25, Fischer, spent a year volunteering at Kibbutz Sarid, northern Israel. Apart from being a politician, Fischer also pursued an academic career, and became a Professor of Political Science at the University of Innsbruck in 1993.
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Huldrych Zwingli
Huldrych (or Ulrich/Ulricht) Zwingli (1 January 1484 – 11 October 1531) was a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. Born during a time of emerging Swiss patriotism and increasing criticism of the Swiss mercenary system, he attended the University of Vienna and the University of Basel, a scholarly centre of humanism. He continued his studies while he served as a pastor in Glarus and later in Einsiedeln, where he was influenced by the writings of Erasmus.
In 1518, Zwingli became the pastor of the Grossmünster in Zurich where he began to preach ideas on reforming the Catholic Church. In his first public controversy in 1522, he attacked the custom of fasting during Lent. In his publications, he noted corruption in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, promoted clerical marriage, and attacked the use of images in places of worship. In 1525, Zwingli introduced a new communion liturgy to replace the mass. Zwingli also clashed with the Anabaptists, which resulted in their persecution.
The Reformation spread to other parts of the Swiss Confederation, but several cantons resisted, preferring to remain Catholic. Zwingli formed an alliance of Reformed cantons which divided the Confederation along religious lines. In 1529, a war between the two sides was averted at the last moment. Meanwhile, Zwingli’s ideas came to the attention of Martin Luther and other reformers. They met at the Marburg Colloquy and although they agreed on many points of doctrine, they could not reach an accord on the doctrine of the presence of Christ in the eucharist. In 1531 Zwingli’s alliance applied an unsuccessful food blockade on the Catholic cantons. The cantons responded with an attack at a moment when Zurich was badly prepared. Zwingli was killed in battle at the age of 47. His legacy lives on in the confessions, liturgy, and church orders of the Reformed churches of today.
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Ivan Cankar
Ivan Cankar ( pronunciation (help·info)) (10 May 1876 – 11 December 1918) was a Slovene writer, playwright, essayist, poet and political activist. Together with Oton Župančič, Dragotin Kette, and Josip Murn, he is considered as the beginner of modernism in Slovene literature. He is regarded as the greatest writer in the Slovene language, and has sometimes been compared to Franz Kafka and James Joyce.
Ivan Cankar was born in the Carniolan town of Vrhnika near Ljubljana. He was one of the many children of a poor artisan who emigrated to the United States shortly after Ivan's birth. He was raised by his mother, with whom he established a close, but ambivalent relationship. The figure of a self-sacrificing and submissively repressive mother would later become one of the most recognizable features of Cankar's prose. After finishing grammar school in his hometown, he studied at the Technical High School (Realka) in Ljubljana.
During this period, he started writing literature, mostly poetry, under the influence of Romantic and post-Romantic poets such as France Prešeren, Heinrich Heine, Simon Jenko and Simon Gregorčič. In 1893, he discovered the epic poetry of Anton Aškerc, which had a huge influence on the development of his style and ideals. Under Aškerc's influence, Cankar rejected the sentimental post-Romantic poetry and embraced literary realism and national liberalism.
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Ivan Franko
Ivan Yakovych Franko (Ukrainian: Іван Якович Франко, pronounced [iˈvɑn ˈjɑkovɪt͡ʃ frɑnˈko]) (August 27 [O.S. August 15] 1856 – May 28 [O.S. May 15] 1916) was a Ukrainian poet, writer, social and literary critic, journalist, interpreter, economist, political activist, doctor of philosophy, the author of the first detective novels and modern poetry in the Ukrainian language.
He was a political radical, and a founder of the socialist and nationalist movement in western Ukraine. In addition to his own literary work, he also translated the works of such renowned figures as William Shakespeare, Lord Byron, Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Dante, Victor Hugo, Adam Mickiewicz, Goethe and Schiller into the Ukrainian language. Along with Taras Shevchenko, he has had a tremendous impact on modern literary and political thought in Ukraine.
Franko was born in the Ukrainian village of Nahuievychi (Ukrainian: Нагуєвичі) located then in the Austrian kronland Galicia, today part of Drohobych Raion, Lviv Oblast, Ukraine. As a child he was baptized as Ivan by Father Yosyp Levytsky known as a poet and the author of the first Galician-Ruthenian Hramatyka and who was exiled to Nahuyevychi for a "sharp tongue". At home, however, Ivan was called Myron because of a local superstitious belief that naming a person by different name will dodge a death. Franko's family in Nahuyevychi was considered "well-to-do", with their own servants and 24 hectares (59 acres) of their own property.
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Jalile Jalil
Jalile Jalil (Kurdish: Celîlê Celîl, 1936- ), is a Kurdish historian, writer and Kurdologist. He was born in Yerevan and studied history at the university of Yerevan and Oriental Academy of Leningrad. He wrote his thesis regarding the Kurdish rebellions in 19th century. He received his PhD in 1963, and worked in the Academy of Sciences from 1963 to 1993 where he was the head of the Kurdology department. He along with his brother Ordîxanê Celîl, collected Yezidi religious poetry and Kurdish legends and tales. After the collapse of Soviet Union, he moved to Austria, and taught at the University of Vienna. He is now working at the Academy of Sciences in Vienna.
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Jernej Kopitar
Jernej Bartol Kopitar (21 August 1780 – 11 August 1844) was a Slovene linguist and philologist working in Vienna. He also worked as the Imperial censor for Slovene literature in Vienna. He is perhaps best known for his role in the Serbian language reform started by Vuk Stefanović Karadžić, where he played a vital role in supporting the reform by using his reputation and influence as a Slavic philologist.
Kopitar was born in the small Carniolan village of Repnje near Vodice, in what was then the Habsburg Monarchy and is now in Slovenia. After graduating from the lyceum in Ljubljana, he became a private teacher in the house of baron Sigmund Zois, a renowned entrepreneur, scientist and patron of arts. Kopitar later became Zois' personal secretary and librarian. During this period, he became acquainted with the circle of Enlightenment intellectuals that gathered in Zois' mansion, such as the playwright and historian Anton Tomaž Linhart, the poet and editor Valentin Vodnik, and philologist Jurij Japelj.
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John J. Shea, Jr.
Dr. John J. Shea, Jr. (born 1924) is an American medical doctor, professor and surgeon.
He attended Christian Brothers High School, Memphis, Tennessee, the University of Notre Dame and Harvard Medical School. He performed the first successful reconstructive stapedectomy in May, 1956. The patient was a 54 year-old housewife with conductive hearing loss so severe that she could no longer hear at all, even with a hearing aid. Dr. Shea removed the stapes, covered the oval window opening with a vein graft removed from the back of the patient's hand, and inserted a prosthesis to replace the diseased stapes bone. The patient’s hearing was restored and she heard well for the rest of her life. He has pioneered numerous techniques in the treatment of hearing loss and dizziness, developed many instruments and prostheses to restore hearing, and worked to advance the knowledge and understanding of the treatment of ear disease.[citation needed]
He is a Clinical Professor in the Ear, Nose and Throat Departments of the University of Tennessee, the University of Mississippi, the University of North Carolina and Tulane University.
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Josef Breuer
Josef Breuer (January 15, 1842 Vienna – June 20, 1925 Vienna) was an Austrian physician whose works laid the foundation of psychoanalysis.
Born in Vienna, his father, Leopold Breuer, taught religion in Vienna's Jewish community. Breuer's mother died when he was quite young, and he was raised by his maternal grandmother and educated by his father until the age of eight. He graduated from the Akademisches Gymnasium of Vienna in 1858 and then studied at the university for one year, before enrolling in the medical school of the University of Vienna. He passed his medical exams in 1867 and went to work as assistant to the internist Johann Oppolzer at the university.
A close friend, mentor, and collaborator with Sigmund Freud, Breuer is perhaps best known for his work with Anna O. (the pseudonym of Bertha Pappenheim), a woman suffering from "paralysis of her limbs, and anaesthesias, as well as disturbances of vision and speech."
Breuer observed that her symptoms were reduced or disappeared after she described them to him. Anna O. humorously called this procedure chimney sweeping. She also coined the more serious appellation for this form of therapy, "her talking cure," which is widely regarded as the basis of Freudian psychoanalysis.
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Joseph Schumpeter
Joseph Alois Schumpeter (8 February 1883 – 8 January 1950) was an Austrian-Hungarian-American economist and political scientist. He popularized the term "creative destruction" in economics.
Born in Třešť, Habsburg Moravia (now Czech Republic, then part of Austria-Hungary) in 1883 to Catholic ethnic German parents. His father owned a factory, but he died when Joseph was only four years old. In 1893, Joseph and his mother moved to Vienna.
Schumpeter began his career studying law at the University of Vienna under the Austrian capital theorist Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, taking his PhD in 1906. In 1909, after some study trips, he became a professor of economics and government at the University of Czernowitz. In 1911 he joined the University of Graz, where he remained until World War I. In 1919, he served briefly as the Austrian Minister of Finance, with some success, and in 1920–1924, as president of the private Biedermann Bank. That bank, along with a great part of that regional economy, collapsed in 1924 leaving Schumpeter bankrupt.
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Joseph Stefan
Joseph Stefan (Slovene: Jožef Štefan) (24 March 1835 – 7 January 1893) was a Carinthian Slovene physicist, mathematician, and poet of Austrian citizenship.
Stefan was born in an outskirt village St Peter (Slovene Sveti Peter) near Ebenthal (Slovene Žrelec) (today a district of Klagenfurt) (Celovec) in the Austrian Empire (now in Austria) to father Aleš (Aleksander) Stefan, born in 1805 and mother Marija Startinik, born 1815. His parents, both ethnic Slovenes, were married when Jožef was eleven. The Stefans were a modest family. His father was a milling assistant and mother served as a maidservant. Stefan's father died in 1872 while his mother died almost ten years earlier in 1863.
Stefan attended elementary school in Klagenfurt, where he showed his talent. They recommended that he continue his schooling, so in 1845 he went to Klagenfurt gymnasium. He experienced the revolutionary year of 1848, as a thirteen-year-old boy, which inspired him to be sympathetic toward Slovene literary production.
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Jörg Haider
Jörg Haider (help·info) (German pronunciation: [ˈjœɐ̯k ˈhaɪdɐ]; 26 January 1950 – 11 October 2008) was an Austrian politician. He was Governor of Carinthia on two occasions, the long-time leader of the Austrian Freedom Party (FPÖ) and later Chairman of the Alliance for the Future of Austria (Bündnis Zukunft Österreich, BZÖ), a breakaway party from the FPÖ.
Haider was a controversial figure within Austria and abroad for comments that were widely condemned as praising Nazi policies or as being xenophobic or anti-Semitic. Several countries imposed mild diplomatic sanctions against his party's participation in government alongside Wolfgang Schüssel's ÖVP, starting from 2000. Haider died in a car accident shortly after leading the BZÖ in the Austrian Parliamentary elections.
Haider's parents had been early members of the Nazi Party (NSDAP, German National Socialist Workers' Party, the Austrian affiliate of the German NSDAP). They were from different backgrounds. Haider's father, Robert Haider, was a shoemaker. His mother, Dorothea Rupp, was the daughter of a well-to-do physician and head of the gynaecology ward at the general hospital of Linz.
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Karl Kautsky
Karl Johann Kautsky (October 16, 1854– October 17, 1938) was a Czech-German philosopher, journalist, and Marxist theoretician. Kautsky was recognized as among the most authoritative promulgators of Orthodox Marxism after the death of Friedrich Engels in 1895 until the coming of World War I in 1914 and was called by some the "Pope of Marxism." Following the war, Kautsky was an outspoken critic of the Bolshevik Revolution and its excesses, engaging in polemics with V.I. Lenin and Leon Trotsky on the nature of the Soviet state.
Karl Kautsky, born in Prague to artistic middle-class parents, moved with his family to Vienna at the age of seven. He studied history, philosophy and economics at the University of Vienna from 1874, and became a member of the Social Democratic Party of Austria (SPÖ) in 1875. In 1880 he joined a group of German socialists in Zurich who were supported financially by Karl Höchberg, and who smuggled socialist material into the Reich at the time of the Anti-Socialist Laws (1878- ). Influenced by Eduard Bernstein, Karl Höchberg's secretary, he became a Marxist and in 1881 visited Marx and Engels in England.
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Karl Kraus
Karl Kraus (April 28, 1874 – June 12, 1936) was an Austrian writer and journalist, known as a satirist, essayist, aphorist, playwright and poet. He is regarded as one of the foremost German-language satirists of the 20th century, especially for his witty criticism of the press, German culture, and German and Austrian politics.
Kraus was born into a wealthy Jewish family of Jacob Kraus, a papermaker, and his wife Ernestine, née Kantor, in Jičín, Bohemia (now the Czech Republic). The family moved to Vienna in 1877. His mother died in 1891.
Kraus enrolled as a law student at the University of Vienna in 1892. Beginning in April of the same year he began contributing to the paper Wiener Literaturzeitung, starting with a critique of Gerhart Hauptmann's Die Weber. Around that time, he unsuccessfully tried to perform as an actor in a small theater. In 1894 he changed his field of studies to philosophy and German literature. He discontinued his studies in 1896. His friendship with Peter Altenberg began about this time.
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Karl Landsteiner
Karl Landsteiner FRS (June 14, 1868 – June 26, 1943), was an Austrian biologist and physician. He is noted for having first distinguished the main blood groups in 1900, having developed the modern system of classification of blood groups from his identification of the presence of agglutinins in the blood, and having identified, with Alexander S. Wiener, the Rhesus factor, in 1937, thus enabling physicians to transfuse blood without endangering the patient′s life. With Constantin Levaditi and Erwin Popper, he discovered the polio virus, in 1909. In 1930 he received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. He was awarded a Lasker Award in 1946 posthumously and is recognised as the father of transfusion medicine.
Landsteiner’s father Leopold (1818–1875), a renowned Viennese journalist, died at age 56, when Karl was 6. This led to a close relationship between Landsteiner and his mother Fanny (née Hess), (1837–1908). Karl and his mother converted to Catholicism when he was twenty one. He kept her death mask all his life in his bedroom. After graduating with the Matura exam from a Vienna secondary school he took up the study of medicine at the University of Vienna and wrote his doctoral thesis in 1891. While still a student he published an essay on the influence of diets on the composition of blood.
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Karl Popper
Sir Karl Raimund Popper, CH FRSFBA (28 July 1902 – 17 September 1994) was an Austro-Britishphilosopher and professor at the London School of Economics. He is generally regarded as one of the greatest philosophers of science of the 20th century; he also wrote extensively on social and political philosophy.
Popper is known for his attempt to repudiate the classical observationalist/inductivist form of scientific method in favour of empirical falsification. He is also known for his opposition to the classical justificationist account of knowledge which he replaced with critical rationalism, "the first non justificational philosophy of criticism in the history of philosophy". In political discourse, he is known for his vigorous defence of liberal democracy and the principles of social criticism that he came to believe made a flourishing "open society" possible.
Karl Popper was born in Vienna (then in Austria-Hungary) in 1902, to upper middle-class parents. All of Karl Popper's grandparents were Jewish, but the Popper family converted to Lutheranism before Karl was born. Karl's father Simon Siegmund Carl Popper was a lawyer from Bohemia, and mother Jenny Schiff was of Silesian and Hungarian descent. After establishing themselves in Vienna, the Poppers made a rapid social climb in Viennese society: Simon Siegmund Carl became a legal partner[clarification needed] of Vienna's liberal mayor Raimond Grübl and, after his death in 1898, took over the firm (Karl received his middle name from the mayor).
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Karl von Frisch
Regarding personal names: Ritter is a title, translated approximately as Knight, not a first or middle name. There is no equivalent female form.
Karl Ritter von Frisch FRS (20 November 1886 – 12 June 1982) was an Austrian ethologist who received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1973, along with Nikolaas Tinbergen and Konrad Lorenz.
His work centered on investigations of the sensory perceptions of the honey bee and he was one of the first to translate the meaning of the waggle dance. His theory was disputed by other scientists and greeted with skepticism at the time. Only recently was it definitively proved to be an accurate theoretical analysis.
Karl von Frisch was the son of the surgeon and urologist Anton Ritter von Frisch (1849-1917) and his wife Marie, née Exner. He was the youngest of four sons, all of whom became university professors. He studied in Vienna under Hans Leo Przibram and in Munich under Richard von Hertwig, initially in the field of medicine but later turning to the natural sciences. He received his doctorate in 1910 and in the same year started work as an assistant in the zoology department of Munich University. In 1912 he became a lecturer in zoology and comparative anatomy there; and in 1919 was promoted to a professorship. In 1921 he went to Rostock University as a professor of zoology and director of an institute. In 1923 he accepted the offer of a chair at Breslau University, returning in 1925 to Munich University, where he became the head of the institute of zoology. After that institute was destroyed in World War II, he went to the University of Graz in 1946, remaining there until 1950 when he returned to the Munich institute after it was reopened. He retired in 1958 but continued his research. Karl von Frisch married Margarete, née Mohr. Their son, Otto von Frisch, was director of the Braunschweig natural history museum between 1977 and 1995.
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Konrad Lorenz
Konrad Zacharias Lorenz FRS (November 7, 1903 in Vienna – February 27, 1989 in Vienna) was an Austrian zoologist, ethologist, and ornithologist. He shared the 1973 Nobel Prize with Nikolaas Tinbergen and Karl von Frisch. He is often regarded as one of the founders of modern ethology, developing an approach that began with an earlier generation, including his teacher Oskar Heinroth.
Lorenz studied instinctive behavior in animals, especially in greylag geese and jackdaws. Working with geese, he rediscovered the principle of imprinting (originally described by Douglas Spalding in the 19th century) in the behavior of nidifugous birds. In later life his interest shifted to the study of humans in society.
He wrote numerous books, some of which, such as King Solomon's Ring, On Aggression and Man Meets Dog became popular reading. His last work "Here I Am - Where Are You?" is a summary of his life's work and focuses on his famous studies of greylag geese.
In his autobiographical essay, published in 1973 in Les Prix Nobel (winners of the prizes are requested to provide such essays), Lorenz credits his career to his parents, who "were supremely tolerant of my inordinate love for animals," and to his childhood encounter with Selma Lagerlof's The Wonderful Adventures of Nils, which filled him with a great enthusiasm about wild geese.
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Kurt Gödel
Kurt Friedrich Gödel (/ˈkɜrt ɡɜrdəl/; German pronunciation: [ˈkʊʁt ˈɡøːdəl] ( listen); April 28, 1906 – January 14, 1978) was an Austrian/American logician, mathematician, and philosopher. Later in his life he emigrated to the United States to escape the effects of World War II. One of the most significant logicians of all time, Gödel made an immense impact upon scientific and philosophical thinking in the 20th century, a time when many, such as Bertrand Russell, A. N. Whitehead and David Hilbert, were pioneering the use of logic and set theory to understand the foundations of mathematics.
Gödel is best known for his two incompleteness theorems, published in 1931 when he was 25 years old, one year after finishing his doctorate at the University of Vienna. The more famous incompleteness theorem states that for any self-consistent recursive axiomatic system powerful enough to describe the arithmetic of the natural numbers (for example Peano arithmetic), there are true propositions about the naturals that cannot be proved from the axioms. To prove this theorem, Gödel developed a technique now known as Gödel numbering, which codes formal expressions as natural numbers.
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Kurt Waldheim
Kurt Josef Waldheim (German pronunciation: [ˈkʊɐ̯t ˈvaldhaɪm]; 21 December 1918 – 14 June 2007) was an Austrian diplomat and politician. Waldheim was the fourth Secretary-General of the United Nations from 1972 to 1981, and the ninth President of Austria, from 1986 to 1992. While running for President in Austria in 1985, his service as an intelligence officer in the Wehrmacht during World War II raised international controversy.
Waldheim was born in Sankt Andrä-Wördern, a village near Vienna, on 21 December 1918. His father was a Roman Catholic school inspector of Czech origin named Watzlawick (original Czech spelling Václavík) who changed his name that year as the Habsburg monarchy collapsed. Waldheim served in the Austrian Army (1936–37) and attended the Vienna Consular Academy, where he graduated in 1939. Waldheim's father was active in the Christian Social Party. Waldheim himself was politically unaffiliated during these years at the Academy. Shortly after the German annexation of Austria in 1938, a 20-year old Waldheim applied for membership in the National Socialist German Students' League (NSDStB), a division of the Nazi Party. Shortly thereafter he became a registered member of the mounted corps of the SA.
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Leopold Vietoris
Leopold Vietoris (/viːəˈtɔərɪs/; German: [fiːˈtoːʀɪs]; 1891–2002) was an Austrian mathematician and a World War I veteran who gained additional fame by becoming a supercentenarian (unusual especially for a male). He was born in Radkersburg and died in Innsbruck.
He was known for his contributions to topology --notably the Mayer-Vietoris sequence-- and other fields of mathematics, his interest in mathematical history and for being a keen alpinist. Vietoris attended the University of Vienna, where he earned his Ph.D in 1920.
He studied mathematics and geometry at the Technical University in Vienna. Vietoris was drafted in 1914 in World War I and was wounded in September that same year. On 4 November 1918, one week before the Armistice of Villa Giusti, he became an Italian prisoner of war. In autumn 1928, he married his first wife Klara Riccabona, who later died while giving birth to their sixth daughter. In 1936, he married Klara's sister, Maria Riccabona.
With his wife Maria Josefa Vincentia, born von Riccabona zu Reichenfels (18 July 1901 – 24 March 2002), dying at age 100, they became one of the eldest couples of the world, having the seventh-highest aggregate age of a married couple (total combined age). Their combined age at the end of their marriage, 211 years and 177 days, is the highest on record. Vietoris died two weeks after her death.
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Lise Meitner
Lise Meitner, FRS (7 November 1878 – 27 October 1968) was an Austrian, later Swedish, physicist who worked on radioactivity and nuclear physics. Meitner was part of the team that discovered nuclear fission, an achievement for which her colleague Otto Hahn was awarded the Nobel Prize. Meitner is often mentioned as one of the most glaring examples of women's scientific achievement overlooked by the Nobel committee. A 1997 Physics Today study concluded that Meitner's omission was "a rare instance in which personal negative opinions apparently led to the exclusion of a deserving scientist" from the Nobel. Element 109, Meitnerium, is named in her honour.
Meitner was born into a Jewish family as the third of eight children in Vienna, 2nd district (Leopoldstadt). Her father, Philipp Meitner, was one of the first Jewish lawyers in Austria. She was born on 7 November 1878. She shortened her name from Elise to Lise. The birth register of Vienna's Jewish community lists Meitner as being born on 17 November 1878, but all other documents list it as 7 November, which is what she used. As an adult, she converted to Christianity, following Lutheranism, and being baptized in 1908.
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Ludwig Boltzmann
Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann (February 20, 1844 – September 5, 1906) was an Austrian physicist famous for his founding contributions in the fields of statistical mechanics and statistical thermodynamics. He was one of the most important advocates for atomic theory at a time when that scientific model was still highly controversial.
Boltzmann was born in Vienna, the capital of the Austrian Empire. His father, Ludwig Georg Boltzmann, was a tax official. His grandfather, who had moved to Vienna from Berlin, was a clock manufacturer, and Boltzmann’s mother, Katharina Pauernfeind, was originally from Salzburg. He received his primary education from a private tutor at the home of his parents. Boltzmann attended high school in Linz, Upper Austria. At age 15, Boltzmann lost his father.
Boltzmann studied physics at the University of Vienna, starting in 1863. Among his teachers were Josef Loschmidt, Joseph Stefan, Andreas von Ettingshausen and Jozef Petzval. Boltzmann received his PhD degree in 1866 working under the supervision of Stefan; his dissertation was on kinetic theory of gases. In 1867 he became a Privatdozent (lecturer). After obtaining his doctorate degree, Boltzmann worked two more years as Stefan’s assistant. It was Stefan who introduced Boltzmann to Maxwell's work.
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Ludwig Karl Schmarda
Ludwig Karl Schmarda (1819–1908) was an Austrian naturalist and traveler, born at Olmütz, Moravia. He studied in Vienna and in 1850 became professor at the University of Graz, where he founded the Zoological Museum, and in 1852 at Prague. In 1853–1857 he traveled around the world and in 1862 was appointed professor at the University of Vienna. For the government he investigated the industry of fisheries on the Austrian (1863–1865) and French (1868) coasts and, after having retired from service in 1883, visited Spain and the African coast in 1884, 1886, and 1887. His publications include:
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Ludwig von Mises
Ludwig Heinrich Edler von Mises (German pronunciation: [ˈluːtvɪç fɔn ˈmiːzəs]; September 29, 1881 – October 10, 1973) was a philosopher, Austrian School economist, and classical liberal. He became a prominent figure in the Austrian School of economic thought and is best known for his work on praxeology. Fearing a Nazi takeover of Europe, Mises emigrated to the United States in 1940. Mises had a significant influence on the libertarian movement in the United States in the mid-20th century.
Ludwig von Mises was born to wealthy Jewish parents in the city of Lemberg, in Galicia, Austria-Hungary (now Lviv in Ukraine). The family of his father Arthur Edler von Mises had been elevated to the Austrian nobility in the 19th century, and was involved in building and financing railroads. Ludwig's mother, Adele (née Landau), was a niece of Dr. Joachim Landau, a Liberal Party deputy to the Austrian Parliament. Arthur was stationed there as a construction engineer with Czernowitz railway company. At the age of twelve Ludwig spoke fluent Yiddish, German, Polish, and French, read Latin, and could understand Ukrainian. Mises was the older brother of the famous applied physicist Richard von Mises, a member of the Vienna Circle. Another brother, Karl von Mises, died as a child from scarlet fever.[citation needed] When Ludwig and Richard were children, his family moved back to their ancestral home of Vienna.
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Manfred Bietak
Manfred Bietak (born 6 October 1940, Vienna) is an Austrian archaeologist. He is Professor emeritus of Egyptology at the University of Vienna and Director of the Austrian Archaeological Institute in Cairo 1973-2009. He is currently Chairman of the Vienna Institute of Archaeological Science at the University of Vienna and Chairman of the Commission for Egypt and the Levant at the Austrian Academy of Sciences. In 1997 and 2006, he was Visiting Professor at the Collège de France; in 2004, he was Martha Whitcomb Visiting Professor at Harvard.
Bietak is best known as the director of the Austrian excavations at two sites in the Nile delta: Tell El-Dab'a, which was the location of Avaris, the capital of the Hyksos period; and Piramesse, which was the capital of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt. The site was also most probably the naval base Peru-nefer of Thutmosis III and Amenhotep II. A palace precinct of those kings, furnished with Minoan frescoes was one of the most important discoveries. Bietak has also conducted excavations in western Thebes (Luqsor), where he discovered the huge tomb of Ankh-Hor, Chief steward of the Divine Wife of Amun Nitokris (26th Dynasty).
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Marie Jahoda
Marie Jahoda (26 January 1907, Vienna, Austria – 28 April 2001, Sussex) was an Austrian- British social psychologist.
Jahoda was born in Vienna, Austria to a Jewish family, and like many other psychologists of her time, grew up in Austria where political oppression against socialists was rampant henceforward Dollfuß claimed power. Starting in her adolescent years she became engaged in the socialist party. This was a major influence on her life. Nowadays she is (among many others) considered as Grande Dame of European socialism. In 1928 she earned her teaching diploma from the Pedagogical Academy of Vienna, and in 1933 earned her Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology from the University of Vienna. Together with her husband Paul Lazarsfeld and Hans Zeisel, she wrote a now-classic study of the social impact of unemployment on a small community: Die Arbeitslosen von Marienthal (1932; English ed. 1971 - Marienthal: the sociography of an unemployed community - paperback by Transaction Publishers in USA, 2002). Marienthal was an industrial district that suffered very high levels of unemployment in the 1920s, and the research team examined the (often devastating) psychological consequences. These went beyond the obvious hardships associated with financial deprivation, and Jahoda concluded that in modern industrial societies work provides important social benefits, including a sense of personal worth, connection with wider social objectives, and a time structure to their days and weeks.
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Max Perutz
Max Ferdinand Perutz, OM, CH, CBE, FRS (19 May 1914, Vienna, Austria – 6 February 2002, Cambridge, United Kingdom) was an Austrian-born British molecular biologist, who shared the 1962 Nobel Prize for Chemistry with John Kendrew, for their studies of the structures of hemoglobin and globular proteins. He went on to win the Royal Medal of the Royal Society in 1971 and the Copley Medal in 1979. At Cambridge he founded and chaired (1962–79) The Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, fourteen of whose scientists have won Nobel Prizes. Perutz's contributions to molecular biology in Cambridge are documented in The History of the University of Cambridge: Volume 4 (1870 to 1990) published by the Cambridge University Press in 1992.
Max Ferdinand Perutz was born in Vienna on 19 May 1914. Both his parents, Hugo Perutz and Dely Goldschmidt, came from families of textile manufacturers who had made their fortune in the 19th century by the introduction of mechanical spinning and weaving into the Austrian monarchy. He was sent to school at the Theresianum, a grammar school derived from an officers academy of the days of the empress Maria Theresa, and his parents suggested that he should study law in preparation for entering the family business. However, a good schoolmaster awakened his interest in chemistry, and he had no difficulty in persuading his parents to let him study the subject of his choice.
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Mihai Eminescu
Mihai Eminescu (Romanian pronunciation: [miˈhaj emiˈnesku]; born Mihail Eminovici; January 15, 1850 – June 15, 1889) was a poet, novelist and journalist, often regarded as the most famous and influential Romanian poet. Eminescu was an active member of the Junimea literary society and he worked as an editor for the newspaper Timpul ("The Time"), the official newspaper of the Conservative Party (1880–1918). His poetry was first published when he was 16 and he went to Vienna to study when he was 19. The poet's Manuscripts, containing 46 volumes and approximately 14,000 pages, were offered by Titu Maiorescu as a gift to the Romanian Academy during the meeting that was held on January 25, 1902. Notable works include Luceafărul ("Evening Star"), Odă în metru antic (Ode in Ancient Meter), and the five Letters (Epistles/Satires). In his poems he frequently used metaphysical, mythological and historical subjects. In general his work was influenced by the German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer.
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Mordkhe Schaechter
Itsye Mordkhe Schaechter (Yiddish: דר איציע מרדכי שעכטער; December 1, 1927-February 15, 2007) was a leading Yiddish linguist, as well as a writer and educator who spent a lifetime studying, standardizing and teaching the language. Dr. Schaechter, whose passion for Yiddish dated to his boyhood in Romania, dedicated his life to reclaiming Yiddish as a living language for the descendants of its first speakers, the Ashkenazic Jewry of central and eastern Europe. Written in the Hebrew alphabet and containing Semitic, Germanic and other components, it is one of the three major literary languages in Jewish history, the others being Hebrew and Aramaic. He was also the third editor of Afn Shvel (1957–2004), a prestigious Yiddish magazine. He died on February 15, 2007 after a long bout of illness following a stroke in the summer of 2001.
Dr. Schaechter was born in the then Romanian town of Czernowitz (in Yiddish; known in Romanian as Cernăuţi, and in Ukrainian Chernivtsi). He became fascinated with Yiddish as a pupil and later studied linguistics at the University of Bucharest. He completed his doctorate in Linguistics at the University of Vienna in 1951. Starting in 1947, he worked for the YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, as a zamler, or collector, for the YIVO Archives in the post-war D.P. camps in Austria.
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Moritz Schlick
Friedrich Albert Moritz Schlick listen (help·info) (April 14, 1882 – June 22, 1936) was a German philosopher, physicist and the founding father of logical positivism and the Vienna Circle.
Schlick was born in Berlin to a wealthy family, his father was Ernst Albert Schlick and his mother was Agnes Arndt. He studied physics at Heidelberg, Lausanne, and, ultimately, the University of Berlin under Max Planck. In 1904, he completed his dissertation essay, "Über die Reflexion des Lichts in einer inhomogenen Schicht" ("On the Reflection of Light in a Non-Homogeneous Medium"). After a year as Privatdozent at Göttingen, he turned to the study of Philosophy in Zurich. In 1908, he published Lebensweisheit ("The Wisdom of Life"), a slim volume about eudaemonism, the theory that happiness is the highest ethicalpursuit. His habilitation essay, "Das Wesen der Wahrheit nach der modernen Logik" ("The Nature of Truth According to Modern Logic"), was published in 1910. Several essays about aesthetics followed, whereupon Schlick turned his attention to problems of epistemology, the philosophy of science, and more general questions about science. In this last category, Schlick distinguished himself by publishing a paper in 1915 about Einstein's special theory of relativity, a topic only ten years old. He also published Raum und Zeit in der gegenwärtigen Physik ("Space and Time in Modern Physics"), which extended his earlier results by applying Poincaré's geometric conventionalism to explain Einstein's adoption of a non-Euclidean geometry in the General Theory of Relativity.
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O. W. Fischer
Otto Wilhelm Fischer (1 April 1915 – 29 January 2004) was an Austrian actor. A leading man of German cinema, he began his career with Max Reinhardt's stage company.
He was born in Klosterneuburg near Vienna. While he enjoyed a great career, unlike countrymen Oskar Werner, Curd Jürgens, Maria Schell and Romy Schneider, he never made it internationally. Worse, his American break ended before it began: he was signed to star with June Allyson in a remake of My Man Godfrey in 1956, but was replaced by David Niven when Fischer reportedly lost his memory during filming. Fischer directed and starred opposite Anouk Aimée in a 1956 film, Ich suche Dich, based on the play, Jupiter Laughs, by A. J. Cronin. In 1955, he directed and starred in Hanussen, a movie detailing the life of Erik Jan Hanussen, the Devil's Prophet. While the film is considered highly romanticized, it assisted historians and biographers in uncovering previously unknown facts. He also starred in the title role in the classic German film, Ludwig II.
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Olga Taussky-Todd
Olga Taussky-Todd (August 30, 1906, Olomouc, then Austria–Hungary – October 7, 1995, Pasadena, California) was a Czech-American mathematician.
Olga Taussky was born into a Jewish family; her father, Julius David Taussky, was an industrial chemist and her mother, Ida Pollach, was a housewife. She worked first in algebraic number theory, with a doctorate at the University of Vienna supervised by Philipp Furtwängler. During that time in Vienna she also attended the meetings of the Vienna Circle. Later, she started to use matrices to analyze vibrations of airplanes during World War II, at the National Physical Laboratory in the United Kingdom. She became the torchbearer for matrix theory.
In 1938 she married another mathematician, John Todd.
In 1945 the Todds immigrated to the United States and worked for the National Bureau of Standards. In 1957 they joined the faculty of California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, California.
She was a Fellow of the AAAS, a Noether Lecturer and a recipient of the Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art. She also supervised Caltech's first female Ph.D. in Math, Lorraine Foster.
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Oskar Morgenstern
Oskar Morgenstern (January 24, 1902 – July 26, 1977) was a German-born Economist. He, along with John von Neumann, helped found the mathematical field of game theory (see von Neumann–Morgenstern utility theorem).
Morgenstern was born in Görlitz, Germany. His mother was said to be an illegitimate daughter of Emperor Frederick III of Germany.
He was educated in Vienna, and was a recipient of a three year fellowship financed by the Rockefeller Foundation. When Adolf Hitler took over Vienna through the Anschluss, Morgenstern was in the United States and decided it would be a good idea to stay. He became a member of the faculty at Princeton University, but gravitated toward the Institute for Advanced Study. His first book was "Economic Prediction". In 1944, he and von Neumann co-wrote Theory of Games and Economic Behavior, recognized as the first book on game theory. Morgenstern also wrote the book "On the accuracy of economic observations". He applied game theory to business. He died in Princeton, New Jersey, in the United States.
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Otto Loewi
For the Czech-Canadian broadcaster and playwright see Otto Lowy
Otto Loewi (3 June 1873 – 25 December 1961) was a German born pharmacologist whose discovery of acetylcholine helped enhance medical therapy. The discovery earned for him the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1936 which he shared with Sir Henry Dale, whom he met in 1902 when spending some months in Ernest Starling's laboratory at University College, London. He has been referred to as the "Father of Neuroscience."
Loewi was born in Frankfurt, Germany. He received his medical doctoral degree from University of Strasbourg (then part of Germany) in 1896 where he also was a member of the fraternity Burschenschaft Germania Strassburg. During 1897–1898 he was assistant to Carl von Noorden, clinician at the City Hospital in Frankfurt. Soon, however, after seeing the high mortality in countless cases of far-advanced tuberculosis and pneumonia, left without any treatment because of lack of therapy, he decided to drop his intention to become a clinician and instead to carry out research in basic medical science, in particular pharmacology. In 1898, he succeeded in becoming an assistant of Professor Hans Horst Meyer, the renowned pharmacologist at the University of Marburg, from 1904 Professor of Pharmacology in Vienna. In 1905, Loewi became Associate Professor at Meyer's laboratory, and in 1909 he was appointed to the Chair of Pharmacology in Graz.
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Otto Neurath
Otto Neurath (Vienna, December 10, 1882 - Oxford, December 22, 1945) was an Austrian philosopher of science, sociologist, and political economist. Before he was to flee his native country in 1934, Neurath was one of the leading figures of the Vienna Circle.
Neurath was born in Vienna, the son of Wilhelm Neurath (1840–1901), a well-known political economist at the time. He studied mathematics in Vienna and gained his Ph.D. in the department of Political Science and Statistics at the University of Berlin.
He married Anna Schapire in 1907. She died as a result of childbirth (Paul Neurath) in 1911, and he married a close friend, the mathematician and philosopher Olga Hahn. Perhaps because of Olga's blindness and then because of the outbreak of war, his son, Paul Neurath was sent to a children's home outside Vienna, where Neurath's mother lived, and returned to live with his father and Olga when he was nine years old.
Neurath taught political economy at the Neue Wiener Handelsakademie (New College of Commerce, Vienna) until war broke out. Subsequently he became director of the Deutsches Kriegwirtschaftsmuseum (German Museum of War Economy, later the Deutsches Wirtschaftmuseum) at Leipzig. Wolfgang Schumann, known from the Dürerbund for which Neurath had written many articles, urged him to work out a plan for socialization. Neurath joined the German Social Democratic Party in 1918-19 and ran an office for central economic planning in Munich. When the Bavarian Soviet Republic was defeated, Neurath was imprisoned but returned to Austria after intervention from the Austrian government. While in prison he wrote "Anti-Spengler", a critical attack on Oswald Spengler's "Decline of the West".
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Otto Preminger
Otto Ludwig Preminger (5 December 1905 – 23 April 1986) was an Austro–Hungarian-American theatre and film director.
After moving from the theatre to Hollywood, he directed over 35 feature films in a five-decade career. He rose to prominence for stylish film noir mysteries such as Laura (1944) and Fallen Angel (1945). In the 1950s and 1960s, he directed a number of high-profile adaptations of popular novels and stage works. Several of these pushed the boundaries of censorship by dealing with topics which were then taboo in Hollywood, such as drug addiction (The Man with the Golden Arm, 1955), rape (Anatomy of a Murder, 1959) and homosexuality (Advise & Consent, 1962). He was twice nominated for the Best Director Academy Award. He also had a few acting roles.
Preminger was born in 1905 in Wiznitz (Vyzhnytsia), a town west of Czernowitz, northern Bukovyna, in today's Ukraine, then part of the Austro–Hungarian Empire, into the Jewish family of Markus and Josefa Preminger. Preminger's father was born in 1877 in Galicia, at a time when it was part of the Austro–Hungarian Empire. As an Attorney General of Austria–Hungary, Markus was a proud public prosecutor on the cusp of an extraordinary career defending the interests of the Emperor Franz Josef. The couple provided a stable home life for Preminger and his brother Ingo.
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Otto Weininger
Otto Weininger (April 3, 1880 – October 4, 1903) was an Austrian philosopher. In 1903, he published the book Geschlecht und Charakter (Sex and Character), which gained popularity after his suicide at the age of 23. Today, Weininger is generally viewed as misogynistic and antisemitic in academic circles, but was held to be a great genius by the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein and the writer August Strindberg (see discussion below).
Otto Weininger was born on April 3, 1880 in Vienna as a son of the Jewish goldsmith Leopold Weininger and his wife Adelheid. After attending primary school and graduating from secondary school in July 1898, Weininger registered at the University of Vienna in October of the same year. He studied philosophy and psychology but took courses in natural sciences and medicine as well. Weininger learned Greek, Latin, French and English very early, later also Spanish and Italian, and acquired passive knowledge of the languages of August Strindberg and Henrik Ibsen (i.e., Swedish and Danish/Norwegian).
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Paul Feyerabend
Paul Karl Feyerabend (January 13, 1924 – February 11, 1994) was an Austrian-born philosopher of science best known for his work as a professor of philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley, where he worked for three decades (1958–1989). He lived a peripatetic life, living at various times in England, the United States, New Zealand, Italy, Germany, and finally Switzerland. His major works include Against Method (published in 1975), Science in a Free Society (published in 1978) and Farewell to Reason (a collection of papers published in 1987). Feyerabend became famous for his purportedly anarchistic view of science and his rejection of the existence of universal methodological rules. He is an influential figure in the philosophy of science, and also in the sociology of scientific knowledge.
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Paul Lazarsfeld
Paul Felix Lazarsfeld (February 13, 1901 – August 30, 1976) was one of the major figures in 20th-century American sociology. The founder of Columbia University's Bureau of Applied Social Research, he exerted a tremendous influence over the techniques and the organization of social research. "It is not so much that he was an American sociologist," one colleague said of him after his death, "as it was that he determined what American sociology would be."
Lazarsfeld's many contributions to sociological method have earned him the title of the "founder of modern empirical sociology". Lazarsfeld made great strides in statistical survey analysis, panel methods, latent structure analysis, and contextual analysis. He is also considered a co-founder of mathematical sociology. Many of his ideas have been so influential as to now be considered self-evident. He is also noted for developing the two-step flow of communication model.
Lazarsfeld also made significant contributions by training many younger sociologists. One of Lazarsfeld's biographers, Paul Nerauth, writes that there are "dozens of books and hundreds of articles by his students and the students of his students, all of which still breathe the spirtit of this man's work". One of Lazarsfeld's successful students was Barney Glaser - propounder of grounded theory (GT) - the world's most quoted method for analyzing qualitative data. Index formations and qualitative mathematics were subjects taught by Lazarsfeld and are important components of the GT method according to Glaser. James Samuel Coleman, an important contributor to social theories of education and a future president of the American Sociological Association, was also a student of Lazarsfeld's at Columbia.
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Percy Lavon Julian
Percy Lavonn Julian (April 11, 1899 – April 19, 1975) was an African American research chemist and a pioneer in the chemical synthesis of medicinal drugs from plants. He was the first to synthesize the natural product physostigmine; and was a pioneer in the industrial large-scale chemical synthesis of the human hormones, steroids, progesterone, and testosterone, from plant sterols such as stigmasterol and sitosterol. His work would lay the foundation for the steroid drug industry's production of cortisone, other corticosteroids, and birth control pills. He later started his own company to synthesize steroid intermediates from the Mexican wild yam. His work helped reduce the cost of steroid intermediates to large multinational pharmaceutical companies.
During his lifetime he received more than 130 chemical patents. Julian was one of the first African Americans to receive a doctorate in chemistry. He was the first African-American chemist inducted into the National Academy of Sciences, and the second African-American scientist inducted from any field.
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Peter Safar
Peter Safar (12 April 1924 – 2 August 2003) was an Austrian physician of Czech descent. He is credited with pioneering cardiopulmonary resuscitation.
Safar was born in Vienna, and graduated from the University of Vienna in 1948. He married Eva Kyzivat and moved from Vienna to Hartford, Connecticut in 1949 for surgical training at Yale University. He completed training in anesthesiology at the University of Pennsylvania in 1952. That same year, he worked in Lima, Peru and founded that country's first academic anesthesiology department. In 1954, he became Chief of Anesthesiology at Baltimore City Hospital.
Together with James Elam, he rediscovered the airway, head tilt, chin lift (Step A) and the mouth-to-mouth breathing (Step B) components of CPR and influenced Norwegian doll maker Asmund Laerdal of Laerdal company to design and manufacture mannequins for CPR training called Resusci Anne. Safar, who began to work on cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in 1956 at City Hospital, demonstrated in a series of experiments on paralyzed human volunteers that rescuer exhaled air mouth-to-mouth breathing could maintain satisfactory oxygen levels in the non-breathing victim, and showed that even lay people could effectively perform mouth-to-mouth breathing to save lives. He combined the A (Airway) and the B (Breathing) of CPR with the C (chest compressions), and wrote the book ABC of Resuscitation in 1957, which established the basis for mass training of CPR. This A-B-C system for CPR training of the public was later adopted by the American Heart Association, which promulgated standards for CPR in 1973.
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Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus (23 AD – August 25, 79 AD), better known as Pliny the Elder, was a Roman author, naturalist, and natural philosopher, as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and personal friend of the emperor Vespasian. Spending most of his spare time studying, writing or investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field, he wrote an encyclopedic work, Naturalis Historia, which became a model for all such works written subsequently. Pliny the Younger, his nephew, wrote of him in a letter to the historian Tacitus:
Pliny is referring to the fact that Tacitus relied on his uncle's now missing work on the History of the German Wars. Pliny the Elder died on August 25, 79 AD, while attempting the rescue by ship of a friend and his family from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius that had just destroyed the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The prevailing wind would not allow his ship to leave the shore. His companions attributed his collapse and death to toxic fumes; but they were unaffected by the fumes, suggesting natural causes.
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Pope Pius II
Pope Pius II, born Enea Silvio Piccolomini (Latin Aeneas Sylvius; 18 October 1405 – 14 August 1464) was Pope from 19 August 1458 until his death in 1464. Pius II was born at Corsignano in the Sienese territory of a noble but decayed family. His longest and most enduring work is the story of his life, the Commentaries, which is the only autobiography ever written by a reigning Pope.
After studying at the universities of Siena and Florence, he settled in the former city as a teacher, but in 1431 accepted the post of secretary to Domenico Capranica, bishop of Fermo, then on his way to the Council of Basel (1431–39). Capranica was protesting against the new Pope Eugene IV's refusal of a cardinalate for him, which had been designated by Pope Martin V. Arriving at Basel after enduring a stormy voyage to Genoa and then a trip across the Alps, he successively served Capranica, who ran short of money, and then other masters.
In 1435 he was sent by Cardinal Albergati, Eugenius IV's legate at the council, on a secret mission to Scotland, the object of which is variously related even by himself. He visited England as well as Scotland, underwent many perils and vicissitudes in both countries, and left a valuable account of each. The journey to Scotland proved so tempestuous that Piccolomini swore that he would walk barefoot to the nearest shrine of Our Lady from their landing port. This proved to be Dunbar; the nearest shrine was 10 miles distant at Whitekirk. The journey through the ice and snow left Aeneas afflicted with pain in his legs for the rest of his life. In Scotland he fathered his second natural child, the other one having been born in Strasbourg.
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Pope Pius III
Pope Pius III (29 May 1439 – 18 October 1503), born Francesco Todeschini Piccolomini, was Pope from 22 September to 18 October 1503.
He was born in Siena, the nephew of Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini, the future Pope Pius II, by his sister Laodamia. He was received as a boy into the household of Aeneas Silvius, who permitted him to assume the name and arms of the Piccolomini family (his brother Antonio being made Duke of Amalfi during the pontificate of Pius II). Pius II appointed him in 1460, when only 21 years of age, to the See of Siena, which he had just raised to an archbishopric, and made him a cardinal at his first consistory, on 5 March 1460. Within months he sent him as legate to the March of Ancona with the experienced Bishop of Marsico as his counsellor. He proved studious and effective.
Cardinal Piccolomini participated in the conclave that elected Pope Paul II (1464–71) in 1464, but was absent when Pope Sixtus IV (1471–84) was elected in 1471. He was employed in several important legations, as by Paul II at the Imperial diet at Regensburg/Ratisbon, and later by Sixtus IV to restore ecclesiastical authority in Umbria. He participated in the conclave of 1484 which elected Innocent VIII and in the conclave of 1492 which elected Alexander VI. The cardinal was involved in Alexander's short-lived effort to reform the Roman Curia following the murder of his son Giovanni Borgia in 1497.
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Pope Urban V
The Blessed Pope Urban V (1310 – 19 December 1370), born William de Grimoard, reigned as Pope from 1362 to 1370.
He was born in 1310 in the Castle of Grizac in the French region of Languedoc (today part of the commune of Le Pont-de-Montvert, department of Lozère), the son of William de Grimoard, Lord of Bellegarde, and of Amphélise de Montferrand.
As a young man, Grimoard became a Benedictine monk in the small Priory of Chirac, near his home, which was a dependency of the ancient Abbey of St. Victor near Marseille, and he was sent there for his novitiate. After his profession of monastic vows, he was ordained a priest in his own monastery in Chirac. Showing great academic talent, he was then sent to the great universities of Europe, earning a doctorate in Canon Law. He became acclaimed as a foremost canonist of the age, himself teaching at Montpellier, Paris and Avignon. In August 1361 he was elected as the abbot of the Abbey of St. Victor.
In September 1362, Abbot William arrived in Avignon, returning from Naples, where he had been sent by Pope Innocent IV as papal legate, only to learn that the pope had died. At that time, a conclave was already being held to elect a successor to the recently-deceased pope. In a surprise move, on the 28th of that month he himself was elected Pope. He then took the name of Urban, the fifth pope with that name to rule the Church.
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Richard Kuhn
Richard Kuhn (December 3, 1900 – August 1, 1967) was an Austrian-German biochemist and Nobel laureate.
Kuhn was born in Vienna, Austria where he attended grammar school and high school. His interest in chemistry surfaced early; however he had many interests and decided late to study chemistry. Between 1910 and 1918 he was a schoolmate of Wolfgang Pauli, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1945. Beginning in 1918 Kuhn attended lectures at the University of Vienna in chemistry. He finished his chemistry studies at University of Munich and received his doctoral degree in 1922 with Richard Willstätter for a scientific work on enzymes.
After graduating Kuhn continued his scientific career, first in Munich, then at the ETH Zurich and from 1929 onwards at the University of Heidelberg, where he was head of the chemistry department beginning in 1937. In 1928 he married Daisy Hartmann and the couple subsequently had two sons and four daughters.
Kuhn's areas of study included: investigations of theoretical problems of organic chemistry (stereochemistry of aliphatic and aromatic compounds; syntheses of polyenes and cumulenes; constitution and colour; the acidity of hydrocarbons), as well as extensive fields in biochemistry (carotenoids; flavins; vitamins and enzymes). Specifically, he carried out important work on vitamin B2 and the antidermatitis vitamin B6.
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Robert Bárány
Róbert Bárány (22 April 1876 – 8 April 1936) was a Austro-Hungarian otologist. For his work on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus of the ear he received the 1914 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
Bárány was born in Vienna, Austria-Hungary. He was the eldest of six children, to the former Maria Hock, the daughter of a scientist, and Ignáz Bárány, born 1842 in Pápa, a Hungarian Jew who was a bank official and estate manager.
He attended medical school at Vienna University, graduating in 1900. As a doctor in Vienna, Bárány was syringing fluid into the inner ear of a patient to relieve the patient's dizzy spells. The patient experienced vertigo and nystagmus (involuntary eye movement) when Bárány injected fluid that was too cold. In response, Bárány warmed the fluid for the patient and the patient experienced nystagmus in the opposite direction. Bárány theorized that the endolymph was sinking when it was cool and rising when it was warm, and thus the direction of flow of the endolymph was providing the proprioceptive signal to the vestibular organ. He followed up on this observation with a series of experiments on what he called the caloric reaction. The research resulting from his observations made surgical treatment of vestibular organ diseases possible. Bárány also investigated other aspects of equilibrium control, including the function of the cerebellum.
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Rudolf Bing
Sir Rudolf Bing (January 9, 1902 – September 2, 1997) was an Austrian-born opera impresario who worked in Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States, most notably being General Manager of the Metropolitan Opera in New York from 1950 to 1972. He became a British citizen in 1946 and was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II in 1971.
Born Rudolph Franz Joseph Bing in Vienna, Austro-Hungarian Empire to a well-to-do Jewish family (his father was an industrialist), Bing studied at the University of Vienna and as a young man worked in theatrical and concert agencies. In 1927, he went to Berlin, Germany and subsequently served as general manager of opera houses in that city and in Darmstadt.
While in Berlin he married a Russian ballerina, but in 1934, with the rise of Nazi Germany, the Bings moved to the United Kingdom where in 1946, he became a naturalised British subject. There he helped to found the Glyndebourne Festival Opera and after the war, organised the Edinburgh Festival in Scotland.
In 1949, he went to the United States, to become General Manager of the Metropolitan the following year, a post he would hold for 22 years. During the 1960s, he supervised the move of the old Metropolitan to its new quarters in Lincoln Center and his administration presided over one of the most prominent eras of the Met. It was summed up in 1990 by James Oestreich in the New York Times as follows:
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Rudolf Carnap
Rudolf Carnap (May 18, 1891 – September 14, 1970) was an influential German-born philosopher who was active in Europe before 1935 and in the United States thereafter. He was a major member of the Vienna Circle and an advocate of logical positivism.
Carnap was born to a west German family that had been humble until his parents' generation. He began his formal education at the Barmen Gymnasium. From 1910 to 1914, he attended the University of Jena, intending to write a thesis in physics. But he also studied carefully Kant's Critique of Pure Reason during a course taught by Bruno Bauch, and was one of very few students to attend Gottlob Frege's courses in mathematical logic. After serving in the German army during World War I for three years, he was given permission to study physics at the University of Berlin, 1917–18, where Albert Einstein was a newly appointed professor. Carnap then attended the University of Jena, where he wrote a thesis defining an axiomatic theory of space and time. The physics department said it was too philosophical, and Bruno Bauch of the philosophy department said it was pure physics. Carnap then wrote another thesis, with Bauch's supervision, on the theory of space in a more orthodox Kantian style, and published as Der Raum (Space) in a supplemental issue of Kant-Studien (1922). In it he makes the clear distinction between formal, physical and perceptual (e.g., visual) spaces.
wn.com/Rudolf_Carnap -
Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud (German pronunciation: [ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt]), born Sigismund Schlomo Freud (6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939), was an Austrian neurologist who founded the discipline of psychoanalysis. Freud's family and ancestry were Jewish. Freud always considered himself a Jew even though he rejected Judaism and had a critical view of religion. Freud's parents were poor, but ensured his education. Freud was an outstanding pupil in high school, and graduated the Matura with honors in 1873. Interested in philosophy as a student, Freud later turned away from it and became a neurological researcher into cerebral palsy, Aphasia and microscopic neuroanatomy.
Freud went on to develop theories about the unconscious mind and the mechanism of repression, and established the field of verbal psychotherapy by creating psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient (or "analysand") and a psychoanalyst. Though psychoanalysis has declined as a therapeutic practice, it has helped inspire the development of many other forms of psychotherapy, some diverging from Freud's original ideas and approach. Freud postulated the existence of libido (an energy with which mental process and structures are invested), developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association (in which patients report their thoughts without reservation and make no attempt to concentrate while doing so), discovered the transference (the process by which patients displace on to their analysts feelings based on their experience of earlier figures in their lives) and established its central role in the analytic process, and proposed that dreams help to preserve sleep by representing as fulfilled wishes that would otherwise awake the dreamer. He was also a prolific essayist, drawing on psychoanalysis to contribute to the interpretation and critique of culture.
wn.com/Sigmund_Freud -
Stefan Zweig
Stefan Zweig (November 28, 1881 – February 22, 1942) was an Austrian novelist, playwright, journalist and biographer. At the height of his literary career, in the 1920s and 1930s, he was one of the most famous writers in the world.
Zweig was the son of Moritz Zweig (1845–1926), a wealthy Jewish textile manufacturer, and Ida Brettauer (1854–1938), from a Jewish banking family. Joseph Brettauer did business for twenty years in Ancona, Italy, where his second daughter Ida was born and grew up, too. Zweig studied philosophy at the University of Vienna and in 1904 earned a doctoral degree with a thesis on "The Philosophy of Hippolyte Taine". Religion did not play a central role in his education. "My mother and father were Jewish only through accident of birth", Zweig said later in an interview. Yet he did not renounce his Jewish faith and wrote repeatedly on Jews and Jewish themes, as in his story "Buchmendel". Although his essays were published in the Neue Freie Presse, whose literary editor was the Zionist leader Theodor Herzl, Zweig was not attracted to Herzl's Jewish nationalism, nor did the publication review Herzl's Der Judenstaat. Zweig himself called Herzl's book an "obtuse text, [a] piece of nonsense", but this was perhaps due, as Amos Elon notes, to the level of comfortable assimilation enjoyed by Viennese Jews at the time.
wn.com/Stefan_Zweig -
Theodor Herzl
Theodor Herzl (Hebrew: תאודור הרצל, Hungarian: Herzl Tivadar; May 2, 1860 – July 3, 1904), born Benjamin Ze’ev Herzl (Hebrew: בִּנְיָמִין זְאֵב הֵרצְל, also known as חוֹזֵה הַמְדִינָה, Hozeh HaMedinah, lit. "Visionary of the State") was an Ashkenazi Jewish Austro-Hungarian journalist and the father of modern political Zionism and in effect the State of Israel.
He was born in Pest, Hungary, to an Ashkenazi Jewish family originally from Zimony (today Zemun, Serbia), which was then part of Austria-Hungary. He was second child of Jeanette and Jakob Herzl, who were German-speaking, assimilated Jews. A precocious, moody daydreamer, he aspired to follow the footsteps of Ferdinand de Lesseps, builder of the Suez Canal. He did not succeed in the sciences, and he developed a growing enthusiasm for poetry and the humanities. This passion would later develop into a successful career in journalism and a less celebrated pursuit of play-writing.
Herzl had minimal interest in religious Judaism as a child, consistent with his parents’ lax adherence to the Jewish tradition. His mother relied more on German humanist Kultur than Jewish ethics. Instead of a Bar Mitzvah, Herzl's thirteenth birthday was advertised as a "confirmation". He grew up as a "thoroughly emancipated, antitraditional, secular, would-be German boy" who dismissed all religion, and spoke of Judaism with "mocking cynicism." He exhibited a secularist disdain toward religion, which he saw as uncivilized. Even after becoming interested in the "Jewish question," Herzl's writing retained traces of Jewish self-contempt, according to Elon.
wn.com/Theodor_Herzl -
Theodor W. Adorno
Theodor W. Adorno (September 11, 1903 – August 6, 1969) was a German sociologist, philosopher and musicologist known for his critical theory of society.
He was a leading member of the Frankfurt School of critical theory, whose work has come to be associated with thinkers such as Ernst Bloch, Walter Benjamin, Max Horkheimer and Herbert Marcuse, for whom the work of Freud, Marx and Hegel were essential to a critique of modern society. He is widely regarded as one of the 20th century's foremost thinkers on aesthetics and philosophy, as well as one of its preeminent essayists. As a critic of both fascism and what he called the culture industry, his writings—such as Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947), Minima Moralia (1951) and Negative Dialectics (1966)—strongly influenced the European New Left.
wn.com/Theodor_W._Adorno -
Victor Francis Hess
Victor Francis Hess (24 June 1883 – 17 December 1964) was an Austrian-American physicist, and Nobel laureate in physics, who discovered cosmic rays.
Hess was born to Vinzens Hess and Serafine Edle von Grossbauer-Waldstätt, in Waldstein Castle, near Peggau in Styria, Austria. His father was a royal forester in Prince Louis of Oettingen-Wallerstein's service. He attended secondary school at Graz Gymnasium from 1893 to 1901.
From 1901 to 1905 Hess was an undergraduate student at the University of Graz, and continued postgraduate studies in physics until he received his PhD there in 1910. He worked as Assistant under Stefan Meyer at the Institute for Radium Research, Viennese Academy of Sciences, from 1910 to 1920. Hess took a leave of absence in 1921 and travelled to the United States, working at the US Radium Corporation, in New Jersey, and as Consulting Physicist for the US Bureau of Mines, in Washington DC. In 1923, he returned to the University of Graz, and was appointed the Ordinary Professor of Experimental Physics in 1925. The University of Innsbruck appointed him Professor, and Director Institute of Radiology, in 1931.
wn.com/Victor_Francis_Hess -
Victor Franz Hess
Victor Francis Hess (24 June 1883 – 17 December 1964) was an Austrian-American physicist, and Nobel laureate in physics, who discovered cosmic rays.
Hess was born to Vinzens Hess and Serafine Edle von Grossbauer-Waldstätt, in Waldstein Castle, near Peggau in Styria, Austria. His father was a royal forester in Prince Louis of Oettingen-Wallerstein's service. He attended secondary school at Graz Gymnasium from 1893 to 1901.
From 1901 to 1905 Hess was an undergraduate student at the University of Graz, and continued postgraduate studies in physics until he received his PhD there in 1910. He worked as Assistant under Stefan Meyer at the Institute for Radium Research, Viennese Academy of Sciences, from 1910 to 1920. Hess took a leave of absence in 1921 and travelled to the United States, working at the US Radium Corporation, in New Jersey, and as Consulting Physicist for the US Bureau of Mines, in Washington DC. In 1923, he returned to the University of Graz, and was appointed the Ordinary Professor of Experimental Physics in 1925. The University of Innsbruck appointed him Professor, and Director Institute of Radiology, in 1931.
wn.com/Victor_Franz_Hess -
Wilhelm Reich
Wilhelm Reich (March 24, 1897 – November 3, 1957) was an Austrian-American psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, known as one of the most radical figures in the history of psychiatry. He was the author of several notable books, including The Mass Psychology of Fascism and Character Analysis, both published in 1933.
Reich worked with Sigmund Freud in the 1920s and was a respected analyst for much of his life, focusing on character structure rather than on individual neurotic symptoms. He tried to reconcile Marxism and psychoanalysis, arguing that neurosis is rooted in the physical, sexual, economic, and social conditions of the patient, and promoted adolescent sexuality, the availability of contraceptives, abortion, and divorce, and the importance for women of economic independence. His work influenced a generation of intellectuals, including Saul Bellow, William S. Burroughs, Paul Edwards, Norman Mailer, and A. S. Neill, and shaped innovations such as Fritz Perls's Gestalt therapy, Alexander Lowen's bioenergetic analysis, and Arthur Janov's primal therapy.
wn.com/Wilhelm_Reich -
Wolfgang Schüssel
Wolfgang Schüssel (German pronunciation: [ˈvɔlfɡaŋ ˈʃʏsəl]; born 7 June 1945) is an Austrian People's Party politician. He was Chancellor of Austria for two consecutive terms from February 2000 to January 2007. While being recognized as a rare example of an active reformer in contemporary Austrian politics, his governments were also highly controversial from the beginning, starting with the fact that he formed a coalition government with Jörg Haider's Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ) on both occasions. In 2011, he retired from being an active member of parliament due to charges of corruption against members of his governments.
Born in Vienna, Schüssel attended that city's Schottengymnasium, a well known Roman Catholic gymnasium for boys, where he took his Matura exams in 1963. He went on to study at the University of Vienna, receiving a Doctorate in Law in 1968.
Schüssel was secretary of the parliamentary group of the Austrian People's Party from 1968 to 1975. From 1975 to 1991, he was Secretary General of the Austrian Business Federation, a sub-organization of the Austrian People's Party.
wn.com/Wolfgang_Schüssel
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University of Vienna - Imagefilm
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:45
- Updated: 04 Dec 2012
Design and production of a corporate video presenting the University of Vienna and its many locations. Commissioned by the University of Vienna
http://wn.com/University_of_Vienna_Imagefilm
Design and production of a corporate video presenting the University of Vienna and its many locations. Commissioned by the University of Vienna
The University of Vienna
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:27
- Updated: 26 Jul 2011
Courtyard slightly nicer than Drexel's Quad. The University of Vienna is the oldest university in the German-speaking world and one of the largest in Central Europe. At present, about 72000 students are enrolled at the University of Vienna, in more than 130 courses. With close to 8300 employees, 6200 of which are scientists and academics, the University of Vienna is also the largest teaching and research institution in Austria.
http://wn.com/The_University_of_Vienna
Courtyard slightly nicer than Drexel's Quad. The University of Vienna is the oldest university in the German-speaking world and one of the largest in Central Europe. At present, about 72000 students are enrolled at the University of Vienna, in more than 130 courses. With close to 8300 employees, 6200 of which are scientists and academics, the University of Vienna is also the largest teaching and research institution in Austria.
- published: 29 Apr 2008
- views: 5148
- author: jsngr
Austria - University of Vienna Student occupation - audimax
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:15
- Updated: 28 Oct 2012
Video of the student occupation in the Audimax, University of Vienna, Austria. www.unibrennt.at http
http://wn.com/Austria_University_of_Vienna_Student_occupation_audimax
Video of the student occupation in the Audimax, University of Vienna, Austria. www.unibrennt.at http
- published: 27 Oct 2009
- views: 7734
- author: Gazwsm
Vienna a walk to the Vienna University
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:38
- Updated: 29 Jul 2012
http://wn.com/Vienna_a_walk_to_the_Vienna_University
Vienna: Students demonstrate against University System (Part 1)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 20 Dec 2011
VIENNA, March 11 -- Thousands of university students demonstrated Thursday to protest a conference commemorating the 10th anniversary of The Bologna Process," a program aimed at promoting the reform of European higher education. In defense of the program, Science Minister Beatrix Karl said at the conference that the education reforms will greatly contribute to the integration of young people into the world andcreate unlimited opportunitiesfor Austrian university students. In June 1999, the European Ministers of Education from 29 countries met in the Italian city of Bologna and jointly signed the Bologna Declaration. The declaration laid out work plans with the objective of realizing integration in the fields of European higher education and technology, as well as construction of the European Higher Education Area. The goal of The Bologna Process was to establish a unified European higher education system till 2010, including a unified higher education accreditation between European countries and realization of the mutual integration of higher education. The reform program includes such measures as the unification of quality standards and education system reforms to achieve a mutual recognition of the credits and degrees among universities from different European countries. According to the reform program, the degrees of higher education of the European countries will be unified into bachelor, master and doctorate. Any university diplomas and achievements of the ...
http://wn.com/Vienna_Students_demonstrate_against_University_System_Part_1
VIENNA, March 11 -- Thousands of university students demonstrated Thursday to protest a conference commemorating the 10th anniversary of The Bologna Process," a program aimed at promoting the reform of European higher education. In defense of the program, Science Minister Beatrix Karl said at the conference that the education reforms will greatly contribute to the integration of young people into the world andcreate unlimited opportunitiesfor Austrian university students. In June 1999, the European Ministers of Education from 29 countries met in the Italian city of Bologna and jointly signed the Bologna Declaration. The declaration laid out work plans with the objective of realizing integration in the fields of European higher education and technology, as well as construction of the European Higher Education Area. The goal of The Bologna Process was to establish a unified European higher education system till 2010, including a unified higher education accreditation between European countries and realization of the mutual integration of higher education. The reform program includes such measures as the unification of quality standards and education system reforms to achieve a mutual recognition of the credits and degrees among universities from different European countries. According to the reform program, the degrees of higher education of the European countries will be unified into bachelor, master and doctorate. Any university diplomas and achievements of the ...
- published: 11 Mar 2010
- views: 4014
- author: ViennaToday
University of Vienna: Lecture on transformation (Part 1)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:02
- Updated: 25 May 2012
This was a great opportunity and wonderful learning experience to share in a lecture with Prof. Werner Zips from the Faculty Anthropology and Social Development at the University of Vienna. My wife and I spoke on challenges for transformation in the South African Wine Industry with a special focus on: Dealing with Legacies; Empowerment; the wine commodity and the role of black women in the industry.
http://wn.com/University_of_Vienna_Lecture_on_transformation_Part_1
This was a great opportunity and wonderful learning experience to share in a lecture with Prof. Werner Zips from the Faculty Anthropology and Social Development at the University of Vienna. My wife and I spoke on challenges for transformation in the South African Wine Industry with a special focus on: Dealing with Legacies; Empowerment; the wine commodity and the role of black women in the industry.
- published: 25 Jul 2010
- views: 513
- author: twinsonboard
Upcoming Shows for "Us" - Vienna, Seattle, Merced, San Diego, Florida!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:47
- Updated: 14 Dec 2012
HaveYouHeardOfUs.com If you'd like to book "Us" for your next event, e-mail Us@HaveYouHeardOfUs.com :) October 27th - Vienna, Austria - Prater Gallery *Music For Hope 3 - www.facebook.com w/ Traphik, Michael Carreon, and Nessa Rica. **Meet and greet - Sunday at the Black Lounge at 4pm. November 9th - Seattle University - Pigott Auditorium *Meet N' Greet at 6pm. Show starts at 8pm. FASA Jam is Friday, November 9 !! @ Seattle University. VIP Meet & Greet tickets are $25; and if you're in Seattle, email socialcommyfuzz@gmail.com and they'll get you $15 general tickets. Facebook Event -- FASA Jam 2012: Harmonize in Unity Novermber 10th - UCSD - Magkasama - w/ Jeremy Passion and Andrew Garcia *PC Ballroom West - 6-10pm - $10 online. December 1st - UC Merced - BarrioFest *More info to come January 20th - University of North Florida - Student Union - GK Concert 2013 * doors open at 6pm, w/ Wassabi Productions
http://wn.com/Upcoming_Shows_for_Us_Vienna,_Seattle,_Merced,_San_Diego,_Florida!
HaveYouHeardOfUs.com If you'd like to book "Us" for your next event, e-mail Us@HaveYouHeardOfUs.com :) October 27th - Vienna, Austria - Prater Gallery *Music For Hope 3 - www.facebook.com w/ Traphik, Michael Carreon, and Nessa Rica. **Meet and greet - Sunday at the Black Lounge at 4pm. November 9th - Seattle University - Pigott Auditorium *Meet N' Greet at 6pm. Show starts at 8pm. FASA Jam is Friday, November 9 !! @ Seattle University. VIP Meet & Greet tickets are $25; and if you're in Seattle, email socialcommyfuzz@gmail.com and they'll get you $15 general tickets. Facebook Event -- FASA Jam 2012: Harmonize in Unity Novermber 10th - UCSD - Magkasama - w/ Jeremy Passion and Andrew Garcia *PC Ballroom West - 6-10pm - $10 online. December 1st - UC Merced - BarrioFest *More info to come January 20th - University of North Florida - Student Union - GK Concert 2013 * doors open at 6pm, w/ Wassabi Productions
- published: 25 Oct 2012
- views: 17363
- author: MichaelAlvaradoMusic
Khatami (Iran) answers at Vienna University (1)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:35
- Updated: 05 Jun 2012
Mohammed Khatami (ex-president of Iran) answers questions concerning human rights at the University of Vienna (Austria) asked by Univ.-Prof. Dr. Gerhard Luf (Uni Wien)
http://wn.com/Khatami_Iran_answers_at_Vienna_University_1
Mohammed Khatami (ex-president of Iran) answers questions concerning human rights at the University of Vienna (Austria) asked by Univ.-Prof. Dr. Gerhard Luf (Uni Wien)
- published: 27 Oct 2008
- views: 4525
- author: SCMUnit
International Summer University WU Vienna JULY 2011
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:03
- Updated: 08 Aug 2011
http://wn.com/International_Summer_University_WU_Vienna_JULY_2011
Sigmund Freud Private University Vienna - Felix de Mendelssohn talk about studying psychotherapy
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:26
- Updated: 05 Sep 2012
Sigmund Freud University offers complete academic programmes in Psychotherapy Science, as well as Psychotherapy Training at the introductory and advanced levels....Information at www.sfu.ac.at
http://wn.com/Sigmund_Freud_Private_University_Vienna_Felix_de_Mendelssohn_talk_about_studying_psychotherapy
Sigmund Freud University offers complete academic programmes in Psychotherapy Science, as well as Psychotherapy Training at the introductory and advanced levels....Information at www.sfu.ac.at
- published: 14 Apr 2009
- views: 3447
- author: sfuadmin
At The Botanical Garden of the University of Vienna
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:40
- Updated: 22 Jul 2012
#140 was filmed at the Botanical Garden of the University of Vienna. It was written and performed in segments, as we came upon interesting spots. It's a truly remarkable place, a veritable Noah's Ark of all manner of plant life. Very beautiful and serene. I highly recommend it to any visitor of Vienna!
http://wn.com/At_The_Botanical_Garden_of_the_University_of_Vienna
#140 was filmed at the Botanical Garden of the University of Vienna. It was written and performed in segments, as we came upon interesting spots. It's a truly remarkable place, a veritable Noah's Ark of all manner of plant life. Very beautiful and serene. I highly recommend it to any visitor of Vienna!
- published: 19 May 2009
- views: 743
- author: Jonathan Mann
History of Psychoanalysis - Sigmund Freud University Vienna
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 24:37
- Updated: 09 Nov 2011
Film clip of the lecture "History of Psychoanalysis" Jeanne Wolff Bernstein, PhD. Sigmund Freud University Vienna
http://wn.com/History_of_Psychoanalysis_Sigmund_Freud_University_Vienna
Film clip of the lecture "History of Psychoanalysis" Jeanne Wolff Bernstein, PhD. Sigmund Freud University Vienna
- published: 09 Nov 2011
- views: 1695
- author: sfuadmin
Vienna Beef's Hot Dog University | Chicago Business Today
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:44
- Updated: 14 Nov 2012
Vienna Beef's Hot Dog University teaches aspiring hot-dog cart owners lessons in how to dress the perfect dog. The workshops are quickly becoming the company's growth strategy as new students spread the Vienna brand outside Chicago.
http://wn.com/Vienna_Beef's_Hot_Dog_University_|_Chicago_Business_Today
Vienna Beef's Hot Dog University teaches aspiring hot-dog cart owners lessons in how to dress the perfect dog. The workshops are quickly becoming the company's growth strategy as new students spread the Vienna brand outside Chicago.
- published: 23 Feb 2010
- views: 5542
- author: chicagobusiness
International Programme at the Sigmund Freud University Vienna
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:30
- Updated: 15 Jul 2011
Dr. Elisabeth Vykoukal, Head of International Programme and Ms. Emma McNally, Assistant Coordinator of International Programme and Dr. Martin Jandl, Assistant to the Dean of foreign-language and international programme are talking about what makes the international programme at the SFU so unique. More information at www.sfu.ac.at/english
http://wn.com/International_Programme_at_the_Sigmund_Freud_University_Vienna
Dr. Elisabeth Vykoukal, Head of International Programme and Ms. Emma McNally, Assistant Coordinator of International Programme and Dr. Martin Jandl, Assistant to the Dean of foreign-language and international programme are talking about what makes the international programme at the SFU so unique. More information at www.sfu.ac.at/english
- published: 13 Jul 2011
- views: 1058
- author: sfuadmin
Auburn University Study Abroad: Vienna 2010
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:38
- Updated: 14 Nov 2012
Auburn University Study Abroad: Vienna 2010
http://wn.com/Auburn_University_Study_Abroad_Vienna_2010
Auburn University Study Abroad: Vienna 2010
- published: 05 Nov 2010
- views: 1786
- author: AuburnUniversity
Prof Anton Zeilinger speaks on quantum physics. at UCT
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 50:45
- Updated: 04 Dec 2012
World-renowned physicist Professor Anton Zeilinger entertained and informed a UCT audience about quantum physics during his Vice-Chancellor's Open Lecture at the University of Cape Town on 25 October. Zeilinger is professor of physics at the University of Vienna, Austria, and director of the Vienna branch of the Institute for Quantum Optics and Quantum Information at the Austrian Academy of Sciences. Download the podcast of his lecture: www.uct.ac.za
http://wn.com/Prof_Anton_Zeilinger_speaks_on_quantum_physics_at_UCT
World-renowned physicist Professor Anton Zeilinger entertained and informed a UCT audience about quantum physics during his Vice-Chancellor's Open Lecture at the University of Cape Town on 25 October. Zeilinger is professor of physics at the University of Vienna, Austria, and director of the Vienna branch of the Institute for Quantum Optics and Quantum Information at the Austrian Academy of Sciences. Download the podcast of his lecture: www.uct.ac.za
- published: 02 Nov 2011
- views: 11259
- author: UCTSouthAfrica
A Night in Vienna: Favorite Opera Choruses, presented by the NWOSU University Singers & Chorale
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 46:58
- Updated: 24 Oct 2012
Members of the University Singers and University Chorale at Northwestern Oklahoma State University perfomed April 25 at the First Presbyterian Church in Alva, Okla. The ensembles are directed by Dr. Stephen Kingsbury with Ling-Yu Kan as accompanist.
http://wn.com/A_Night_in_Vienna_Favorite_Opera_Choruses,_presented_by_the_NWOSU_University_Singers_Chorale
Members of the University Singers and University Chorale at Northwestern Oklahoma State University perfomed April 25 at the First Presbyterian Church in Alva, Okla. The ensembles are directed by Dr. Stephen Kingsbury with Ling-Yu Kan as accompanist.
- published: 28 Apr 2010
- views: 2984
- author: nwOKst
Morning, Noon and Night in Vienna -Suppe -Stony Brook University Wind Ensemble
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:26
- Updated: 21 Nov 2012
Morning, Noon and Night in Vienna by Franz Von Suppe (1819-1895) Dalmatia-born Von Suppe was a prolific composer best known for his operettas and light concert works. Morning, Noon and Night in Vienna is an overture written for a genre of music called Viennese Operetta, humorous plays with songs interspersed. The overture didnt necessarily relate to the opera; rather, its purpose was to get the attention of the audience and to quiet the house. Von Suppe is best known for his Light Cavalry Overture and the operetta Boccaccio, and is generally regarded as one of the founders of the Viennese operetta school
http://wn.com/Morning,_Noon_and_Night_in_Vienna_-Suppe_-Stony_Brook_University_Wind_Ensemble
Morning, Noon and Night in Vienna by Franz Von Suppe (1819-1895) Dalmatia-born Von Suppe was a prolific composer best known for his operettas and light concert works. Morning, Noon and Night in Vienna is an overture written for a genre of music called Viennese Operetta, humorous plays with songs interspersed. The overture didnt necessarily relate to the opera; rather, its purpose was to get the attention of the audience and to quiet the house. Von Suppe is best known for his Light Cavalry Overture and the operetta Boccaccio, and is generally regarded as one of the founders of the Viennese operetta school
- published: 22 Nov 2009
- views: 5513
- author: Jorge Puente
The Hills of Vienna - Part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:45
- Updated: 21 Aug 2010
The Hills of Vienna - Myriam Masa - a production from the arts and entertainment studio of the webcast production class of Webster University in Vienna - WUVWeb - Special Webcast/Podcast produced for Webster University Vienna - WUVW - www.webster.ac.at - Webster University Vienna Webcast - Video Short - websteruniversityviennawebcast - WUVW - © Webster University Vienna 2009
http://wn.com/The_Hills_of_Vienna_Part_1
The Hills of Vienna - Myriam Masa - a production from the arts and entertainment studio of the webcast production class of Webster University in Vienna - WUVWeb - Special Webcast/Podcast produced for Webster University Vienna - WUVW - www.webster.ac.at - Webster University Vienna Webcast - Video Short - websteruniversityviennawebcast - WUVW - © Webster University Vienna 2009
- published: 10 Sep 2009
- views: 436
- author: wuvweb
70 Seconds TU Wien
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:10
- Updated: 27 Nov 2012
Our mission is „technology for people. Through our research we „develop scientific excellence, through our teaching we „enhance comprehensive competence.
http://wn.com/70_Seconds_TU_Wien
Our mission is „technology for people. Through our research we „develop scientific excellence, through our teaching we „enhance comprehensive competence.
- published: 23 Mar 2010
- views: 8805
- author: TU Wien
Vienna Study Abroad
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 15:27
- Updated: 16 Jan 2011
Auburn University offers an intensive five-week academic language and culture program in Vienna, Austria, for undergraduate students of German. No previous knowledge of German is required. The program offers classes at the beginning, intermediate, and advanced level as well as additional courses in Cultural and Art History (taught in English). media.cla.auburn.edu
http://wn.com/Vienna_Study_Abroad
Auburn University offers an intensive five-week academic language and culture program in Vienna, Austria, for undergraduate students of German. No previous knowledge of German is required. The program offers classes at the beginning, intermediate, and advanced level as well as additional courses in Cultural and Art History (taught in English). media.cla.auburn.edu
- published: 11 Feb 2008
- views: 1624
- author: AuburnUniversity
Webster Vienna / Media Student Testimonial
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:00
- Updated: 02 Nov 2012
Webster University Vienna Media Student Testimonial 2010 Media Studies at Webster University Vienna The media program at Webster University Vienna offers an intensive study of a variety of skills needed in the field of communications. It leads to a BA recognized in Europe, the United States and most other countries worldwide. The program prepares students for careers in print and audio-visual journalism, as producers, editors and experts dealing with legal, ethical and cultural issues of media. It also provides ample opportunities for further specialization. Students and faculty have an international background. The location of the university in Vienna, the third UN city and a growing hub of international organizations and institutions, further enhances the learning experience. The media program offers state-of-the-art equipment, audio-visual and print editing and producing technologies. Students learn from practitioners, in small classes, with intensive feedback and many possibilities to produce for the real world. Webster University Vienna was the first learning institution in the city -- and at this point is still the only one -- to offer digital media-design and production and the publication of a professional paper, the monthly Vienna Review. Students participate in internships and get real-life experience in the field of communication. They showcase their accomplishments in a professionally styled portfolio review before graduating. The work is stimulating and leads ...
http://wn.com/Webster_Vienna_Media_Student_Testimonial
Webster University Vienna Media Student Testimonial 2010 Media Studies at Webster University Vienna The media program at Webster University Vienna offers an intensive study of a variety of skills needed in the field of communications. It leads to a BA recognized in Europe, the United States and most other countries worldwide. The program prepares students for careers in print and audio-visual journalism, as producers, editors and experts dealing with legal, ethical and cultural issues of media. It also provides ample opportunities for further specialization. Students and faculty have an international background. The location of the university in Vienna, the third UN city and a growing hub of international organizations and institutions, further enhances the learning experience. The media program offers state-of-the-art equipment, audio-visual and print editing and producing technologies. Students learn from practitioners, in small classes, with intensive feedback and many possibilities to produce for the real world. Webster University Vienna was the first learning institution in the city -- and at this point is still the only one -- to offer digital media-design and production and the publication of a professional paper, the monthly Vienna Review. Students participate in internships and get real-life experience in the field of communication. They showcase their accomplishments in a professionally styled portfolio review before graduating. The work is stimulating and leads ...
- published: 12 Oct 2010
- views: 1113
- author: wuvweb
Autumn in Vienna
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:51
- Updated: 26 Nov 2009
Autumn in Vienna - by Tamara Nosenko - aproduction from the arts and entertainment studio of the webcast production class of Webster University in Vienna - WUVWeb - Special Webcast/Podcast produced for Webster University Vienna - WUVW - www.webster.ac.at - Webster University Vienna Webcast - Video Short - websteruniversityviennawebcast - WUVW - © Webster University Vienna 2009
http://wn.com/Autumn_in_Vienna
Autumn in Vienna - by Tamara Nosenko - aproduction from the arts and entertainment studio of the webcast production class of Webster University in Vienna - WUVWeb - Special Webcast/Podcast produced for Webster University Vienna - WUVW - www.webster.ac.at - Webster University Vienna Webcast - Video Short - websteruniversityviennawebcast - WUVW - © Webster University Vienna 2009
- published: 22 Nov 2009
- views: 127
- author: wuvweb
photo: AP / Nick Ut
14 Dec 2012
On November 23, the busiest shopping day of the year in the United States, while most television hosts were asking so-called "shopping experts" how to beat the crowds to get the best deals, Sellers and eight others were being arrested outside of the Paramount store for sitting in the middle of the street and refusing to move ... Over the past six months, I've interviewed a number of workers who've expressed similar sentiments....(size: 23.6Kb)
photo: AP / Jessica Hill
14 Dec 2012
The massacre involved two gunmen at a Connecticut school this morning, prompting the town of Newtown to lock down all of its schools and draw SWAT teams to the school, authorities said today ... Today's shooting occurred at the Sandy Hook Elementary School in Newtown, about 12 miles east of Danbury ... and immediately began sending emergency units from the western part of the state....(size: 4.5Kb)
photo: AP / Newtown Bee, Shannon Hicks
15 Dec 2012
Twenty schoolchildren were slaughtered by a heavily armed gunman who opened fire at a suburban elementary school in Connecticut on Friday, ultimately killing at least 27 people including himself in the one of the worst mass shootings in US history ... Hundreds of Newtown residents gathered to mourn on Friday night at St ... In 2007, 32 people were killed at Virginia Tech university in the deadliest act of criminal gun violence in US history....(size: 7.5Kb)
photo: AP / Manu Brabo
14 Dec 2012
One of Syria's key allies has admitted for the first time the Assad regime is losing the 20-month ground war ... There is a trend for the government to progressively lose control over an increasing part of the territory.""The opposition victory cannot be excluded." ... They follow an attack on Wednesday at the Syrian Ministry of Interior that killed at least 5 people ... The mystery of Taimu Mountain´s stone eggs....(size: 6.6Kb)
photo: AP / Manu Brabo
13 Dec 2012
MOSCOW, December 13 (RIA Novosti) – Syrian rebels behind the kidnapping of Ukrainian journalist Ankhar Kochneva have released a video threatening more attacks on Russians and Ukrainians, as a deadline for her execution approaches on Thursday. Kochneva, a 40-year-old Ukrainian citizen, was abducted in October by Syrian rebels as she traveled to the city of Homs, and has been held there by them since, they claim....(size: 2.1Kb)
PR Newswire
04 Nov 2011
Sequana Medical, the Medical University of and Vienna General Hospital (AKH Wien) reported that the first two commercial implants worldwide of the ALFApump System were performed at Vienna General Hospital in October, under the supervision of Univ ... "We are delighted to be partnering with Professor Peck-Radosavljevic, the Medical University of and the ......(size: 4.8Kb)
| University of Vienna | |
|---|---|
| Universität Wien | |
| File:Uni-Vienna-seal.png | |
| Latin: Universitas Vindobonensis, also called Alma Mater Rudolphina | |
| Established | March 12, 1365 |
| Type | Public |
| Rector | Heinz Engl |
| Students | 88,000[1] |
| Location | Vienna, Austria 48°12′47″N 16°21′35″E / 48.21306°N 16.35972°E / 48.21306; 16.35972Coordinates: 48°12′47″N 16°21′35″E / 48.21306°N 16.35972°E / 48.21306; 16.35972 |
| Website | www.univie.ac.at/en |
The University of Vienna (German: Universität Wien) is a public university located in Vienna, Austria. It was founded by Duke Rudolph IV in 1365 and is the oldest university in the German-speaking world after Charles University in Prague which was founded in 1348.[2] It is the largest university in Austria and one of the largest in Europe.
Contents |
History[link]
The University was founded on March 12, 1365 by Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria, and his two brothers, Dukes Albert III and Leopold III, hence the additional name “Alma Mater Rudolphina”. After the Charles University in Prague and Jagiellonian University in Krakow, the University of Vienna is the third oldest university in Central Europe and the oldest university in the German-speaking world.
In 1365, Rudolf IV sanctioned a deed of foundation for a doctoral-level university in Vienna, modelled on the University of Paris. However, Pope Urban V did not ratify the deed, specifically in relation to the department of theology, presumably due to pressure exerted by Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor, who wished to avoid competition for the Charles University in Prague. Approval was finally received from the Pope in 1384 and the University of Vienna was granted the status of a full university, including the Faculty of Catholic Theology. The first university building opened in 1385.
The current main building on the Ringstraße was built between 1877 and 1884 by Heinrich von Ferstel. The previous main building was located close to the Stuben Gate (Stubentor) on Iganz Seipel Square, current home of the old University Church (Universitätskirche) and the Austrian Academy of Sciences (Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften). Women were admitted as full students from 1897, although their studies were limited to Philosophy. The remaining departments gradually followed suit, although with considerable delay: Medicine in 1900, Law in 1919, Protestant Theology in 1923 and finally Roman Catholic Theology in 1946. Ten years after the admission of the first female students, Elise Richter became the first woman to receive habilitation, becoming professor of Romance Languages in 1907; she was also the first female distinguished professor.
Following the Anschluss, the annexation of Austria into Greater Germany by the Nazi regime, in 1938 the University of Vienna was reformed under political aspects and a huge number of teachers and students were dismissed for political and "racial" reasons.[3]
Location[link]
The University of Vienna does not have one joint campus. The academic facilities occupy more than sixty locations throughout the city of Vienna. The historical main building on the Ringstraße constitutes the university's centre and is commonly referred to as "die Uni". The most other larger university facilities and lecture halls are located nearby in the area of Vienna's first and ninth district: the so-called new lecture hall complex (NIG), the lecture hall complex Althanstraße (UZA), the so-called Campus on the premises of the historical general hospital of Vienna, the faculty of law (Juridicum) and many more.
Mentionable are also the Vienna Observatory, which belongs to the university, and the Institute for University Sports (USI), which offers training and recreational possibilities to all students of the university.
In addition, the University of Vienna maintains facilities outside of Vienna in the Austrian provinces of Lower Austria, Upper Austria and Salzburg (state). These are mainly research and experimental departments for Biology, Astrophysics and Sports.
Organization[link]
The University of Vienna, like all universities and academies in Austria, once featured a system of democratic representation. Power in the university was divided equally among three groups: students (the largest group), junior faculty and full professors. All groups had the right to send representatives to boards, who then voted on almost every issue.
The former government, headed by then-chancellor Wolfgang Schüssel, reformed the university system so that power is now concentrated with the full professors. The reform also introduced a board of governors and tuition fees (about €367 per semester in 2007-these now only apply to non-EU students,students from within the EU only pay the ÖHfee). The reforms also separated the medical departments into separate medical schools, such as the Medical University of Vienna.
Research and teaching[link]
The research and teaching activity of the university is undertaken by some 6,500 scholars. Of these, approximately 980 are active in projects financed by third parties.
Faculties and Centres[link]
The University of Vienna consists of 15 faculties and three centres:
- Faculty of Roman Catholic Theology
- Faculty of Protestant Theology
- Faculty of Law
- Faculty of Business, Economics and Statistics (not to be confused with the Vienna University of Economics and Business)
- Faculty of Computer Science
- Faculty of Historical and Cultural Studies
- Faculty of Philological and Cultural Sciences
- Faculty of Philosophy and Education
- Faculty of Psychology
- Faculty of Social Sciences
- Faculty of Mathematics
- Faculty of Physics
- Faculty of Chemistry
- Faculty of Earth Sciences, Geography and Astronomy
- Faculty of Life Sciences
- Centre for Translation Science
- Centre for Sport Science and University Sports
- Centre for Molecular Biology.
Famous members[link]
Faculty and scholars[link]
Nobel Prize Laureates who taught at the University of Vienna include Robert Bárány, Julius Wagner-Jauregg, Hans Fischer, Karl Landsteiner, Erwin Schrödinger, Victor Franz Hess, Otto Loewi, Konrad Lorenz and Friedrich Hayek.
The University of Vienna was the cradle of the Austrian School of economics. The founders of this école who studied and later instructed at the University of Vienna included Carl Menger, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, Friedrich von Wieser, Joseph Schumpeter, Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek.
Other famous scholars who have taught at the University of Vienna are: Theodor W. Adorno, Manfred Bietak, Theodor Billroth, Ludwig Boltzmann, Franz Brentano, Anton Bruckner, Rudolf Carnap, Conrad Celtes, Viktor Frankl, Sigmund Freud, Eduard Hanslick, Edmund Hauler, Hans Kelsen, Adam František Kollár, Johann Josef Loschmidt, Fran Miklošič, Oskar Morgenstern, Otto Neurath, Johann Palisa, Pope Pius II, Baron Carl von Rokitansky, August Schleicher, Moritz Schlick, Ludwig Karl Schmarda, Joseph von Sonnenfels, Josef Stefan, Leopold Vietoris, Jalile Jalil, Carl Auer von Welsbach, and Olga Taussky-Todd.
Alumni[link]
Some of the University's better-known students include: Christian Doppler, Kurt Adler, Franz Alt, Bruno Bettelheim, Rudolf Bing, Lucian Blaga, Josef Breuer, F. F. Bruce, Elias Canetti, Ivan Cankar, Otto Maria Carpeaux, Felix Ehrenhaft, Mihai Eminescu, Paul Feyerabend, Heinz Fischer, O. W. Fischer, Ivan Franko, Sigmund Freud, Alcide De Gasperi, Ernst Gombrich, Kurt Gödel, Erich Göstl, Franz Grillparzer, Jörg Haider, Edmund Husserl, Hugo von Hofmannsthal, Marie Jahoda, Elfriede Jelinek, Percy Lavon Julian, Karl Kautsky, Elisabeth Kehrer, Hans Kelsen, Rudolf Kirchschläger, Arthur Koestler, Jernej Kopitar, Karl Kordesch, Karl Kraus, Bruno Kreisky, Richard Kuhn, Paul Lazarsfeld, Gustav Mahler, Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, Lise Meitner, Gregor Mendel, Franz Mesmer, Franc Miklošič, Alois Mock, Matija Murko, Pope Pius III, Maxim Podoprigora, Hans Popper, Karl Popper, Otto Preminger, Wilhelm Reich, Peter Safar, Mordkhe Schaechter, Arthur Schnitzler, Albin Schram, Wolfgang Schüssel, Joseph Schumpeter, Theodor Herzl, John J. Shea, Jr., Adalbert Stifter, Yemima Tchernovitz-Avidar, Kurt Waldheim, Otto Weininger, Stefan Zweig, and Huldrych Zwingli.
Nobel Prize Laureates[link]
There are total 15 Nobel Prize Laureates affiliated to the University as follows:
| Name | Field In | Year |
|---|---|---|
| Robert Bárány | Physiology or Medicine | 1914 |
| Richard Adolf Zsigmondy | Chemistry | 1925 |
| Julius Wagner-Jauregg | Physiology or Medicine | 1927 |
| Hans Fischer | Chemistry | 1930 |
| Karl Landsteiner | Physiology or Medicine | 1930 |
| Erwin Schrödinger | Physics | 1933 |
| Otto Loewi | Physiology or Medicine | 1936 |
| Victor Francis Hess | Physics | 1936 |
| Richard Kuhn | Chemistry | 1938 |
| Max Perutz | Chemistry | 1962 |
| Karl von Frisch | Physiology or Medicine | 1973 |
| Konrad Lorenz | Physiology or Medicine | 1973 |
| Friedrich Hayek | Economics | 1974 |
| Elias Canetti | Literature | 1981 |
| Elfriede Jelinek | Literature | 2004 |
The University Library[link]
Largest research library in Austria[link]
The University Library of the University of Vienna comprises the Main Library and the 50 departmental libraries at the various university locations throughout Vienna. The library's primary responsibility is to the members of the university; however, the library's 350 staff members also provide access to the public. Use of the books in the reading halls is open to all persons without the need for identification, which is only required for checking out books. The library's website provides direct access to information such as electronic journals, online indices and databases.
Library statistics (2007)[link]
- Book inventory: 6,657,447 (of which 2,604,823 belong to the Main Library)
- Journals: 11,545 (of which 3,027 belong to the Main Library)
- Active borrowers: 82,554
- Search queries on OPAC: 13,381,986
- Borrowings and renewals of books: 5,826,402
- Oldest book: Pliny the Elder (1469). Historia naturalis.
Library history[link]
Rudolph IV, in the Foundation Deed of 12 March 1365, had already provided for a publica libraria, where the valuable books bequeathed by deceased members of the University should be collected. Through many legacies, this collection was subsequently greatly increased and became the basis of the old Libreye that was accommodated in the same building as the student infirmary. In addition, there were libraries in the separate Faculties and in the Duke's College.
From the 17th Century, interest in the old library, with its manuscripts and incunabulae, went into decline and the modern library in the Jesuit College came to the fore. In 1756, the oldest university library was finally closed down and its books, 2787 volumes, were incorporated into the Court Library, of which Gerard van Swieten was then director. After the dissolution of the Jesuit order (1773), the new "Academic Library" was created out of the book collections of the five Lower Austrian Colleges and a large number of duplicates from the Court Library. This was opened on 13 May 1777, the birthday of Maria Theresa of Austria, in the building of the Academic College. Initially, the stock consisted of some 45,000 books and during Emperor Joseph II's dissolution of the monasteries, this was soon considerably extended. In contrast to its antecedents, the new library was open to the general public. Between 1827 and 1829, it acquired the classicist extension (Postgasse 9) to the Academic College, in which it was to be accommodated until 1884. In this year, the main library, with some 300,000 books, moved to Heinrich von Ferstel's new Main Building on the Ring, where stacks for some 500,000 volumes had already been prepared. With an annual growth of up to 30,000 volumes, the surplus space was soon filled. Book storage space had to be extended continuously. One hundred years later, the complete library, including departmental and subject libraries, comprised more than 4.3 million volumes. Today, Vienna's University Library is the largest collection of books in Austria, with the greatest problems of space. In addition to the Main Library, which alone has to cope with an annual growth of 40,000 volumes, it includes today, three Faculty Libraries, 32 Subject Libraries and 26 Departmental Libraries.[4]
International acclaim[link]
In 2011 QS World University Rankings[5] ranked the University of Vienna 155th overall in the world. In the 2009 THE–QS World University Rankings list (in 2010 Times Higher Education World University Rankings and QS World University Rankings parted ways to produce separate rankings), the university was ranked inside the top 200 for the sixth year running. During last decade University of Vienna has been losing its position in international rankings:
| Year | Rank (Change) |
|---|---|
| 2004 | 94 |
| 2005 | 65 |
| 2006 | 87 ( 22) |
| 2007 | 85 ( 2) |
| 2008 | 115 ( 30) |
| 2009 | 132 ( 17) |
| 2010 | 143 ( 11) |
| 2011 | 155 ( 8) |
| Year | Position | |
|---|---|---|
| QS World University Rankings[6] | 2011 | 155 |
| Times Higher Education World University Rankings[7] | 2010 | 195 |
| Academic Ranking of World Universities[8] | 2010 | 151–200 |
Gallery[link]
-
A hallway at the University of Vienna
-
Bust of Heinrich Ferstel, the constructor of the main building
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Bust of Erwin Schrödinger in the courtyard arcade
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Bust of Ludwig Boltzmann in the courtyard arcade
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Campus of the University of Vienna
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Main Ceremonial Chamber (Festsaal) in the Main Building]
See also[link]
- Education in Austria
- Klimt University of Vienna Ceiling Paintings
- Institute Vienna Circle
- ERC Grants Austria
- List of medieval universities
Notes and references[link]
- ^ "About the University of Vienna". University of Vienna. http://www.univie.ac.at/university/about-the-university-of-vienna/?L=2. Retrieved 2011-06-26.
- ^ Joachim W. Stieber: "Pope Eugenius IV, the Council of Basel and the secular and ecclesiastical authorities in the Empire: the conflict over supreme authority and power in the church", Studies in the history of Christian thought, Vol. 13, Brill, 1978, ISBN 90-04-05240-2, p.82; Gustav Stolper: "German Realities", Read Books, 2007, ISBN 1-4067-0839-9, p. 228; George Henry Danton: "Germany ten years after", Ayer Publishing, 1928, ISBN 0-8369-5693-1, p. 210; Vejas Gabriel Liulevicius: "The German Myth of the East: 1800 to the Present", Oxford Studies in Modern European History Series, Oxford University Press, 2009, ISBN 0-19-954631-2, p. 109; Levi Seeley: "History of Education", BiblioBazaar, ISBN 1-103-39196-8, p. 141
- ^ http://gedenkbuch.univie.ac.at/index.php?L=2 Memorial Book for the Victims of National Socialism at the University of Vienna in 1938
- ^ "An Historical Tour of the University of Vienna". The University Library. University of Vienna Archives. http://www.univie.ac.at/archiv/tour/12.htm. Retrieved 2008-09-29.
- ^ "QS World University Rankings 2011 Results". http://www.topuniversities.com/institution/university-vienna.
- ^ Topuniversities.com
- ^ http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/world-university-rankings/2010-2011/top-200.html
- ^ http://www.shanghairanking.com/Institution.jsp?param=University%20of%20Vienna
External links[link]
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: University of Vienna |
- University of Vienna (English version)
- Information for Students at the University of Vienna (English version)
http://wn.com/University_of_Vienna
Related pages:
http://it.wn.com/Università di Vienna
http://cs.wn.com/Vídeňská univerzita
http://id.wn.com/Universitas Wina
http://es.wn.com/Universidad de Viena
http://ru.wn.com/Венский университет
http://nl.wn.com/Universiteit van Wenen
http://pt.wn.com/Universidade de Viena
http://pl.wn.com/Uniwersytet Wiedeński
http://fr.wn.com/Université de Vienne
http://de.wn.com/Universität Wien
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Vienna
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
"Wien" redirects here. For other uses, see Wien (disambiguation).
This article is about the capital of Austria. For other uses, see Vienna (disambiguation).
| Vienna Wien |
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 Vienna
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| Coordinates: 48°12′32″N 16°22′21″E / 48.20889°N 16.3725°E / 48.20889; 16.3725 | |||||
| Country | Austria  |
||||
| State | Wien | ||||
| Government | |||||
| • Mayor | Michael Häupl (SPÖ) | ||||
| • Vice-Mayor | Maria Vassilakou (Grüne) | ||||
| Area | |||||
| • City | 414.65 km2 (160.10 sq mi) | ||||
| • Land | 395.26 km2 (152.61 sq mi) | ||||
| • Water | 19.39 km2 (7.49 sq mi) | ||||
| Elevation | 151 (Lobau) – 542 (Hermannskogel) m (495–1,778 ft) | ||||
| Population (2011) | |||||
| • City | 1,714,142 |
||||
| • Density | 4,002.2/km2 (10,366/sq mi) | ||||
| • Urban | 1,983,836 | ||||
| • Metro | ca. 2,419,000 | ||||
| Statistik Austria,[1] VCÖ – Mobilität mit Zukunft[2] | |||||
| Time zone | CET (UTC+1) | ||||
| • Summer (DST) | CEST (UTC+2) | ||||
| Website | www.wien.gv.at | ||||
| Historic Centre of Vienna * | |
|---|---|
| Country | Austria |
| Type | Cultural |
| Criteria | ii, iv, vi |
| Reference | 1033 |
| Region ** | Europe and North America |
| Inscription history | |
| Inscription | 2001 (25th Session) |
| * Name as inscribed on World Heritage List ** Region as classified by UNESCO |
|
Vienna ( /viːˈɛnə/; German: Wien (help·info) [viːn]) is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.723 million[3] (2.4 million within the metropolitan area,[2] more than 25% of Austria's population), and is by far the largest city in Austria, as well as its cultural, economic, and political centre. It is the 9th-largest city by population in the European Union. Until the beginning of the 20th century it was the largest German speaking city in the world, and before the first world war and the splitting of the Austro-Hungarian empire the city had 2 million inhabitants. Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city lies in the east of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region. Along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[4]
Apart from being regarded as the City of Music[5] because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be "The City of Dreams" because it was home to the world's first psycho-analyst Sigmund Freud,[6] a neurologist who is well known for being one of the greatest interpreters of dreams. The City's roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city, the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It is well known for playing an essential role as a leading European Music Centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The Historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, as well as the late-19th-century Ringstrasse lined with grand buildings, monuments and parks.[7]
In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first (in a tie with Vancouver, Canada) for quality of life (in the 2011 survey of 140 cities Vienna was ranked number two, behind Melbourne).[8][9][10] For three consecutive years (2009–2011), the human-resource-consulting firm Mercer ranked Vienna first in its annual "Quality of Living" survey of hundreds of cities around the world.[11][12][13] Monocle's 2011 "Quality of Life survey" ranked Vienna sixth on a list of "the top 25 cities in the world to call home" (up from eighth in 2010).[14][15][16]
Analytically, the city was ranked 1st globally for a culture of innovation in 2007 and 2008, and 2nd globally after Boston in 2009 from 256 cities on an analysis of 162 indicators in the Innovation Cities Index on a 3-factor score covering culture, infrastructure and markets.[17] As a city, Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is often used as a case study by urban planners.[18]
Each year since 2005, Vienna has been the world's number one destination for international congresses and conventions.[19] Vienna attracts about five million tourists a year.[20]
Contents |
Name[link]
See also Other names of Vienna
The English name Vienna, the official German name Wien, and the names of the city in most languages, are thought to be derived from the Celtic word "windo-", meaning bright or fair – as in the Irish "fionn" and the Welsh "gwyn" – but opinions vary on the precise origin. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning "forest stream," which subsequently became Venia, Wienne and Wien. Others claim that the name comes from the Roman settlement of Celtic name Vindobona (Celtic "windo-bona"), probably meaning "white base/bottom [land]," which became Vindovina, Vídeň (Czech) and Wien.[21]
The name of the city in Hungarian (Bécs), Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian (Beč) and Ottoman Turkish (Beç) appears to have a different, Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area.[22] In Slovene, the city is called Dunaj, which in other Slavic languages means the Danube River, on which it is located.
History[link]
Main article: History of Vienna
Evidence of continuous habitation has been found since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the frontier city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north.
Close ties with other Celtic peoples continued through the ages. The Irish monk Saint Colman (or Koloman, Irish Colmán, derived from colm "dove") is buried in Melk Abbey and Saint Fergil (Virgil the Geometer) was Bishop of Salzburg for forty years, and twelfth century monastic settlements were founded by Irish Benedictines. Evidence of these ties are still evident in Vienna's great Schottenstift monastery, once home to many Irish monks.
During the Middle Ages, Vienna was home to the Babenberg dynasty; in 1440, it became the resident city of the Habsburg dynasties. It eventually grew to become the de facto capital of the Holy Roman Empire and a cultural centre for arts and science, music and fine cuisine. Hungary occupied the city between 1485–1490.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman armies were stopped twice outside Vienna (see Siege of Vienna, 1529 and Battle of Vienna, 1683). A plague epidemic ravaged Vienna in 1679, killing nearly a third of its population.[23]
Austro-Hungarian Empire[link]
_058.jpg)
In 1804, during the Napoleonic wars, Vienna became the capital of the Austrian Empire and continued to play a major role in European and world politics, including hosting the 1814 Congress of Vienna. After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, Vienna remained the capital of what was then the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The city was a centre of classical music, for which the title of the First Viennese School is sometimes applied.
During the latter half of the 19th century, the city developed what had previously been the bastions and glacis into the Ringstraße, a new boulevard surrounding the historical town and a major prestige project. Former suburbs were incorporated, and the city of Vienna grew dramatically. In 1918, after World War I, Vienna became capital of the First Austrian Republic.
From the late 19th century to 1938, the city remained a centre of high culture and modernism. A world capital of music, the city played host to composers such as Brahms, Bruckner, Mahler and Richard Strauss. The city's cultural contributions in the first half of the 20th century included, amongst many, the Vienna Secession movement, psychoanalysis, the Second Viennese School, the architecture of Adolf Loos and the philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein. Within Austria, it was seen as a centre of socialist politics, for which it was sometimes referred to as "Red Vienna". The city was a stage to the Austrian Civil War of 1934, when Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss sent the Austrian Army to shell civilian housing occupied by the socialist militia.
The Anschluss and World War II[link]
In 1938, after a triumphant entry into Austria, Adolf Hitler spoke to the Austrian people from the balcony of the Neue Burg, a part of the Hofburg at the Heldenplatz. Between 1938 (see Anschluss) and the end of the Second World War, Vienna lost its status as a capital to Berlin.
On 2 April 1945, the Soviets launched the Vienna Offensive against the Germans holding the city and besieged it. British and American air raids and artillery duels between the Wehrmacht and the Red Army crippled infrastructure, such as tram services and water and power distribution, and destroyed or damaged thousands of public and private buildings. Vienna fell eleven days later. Austria was separated from Germany, and Vienna was restored as the republic's capital city.
Four-power Vienna[link]
After the war, Vienna was surrounded by the Soviet-occupied zone. As in Berlin, Vienna was divided into sectors by the four powers and supervised by an Allied Commission. The four-power occupation of Vienna differed in one key respect from that of Berlin: the central area of the city, known as the first district, constituted an international zone in which the four powers alternated control on a monthly basis. The Berlin Blockade of 1948 raised allied concerns that the Russians might repeat the blockade in Vienna. The matter was raised in the UK House of Commons,
"What plans have the Government for dealing with a similar situation in Vienna? Vienna is in exactly a similar position to Berlin. It is surrounded by a Soviet Zone of occupation and we have our sector of responsibility in Vienna the same as the Americans and the French. What plans have the Government to deal with a similar situation arising in Vienna in the near future? I hope we shall have an answer, because this is of vital importance." – Sir Anthony Nutting, Honourable Member for Melton, 30 June 1948, House of Commons, London.
There was a lack of airfields in the Western sectors, and authorities drafted contingency plans to deal with such a blockade. Plans included the laying down of metal landing mats at Schönbrunn. The Soviets did not embark on a wholesale blockade of the city. Some historians have argued that the Potsdam Agreement included written rights of land access to the western sectors, whereas no such written guarantees had covered the western sectors of Berlin. During the 10 years of the four-power occupation, Vienna became a hot-bed for international espionage between the Western and Eastern blocs. In the wake of the Berlin Blockade, the Cold War in Vienna took on a different dynamic. While accepting that Germany and Berlin would be divided, the Russians had decided against allowing the same state of affairs to arise in Austria and Vienna.
They put up barbed wire fences around the perimeter of West Berlin in 1953, but not in Vienna. By 1955, the Russians agreed to relinquish their occupation zones in Eastern Austria, and East Vienna, as well as their sector in the fourth and tenth districts in South Vienna. In exchange they required a permanent neutrality clause to be enshrined into the new Austrian State Treaty - thus ensuring that Austria would not be a member of NATO and that NATO forces would therefore not have direct communications between Italy and West Germany. In 1955, the Russians pulled out of Austria.
The atmosphere of four-power Vienna is captured in the Graham Greene screenplay for the film The Third Man (1949), directed by Carol Reed. Later he adapted the screenplay as a novel and published it. Occupied Vienna is also colourfully depicted in the Philip Kerr novel, "A German Requiem."
Austrian State Treaty[link]
The four-power control of Vienna lasted until the Austrian State Treaty was signed in 1955. That year, after years of reconstruction and restoration, the State Opera and the Burgtheater, both on the Ringstraße, reopened to the public. The State Treaty ensured that modern Austria would align with neither NATO nor the Soviet bloc, and is considered one of the reasons for Austria's late entry into the European Union.
In the 1970s, Austrian Chancellor Bruno Kreisky inaugurated the Vienna International Centre, a new area of the city created to host international institutions. Vienna has regained a part of its former international stature by hosting international organizations, such as the United Nations (United Nations Industrial Development Organization, United Nations Office at Vienna and United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime), the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization, the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe and the United European Gastroenterology Federation.
Historical population[link]
Due to the industrialization and migration from other parts of the Empire, the population of Vienna increased sharply during its time as the capital of Austria-Hungary (1867–1918). In 1910, Vienna had more than two million inhabitants, and was one of the six largest cities in the world.[citation needed] At the turn of the century, Vienna (Czech Vídeň, Hungarian Bécs) was the city with the second-largest Czech population in the world (after Prague).[24] At the height of the migration, about one-third of the Viennese population was of Slavic or Hungarian origin. After World War I, many Czechs and Hungarians returned to their ancestral countries, resulting in a decline in the Viennese population.
In 1923, there were 201,513 Jews living in Vienna, which had become the third-largest Jewish community in Europe. 65,000 Jewish people were deported and killed in concentration camps by Nazi forces, approximately 130,000 fled.[25]
By 2001, 16% of people living in Austria had nationalities other than Austrian, nearly half of whom were from former Yugoslavia, primarily Serbs;[26][27] the next most numerous nationalities in Vienna were Turks (39,000; 2.5%), Poles (13,600; 0.9%) and Germans (12,700; 0.8%).[28]
-
Year 1754 1800 1850 1900 1910 1923 1939 Total
population175,460 271,800 551,300 1,769,137 2,083,630 1,918,720 1,770,938 Year 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2008 Total
population1,616,125 1,627,566 1,619,885 1,531,346 1,539,848 1,550,123 1,678,435
Geography and climate[link]
Vienna is located in northeastern Austria, at the easternmost extension of the Alps in the Vienna Basin. The earliest settlement, at the location of today's inner city, was south of the meandering Danube while the city now spans both sides of the river. Elevation ranges from 151 to 524 m (495 to 1,719 ft).
Vienna lies within a transition of oceanic climate and humid continental climate according to the Köppen classification. The city has warm summers with average high temperatures of 22 to 26 °C (72 to 79 °F), with maxima exceeding 30 °C (86 °F) and lows of around 15 °C (59 °F). Winters are relatively cold with average temperatures at about freezing point, and snowfall occurring mainly from December through March. Spring and autumn are cool to mild. Precipitation is generally moderate throughout the year, averaging 620 mm (24.4 inches) annually, with the Vienna Woods region in the west being the wettest part (700 to 800 mm (28 to 31 in) annually) and the flat plains in the east being the driest part (500 to 550 mm (20 to 22 in) annually).
| Climate data for Vienna | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Average high °C (°F) | 2.9 (37.2) |
5.1 (41.2) |
10.3 (50.5) |
15.1 (59.2) |
20.5 (68.9) |
23.4 (74.1) |
25.6 (78.1) |
25.9 (78.6) |
20.3 (68.5) |
14.2 (57.6) |
7.5 (45.5) |
4.0 (39.2) |
14.57 (58.22) |
| Average low °C (°F) | −2 (28.4) |
−0.9 (30.4) |
2.4 (36.3) |
5.8 (42.4) |
10.5 (50.9) |
13.5 (56.3) |
15.4 (59.7) |
15.3 (59.5) |
11.7 (53.1) |
7.0 (44.6) |
2.4 (36.3) |
−0.5 (31.1) |
6.72 (44.09) |
| Precipitation mm (inches) | 37.2 (1.465) |
39.4 (1.551) |
46.1 (1.815) |
51.7 (2.035) |
61.8 (2.433) |
70.2 (2.764) |
68.2 (2.685) |
57.8 (2.276) |
53.5 (2.106) |
40.0 (1.575) |
50.0 (1.969) |
44.4 (1.748) |
620.3 (24.421) |
| Avg. precipitation days | 7.3 | 7.6 | 8.3 | 7.5 | 8.5 | 9.1 | 9.0 | 8.0 | 7.0 | 6.0 | 8.3 | 8.2 | 94.8 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 55.8 | 79.1 | 127.1 | 171.0 | 220.1 | 222.0 | 244.9 | 229.4 | 171.0 | 136.4 | 63.0 | 52.7 | 1,772.5 |
| Source no. 1: World Meteorological Organization | |||||||||||||
| Source no. 2: Hong Kong Observatory (sunshine hours only) | |||||||||||||
Districts and enlargement[link]
Main article: Districts of Vienna
Vienna is composed of 23 districts (Bezirke). Administrative district offices in Vienna (called Magistratisches Bezirksamt) serve similar to those in the other states (called Bezirkshauptmannschaft), the officers being subject to the Landeshauptmann (which in Vienna is the mayor); with the exception of the police, which in Vienna is governed by the President of the Police (at the same time one of the nine Directors of Security of Austria), a federal office, directly responsible to the Minister of the Interior.
As had been planned in 1919 for all of Austria but not introduced, the district residents in Vienna (Austrians as well as EU citizens with permanent residence here) are electing a District Assembly (Bezirksvertretung) which chooses the District Head (Bezirksvorsteher) as political representative of the district on city level. City hall has delegated maintenance budgets, e.g., for schools and parks, so that they are able to set priorities autonomously. Any decision of a district can be overridden by the city assembly (Gemeinderat) or the responsible city councillor (amtsführender Stadrat).
.svg)
File:Stadtplan Wien.gif
Illustrated map of Vienna
The heart and historical city of Vienna, a large part of today's Innere Stadt, was a fortress and surrounded by fields in order to defend itself from potential attackers. In 1850, Vienna with the consent of the emperor included 34 surrounding villages,[29] called Vorstädte, into the city limits (districts no. 2 to 8, since 1861 with the separation of Margareten from Wieden no. 2 to 9). Consequently the walls were razed after 1857,[30] making it possible for the city centre to expand.
In their place, a broad boulevard called the Ringstraße was built, along which imposing public and private buildings, monuments, and parks were created until the turn of the century. These buildings include the Rathaus (town hall), the Burgtheater, the University, the Parliament, the twin museums of natural history and fine art, and the Staatsoper. It is also the location of New Wing of the Hofburg, the former imperial palace, and the Imperial and Royal War Ministry finished in 1913. The mainly Gothic Stephansdom is located at the centre of the city, on Stephansplatz. The Imperial-Royal Government set up the Vienna City Renovation Fund (Wiener Stadterneuerungsfonds) and sold many building lots to private investors, thereby partly financing public construction works.
From 1850 to 1890, city limits in the West and the South have mainly followed another wall called Linienwall. Outside this wall from 1873 onwards a ring road called Gürtel was built. In 1890 it was decided to integrate 33 suburbs (called Vororte) beyond that wall into Vienna by 1 January 1892[31] and transform them into districts no. 11 to 19 (district no. 10 had been constituted in 1874); hence the Linienwall was torn down from 1894 onwards.[32] In 1900, district no. 20, Brigittenau, was created by separating the area from the 2nd district.
From 1850 to 1904, Vienna had expanded only on the right bank of the Danube, following the main branch before the regulation of 1868–1875, i.e., the Old Danube of today. In 1904, the 21st district was created by integrating Floridsdorf, Kagran, Stadlau, Hirschstetten, Aspern and other villages on the left bank of the Danube into Vienna, in 1910 Strebersdorf followed. On 15 October 1938 the Nazis created Great Vienna with 26 districts by merging 97 cities and villages into Vienna, 80 of which have returned to surrounding Lower Austria in 1954.[31] Since then Vienna has 23 districts.
Industries are located mostly in the southern and eastern districts. The Innere Stadt is situated away from the main flow of the Danube, but is bounded by the Donaukanal ("Danube canal"). Vienna's second and twentieth districts are located between the Donaukanal and the Danube River. Across the Danube, where the Vienna International Centre is located, and in the southernmost area are the newest parts of the city (districts 21–23).
Politics[link]
Until 1918, Viennese politics were shaped by the Christian Social Party, in particular long-term mayor Karl Lueger. Vienna is today considered the centre of the Social Democratic Party of Austria. During the period of the First Republic (1918–1934), the Vienna Social Democrats undertook many overdue social reforms. At that time, Vienna's municipal policy was admired by Socialists throughout Europe, who therefore referred to the city as "Red Vienna" (Rotes Wien). In February 1934 troops of the Conservative Austrian federal government and paramilitary socialist organisations were engaged in the Austrian civil war, which led to the ban of the Social Democrat party.
For most of the time since the First World War, the city has been governed by the Social Democratic Party (SPÖ) with absolute majorities in the city parliament. Only between 1934 and 1945, when the Social Democratic Party was illegal, mayors were appointed by the austro-fascist and later by the Nazi authorities. The current mayor of Vienna is Michael Häupl. The Social Democrats currently hold 55% of the seats with a 49% share of the vote.[33] Many Austrian political experts[who?] believe that if not for the Social Democrats' nearly unbreakable hold on Vienna, the rival Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) would dominate Austrian politics.
An example of the city’s many social democratic policies is its low-cost residential estates called Gemeindebauten.
Ever since Vienna obtained federal state (Bundesland) status of its own in 1921, the mayor has also had the role of the state governor (Landeshauptmann). The Rathaus accommodates the offices of the mayor and the state government (Landesregierung). The city is administered by a multitude of departments (Magistratsabteilungen).
In the 1996 City Council election, the SPÖ lost its overall majority in the 100-seat chamber, winning 43 seats and 39.15% of the vote. In 1996 the Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ), which won 29 seats (up from 21 in 1991), beat the ÖVP into third place for the second time running. From 1996–2001, the SPÖ governed Vienna in a coalition with the ÖVP. In 2001 the SPÖ regained the overall majority with 52 seats and 46.91% of the vote; in October 2005 this majority was increased further to 55 seats (49.09%). In course of the 2010 city council elections the SPÖ lost their overall majority again and consequently forged a coalition with the Green Party – the first SPÖ/Green coalition in Austria.[34]
Religion[link]
Vienna is the seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Vienna; its current Archbishop is Cardinal Christoph Schönborn. According to the 2001 census, 49.2% of Viennese are Roman Catholics, while 25.7% are of no religion, 7.8% are Muslim, 6.0% are members of an Orthodox denomination, 4.7% are Protestant (mostly Lutheran), 0.5% are Jewish, and 6.3% are either of other religions or did not reply.[28]
Many Roman Catholic churches in central Vienna feature performances of religious or other music, including masses sung to classical music and organ. Some of Vienna's most significant historical buildings are Roman Catholic churches, including the Stephansdom (St. Stephen's Cathedral), the Karlskirche (St. Charles' Church) and the Votivkirche.
The proportion of Viennese who identify as Roman Catholic has dropped over the last fifty years, from 90% in 1961 to 39.8% in 2010.[35]
Culture[link]
Music, theatre and opera[link]
See also: Music of Austria and Vienna State Opera Ballet
.jpg)
Music is one of Vienna's legacies. Musical prodigies like Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig Van Beethoven, Franz Schubert, Johannes Brahms, Gustav Mahler and Joseph Haydn have worked[36] and the Classical style was born here under the influence of Johann Joseph Fux, the oldest teacher (sometimes regarded as inventor) of counterpoint.[37]
Art and culture have a long tradition in Vienna, including theatre, opera, classical music and fine arts. The Burgtheater is considered one of the best theatres in the German-speaking world alongside its branch, the Akademietheater. The Volkstheater Wien and the Theater in der Josefstadt also enjoy good reputations. There is also a multitude of smaller theatres, in many cases devoted to less mainstream forms of the performing arts, such as modern, experimental plays or cabaret. Vienna is also home to a number of opera houses, including the Theater an der Wien, the Staatsoper and the Volksoper, the latter being devoted to the typical Viennese operetta. Classical concerts are performed at well known venues such as the Wiener Musikverein, home of the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, and the Wiener Konzerthaus. Many concert venues offer concerts aimed at tourists, featuring popular highlights of Viennese music (particularly the works of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Johann Strauss).
In recent years, the Theatre an der Wien has hosted premieres of musicals, although it has recently[when?] devoted itself to the opera again. The most successful musical by far was "Elisabeth",[citation needed] which was later translated into several other languages and performed all over the world. The Haus der Musik ("house of music") opened in 2000.
The Wienerlied is a unique song genre from Vienna. There are approximately 60,000 – 70,000 Wienerlieder.[38]
In 1981 the UK new romantic group "Ultravox" paid tribute to Vienna on an album and single recording of the same name.
Musicians from Vienna[link]
Many notable musicians were born in Vienna, including: Johann Strauss I, Johann Strauss II, Falco, Franz Schubert, Gerhard Potuznik, Louie Austen, Arnold Schönberg, and Fritz Kreisler.
Notable Musicians who came here to work from other parts of Austria and Germany were Johann Joseph Fux, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig Van Beethoven, Johannes Brahms, Gustav Mahler and Joseph Haydn.
Museums[link]
The Hofburg is the location of the Schatzkammer (treasury), holding the imperial jewels of the Habsburg dynasty. The Sisi Museum (a museum devoted to Empress Elisabeth Amalie Eugenie of Austria) allows visitors to view the imperial apartments as well as the silver cabinet. Directly opposite the Hofburg are the Kunsthistorisches Museum, which houses many paintings by old masters, ancient and classical artifacts, and the Naturhistorisches Museum.
A number of museums are located in the Museumsquartier (museum quarter), the former Imperial Stalls which were converted into a museum complex in the 1990s. It houses the Museum of Modern Art, commonly known as the MUMOK (Ludwig Foundation), the Leopold Museum (featuring the largest collection of paintings in the world by Egon Schiele, as well as works by the Vienna Secession, Viennese Modernism and Austrian Expressionism), the AzW (museum of architecture), additional halls with feature exhibitions, and the Tanzquartier. The Liechtenstein Palace contains one of the world's largest private art collections of the baroque. Castle Belvedere, built under Prinz Eugen, has a gallery containing paintings by Gustav Klimt (The Kiss), Egon Schiele, and other painters of the early 20th century, also sculptures by Franz Xaver Messerschmidt, and changing exhibitions too.
There are a multitude of other museums in Vienna, including the Albertina, the Military History Museum, the Technical Museum, the Burial Museum, the Museum of Art Fakes, the KunstHausWien, the Sigmund Freud Museum, and the Mozarthaus Vienna. The museums on the history of the city, including the former Historical Museum of the City of Vienna on Karlsplatz, the Hermesvilla, the residences and birthplaces of various composers, the Museum of the Romans, and the Vienna Clock Museum, are now gathered together under the group umbrella Vienna Museum. The museums dedicated to Vienna's districts provide a retrospective of the respective districts.
Architecture[link]
A variety of architectural styles can be found in Vienna, such as the Romanesque Ruprechtskirche and the Baroque Karlskirche. Styles range from classicist buildings to modern architecture. Art Nouveau left many architectural traces in Vienna. The Secession, Karlsplatz Stadtbahn Station, and the Kirche am Steinhof by Otto Wagner rank among the best known examples of Art Nouveau in the world.
Concurrent to the Art Nouveau movement was the Wiener Moderne, during which some architects shunned the use of extraneous adornment. A key architect of this period was Adolf Loos, whose works include the Looshaus (1909), the Kärntner Bar or American Bar (1908) and the Steiner House (1910).
The Hundertwasserhaus by Friedensreich Hundertwasser, designed to counter the clinical look of modern architecture, is one of Vienna's most popular tourist attractions. Another example of unique architecture is the Wotrubakirche by sculptor Fritz Wotruba. In the 1990s, a number of quarters were adapted and extensive building projects were implemented in the areas around Donaustadt (north of the Danube) and Wienerberg (in southern Vienna). The 202 m-high Millennium Tower located at Handelskai is the highest building in Vienna.[39][40] In recent years, Vienna has seen numerous architecture projects completed which combine modern architectural elements with old buildings, such as the remodelling and revitalisation of the old Gasometer in 2001. Most buildings in Vienna are relatively low; in early 2006 there were around 100 buildings higher than 40 m. The number of high-rise buildings is kept low by building legislation aimed at preserving green areas and districts designated as world cultural heritage. Strong rules apply to the planning, authorisation and construction of high-rise buildings. Consequently, much of the inner city is a high-rise free zone.
Viennese Porcelain[link]
Main article: Augarten porcelain
Vienna balls[link]
Vienna is the last great capital of the nineteenth century ball. There are over 200 significant balls per year, some featuring as many as nine live orchestras. Balls are held in the many beautiful palaces in Vienna, with the principal venue being the Hofburg Palace at Heldenplatz. While the Opera Ball is the best known internationally of all the Austrian balls, other balls such as the Kaffeesiederball (Cafe Owners Ball), the Jägerball (Hunter's Ball) or the Life Ball (AIDS Charity Event) are almost as well known within Austria and even better appreciated for their cordial atmosphere. Viennese of at least middle class may visit a number of balls in their lifetime. For many, the ball season lasts three months and can include up to ten or fifteen separate appearances.
Dancers and opera singers from the Vienna Staatsoper often perform at the openings of the larger balls.[citation needed]
A Vienna ball is an all-night cultural attraction. Major Viennese balls generally begin at 9 pm and last until 5 am, although many guests carry on the celebrations into the next day.
Sub and Youth Culture[link]
Some known venues and art spaces of the city are Arena, Flex, Mo.ë, Ernst-Kirchweger-Haus and WUK. Arena and Flex are mainly focused on live of pop music acts (indie, techno, rock, etc.), while Mo.ë, Ernst-Kirchweger-Haus (EKH) and WUK have a stronger focus on contemporary visual arts, modern dance and experimental music. The Volxtheater Favoriten is based out of the Ernst Kirchweger Haus. Since May 2001, the Publixtheatre Caravan has been creating international travelling informational, media, and artistic campaigns, to squat reality by directly interposing theater and artistic installations into everyday life.
Education[link]
Vienna is also Austria's main centre of education and home to many universities, professional colleges and gymnasiums (high schools).
Universities[link]
- Academy of Fine Arts Vienna
- Diplomatic Academy of Vienna
- Medical University of Vienna
- PEF Private University of Management Vienna
- University of Applied Arts Vienna
- University of Music and Performing Arts, Vienna
- University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna
- University of Vienna
- Vienna University of Economics and Business
- University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna
- Vienna University of Technology
- Webster University Vienna
- Sigmund Freud University Vienna
- International Anti-Corruption Academy (in Laxenburg, 24 km south of Vienna)
International schools[link]
- Amadeus International School of Music Vienna
- American International School Vienna
- Danube International School
- International University Vienna
- Lauder Business School
- Lycée Français de Vienne
- Vienna Christian School
- Vienna International School
- Wake Forest University - Flow House
Leisure activities[link]
Parks and gardens[link]
Vienna possesses many park facilities, including the Stadtpark, the Burggarten, the Volksgarten (part of the Hofburg), the Schloßpark at Schloss Belvedere (home to the Vienna Botanic Gardens), the Donaupark, the Schönbrunner Schlosspark, the Prater, the Augarten, the Rathauspark, the Lainzer Tiergarten, the Dehnepark, the Resselpark, the Votivpark, the Kurpark Oberlaa, the Auer-Welsbach-Park and the Türkenschanzpark. Green areas include Laaer-Berg (including the Bohemian Prater) and the foothills of the Wienerwald, which reaches into the outer areas of the city. Small parks, known by the Viennese as Beserlparks, are everywhere in the inner city areas. Many of Vienna's famous parks include monuments, such as the Stadtpark with its statue of Johann Strauss II, and the gardens of the baroque palace, where the State Treaty was signed. Vienna's principal park is the Prater which is home to the Riesenrad, a Ferris wheel. The imperial Schönbrunn's grounds contain an 18th century park which includes the world's oldest zoo, founded in 1752. The Donauinsel, part of Vienna's flood defences, is a 21.1 km long artificial island between the Danube and Neue Donau dedicated to leisure activities.
Sport[link]
Vienna hosts many different sporting events including the Vienna City Marathon, which attracts more than 10,000 participants every year and normally takes place in May. In 2005 the Ice Hockey World Championships took place in Austria and the final was played in Vienna. Vienna's Ernst Happel Stadium was the venue of four Champions League and European Champion Clubs' Cup finals (1964, 1987, 1990 and 1995) and on 29 June it hosted the final of Euro 2008 which saw a Spanish 1–0 victory over Germany.
Austria's capital is home to numerous teams. The best known are the local football clubs FK Austria Wien (21 whole-Austrian Austrian Bundesliga titles and record 27-time cup winners) SK Rapid Wien (record 32 whole-Austrian Austrian Bundesliga titles), and the oldest team, First Vienna FC. Other important sport clubs include the Raiffeisen Vikings Vienna (American Football), who won the Eurobowl title between 2004 and 2007 4 times in a row, the Aon hotVolleys Vienna, one of Europe's premier Volleyball organisations, the Superfund Wanderers (baseball) who won the 2009 Championship of the Austrian Baseball League, and the Vienna Capitals (Ice Hockey). Vienna was also where the European Handball Federation (EHF) was founded. There are also three rugby clubs; Vienna Celtic, the oldest rugby club in Austria, RC Donau, and Stade Viennois
Culinary specialities[link]
Food[link]
See also: Austrian cuisine
Vienna is well known for Wiener Schnitzel, a cutlet of veal that is pounded flat, coated in flour, egg and breadcrumbs, and fried in clarified butter. It is available in almost every restaurant that serves Viennese cuisine. Other examples of Viennese cuisine include Tafelspitz (very lean boiled beef), which is traditionally served with Geröstete Erdäpfel (boiled potatoes mashed with a fork and subsequently fried) and horseradish sauce, Apfelkren (a mixture of horseradish, cream and apple) and Schnittlauchsauce (a chives sauce made with mayonnaise and old bread).
Vienna has a long tradition of producing the finest cakes and desserts. These include Apfelstrudel (hot apple strudel), Millirahmstrudel (milk-cream strudel), Palatschinken (sweet pancakes), and Knödel (dumplings) often filled with fruit such as apricots (Marillenknödel). Sachertorte, a dry chocolate cake with apricot jam created by the Sacher Hotel, is world famous.
In winter, small street stands sell traditional Maroni (hot chestnuts) and potato fritters.
Sausages are popular and available from street vendors (Würstelstand) throughout the day and into the night. The sausage known as Wiener (German for Viennese) in the US and Germany is, however, called Frankfurter. Other popular sausages are Burenwurst (a coarse beef and pork sausage, generally boiled), Käsekrainer (spicy pork with small chunks of cheese), and Bratwurst (a white pork sausage). Most can be ordered "mit Brot" (with bread) or as a "hot dog" (stuffed inside a long roll). Mustard is the traditional condiment and usually offered in two varieties: "süß" (sweet) or "scharf" (spicy).
Kebab and pizza are, increasingly, the snack foods most widely available from small stands.
The Naschmarkt is a permanent market for fruit, vegetables, spices, fish, meat, etc. from around the world. The city centre has many coffee and breakfast stores, such as the Julius Meinl am Graben.
Drink[link]
Vienna, along with Paris, Prague, Bratislava, Warsaw and London is one of the few remaining world capital cities with its own vineyards. The wine is served in small Viennese pubs known as Heuriger, which are especially numerous in the wine growing areas of Döbling (Grinzing, Neustift am Walde, Nußdorf, Salmannsdorf, Sievering), Floridsdorf (Stammersdorf, Strebersdorf), Liesing (Mauer) and Favoriten (Oberlaa). The wine is often drunk as a Spritzer ("G'spritzter") with sparkling water. The Grüner Veltliner, a dry white wine, is the most widely cultivated wine in Austria.
Beer is next in importance to wine. Vienna has a single large brewery, Ottakringer, and more than ten microbreweries. A "Beisl" is a typical small Austrian pub, of which Vienna has many.
Viennese cafés[link]
Viennese cafés have an extremely long and distinguished history that dates back centuries, and the caffeine addictions of some famous historical patrons of the oldest are something of a local legend. Traditionally, the coffee comes with a glass of water. Viennese cafés claim to have invented the process of filtering coffee from booty captured after the second Turkish siege in 1683. Viennese cafés claim that when the invading Turks left Vienna, they abandoned hundreds of sacks of coffee beans. The Emperor gave Franz George Kolschitzky (Polish – Franciszek Jerzy Kulczycki) some of this coffee as a reward for providing information that allowed the Austrians to defeat the Turks. Kolschitzky then opened Vienna's first coffee shop. Julius Meinl set up a modern roasting plant in the same premises where the coffee sacks were found, in 1891.
Tourist attractions[link]
Further information: Tourist attractions in Vienna
Major tourist attractions include the imperial palaces of the Hofburg and Schönbrunn (also home to the world's oldest zoo, Tiergarten Schönbrunn) and the Riesenrad in the Prater. Cultural highlights include the Burgtheater, the Wiener Staatsoper, the Lipizzaner horses at the spanische Hofreitschule and the Vienna Boys' Choir, as well as excursions to Vienna's Heurigen district Döbling.
There are also more than 100 art museums, which together attract over eight million visitors per year.[41] The most popular ones are Albertina, Belvedere, Leopold Museum in the Museumsquartier, KunstHausWien, BA-CA Kunstforum, the twin Kunsthistorisches Museum and Naturhistorisches Museum, and the Technisches Museum Wien, each of which receives over a quarter of a million visitors per year.[42]
There are many popular sites associated with composers who lived in Vienna including Beethoven's various residences and grave at Zentralfriedhof (Central Cemetery) which is the largest cemetery in Vienna and the burial site of many famous people. Mozart has a memorial grave at the Habsburg gardens and at St. Marx cemetery (where his grave was lost). Vienna's many churches also draw large crowds, the most famous of which are St. Stephen's Cathedral, the Deutschordenskirche, the Jesuitenkirche, the Karlskirche, the Peterskirche, Maria am Gestade, the Minoritenkirche, the Ruprechtskirche, the Schottenkirche and the Votivkirche.
Modern attractions include the Hundertwasserhaus, the United Nations headquarters and the view from the Donauturm.
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The statue of Athena in front of the Austrian Parliament
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The Secession building
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The Riesenrad in the Wiener Prater
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Modern Vienna
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Old Danube. Underground bridge.TV tower
Transportation[link]
Main article: Transportation in Vienna
Vienna has an extensive transportation network. Public transport is provided by buses, trams and 5 underground metro lines (U-Bahn). Trains are operated by the ÖBB. Vienna has multiple road connections including motorways.
Vienna is served by Vienna International Airport, located 18 km (11 mi) southeast of the city centre next to the town of Schwechat.
International relations[link]
International organisations in Vienna[link]
Vienna is the seat of a number of United Nations offices and various international institutions and companies, including the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO), the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) and the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA). Currently Vienna is the world's 4th "UN city" (after New York, Geneva and The Hague). Additionally, Vienna is the seat of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law's secretariat (UNCITRAL). In conjunction, the University of Vienna annually hosts the prestigious Willem C. Vis Moot, an international commercial arbitration competition for students of law from around the world.
Various special diplomatic meetings have been held in Vienna in the latter half of the 20th century, resulting in various documents bearing the name Vienna Convention or Vienna Document. Among the more important documents negotiated in Vienna are the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, as well as the 1990 Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE).
See also: Vienna Convention (disambiguation)
Charitable organisations in Vienna[link]
Alongside the international and intergovernmental organisations, there are dozens of charitable organisations based in Vienna; these organisations provide relief goods and assistance to tens of thousands of disadvantaged children and needy people in developing countries.
One such organisation is the network of SOS Children's Villages, founded by Hermann Gmeiner in 1949. Today, SOS Children's Villages are active in 132 countries and territories worldwide. Others include HASCO and the Childrens Bridge of Hope.
Another extremely popular, international event is The Life Ball in aid of AIDS. Guests such as Bill Clinton and Whoopi Goldberg were recent attendants at this now annual gala.
Twin towns and sister cities[link]
Vienna is twinned with the following cities:
Other forms of cooperation and city friendship similar to the twin city programmes:
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In addition, individual Viennese districts are twinned with 
Japanese cities/districts:
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Further, the Viennese district Leopoldstadt and the New York City borough Brooklyn entered into a partnership in 2007.[48]
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ "STATISTIK AUSTRIA – Bevölkerung zu Quartalsbeginn seit 2002 nach Bundesland". Statistik.at. 20 October 2010. http://www.statistik.at/web_de/statistiken/bevoelkerung/bevoelkerungsstand_und_veraenderung/bevoelkerung_zu_jahres-_quartalsanfang/023582.html. Retrieved 19 January 2011.
- ^ a b "VCÖ.at: VCÖ fordert Nahverkehrsoffensive gegen Verkehrskollaps in den Städten". vcoe.at. 2008. http://www.vcoe.at/start.asp?ID=4176&b=92. Retrieved 5 August 2009.
- ^ "STATISTIK AUSTRIA – Bevölkerung zu Jahres-/Quartalsanfang". Statistik.at. 13 February 2009. http://www.statistik.at/web_de/statistiken/bevoelkerung/bevoelkerungsstand_und_veraenderung/bevoelkerung_zu_jahres-_quartalsanfang/index.html. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
- ^ "Historic Centre of Vienna". UNESCO. http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=1033.
- ^ "Vienna - the City of Music - VIENNA – NOW OR NEVER". Wien.info. http://www.wien.info/en/music-stage-shows/city-of-music. Retrieved 2012-05-19.
- ^ BBC Documentary - Vienna - The City of Dreams
- ^ "Historic Centre of Vienna". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1033. Retrieved 2012-05-19.
- ^ "Vancouver is 'best place to live'". BBC. 4 October 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4306936.stm.
- ^ [1][dead link]
- ^ "Liveability Ranking Report August 2011". Economist Intelligence Unit. http://www.eiu.com/public/topical_report.aspx?campaignid=liveabilityAug2011. Retrieved 2 December 2011.
- ^ "Mercer press release: Quality of Living global city rankings--2009". http://www.mercer.com/press-releases/1345570. Retrieved 2 December 2011.
- ^ "Mercer Quality of LIfe Worldwide City Rankings, 2010 from resourceshelf.com". http://web.resourceshelf.com/go/resourceblog/58958. Retrieved 2 December 2011.
- ^ "Mercer's Survey 2011". Mercer. 29 November 2011. http://www.mercer.com/referencecontent.htm?idContent=1173105#Top_50_cities:_Quality_of_living.
- ^ "Monocle's top 25 cities for 2011, on businessinsider.com". http://www.businessinsider.com/monocle-quality-of-life-2011-6?op=1. Retrieved 2 December 2011.
- ^ "Monocle's 2011 "Quality of LIfe" summary". http://www.monocle.com/sections/affairs/Web-Articles/Most-liveable-city-Helsinki/. Retrieved 3 December 2011.
- ^ "08 Vienna". Monocle.com. 2010-06-15. http://www.monocle.com/sections/affairs/Magazine-Articles/08-Vienna/. Retrieved 2012-05-19.
- ^ "2thinknow Innovation Cities Global 256 Index – worldwide innovation city rankings | 2009 | Innovation Cities Program". Innovation-cities.com. 30 July 2009. http://www.innovation-cities.com/2thinknow-innovation-cities-global-256-index/. Retrieved 3 January 2011.
- ^ "Vienna knows how". wieninternational.at. 15 April 2010. http://www.wieninternational.at/en/node/19728. Retrieved 3 January 2011.
- ^ "Vienna is the world’s number one congress destination". wieninternational.at. 1 June 2011. http://www.wieninternational.at/en/content/vienna-world%E2%80%99s-number-one-congress-destination-en. Retrieved 15 October 2011.
- ^ "Tourism Statistics - Arrivals in Vienna by countries of origin". wien.gv.at. 11 October 2011. http://www.wien.gv.at/statistik/wirtschaft/tabellen/ankuenfte-laender-zr.html. Retrieved 15 October 2011.
- ^ "Wien International website: History". Wieninternational.at. 15 May 2008. http://www.wieninternational.at/en/node/3857. Retrieved 13 June 2010.
- ^ "Encyclopædia Britannica 1911 edition". 1911encyclopedia.org. 19 November 2006. http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Vienna. Retrieved 13 June 2010.
- ^ Spielman, John Philip (1993). The city & the crown: Vienna and the imperial court, 1600–1740. West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University Press. p. 141. ISBN 1-55753-021-1.
- ^ "Czech and Slovak roots in Vienna". Wieninternational.at. http://www.wieninternational.at/en/node/3586. Retrieved 2012-05-19.
- ^ "Vienna". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0020_0_20409.html. Retrieved 2012-05-19.
- ^ "Bevölkerung 2001 nach Umgangssprache, Staatsangehörigkeit und Geburtsland" (PDF). http://www.statistik.at/web_de/static/bevoelkerung_2001_nach_umgangssprache_staatsangehoerigkeit_und_geburtsland_022896.pdf. Retrieved 2012-05-19.
- ^ "Beč: Božić na gastarbajterski način | Evropa | Deutsche Welle | 07.01.2010". Dw-world.de. http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,5096611,00.html?maca=ser-TB_ser_politka1-3157-html-cb. Retrieved 22 January 2010.
- ^ a b (in German) (PDF) Volkszählung. Hauptergebnisse I – Wien. Statistik Austria. 2003. ftp://www.statistik.at/pub/neuerscheinungen/vz01wien_web.pdf. Retrieved 2011-09-23.
- ^ Felix Czeike: Historisches Lexikon Wien, volume 5, Kremayr & Scheriau, Vienna 1997, ISBN 3-218-00547-7, p. 289
- ^ Decision of Emperor Franz Joseph I, published in the official newspaper ‘‘Wiener Zeitung’’ on 25 December 1857, p. 1
- ^ a b Czeike, volume 5, p. 290
- ^ Czeike, volume 4, Vienna 1995, ISBN 3-218-00546-9, p. 69
- ^ "Gemeinderatswahl 2005". wien.at. http://www.wien.gv.at/wahl/NET/GR051/GR051-109.htm. Retrieved 2011-09-23. (German)
- ^ "Pakt unterzeichnet: Rot-Grün in Wien nun offiziell – news.ORF.at". Orf.at. 15 November 2010. http://orf.at/stories/2025548/. Retrieved 3 January 2011.
- ^ "Bis 2031 nur noch jeder Zweite katholisch". Diepresse.com. http://diepresse.com/home/panorama/religion/624480/Bis-2031-nur-noch-jeder-Zweite-katholisch. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
- ^ BBC Documentary on Vienna - The City of Dreams
- ^ Gradus ad Parnassum
- ^ "Wiener Volksliederwerk, ''Zum Wienerlied''". Wvlw.at. http://www.wvlw.at/. Retrieved 2012-05-19.
- ^ "Vienna's 10 tallest skyscrapers". Skyscraperpicture.com. 13 May 2008. http://www.skyscraperpicture.com/vienna.htm. Retrieved 13 June 2010.
- ^ "Millennium Tower | Buildings". Vienna /: Emporis. http://emporis.com/en/wm/bu/?id=millenniumtower-vienna-austria. Retrieved 2012-05-19.
- ^ "Vienna in figures: Special Issue for the EU Presidency 2006" (PDF). City of Vienna. p. 10. http://www.wien.gv.at/statistik/pdf/viennainfigures.pdf. Retrieved 2011-09-23.
- ^ "Top 30 Sights, Museums, Exhibition Halls 2005" (xls). Vienna Tourist Board. http://travel.nationalgeographic.com/travel/city-guides/vienna-must-dos/.
- ^ "Bratislava City – Twin Towns". 2003–2008 Bratislava-City.sk. http://www.bratislava-city.sk/bratislava-twin-towns. Retrieved 26 October 2008.
- ^ "Brno – Partnerská města" (in Czech). 2006–2009 City of Brno. http://www.brno.cz/index.php?nav02=1985&nav01=34&nav03=1010&nav04=1016&nav05=1249&nav06=1272. Retrieved 17 July 2009.
- ^ [2][dead link]
- ^ (Polish) "Miasta partnerskie Warszawy". um.warszawa.pl. Biuro Promocji Miasta. 4 May 2005. http://www.um.warszawa.pl/node/2920?page=0,0. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
- ^ "Intercity and International Cooperation of the City of Zagreb". 2006–2009 City of Zagreb. http://www1.zagreb.hr/mms/en/index.html. Retrieved 23 June 2009.
- ^ "Brooklyn und Leopoldstadt sind nun Partner". Diepresse.com. http://diepresse.com/home/politik/aussenpolitik/289167/index.do?from=suche.intern.portal. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
Further reading[link]
- Pippal, M.: A short History of Art in Vienna, Munich: C.H. Beck 2000, ISBN 978-3-406-46789-9, provides a concise overview.
External links[link]
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Official websites
- Wien.gv.at – Official site of the municipality, with interactive map.
- Wien.info – Official site of the tourism board: events, sightseeing, cultural information, etc.
- List of Embassies in Vienna
- Vienna travel guide from Wikitravel
Pictures and videos of Vienna
- Photos of Vienna at night (very-bored.com)
- Photos of Vienna (zoomvienna.com)
- PhotoGlobe Vienna – a collection of georeferenced photos of Vienna
- Vienna. Pleasure and Melancholy A collection of photos of Vienna (willypuchner.com)
- Panoramic pictures of Vienna (wienkultur.info)
- 360° virtual tour of Vienna, Austria (VRVienna.com)
- Vienna Christmas market "Wiener Christkindlmarkt" (butkaj.com)
- Photos of Vienna Sightseeings (butkaj.com)
- Wien Gigapixel Panorama (12.000 Megapixel)
History of Vienna
- Hundreds of articles on historical buildings of Vienna: Churches, Palaces, Art, Culture and History of Vienna
- Jews in Vienna (from Encyclopaedia Judaica 1971).
- German flaktowers in Vienna
- History of the Coat of Arms of Vienna and all (former) districts and municipalities
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Coordinates: 48°12′30″N 16°22′23″E / 48.20833°N 16.37306°E / 48.20833; 16.37306
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
"Freud" redirects here. For other uses, see Freud (disambiguation).
| Sigmund Freud | |
|---|---|
 Sigmund Freud, by Max Halberstadt, 1921 |
|
| Born | Sigismund Schlomo Freud (1856-05-06)6 May 1856 Freiberg in Mähren, Moravia (now part of the Czech Republic), Austrian Empire |
| Died | 23 September 1939(1939-09-23) (aged 83) London, England, UK |
| Residence | Austria |
| Nationality | Austrian |
| Fields | Neurology Psychotherapy Psychoanalysis |
| Institutions | University of Vienna |
| Alma mater | University of Vienna |
| Known for | Psychoanalysis |
| Influences | Aristotle, Brentano, Breuer, Charcot, Darwin, Dostoyevsky, Goethe, Haeckel, Hartmann, Jackson, Jacobsen, Kant, Mayer, Nietzsche, Plato, Schopenhauer, Shakespeare, Sophocles |
| Influenced | Eugen Bleuler, John Bowlby, Viktor Frankl, Anna Freud, Erich Fromm, Otto Gross, Karen Horney, Arthur Janov, Ernest Jones, Carl Jung, Melanie Klein, Jacques Lacan, Fritz Perls, Otto Rank, Wilhelm Reich |
| Notable awards | Goethe Prize Foreign Member of the Royal Society (London)[1] |
Signature |
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| Part of a series of articles on |
| Psychoanalysis |
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Most of psychoanalysis forms around the use of a sofa for the patient where the psychologist is behind the patient.
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Important figures
Alfred Adler · Michael Balint
Wilfred Bion · Josef Breuer Nancy Chodorow · Erik Erikson Ronald Fairbairn · Sándor Ferenczi Anna Freud · Sigmund Freud Erich Fromm · Harry Guntrip Karen Horney · Ernest Jones Carl Jung · Melanie Klein Heinz Kohut · Jacques Lacan Ronald Laing · Margaret Mahler Otto Rank · Wilhelm Reich Harry Stack Sullivan Susan Sutherland Isaacs Donald Winnicott |
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Schools of thought
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| Psychology portal |
Sigmund Freud (German pronunciation: [ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt]), born Sigismund Schlomo Freud (6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939), was an Austrian neurologist who founded the discipline of psychoanalysis. Freud's family and ancestry were Jewish. Freud always considered himself a Jew even though he rejected Judaism and had a critical view of religion.[2] Freud's parents were poor, but ensured his education. Freud was an outstanding pupil in high school, and graduated the Matura with honors in 1873. Interested in philosophy as a student, Freud later turned away from it and became a neurological researcher into cerebral palsy, Aphasia and microscopic neuroanatomy.
Freud went on to develop theories about the unconscious mind and the mechanism of repression, and established the field of verbal psychotherapy by creating psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient (or "analysand") and a psychoanalyst. Though psychoanalysis has declined as a therapeutic practice, it has helped inspire the development of many other forms of psychotherapy, some diverging from Freud's original ideas and approach. Freud postulated the existence of libido (an energy with which mental process and structures are invested), developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association (in which patients report their thoughts without reservation and make no attempt to concentrate while doing so), discovered the transference (the process by which patients displace on to their analysts feelings based on their experience of earlier figures in their lives) and established its central role in the analytic process, and proposed that dreams help to preserve sleep by representing as fulfilled wishes that would otherwise awake the dreamer. He was also a prolific essayist, drawing on psychoanalysis to contribute to the interpretation and critique of culture.
Freud's theories have been criticized as pseudo-scientific[3] and sexist,[4] and they have been marginalized within psychology departments, although they remain influential within the humanities.[5] Critics have debated whether it is possible to test Freudian theories.[6] Some researchers claim evidence exists for some of Freud's theories.[7] Freud has been called one of the three masters of the "school of suspicion", alongside Karl Marx and Friedrich Nietzsche,[8] while his ideas have been compared to those of Plato[9] and Aquinas.[10]
Contents |
Early life[link]
Sigismund Schlomo Freud was born on 6 May 1856, to Jewish Galician parents in the Moravian town of Příbor (German: Freiberg in Mähren), Austrian Empire, now part of the Czech Republic.[11] His father, Jacob Freud (1815–1896),[12] was 41, a wool merchant, and had two children by a previous marriage. His mother, Amalié (née Nathansohn), the third wife of Jacob, was 21.[13] He was the first of their eight children and, in accordance with tradition, his parents favored him over his siblings from the early stages of his childhood. Freud was born with a caul, which the family accepted as a positive omen.[14] Freud was raised by the traditions and beliefs of a Jewish religion; although his attitude towards his religion was "critically negative," he always considered himself a Jew.[2]
Despite their poverty, Freud's parents ensured his schooling and education. Due to the Panic of 1857, Freud's father lost his business, and the Freud family moved to Leipzig before settling in Vienna. In 1865, the nine-year-old student Freud entered the Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium, a prominent high school. He proved an outstanding pupil and graduated from the Matura in 1873 with honors. Freud loved literature and was proficient in German, French, Italian, Spanish, English, Hebrew, Latin and Greek.[15] Freud read William Shakespeare in English throughout his life; Harold Bloom suggests that Freud's "vision of human psychology is derived, not altogether unconsciously, from his reading of the plays."[16] Freud went to the University of Vienna aged 17. He had planned to study law, but instead joined the medical faculty at the University of Vienna where his studies included philosophy under Franz Brentano, physiology under Ernst Brücke and zoology under Darwinist Professor Karl Claus.[17] In 1876 Freud spent four weeks at Claus’s zoological research station in Trieste, dissecting hundreds of eels in an inconclusive search for their male reproductive organs.
Freud graduated from the University of Vienna with an MD in 1881, and the following year began his medical career in Theodor Meynert’s psychiatric clinic at the Vienna General Hospital.
Freud resigned his hospital post in 1886 and set up in private practice specialising in "nervous disorders". The same year he married Martha Bernays the granddaughter of Isaac Bernays, a Chief Rabbi in Hamburg. The couple had six children: Mathilde, born 1887; Jean-Martin, born 1889; Oliver, born 1891; Ernst, born 1892; Sophie, born 1893; and Anna, born 1895.
Carl Jung initiated the rumor that a romantic relationship may have developed between Freud and his sister-in-law, Minna Bernays, who had moved in to the Freud household at 19 Berggasse in 1896 after the death of her fiance.[18] The publication in 2006 of a Swiss hotel log, dated 13 August 1898, has been regarded by some Freud scholars as showing that there was a factual basis to these rumors. Peter Gay, previously skeptical of the suggestion that Freud had an affair with Bernays, revised his view of the matter and concluded that an affair between them was "very possible".[19] Hans Eysenck suggests that the affair occurred, resulting in an aborted pregnancy for Miss Bernays.[20]
Freud began smoking tobacco at age 24; initially a cigarette smoker, he became a cigar smoker. Freud believed that smoking enhanced his capacity to work, and believed he could exercise self-discipline in moderating his tobacco-smoking; yet, despite warnings from colleague Wilhelm Fliess, and to the detriment of his health, Freud remained a smoker, eventually suffering a buccal cancer.[21] Freud suggested to Fliess in 1897 that addictions, including that to tobacco, are substitutes for masturbation, "the one great habit".[22]
Freud greatly admired his philosophy tutor Brentano, who was known for his theories of perception and introspection, as well as Theodor Lipps, who was one of the main contemporary theorists of the concepts of the unconscious and empathy.[23] Brentano discussed the possible existence of the unconscious mind in his 1874 book Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint. Although Brentano himself rejected the unconscious, due to his definitions of consciousness and unconsciousness, his discussion of it probably helped introduce Freud to the concept.[10]
Freud read Friedrich Nietzsche as a student and analogies between his work and that of Nietzsche were pointed out almost as soon as he developed a following.[24] In 1900, the year of Nietzsche's death, Freud bought his collected works; Freud told his friend Fliess that he hoped to find in Nietzsche's works "the words for much that remains mute in me”, though he later added that he had not yet opened them.[25] Gay writes that Freud came to treat Nietzsche's writings "as texts to be resisted far more than to be studied". Freud’s interest in philosophy declined after he had decided on a career in neurology and psychology.[26]
Development of psychoanalysis[link]
In October 1885, Freud went to Paris on a fellowship to study with Jean-Martin Charcot, a renowned neurologist who was conducting scientific research into hypnosis. He was later to recall the experience of this stay as catalytic in turning him toward the practice of medical psychopathology and away from a less financially promising career in neurology research.[28] Charcot specialized in the study of hysteria and susceptibility to hypnosis, which he frequently demonstrated with patients on stage in front of an audience.
Once he had set up in private practice in 1886, Freud began using hypnosis in his clinical work. He adopted the approach of his friend and collaborator, Josef Breuer, in a use of hypnosis which was different from the French methods he had studied in that it did not use suggestion. The treatment of one particular patient of Breuer's proved to be transformative for Freud’s clinical practice. Described as Anna O she was invited to talk about her symptoms whilst under hypnosis (she would coin the phrase “talking cure” for her treatment). In the course of talking in this way these symptoms became reduced in severity as she retrieved memories of early traumatic incidents in her life. This led Freud to eventually establish in the course of his clinical practice that a more consistent and effective pattern of symptom relief could be achieved, without recourse to hypnosis, by getting patients to talk freely about whatever ideas or memories occurred to them. In addition to this procedure, which he called “free association”, Freud found that patient’s dreams could be fruitfully analysed to reveal the complex structuring of unconscious material and to demonstrate the psychic action of repression which underlay symptom formation. By 1896 Freud had abandoned hypnosis and was using the term “psychoanalysis” to refer to his new clinical method and the theories on which it was based.[29]
On the basis of his early clinical work Freud postulated that unconscious memories of sexual molestation in early childhood were a necessary precondition for the psychoneuroses (hysteria and obsessional neurosis), a formulation now known as Freud's seduction theory.[30][31] By 1897, however, Freud had abandoned this theory, now arguing that the repressed sexual thoughts and fantasies of early childhood were the key causative factors in neuroses, whether or not derived from real events in the child’s history. This would lead to the emergence of Freud's new theory of infantile sexuality, and eventually to the Oedipus complex.[32]
Freud’s development of these new theories took place during a period in which he experienced several medical problems, including depression and heart irregularities, which became a particularly acute after the death of his father in 1896. Suspecting them to be psychosomatic in origin and disturbed by a superstitious belief that he would die at the age of 51,[33] Freud began exploring his own dreams and childhood memories. During this self-analysis, he became aware of the hostility he felt towards his father and also became convinced that he had developed sexual feelings towards his mother in infancy ("between two and two and a half years"), citing a memory of seeing her naked on a train journey.[34] Richard Webster argues that Freud’s account of his self-analysis shows that he “had remembered only a long train journey, from whose duration he deduced that he might have seen his mother undressing”, and that Freud’s memory was an artificial reconstruction.[35]
After the publication of The Interpretation of Dreams in November 1899,[36] interest in his theories began to grow, and a circle of supporters developed. However, Freud often clashed with those supporters who criticized his theories, the most famous of whom was Jung. Part of the disagreement between them was due to Jung's interest in and commitment to spirituality and occultism, which Freud saw as unscientific.[37]
Karen Horney, a pupil of Karl Abraham, criticized Freud's theory of femininity, leading him to defend it against her. Horney's challenge to Freud's theories, along with that of Melanie Klein, produced the first psychoanalytic debate on femininity. Ernest Jones, although usually an "ultra-orthodox" Freudian, sided with Horney and Klein. Horney was Freud's most outspoken critic, although her and Jones's disagreement with Freud was over how to interpret penis envy rather than whether it existed. Horney understood Freud's conception of the castration complex as a theory about the biological nature of women, one in which women were biologically castrated men, and rejected it as scientifically unsatisfying.[38]
Jacques Lacan attempted to attract Freud's attention by sending him his thesis. Freud replied to Lacan by sending him a postcard in January 1933; it read, "Thank you for sending your thesis." Élisabeth Roudinesco comments that Freud, "hadn't even deigned to open the manuscript that the young stranger had commended to him, no doubt with great ardor."[39]
Early followers[link]
Freud spent most of his life in Vienna. From 1891 until 1938 he and his family lived in an apartment at Berggasse 19 near the Innere Stadt or historical quarter of Vienna. As a docent of the University of Vienna, Freud, since the mid-1880s, had been delivering lectures on his theories to small audiences every Saturday evening at the lecture hall of the university's psychiatric clinic.[40] His work generated a considerable degree of interest from a small group of Viennese physicians. From the autumn of 1902 and shortly after his promotion to the honourific title of außerordentlicher Professor,[41] a small group of followers formed around him, meeting at his apartment every Wednesday afternoon, to discuss issues relating to psychology and neuropathology.[42] This group was called the Wednesday Psychological Society (Psychologischen Mittwoch-Gesellschaft) and it marked the beginnings of the worldwide psychoanalytic movement.[43]
This discussion group was founded around Freud at the suggestion of the physician Wilhelm Stekel. Stekel had studied medicine at the University of Vienna under Richard von Krafft-Ebing. His conversion to psychoanalysis is variously attributed to his successful treatment by Freud for a sexual problem or as a result of his reading The Interpretation of Dreams, to which he subsequently gave a positive review in the Viennese daily newspaper Neues Wiener Tagblatt.[44] The other three original members whom Freud invited to attend, Alfred Adler, Max Kahane, and Rudolf Reitler, were also physicians[45] and all five were Jewish by birth.[46] Both Kahane and Reitler were childhood friends of Freud. Kahane had attended the same secondary school and both he and Reitler went to university with Freud. They had kept abreast of Freud's developing ideas through their attendance at his Saturday evening lectures.[47] In 1901, Kahane, who first introduced Stekel to Freud's work,[40] had opened an out-patient psychotherapy institute of which he was the director in Bauernmarkt, in Vienna.[42] In the same year, his medical textbook, Outline of Internal Medicine for Students and Practicing Physicians was published. In it, he provided an outline of Freud's psychoanalytic method.[48] Kahane broke with Freud and left the Wednesday Psychological Society in 1907 for unknown reasons and in 1923 he committed suicide.[49] Reitler was the director of an establishment providing thermal cures in Dorotheergasse which had been founded in 1901.[42] He died prematurely in 1917.[50] Adler, regarded as the most formidable intellect among the early Freud circle, was a socialist who in 1898 had written a health manual for the tailoring trade. He was particularly interested in the potential social impact of psychiatry.[50]
Max Graf, a Viennese musicologist and father of "Little Hans", who had first encountered Freud in 1900 and joined the Wednesday group soon after its initial inception,[51] described the ritual and atmosphere of the early meetings of the society:
The gatherings followed a definite ritual. First one of the members would present a paper. Then, black coffee and cakes were served; cigar and cigarettes were on the table and were consumed in great quantities. After a social quarter of an hour, the discussion would begin. The last and decisive word was always spoken by Freud himself. There was the atmosphere of the foundation of a religion in that room. Freud himself was its new prophet who made the heretofore prevailing methods of psychological investigation appear superficial.[50]
By 1906 the group had grown to sixteen members, including Otto Rank, who was employed as the group's paid secretary.[52] Also in that year Freud began correspondence with Jung who was then an assistant to Eugen Bleuler at the Burghölzli Mental Hospital in Zurich.[53] In March 1907 Jung and Ludwig Binswanger, also a Swiss psychiatrist, travelled to Vienna to visit Freud and attend the discussion group. Thereafter they established a small psychoanalytic group in Zurich. In 1908, reflecting its growing institutional status, the Wednesday group was renamed the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society.[54] In 1911 the first women members were admitted to the Society. Tatiana Rosenthal and Sabina Spielrein were both Russian psychiatrists and graduates of the Zurich University medical school. Prior to the completion of her studies Spielrein had been a patient of Jung at the Burghölzli and the clinical and personal details of their relationship became the subject of an extensive correspondence between Freud and Jung. Both women would go on to make important contributions to the work of Russian Psychoanalytic Society which was founded in 1910.[55]
Freud’s early followers met together formally for the first time at the Hotel Bristol, Salzburg on 27 April 1908. This meeting, which was retrospectively deemed to be the first International Psychoanalytic Congress,[56] was convened at the suggestion of Ernest Jones, then a London based neurologist who had discovered Freud’s writings and begun applying psychoanalytic methods in his clinical work. Jones had met Jung at a conference the previous year and they met up again in Zurich to organize the Congress. There were, as Jones records, “forty-two present, half of whom were or became practicing analysts”.[57] As well as Jones and the Viennese and Zurich contingents accompanying Freud and Jung, also present and notable for their subsequent importance in the psychoanalytic movement were Abraham and Max Eitingon from Berlin, Sándor Ferenczi from Budapest and the New York based Abraham Brill.
Important decisions were taken at the Congress with a view to advancing the impact of Freud’s work. A journal, the Jahrbuch fur psychoanlytische und psychopathologishe Forschungen, was launched in 1909 under the editorship of Jung. This was followed in 1910 by the monthly Zentralblatt fur Psychoanalyse edited by Adler and Stekel, in 1911 by Imago, a journal devoted to the application of psychoanalysis to the field of cultural and literary studies edited by Rank and in 1913 by The Internationale Zeitschrift fur Psychoanalyse, also edited by Rank.[58]
Plans for an International Association of psychoanalysts were put in place and these were implemented at the Nuremberg Congress of 1910 where Jung was elected, with Freud’s support, as its first President.
Freud turned to Brill and Jones to further his ambition to spread the psychoanalytic cause in the English-speaking world. Both were invited to Vienna following the Salzburg Congress and a division of labour was agreed with Brill given the translation rights for Freud’s works, and Jones, who was to take up a post at Toronto University later in the year, tasked with establishing a platform for Freudian ideas in North American academic and medical life.[59] Jones’s advocacy prepared the way for Freud’s visit to the United States, accompanied by Jung and Ferenczi, in September 1909 at the invitation of Stanley Hall, President of Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts, where he gave five lectures on psychoanalysis.[60] (When the George Washington ocean liner arrived in New York, Freud is rumored to have remarked to Jung, "They don't realize that we are bringing them the plague."[61]) The event, at which Freud was awarded an Honorary Doctorate, marked the first public recognition of Freud’s work and attracted widespread media interest. Freud's audience included the distinguished neurologist and psychiatrist James Jackson Putnam, Professor of Diseases of the Nervous System at Harvard, who invited Freud to his country retreat where they held extensive discussions over a period of four days. Putnam’s subsequent public endorsement of Freud’s work represented a significant breakthrough for the psychoanalytic cause in the United States.[60] When Putnam and Jones organised the founding of the American Psychoanalytic Association in May 1911 they were elected President and Secretary respectively.
Brill founded the New York Psychoanalytic Society the same year. His translations of Freud’s work began to appear from 1909.
Some of Freud's followers subsequently withdrew from the International Psychoanalytic Association (IPA) and founded their own schools.
From 1909, Adler's views on topics such as neurosis began to differ markedly from those held by Freud. As Adler's position appeared increasingly incompatible with Freudianism a series of confrontations between their respective viewpoints took place at the meetings of the Viennese Psychoanalytic Society in January and February 1911. In February 1911 Adler, the then President of the society, resigned his position. At this time Stekel also resigned his position as vice-president of the society. Adler finally left the Freudian group altogether in June 1911 to found his own organization with nine other members who had also resigned from the group.[62] This new formation was initially called Society for Free Psychoanalysis but it was soon renamed the Society for Individual Psychology. In the period after World War I, Adler became increasingly associated with a psychological position he devised called individual psychology.[63]
In 1912 Jung published Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido (published in English in 1916 as Psychology of the Unconscious) and it became clear that his views were taking a direction quite different from those of Freud. To distinguish his system from psychoanalysis, Jung called it analytical psychology.[64]
Anticipating the final breakdown of the relationship between Freud and Jung, Ernest Jones initiated the formation of a Committee of loyalists charged with safeguarding the theoretical coherence and institutional legacy of the psychoanalytic movement. Formed in the Autumn of 1912, the Committee comprised Freud, Jones, Abraham, Ferenczi, Rank and Hans Sachs. Max Eitingon joined the Committee in 1919. Each member pledged themselves not to make any public departure from the fundamental tenets of psychoanalytic theory before they had discussed their views with the others.[65]
After this development Jung recognised that his position was untenable and resigned as editor of the Jarhbuch and then as President of the IPA in April 1914; the Zürich Society withdrew from the IPA the following July.[66]
Later the same year Freud published a paper entitled "The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement", the German original being first published in the Jahrbuch, giving his view on the birth and evolution of the psychoanalytic movement and the withdrawal of Adler and Jung from it.
The Committee continued to function until 1927 by which time institutional developments within the IPA, such as the establishment of the International Training Commission, served to allay some of Freud’s anxieties about the transmission of psychoanalytic theory and practice.
The final defection from Freud’s inner circle occurred following the publication in 1924 of Rank’s The Trauma of Birth which other members of the Committee read as, in effect, abandoning the Oedipus Complex as the central tenet of psychoanalytic theory. Abraham and Jones became increasingly forceful critics of Rank and though he and Freud were reluctant to end their close and long-standing relationship the break finally came in 1926 when Rank resigned from his official posts in the IPA and left Vienna for Paris. His place on the Committee was taken by Anna Freud.[67] Rank eventually settled in the United States where his revisions of Freudian theory were to influence a new generation of therapists uncomfortable with the orthodoxies of the IPA.
The early psychoanalytic movement[link]
After the founding of the IPA in 1910 an international network of psychoanalytical societies, training institutes and clinics became well established[68]and a regular schedule of biannual Congresses commenced after the end of the 1914-18 war to coordinate their activities.
After helping found the American Psychoanalytic Association in 1911, Ernest Jones returned to Britain from Canada in 1913 and founded the London Psychoanalytic Society the same year. In 1919 he dissolved this organisation and, with its core membership purged of Jungian adherents, founded the British Psychoanalytical Society, serving as its President until 1944. The Institute of Psychoanalysis was established 1924 and the London Clinic of Psychonanlysis established in 1926, both under Jones's directorship.
Abraham and Eitingon founded the Berlin Psychoanalytic Society in 1910 and then the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute and the Poliklinik in 1920. The Poliklinik's innovations of free treatment, and child analysis and the Berlin Institute's standardisation of psychoanalytic training had a major influence on the wider psychoanalytic movement.[69]
The 1910 Moscow Psychoanalytic Society became the Russian Psychoanalytic Society and Institute in 1922. Freud's Russian followers were the first to benefit from translations of his work, the 1904 Russian translation of The Interpretaion of Dreams appearing nine years before Brill's English edition. The Russian Institute was unique in receiving state support for its activities, including publication of translations of Freud’s works.[70]
The Vienna Ambulatorium (Clinic) was established in 1922 and the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute was founded in 1924 under the directorship of Helen Deutsch. Ferenczi founded the Budapest Psychoanalytic Institute in 1913 and a clinic in 1929
Psychoanalytic societies and institutes were established in France (1926), Italy (1932), Holland (1933) and in Jerusalem (1933) by Eitingon who had fled Berlin after Hitler came to power. The New York Psychoanalytic Institute was founded in 1931.
Patients[link]
Freud used pseudonyms in his case histories. Some patients known by pseudonyms were Cäcilie M. (Anna von Lieben); Dora (Ida Bauer, 1882–1945); Frau Emmy von N. (Fanny Moser); Fräulein Elisabeth von R. (Ilona Weiss);[71] Fräulein Katharina (Aurelia Kronich); Fräulein Lucy R.; Little Hans (Herbert Graf, 1903–1973); Rat Man (Ernst Lanzer, 1878–1914); Enos Fingy (Joshua Wild, 1878–1920);[72] and Wolf Man (Sergei Pankejeff, 1887–1979). Other famous patients included H.D. (1886–1961); Emma Eckstein (1865–1924); Gustav Mahler (1860–1911), with whom Freud had only a single, extended consultation; and Princess Marie Bonaparte.
Several writers have criticized both Freud's clinical efforts and his accounts of them.[73] Eysenck writes that Freud consistently mis-diagnosed his patients and fraudulently misrepresented case histories.[74] Frederick Crews writes that "...even applying his own indulgent criteria, with no allowance for placebo factors and no systematic followup to check for relapses, Freud was unable to document a single unambiguously efficacious treatment".[75] Mikkel Borch-Jacobsen writes that historians of psychoanalysis have shown "that things did not happen in the way Freud and his authorised biographers told us"; he cites Han Israëls's view that "Freud...was so confident in his first theories that he publicly boasted of therapeutic successes that he had not yet obtained." Freud, in that interpretation, was forced to provide explanations for his abandonment of those theories that concealed his real reason, which was that the therapeutic benefits he expected did not materialise; he knew that his patients were not cured, but "did not hesitate to build grand theories on these non-existent foundations."[76]
Struggle with cancer[link]
In February 1923, Freud detected a leukoplakia, a benign growth associated with heavy smoking, on his mouth. Freud initially kept this secret, but in April 1923 he informed Ernest Jones, telling him that the growth had been removed. Freud consulted the dermatologist Maximilian Steiner, who advised him to quit smoking but lied about the growth's seriousness, minimizing its importance. Freud later saw Felix Deutsch, who saw that the growth was cancerous; he identified it to Freud using the euphemism "a bad leukoplakia" instead of the technical diagnosis epithelioma. Deutsch advised Freud to stop smoking and have the growth excised. Freud was treated by Marcus Hajek, a rhinologist whose competence he had previously questioned. Hajek performed an unnecessary cosmetic surgery in his clinic's outpatient department. Freud bled during and after the operation, and may narrowly have escaped death. Freud subsequently saw Deutsch again. Deutsch saw that further surgery would be required, but refrained from telling Freud that he had cancer because he was worried that Freud might wish to commit suicide.[77]
Escape from Nazism[link]
In 1930, Freud was awarded the Goethe Prize in recognition of his contributions to psychology and to German literary culture. In January 1933, the Nazis took control of Germany, and Freud's books were prominent among those they burned and destroyed. Freud quipped: “What progress we are making. In the Middle Ages they would have burned me. Now, they are content with burning my books.”[78]
Freud continued to maintain his optimistic underestimation of the growing Nazi threat and remained determined to stay in Vienna, even following the Anschluss of 13 March 1938 in which Nazi Germany annexed Austria, and the outbursts of violent anti-Semitism that ensued.[79]
Ernest Jones, the then President of the International Psychoanalytic Association (IPA), flew into Vienna from London via Prague on 15 March determined to get Freud to change his mind and seek exile in Britain. This prospect and the shock of the detention and interrogation of Anna Freud by the Gestapo finally convinced Freud it was time to leave Vienna.[80] Jones left for London the following week with a list provided by Freud of the party of émigrés for whom immigration permits would be required. Back in London Jones used his personal acquaintance with the Home Secretary, Sir Samuel Hoare, (they were both members of the same ice-skating club) to expedite the granting of permits. There were seventeen in all and work permits were provided where relevant. Jones also used his influence in scientific circles, persuading the President of the Royal Society, Sir William Bragg, to write to the Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax, requesting to good effect that diplomatic pressure be applied in Berlin and Vienna on Freud’s behalf. Freud also had support from American diplomats, notably his ex-patient and American ambassador to France, William Bullitt.[81]
The departure from Vienna began in stages throughout April and May 1938. Freud's grandson Ernst Halberstadt, and Freud’s son Martin’s wife and children left for Paris in April. Freud’s sister-in-law, Minna Bernays, left for London on 5 May, Martin Freud the following week and Freud’s daughter Mathilde and her husband, Robert Hollitscher, on 24 May.[82]
By the end of the month, arrangements for Freud’s own departure for London had become stalled, mired in a legally tortuous and financially extortionate process of negotiation with the Nazi authorities. However, the Nazi appointed Kommissar put in charge of his assets and those of the IPA proved to be sympathetic to Freud's plight. Anton Sauerwald, who had studied chemistry at Vienna University under Professor Josef Herzig (a life-long friend of Freud), evidently retained, notwithstanding his Nazi Party allegiance, a respect for Freud's professional standing. Sauerwald was expected to disclose details of all Freud’s bank accounts to his superiors and follow their instructions to destroy the historic library of books housed in the offices of the IPA, but he did neither. He removed evidence of Freud’s foreign bank accounts to his own safe-keeping and arranged the storage of the books in the Austrian National Library where they remained until the end of the war.[83]
Though Sauerwald’s intervention lessened the financial burden of the 'flight' tax on Freud’s declared assets, other substantial charges were levied in relation to the debts of the IPA and the valuable collection of antiquities Freud possessed. Unable to access his own accounts, Freud turned to Princess Marie Bonaparte, the most eminent and wealthy of his French followers, who had arrived in Vienna to offer her support, and it was she who made the necessary funds available.[84] This enabled Sauerwald, who had just received instructions to transform Freud's home into a Race Institute for the study of Aryan superiority, to sign the necessary exit visas for Freud, his wife Martha and daughter Anna. They left Vienna on the Orient Express on 4 June, accompanied by their household staff and a doctor. They arrived in Paris the following day where they stayed as guests of Princess Marie Bonaparte before travelling overnight to London arriving at Victoria Station on 6 June.
Many famous names were soon to call on Freud to pay their respects, notably Salvador Dalí, Stefan Zweig, Leonard and Virginia Woolf and H.G. Wells. Representatives of the Royal Society called with the Society’s Charter for Freud to sign himself into membership. Bonaparte arrived towards the end of June to discuss the fate of Freud’s four elderly sisters left behind in Vienna. Her subsequent attempts to get them exit visas failed and they were all to die in Nazi concentration camps.[85] In the Spring of 1939 Anton Sauerwald arrived to see Freud, ostensibly to discuss matters relating to the assets of the IPA. He was able to do Freud one last favour. He returned to Vienna to drive Freud’s Viennese cancer specialist, Hans Pichler, to London to operate on the worsening condition of Freud’s cancerous jaw.[86]
Sauerwald was tried and imprisoned in 1945 by an Austrian court for his activities as a Nazi Party official. Responding to a plea from his wife, Anna Freud wrote to confirm that Sauerwald “used his office as our appointed commissar in such a manner as to protect my father”. Her intervention helped secure his release from jail in 1947.[87]
In the Freuds new home at 20 Maresfield Garden, Hampstead, North London, Freud’s Vienna consulting room was recreated in faithful detail. He continued to see patients there until the terminal stages of his illness. He also worked on his last books, Moses and Monotheism, published in German and English in 1938,[88] and the uncompleted Outline of Psychoanalysis which was published posthumously.
Death[link]
In September 1939, Freud, who was suffering from cancer and in severe pain, persuaded his doctor and friend Max Schur to help him commit suicide. After reading Honoré de Balzac's La Peau de chagrin in a single sitting, Freud asked him, “Schur, you remember our ‘contract’ not to leave me in the lurch when the time had come. Now it is nothing but torture and makes no sense.”[89] When Schur replied that he had not forgotten, Freud said, “I thank you.” and then “Talk it over with Anna, and if she thinks it’s right, then make an end of it.”[89] Anna Freud wanted to postpone her father’s death, but Schur convinced her it was pointless to keep him alive, and on 21 and 22 September administered doses of morphine that resulted in Freud's death on 23 September 1939.[89] Three days after his death, Freud's body was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium in England during a service attended by Austrian refugees, including the author Stefan Zweig. His ashes were later placed in the crematorium's columbarium. They rest in an ancient Greek urn that Freud received as a gift from Bonaparte, which he kept in his study in Vienna for many years. After his wife Martha died in 1951, her ashes were also placed in the urn.
Ideas[link]
Early work[link]
Freud began his study of medicine at the University of Vienna in 1873.[90] He took almost nine years to complete his studies, due to his interest in neurophysiological research, specifically investigation of the sexual anatomy of eels and the physiology of the fish nervous system. He entered private practice in neurology for financial reasons, receiving his M.D. degree in 1881 at the age of 25.[91] He was also an early researcher in the field of cerebral palsy, which was then known as "cerebral paralysis." He published several medical papers on the topic, and showed that the disease existed long before other researchers of the period began to notice and study it. He also suggested that William Little, the man who first identified cerebral palsy, was wrong about lack of oxygen during birth being a cause. Instead, he suggested that complications in birth were only a symptom. Freud hoped that his research would provide a solid scientific basis for his therapeutic technique. The goal of Freudian therapy, or psychoanalysis, was to bring repressed thoughts and feelings into consciousness in order to free the patient from suffering repetitive distorted emotions.
Classically, the bringing of unconscious thoughts and feelings to consciousness is brought about by encouraging a patient to talk about dreams and engage in free association, in which patients report their thoughts without reservation and make no attempt to concentrate while doing so.[92] Another important element of psychoanalysis is the transference, the process by which patients displace on to their analysts feelings and ideas which derive from previous figures in their lives. Transference was first seen as a regrettable phenomenon that interfered with the recovery of repressed memories and disturbed patients' objectivity, but by 1912 Freud had come to see it as an essential part of the therapeutic process.[93]
The origin of Freud's early work with psychoanalysis can be linked to Josef Breuer. Freud credited Breuer with opening the way to the discovery of the psychoanalytical method by his treatment of the case of Anna O. In November 1880 Breuer was called in to treat a highly intelligent 21-year-old woman (Bertha Pappenheim) for a persistent cough that he diagnosed as hysterical. He found that while nursing her dying father, she had developed a number of transitory symptoms, including visual disorders and paralysis and contractures of limbs, which he also diagnosed as hysterical. Breuer began to see his patient almost every day as the symptoms increased and became more persistent, and observed that she entered states of absence. He found that when, with his encouragement, she told fantasy stories in her evening states of absence her condition improved, and most of her symptoms had disappeared by April 1881. However, following the death of her father in that month her condition deteriorated again. Breuer recorded that some of the symptoms eventually remitted spontaneously, and that full recovery was achieved by inducing her to recall events that had precipitated the occurrence of a specific symptom.[94][95] In the years immediately following Breuer's treatment, Anna O. spent three short periods in sanatoria with the diagnosis "hysteria" with "somatic symptoms,"[96] and some authors have challenged Breuer's published account of a cure.[97][98][99] Richard Skues rejects this interpretation, which he sees as stemming from both Freudian and anti-psychoanalytical revisionism, that regards both Breuer's narrative of the case as unreliable and his treatment of Anna O. as a failure.[100]
In the early 1890s Freud used a form of treatment based on the one that Breuer had described to him, modified by what he called his "pressure technique" and his newly developed analytic technique of interpretation and reconstruction. According to Freud's later accounts of this period, as a result of his use of this procedure most of his patients in the mid-1890s reported early childhood sexual abuse. He believed these stories, but then came to believe that they were fantasies. He explained these at first as having the function of "fending off" memories of infantile masturbation, but in later years he wrote that they represented Oedipal fantasies.[101]
Another version of events focuses on Freud's proposing that unconscious memories of infantile sexual abuse were at the root of the psychoneuroses in letters to Fliess in October 1895, before he reported that he had actually discovered such abuse among his patients.[102] In the first half of 1896 Freud published three papers stating that he had uncovered, in all of his current patients, deeply repressed memories of sexual abuse in early childhood.[103] In these papers Freud recorded that his patients were not consciously aware of these memories, and must therefore be present as unconscious memories if they were to result in hysterical symptoms or obsessional neurosis. The patients were subjected to considerable pressure to "reproduce" infantile sexual abuse "scenes" that Freud was convinced had been repressed into the unconscious.[104] Patients were generally unconvinced that their experiences of Freud's clinical procedure indicated actual sexual abuse. He reported that even after a supposed "reproduction" of sexual scenes the patients assured him emphatically of their disbelief.[105]
As well as his pressure technique, Freud's clinical procedures involved analytic inference and the symbolic interpretation of symptoms to trace back to memories of infantile sexual abuse.[106] His claim of one hundred percent confirmation of his theory only served to reinforce previously expressed reservations from his colleagues about the validity of findings obtained through his suggestive techniques.[107]
Cocaine[link]
Main article: Cocaine
As a medical researcher, Freud was an early user and proponent of cocaine as a stimulant as well as analgesic. He believed that cocaine was a cure for many mental and physical problems, and in his 1884 paper "On Coca" he extolled its virtues. Between 1883 and 1887 he wrote several articles recommending medical applications, including its use as an antidepressant. He narrowly missed out on obtaining scientific priority for discovering its anesthetic properties of which he was aware but had mentioned only in passing.[108] (Karl Koller, a colleague of Freud's in Vienna, received that distinction in 1884 after reporting to a medical society the ways cocaine could be used in delicate eye surgery.) Freud also recommended cocaine as a cure for morphine addiction.[109] He had introduced cocaine to his friend Ernst von Fleischl-Marxow who had become addicted to morphine taken to relieve years of excruciating nerve pain resulting from an infection acquired while performing an autopsy. However, his claim that Fleischl-Marxow was cured of his addiction was premature, though he never acknowledged he had been at fault. Fleischl-Marxow developed an acute case of "cocaine psychosis", and soon returned to using morphine, dying a few years later after more suffering from intolerable pain.[110]
The application as an anesthetic turned out to be one of the few safe uses of cocaine, and as reports of addiction and overdose began to filter in from many places in the world, Freud's medical reputation became somewhat tarnished.[111]
After the "Cocaine Episode"[112] Freud ceased to publicly recommend use of the drug, but continued to take it himself occasionally for depression, migraine and nasal inflammation during the early 1890s, before giving it up in 1896.[113] In this period he came under the influence of his friend and confidant Fliess, who recommended cocaine for the treatment of the so-called nasal reflex neurosis. Fliess, who operated on the noses of several of his own patients, also performed operations on Freud and on one of Freud's patients whom he believed to be suffering from the disorder, Emma Eckstein. However, the surgery proved disastrous.[114] It has been suggested that much of Freud's early psychoanalytical theory was a by-product of his cocaine use.[115]
The unconscious[link]
Main article: Unconscious mind
The concept of the unconscious was central to Freud's account of the mind. Freud believed that while poets and thinkers had long known of the existence of the unconscious, he had ensured that it received scientific recognition in the field of psychology. However, the concept made an informal appearance in Freud's writings. It was first introduced in connection with the phenomenon of repression, to explain what happens to ideas that are repressed; Freud stated explicitly that the concept of the unconscious was based on the theory of repression. He postulated a cycle in which ideas are repressed, but remain in the mind, removed from consciousness yet operative, then reappear in consciousness under certain circumstances. The postulate was based upon the investigation of cases of traumatic hysteria, which revealed cases where the behavior of patients could not be explained without reference to ideas or thoughts of which they had no awareness. This fact, combined with the observation that such behavior could be artificially induced by hypnosis, in which ideas were inserted into people's minds, suggested that ideas were operative in the original cases, even though their subjects knew nothing of them. Freud, like Breuer, found the hypothesis that hysterical manifestations were generated by ideas to be not only warranted, but given in observation. Disagreement between them arose, however, when they attempted to give causal explanations of their data: Breuer favored a hypothesis of hypnoid states, while Freud postulated the mechanism of defense. Richard Wollheim comments that given the close correspondence between hysteria and the results of hypnosis, Breuer's hypothesis appears more plausible, and that it is only when repression is taken into account that Freud's hypothesis becomes preferable.[116]
Freud originally allowed that repression might be a conscious process, but by the time he wrote his second paper on the "Neuro-Psychoses of Defence" (1896), he apparently believed that repression, which he referred to as "the psychical mechanism of (unconscious) defence", occurred on an unconscious level. Freud further developed his theories about the unconscious in The Interpretation of Dreams (1899) and in Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious (1905), where he dealt with condensation and displacement as inherent characteristics of unconscious mental activity. Freud presented his first systematic statement of his hypotheses about unconscious mental processes in 1912, in response to an invitation from the London Society of Psychical Research to contribute to its Proceedings. Freud in 1915 expanded that statement into a more ambitious metapsychological paper entitled "The Unconscious." In both these papers, when Freud tried to distinguish between his conception of the unconscious and those that predated psychoanalysis, he found it in his postulation of ideas that are simultaneously latent and operative.[116]
Dreams[link]
Main article: Dream
Freud believed that the function of dreams is to preserve sleep by representing as fulfilled wishes that would otherwise awaken the dreamer.[117]
Psychosexual development[link]
Main article: Psychosexual development
Freud hoped to prove that his model was universally valid and thus turned to ancient mythology and contemporary ethnography for comparative material. Freud named his new theory the Oedipus complex after the famous Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex by Sophocles. "I found in myself a constant love for my mother, and jealousy of my father. I now consider this to be a universal event in childhood," Freud said. Freud sought to anchor this pattern of development in the dynamics of the mind. Each stage is a progression into adult sexual maturity, characterized by a strong ego and the ability to delay gratification (cf. Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality). He used the Oedipus conflict to point out how much he believed that people desire incest and must repress that desire. The Oedipus conflict was described as a state of psychosexual development and awareness. He also turned to anthropological studies of totemism and argued that totemism reflected a ritualized enactment of a tribal Oedipal conflict.[118] Freud also believed that the Oedipus complex was bisexual, involving an attraction to both parents[119]
Traditional accounts have held that, as a result of frequent reports from his patients, in the mid-1890s Freud posited that psychoneuroses were a consequence of early childhood sexual abuse.[120] More specifically, in three papers published in 1896 he contended that unconscious memories of sexual abuse in infancy are a necessary precondition for the development of adult psychoneuroses. However, examination of Freud's original papers has revealed that his clinical claims were not based on patients' reports but were findings deriving from his analytical clinical methodology, which at that time included coercive procedures.[121][122][123][124][125] He privately expressed his loss of faith in the theory to his friend Fliess in September 1897, giving several reasons, including that he had not been able to bring a single case to a successful conclusion.[126] In 1906, while still maintaining that his earlier claims to have uncovered early childhood sexual abuse events remained valid, he postulated a new theory of the occurrence of unconscious infantile fantasies.[127] He had incorporated his notions of unconscious fantasies in The Interpretation of Dreams (1899), but did not explicitly relate his seduction theory claims to the Oedipus theory until 1925.[128] Notwithstanding his abandonment of the seduction theory, Freud always recognized that some neurotics had experienced childhood sexual abuse.
Freud also believed that the libido developed in individuals by changing its object, a process codified by the concept of sublimation. He argued that humans are born "polymorphously perverse", meaning that any number of objects could be a source of pleasure. He further argued that, as humans develop, they become fixated on different and specific objects through their stages of development—first in the oral stage (exemplified by an infant's pleasure in nursing), then in the anal stage (exemplified by a toddler's pleasure in evacuating his or her bowels), then in the phallic stage. In the latter stage, Freud contended, male infants become fixated on the mother as a sexual object (known as the Oedipus Complex), a phase brought to an end by threats of castration, resulting in the castration complex, the severest trauma in his young life.[129] (In his later writings Freud postulated an equivalent Oedipus situation for infant girls, the sexual fixation being on the father. Though not advocated by Freud himself, the term 'Electra complex' is sometimes used in this context.)[130] The repressive or dormant latency stage of psychosexual development preceded the sexually mature genital stage of psychosexual development. The child needs to receive the proper amount of satisfaction at any given stage in order to move on easily to the next stage of development; under or over gratification can lead to a fixation at that stage, which could cause a regression back to that stage later in life.[131]
Id, ego, and super-ego[link]
Main article: Id, ego, and super-ego
In his later work, Freud proposed that the human psyche could be divided into three parts: Id, ego, and super-ego. Freud discussed this model in the 1920 essay Beyond the Pleasure Principle, and fully elaborated upon it in The Ego and the Id (1923), in which he developed it as an alternative to his previous topographic schema (i.e., conscious, unconscious, and preconscious). The id is the completely unconscious, impulsive, child-like portion of the psyche that operates on the "pleasure principle" and is the source of basic impulses and drives; it seeks immediate pleasure and gratification.[131]
Freud acknowledged that his use of the term Id (das Es, "the It") derives from the writings of Georg Groddeck.[132] The super-ego is the moral component of the psyche, which takes into account no special circumstances in which the morally right thing may not be right for a given situation. The rational ego attempts to exact a balance between the impractical hedonism of the id and the equally impractical moralism of the super-ego; it is the part of the psyche that is usually reflected most directly in a person's actions. When overburdened or threatened by its tasks, it may employ defense mechanisms including denial, repression, and displacement. This concept is usually represented by the "Iceberg Model".[133] This model represents the roles the Id, Ego, and Super Ego play in relation to conscious and unconscious thought.
Freud compared the relationship between the ego and the id to that between a charioteer and his horses: the horses provide the energy and drive, while the charioteer provides direction.[131]
Life and death drives[link]
Main articles: Libido and Death drive
Freud believed that people are driven by two conflicting central desires: the life drive (libido or Eros) (survival, propagation, hunger, thirst, and sex) and the death drive. The death drive was also termed "Thanatos", although Freud did not use that term; "Thanatos" was introduced in this context by Paul Federn.[134] Freud hypothesized that libido is a form of mental energy with which processes, structures and object-representations are invested.[135]
In Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Freud inferred the existence of the death instinct. Its premise was a regulatory principle that has been described as "the principle of psychic inertia", "the Nirvana principle", and "the conservatism of instinct". Its background was Freud's earlier Project for a Scientific Psychology, where he had defined the principle governing the mental apparatus as its tendency to divest itself of quantity or to reduce tension to zero. Freud had been obliged to abandon that definition, since it proved adequate only to the most rudimentary kinds of mental functioning, and replaced the idea that the apparatus tends toward a level of zero tension with the idea that it tends toward a minimum level of tension.[136]
Freud in effect readopted the original definition in Beyond the Pleasure Principle, this time applying it to a different principle. He asserted that on certain occasions the mind acts as though it could eliminate tension entirely, or in effect to reduce itself to a state of extinction; his key evidence for this was the existence of the compulsion to repeat. Examples of such repetition included the dream life of traumatic neurotics and children's play. In the phenomenon of repetition, Freud saw a psychic trend to work over earlier impressions, to master them and derive pleasure from them, a trend was prior to the pleasure principle but not opposed to it. In addition to that trend, however, there was also a principle at work that was opposed to, and thus "beyond" the pleasure principle. If repetition is a necessary element in the binding of energy or adaptation, when carried to inordinate lengths it becomes a means of abandoning adaptations and reinstating earlier or less evolved psychic positions. By combining this idea with the hypothesis that all repetition is a form of discharge, Freud reached the conclusion that the compulsion to repeat is an effort to restore a state that is both historically primitive and marked by the total draining of energy: death.[136]
Religion[link]
Main article: Freud and religion
Freud regarded the monotheistic God as an illusion based upon the infantile emotional need for a powerful, supernatural pater familias. He maintained that religion – once necessary to restrain man’s violent nature in the early stages of civilization – in modern times, can be set aside in favor of reason and science.[137] “Obsessive Actions and Religious Practices” (1907) notes the likeness between faith (religious belief) and neurotic obsession.[138] Totem and Taboo (1913) proposes that society and religion begin with the patricide and eating of the powerful paternal figure, who then becomes a revered collective memory.[139] In Civilization and its Discontents (1930), he quotes his friend Romain Rolland, who described religion as an “oceanic sensation”, but says he never experienced this feeling.[140] Moses and Monotheism (1937) proposes that Moses was the tribal pater familias, killed by the Jews, who psychologically coped with the patricide with a reaction formation conducive to their establishing monotheist Judaism;[141] analogously, he described the Roman Catholic rite of Holy Communion as cultural evidence of the killing and devouring of the sacred father.[88][142] Moreover, he perceived religion, with its suppression of violence, as mediator of the societal and personal, the public and the private, conflicts between Eros and Thanatos, the forces of life and death.[143] Later works indicate Freud’s pessimism about the future of civilization, which he noted in the 1931 edition of Civilization and its Discontents.[144]
Legacy[link]
Psychotherapy[link]
Freud provided the basis for the entire field of individual verbal psychotherapy. According to Donald H. Ford and Hugh B. Urban, "Later systems have differed about therapy and technique in certain respects, but all of them have been constructed around Freud's basic discovery that if one can arrange a special set of conditions and have the patient talk about his difficulties in certain ways, behavior changes of many kinds can be accomplished."[146] Joel Kovel sees Freud as the progenitor of modern therapy, although he grants that psychoanalysis itself has "sunk to a relatively minor role so far as actual therapeutic practice goes."[147]
The neo-Freudians, a loosely defined group understood by Kovel to include Adler, Rank, Horney, Harry Stack Sullivan and Erich Fromm, rejected Freud's theory of instinctual drive, emphasized 'interpersonal relations' and areas of mental life such as self-assertiveness, and made modifications to therapeutic practice that reflected these theoretical shifts. Adler originated the basic approach, although his influence was indirect. In Kovel's view, the assumption that underlies neo-Freudian practice also informs "most therapeutic approaches now extant" in the United States: "If what is wrong with people follows directly from bad experience, then therapy can be in its basics nothing but good experience as a corrective." Neo-Freudian analysis therefore places more emphasis on the patient's relationship with the analyst and less on exploration of the unconscious.[147]
Lacan approached psychoanalysis through linguistics and literature. Lacan believed that Freud's essential work had been done prior to 1905, and concerned the interpretation of dreams, neurotic symptoms, and slips, which had been based on a revolutionary way of understanding language and its relation to experience and subjectivity. Lacan believed that ego psychology and object relations theory were based upon misreadings of Freud's work; for Lacan, the determinative dimension of human experience is neither the self (as in ego psychology) nor relations with others (as in object relations theory), but language. Lacan saw desire as more important than need, and considered it necessarily ungratifiable: according to one account, "...for Lacan, the child comes to desire above all else to be the completing object of the m(other's) desire."[148]
Wilhelm Reich developed ideas that Freud had developed at the beginning of his psychoanalytic investigation, but then superseded but never finally discarded; these were the concept of the Actualneurosis, and a theory of anxiety based upon the idea of dammed-up libido. In Freud's original view, what really happened to a person (the 'actual') determined the resulting neurotic disposition. Freud applied that idea both to infants and to adults; in the former case, seductions were sought as the causes of later neuroses, and in the latter incomplete sexual release. Unlike Freud, Reich retained the idea that actual experience, especially sexual experience, was of key significance. Kovel writes that by the 1920s, Reich had "taken Freud's original ideas about sexual release to the point of specifying the orgasm as the criteria of healthy function." Reich was also "developing his ideas about character into a form that would later take shape, first as 'muscular armour', and eventually as a transducer of universal biological energy, the orgone."[147]
Fritz Perls, who helped to develop Gestalt therapy, was influenced by Reich and Jung as well as by Freud. The key idea of gestalt therapy is that Freud overlooked the structure of awareness, which, properly understood, is "an active process that moves toward the construction of organized meaningful wholes...between an organism and its environment." These wholes, called gestalts, are "patterns involving all the layers of organismic function — thought, feeling, and activity." Neurosis is seen as splitting in the formation of gestalts, and anxiety as the organism sensing "the struggle towards its creative unification." Gestalt therapy attempts to cure patients through placing them in contact with "immediate organismic needs." Perls rejected the verbal approach of classical psychoanalysis; talking in gestalt therapy serves the purpose of self-expression rather than gaining self-knowledge. Gestalt therapy usually takes place in groups, and in concentrated "workshops" rather than being spread out over a long period of time; it has been extended into new forms of communal living.[147]
Arthur Janov's primal therapy, which has been an influential post-Freudian psychotherapy, resembles psychoanalytic therapy in its emphasis on early childhood experience, but nevertheless has profound differences with it. While Janov's theory is akin to Freud's early idea of Actualneurosis, he does not have a dynamic psychology but a nature psychology like that of Reich or Perls, in which need is primary while wish is derivative and dispensable when need is met. Despite its surface similarity to Freud's ideas, Janov's theory lacks a strictly psychological account of the unconscious and belief in infantile sexuality. While for Freud there was a hierarchy of danger situations, for Janov the key event in the child's life is awareness that the parents do not love it.[147] Janov writes that primal therapy in some ways "has returned full circle to early Freud."[149]
Crews considers Freud the key influence upon "champions of survivorship" such as Ellen Bass and Laura Davis, co-authors of The Courage to Heal, although in his view they are indebted not to classic psychoanalysis but to "the pre-psychoanalytic Freud, the one who supposedly took pity on his hysterical patients, found that they were all harboring memories of early abuse...and cured them by unknotting their repression." Crews sees Freud as having anticipated the recovered memory movement's "puritanical alarmism" by emphasizing "mechanical cause-and-effect relations between symptomatology and the premature stimulation of one body zone or another", and with pioneering its "technique of thematically matching a patient's symptom with a sexually symmetrical 'memory.'" Crews believes that Freud's confidence in accurate recall of early memories anticipates the theories of recovered memory therapists such as Lenore Terr, which in his view have led to people being imprisoned or involved in litigation.[150]
Ethan Watters and Richard Ofshe write that the psychodynamic conception of the mind may be at the end of its usefulness, which could affect "thousands upon thousands and therapists and their patients." They believe that due to "the massive investment the field of psychotherapy has made in the psychodynamic approach, the dying convulsions of the paradigm will not be pretty", although they grant that the psychodynamic paradigm "may retain the appearance of buoyancy to the uninformed or unsophisticated."[151]
Science[link]
Verdicts on the scientific merits of Freud's theories have differed. Gilbert Ryle calls Freud "psychology's one man of genius" and the influence of his teaching "deservedly profound" even though its allegories have been "damagingly popular",[152] while David Stafford-Clark calls him "a man whose name will always rank with those of Darwin, Copernicus, Newton, Marx and Einstein; someone who really made a difference to the way the rest of us can begin to think about the meaning of human life and society."[153] Seymour Fisher and Roger P. Greenberg write that, "A reservoir of experimental data pertinent to Freud's work currently exists and...offers support for a respectable number of his major ideas and theories."[7] Camille Paglia writes that Freud, "...intricately explored the metaphors and metamorphoses of the dream process; he demonstrated our daily, comic self-sabotage through slips of the tongue and accidents; he charted the fierce, subliminal conflicts of love and family life; he argued for the full sexuality of women, which the Victorian 19th century censored out; he shockingly established that sexuality does not begin at puberty but in childhood and even infancy".[154]
In contrast, Lydiard H. Horton calls Freud's dream theory "dangerously inaccurate"[155] and Eysenck claims that Freud "set psychiatry back one hundred years" and that "what is true in his theories is not new and what is new in his theories is not true",[156] while Peter Medawar, a Nobel Prize winning immunologist, made the oft-quoted remark that psychoanalysis is the "most stupendous intellectual confidence trick of the twentieth century",[157] and Webster calls psychoanalysis "perhaps the most complex and successful" pseudoscience in history.[3] J. Allan Hobson believes that Freud, by rhetorically discrediting 19th century investigators of dreams such as Alfred Maury and the Marquis de Hervey de Saint-Denis at a time when study of the physiology of the brain was only beginning, created "a break, which lasted half a century, in the scientific tradition of dream theory."[158] Crews writes that "Step by step, we are learning that Freud has been the most overrated figure in the entire history of science and medicine—one who wrought immense harm through the propagation of false etiologies, mistaken diagnoses, and fruitless lines of inquiry."[159]
Karl Popper, who argued that all proper scientific theories must be potentially falsifiable, claimed that Freud's psychoanalytic theories were presented in unfalsifiable form, meaning that no experiment or observation could ever prove them wrong.[160] Adolf Grünbaum considers Popper's critique of Freud flawed, and argues that many of Freud's theories are empirically testable,[6] for example the theory that paranoia results from repressed homosexuality invites the falsifiable prediction that a decline in the repression of homosexuality will result in a corresponding decline in paranoia, thereby disproving Popper's claim that psychoanalytic propositions can never be proven wrong.[161] Grünbaum's view has in turn been challenged from different perspectives. Ernest Gellner describes Freudian psychoanalysis as "an inherently untestable system [that] can and does often permit a kind of ex gratia testing, on the understanding that this privilege remains easily revocable at will and short notice."[162] Frank Cioffi and Allen Esterson both dispute Grünbaum's contentions that Freud was "hospitable to refutation" and his modifications of his theories as a rule "clearly motivated by evidence", arguing that his exegesis of Freud's writings is flawed on this issue.[163][164]
According to a study that appeared in the June 2008 issue of The Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, while psychoanalysis remains influential in the humanities, it is regarded as "desiccated and dead" by psychology departments and textbooks. The New York Times commented that to psychoanalysts the report underscores "pressing questions about the relevance of their field and whether it will survive as a practice", noting that the marginalization of Freudian theory in psychology departments has been attributed to psychoanalysts being out of step with the way in which other disciplines in psychology have placed "emphasis on testing the validity of their approaches scientifically." Meanwhile, advances in neuroscience have "attracted new students and resources, further squeezing out psychoanalysis."[5]
Researchers in the emerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis, founded by neuroscientist and psychoanalyst Mark Solms,[165] have argued for Freud's theories, pointing out brain structures relating to Freudian concepts such as libido, drives, the unconscious, and repression.[166][167] However, Solms's case is frequently dependent on the notion of neuro-scientific findings being "broadly consistent" with Freudian theories,[168] rather than strict validations of those theories.[169] More generally the dream researcher G. William Domhoff has disputed claims of specifically Freudian dream theory being validated as contended by Solms.[170] There has also been criticism of the very concept of neuro-psychoanalysis by psychoanalysts.[171]
Philosophy[link]
Freud's theories have influenced the Frankfurt School and critical theory. Herbert Marcuse's Eros and Civilization helped make the idea that Freud and Marx were "speaking to similar questions, if from very different vantage points" credible to the left. Marcuse criticized neo-Freudian revisionism for discarding the death instinct, the primal horde, and the killing of the primal father, which he saw as Freud's most daring hypotheses and possessed of symbolic value, and for flattening out the conflicts between individual and society and between instinctual desires and consciousness, which he saw as a conformist return to pre-Freudian psychology. Rejecting the idea that the death instinct meant an innate urge to aggression, Marcuse interpreted it instead as aiming at the end of the tension that is life. For Marcuse, since it was based on the so-called Nirvana principle, which expressed yearning for the tranquility of inorganic nature, the death instinct was similar in its goals to the life instinct. Marcuse argued that if the tension of life were reduced, the death instinct would cease to be very powerful, thereby turning Freud's seemingly pessimistic conclusions in a utopian direction.[172]
Theodor W. Adorno writes that Freud was Edmund Husserl's "opposite number...against the entire claim and tendency of whose psychology Husserl's polemic against psychologism could have been directed."[173] Fromm identifies Freud, together with Karl Marx and Albert Einstein, as the "architects of the modern age", while nevertheless remarking, "That Marx is a figure of world historical significance with whom Freud cannot even be compared in this respect hardly needs to be said."[174] For Paul Robinson, Freud "rendered for the twentieth century services comparable to those Marx rendered for the nineteenth."[175]
Jean-Paul Sartre critiques Freud's theory of the unconscious in Being and Nothingness, claiming that consciousness is essentially self-conscious. Sartre also attempts to adapt some of Freud's ideas to his own account of human life, and thereby develop an 'existential psychoanalysis' in which causal categories are replaced by teleological categories.[176] Wollheim and Thomas Baldwin argue that Sartre bases his critique on a misunderstanding of Freud.[116][176] Maurice Merleau-Ponty considers Freud, like Hegel, Kierkegaard, Marx, and Nietzsche, to be one of the anticipators of phenomenology.[177] Paul Ricœur sees Freud as one of the masters of the "school of suspicion", alongside Marx and Nietzsche.[8] Ricœur and Jürgen Habermas have helped create "a distinctly hermeneutic version of Freud", one which "claimed him as the most significant progenitor of the shift from an objectifying, empiricist understanding of the human realm to one stressing subjectivity and interpretation." Their interpretation of Freud has been criticized by Grünbaum, who argues that it radically misrepresents Freud's views, falsely suggesting that his claim to be a scientist rested in faith in an outmoded materialist ontology of the mind.[161] Louis Althusser drew on Freud's concept of overdetermination for his reinterpretation of Marx's Capital. Harry Cleaver believes that the result is a confused "hodgepodge" in which crucial terms are left undefined.[178]
Jean-François Lyotard was interested in Freud's view that dream thoughts are hidden messages and codes that require analysis and interpretation, and in Freud's account of the operations of condensation and displacement. Lyotard's theory of the unconscious goes further than Freud's by reversing its account of the dream-work: for Lyotard, condensation (metonymy) does not compact the material of the dream and desire is not disguised. The unconscious is desire, but not in a disguised form. It is a force whose intensity is manifest not by way of condensation but via disfiguration.[179] Jacques Derrida finds Freud to be both a late figure in the history of western metaphysics and, with Nietzsche and Heidegger, an important precursor of his own brand of radicalism.[180] Crews considers Derrida's use of psychoanalysis one example of how he has appropriated and denatured propositions from systems of thought whose premises he nevertheless rejects. Crews writes that Derrida credits Freud with discovering "the irreducibility of the 'effect of deferral'" and the realization that "the present is not primal . . . but reconstitued" in the same essay in which he calls psychoanalysis an "unbelievable mythology." According to Crews, Derrida endorses "Freud's creakiest psychophysical concepts, such as 'repressed memory traces' and 'cathectic innervations', simply because they evoke his own central notion of différance."[181]
Gellner sees numerous parallels between Plato and Freud: "Plato and Freud hold virtually the same theory of dreams. They hold all in all rather similar tripartite theories of the structure of the human soul/personality." Gellner concludes Freud "constitutes the inversion of Plato: he is Plato stood-on-his-head." Whereas Plato saw an "inherent hierarchy in the very nature of things", and relied upon it to validate norms, Freud was a naturalist who could not follow such an approach. Both men's theories drew a parallel between the structure of the human mind and that of society, but while Plato wanted to strengthen the super-ego, which corresponded to the aristocracy, Freud wanted to strengthen the ego, which corresponded to the middle class.[9]
Paul Vitz sees numerous similarities between Freud's ideas and Thomism, noting that Brentano saw Thomas Aquinas as one of the first people to teach that there is such a thing as the unconscious and that Freud may have been unknowingly siding with Aquinas on this issue.[10] Bernard Williams writes that there has been hope that some psychoanalytical theories may "support some ethical conception as a necessary part of human happiness", but that in some cases the theories appear to support such hopes because they themselves involve ethical thought. In his view, while such theories may be better as channels of individual help because of their ethical basis, it disqualifies them from providing a basis for ethics.[182]
Feminism[link]
Robinson, observing that "Everyone knows that Freud has fallen from grace", suggests that the disenchantment with Freud can be traced to the revival of feminism.[184] Simone de Beauvoir criticizes Freud and psychoanalysis from an existentialist standpoint in The Second Sex, arguing that Freud saw an "original superiority" in the male that is in reality socially induced.[4] Betty Friedan criticizes Freud and what she considered his Victorian view of women in The Feminine Mystique.[183] Freud's concept of penis envy was attacked by Kate Millett, whose Sexual Politics accused him of confusion and oversights.[185] Naomi Weisstein writes that Freud and his followers erroneously thought that his "years of intensive clinical experience" added up to scientific rigor.[186] Freud is also criticized by Shulamith Firestone and Eva Figes. In The Dialectic of Sex, Firestone argues that Freud was a "poet" who produced metaphors rather than literal truths; in her view, Freud, like feminists, recognized that sexuality was the crucial problem of modern life, but ignored the social context and failed to question society itself. Firestone interprets Freudian "metaphors" in terms of the literal facts of power within the family. Figes tries to place Freud within a "history of ideas." Juliet Mitchell defends Freud against his feminist critics in Psychoanalysis and Feminism, accusing them of misreading him and misunderstanding the implications of psychoanalytic theory for feminism. Mitchell helped introduce English-speaking feminists to Lacan.[4] Mitchell is criticized by Jane Gallop in The Daughter's Seduction. Gallop complements Mitchell for her criticism of "the distortions inflicted by feminists upon Freud's text and his discoveries", but finds her treatment of Lacanian theory lacking.[187]
Some French feminists, among them Julia Kristeva and Luce Irigaray, have been influenced by Freud as interpreted by Lacan.[188] Irigaray has produced a theoretical challenge to Freud and Lacan, using their theories against them to "put forward a coherent psychoanalytic explanation for theoretical bias. She claims that the cultural unconscious only recognizes the male sex, and details the effects of this unconscious belief on accounts of the psychology of women."[189] Feminist scholars such as Elizabeth Wilson, Ranjana Khanna, and Elizabeth Grosz have reconsidered the significance of Freud’s work for an understanding of sexual difference that accounts for the materiality of the body without reifying the biological and the neurological. They suggest that psychoanalysis can be put to work in ways which challenge anti-biologism and its reinforcement of epistemological and ontological binaries of human/animal, nature/the social, empirical reality/interpretation and man/woman.[190][191]
Carol Gilligan writes that "The penchant of developmental theorists to project a masculine image, and one that appears frightening to women, goes back at least to Freud..." She sees Freud's criticism of women's sense of justice reappearing in the work of Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg. Gilligan notes that Nancy Chodorow, in contrast to Freud, attributes differences between the sexes not to anatomy but to the fact that "the early social environment differs for and is experienced differently by male and female children." Chodorow writes "against the masculine bias of psychoanalytic theory" and "replaces Freud's negative and derivative description of female psychology with a positive and direct account of her own."[192]
Works[link]
Major works by Freud[link]
- The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, translated from the German under the General Editorship of James Strachey. In collaboration with Anna Freud. Assisted by Alix Strachey and Alan Tyson, 24 volumes, Vintage, 1999
- Studies on Hysteria (with Josef Breuer) (Studien über Hysterie, 1895)
- The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fliess, 1887–1904, Publisher: Belknap Press, 1986, ISBN 978-0-674-15421-6
- The Interpretation of Dreams (Die Traumdeutung, 1899 [1900]) ISBN 978-0-465-01977-9
- The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (Zur Psychopathologie des Alltagslebens, 1901) ISBN 978-1-4565-6856-6
- Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie, 1905)
- Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious (Der Witz und seine Beziehung zum Unbewußten, 1905)
- Delusion and Dream in Jensen's Gradiva (Der Wahn und die Träume in W. Jensens Gradiva, 1907)
- Totem and Taboo (Totem und Tabu, 1913)
- On Narcissism (Zur Einführung des Narzißmus, 1914)
- Introduction to Psychoanalysis (Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die Psychoanalyse, 1917)
- Beyond the Pleasure Principle (Jenseits des Lustprinzips, 1920)
- The Ego and the Id (Das Ich und das Es, 1923)
- The Future of an Illusion (Die Zukunft einer Illusion, 1927)
- Civilization and Its Discontents (Das Unbehagen in der Kultur, 1930)
- Moses and Monotheism (Der Mann Moses und die monotheistische Religion, 1939)
- An Outline of Psycho-Analysis (Abriß der Psychoanalyse, 1940)
- The Question of Lay Analysis
Correspondence[link]
- The Letters of Sigmund Freud and Otto Rank: Inside Psychoanalysis (eds. E. J. Lieberman and Robert Kramer). Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012.
- The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fliess, 1887–1904, (editor and translator Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson), 1985, ISBN 978-0-674-15420-9
- The Sigmund Freud Carl Gustav Jung Letters, Publisher: Princeton University Press; Abr edition, 1994, ISBN 978-0-691-03643-4
- The Complete Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Karl Abraham, 1907–1925, Publisher: Karnac Books, 2002, ISBN 978-1-85575-051-7
- The Complete Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Ernest Jones, 1908–1939., Belknap Press, Harvard University Press, 1995, ISBN 978-0-674-15424-7
- The Sigmund Freud Ludwig Binswanger Letters, Publisher: Open Gate Press, 2000, ISBN 978-1-871871-45-6
- The Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Sándor Ferenczi, Volume 1, 1908–1914, Belknap Press, Harvard University Press, 1994, ISBN 978-0-674-17418-4
- The Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Sándor Ferenczi, Volume 2, 1914–1919, Belknap Press, Harvard University Press, 1996, ISBN 978-0-674-17419-1
- The Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Sándor Ferenczi, Volume 3, 1920–1933, Belknap Press, Harvard University Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-674-00297-5
- The Letters of Sigmund Freud to Eduard Silberstein, 1871–1881, Belknap Press, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-52828-4
- Sigmund Freud and Lou Andreas-Salome; letters, Publisher: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich; 1972, ISBN 978-0-15-133490-2
- The Letters of Sigmund Freud and Arnold Zweig, Publisher: New York University Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-8147-2585-6
- Letters of Sigmund Freud – selected and edited by Ernst Ludwig Freud, Publisher: New York: Basic Books, 1960, ISBN 978-0-486-27105-7
Other works and essays[link]
- Dostoevsky and Parricide
- Medusa's Head (Das Medusenhaupt, 1922)
- Reflections on War and Death (Zeitgemäßes über Krieg und Tod, 1918)
See also[link]
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References[link]
- ^ Tansley, A. G. (1941). "Sigmund Freud. 1856–1939". Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society 3 (9): 246–226. DOI:10.1098/rsbm.1941.0002. edit
- ^ a b Hothersall, D. 2004. "History of Psychology", 4th ed., Mcgraw-Hill:NY p. 276
- ^ a b Webster, Richard. Why Freud Was Wrong: Sin, Science and Psychoanalysis. London: The Orwell Press, 2005, p. 12
- ^ a b c Mitchell, Juliet. Psychoanalysis and Feminism: A Radical Reassessment of Freudian Psychoanalysis. London: Penguin Books, 2000, pp. xxix, 303–356
- ^ a b June 2008 study by the American Psychoanalytic Association, as reported in the New York Times, "Freud Is Widely Taught at Universities, Except in the Psychology Department" by Patricia Cohen, 25 November 2007.
- ^ a b Grünbaum, A. The Foundations of Psychoanalysis: A Philosophical Critique. University of California Press, 1984, pp. 97–126.
- ^ a b Fisher, Seymour & Greenberg, Roger P. Freud Scientifically Reappraised: Testing the Theories and Therapy. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1996, pp. 284–285
- ^ a b Ricoeur, Paul. Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1970, p. 32
- ^ a b Gellner, Ernest. The Psychoanalytic Movement: The Cunning of Unreason. London: Fontana Press, 1993, p. 140-143
- ^ a b c Vitz, Paul C. Sigmund Freud's Christian Unconscious. New York: The Guilford Press, 1988, pp. 53–54.
- ^ Gresser, Moshe. Dual Allegiance: Freud As a Modern Jew. SUNY Press, 1994, p. 225
- ^ Hergenhahn, BR. An introduction to the history of psychology. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005, p. 475
- ^ Gay, Peter. Freud: A Life for Our Time. London: Papermac, 1988, p.5
- ^ Deborah P. Margolis, M.A.. "D.P. Morgalis, Freud and his Mother". Pep-web.org. http://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=MPSA.014.0037A. Retrieved 6 February 2011.
- ^ name="Hothersall, D 2004. p. 276"
- ^ Bloom, Harold. The Western Canon. New York, Riverhead Books, p.346
- ^ Hothersall, D. 1995. History of Psychology, 3rd ed., Mcgraw-Hill:NY
- ^ Gay, Peter. Freud: A Life for Our Time. London: Papermac, 1988, p. 76.
- ^ Blumenthal, Ralph (24 December 2006). "Hotel log hints at desire that Freud didn't repress". International Herald Tribune. http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/12/24/europe/web.1224freud.php.
- ^ name=Eysenck
- ^ Gay, Peter. Freud: A Life for Our Time. London: Papermac, 1988, pp. 77, 169.
- ^ Freud, Sigmund ed. Marie Bonaparte, Anna Freud, & Ernst Kris The Origins of Psychoanalysis: Letters to Wilhelm Fliess: Drafts and Notes 1887-1902 1954 Basic Books New York pages 238-239
- ^ Pigman, G.W. (April 1995). "Freud and the history of empathy". The International journal of psycho-analysis 76 (2): 237–56. PMID 7628894.
- ^ Paul Roazen, in Dufresne, Todd (ed). Returns of the French Freud: Freud, Lacan, and Beyond. New York and London: Routledge Press, 1997, p. 13
- ^ Gay, Peter. Freud: A Life for Our Time. London: Papermac, 1988, p.45.
- ^ Holt, Robert. Holt, Robert R.. New York: The Guilford Press, 1989, p. 242
- ^ "Freudfile Sigmund Freud Life and Work – Jean-Martin Charcot". Freudfile.org. http://www.freudfile.org/charcot.html. Retrieved 6 February 2011.
- ^ Joseph Aguayo, PhD. "Joseph Aguayo ''Charcot and Freud: Some Implications of Late 19th century French Psychiatry and Politics for the Origins of Psychoanalysis'' (1986). Psychoanalysis and Contemporary Thought, 9:223–260". Pep-web.org. http://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=pct.009.0223a. Retrieved 6 February 2011.
- ^ Gay, Peter. Freud: A Life for Our Time. London: Papermac, 1988, pp. 64–71.
- ^ Freud, Sigmund (1896c). The Aetiology of Hysteria. Standard Edition 3, pp. 203, 211, 219.
- ^ Eissler, K.R. (2005), Freud and the Seduction Theory: A Brief Love Affair. Int. Univ. Press, p. 96.
- ^ Gay, Peter. Freud: A Life for Our Time. London: Papermac, 1988, pp. 94-96.
- ^ Jones, E. Sigmund Freud: Life and Work. Hogarth Press, 1953, pp. 339–342.
- ^ Masson, Jeffrey M. (ed.). The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fless, 1887–1904. Harvard University Press, 1985, pp. 268, 272.
- ^ Webster, Richard. Why Freud Was Wrong. London: HarperCollins, 1995, pp. 253–254.
- ^ Peter Gay points out that although Die Traumdietung was published on 4 November 1899, the date that incorrectly appeared on the title page was 1900. Gay, Peter (1998). Freud: a Life for Our Time. New York: Norton. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-393-31826-5.
- ^ Gay, Peter (29 March 1999). The TIME 100: Sigmund Freud. Time Inc.. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,990609-2,00.html. Retrieved 24 November 2007.
- ^ Appignanesi, Lisa & Forrester, John. Freud's Women. London: Penguin Books, 2000
- ^ Roudinesco, Elisabeth (1997). Jacques Lacan. Cambridge: Polity Press. p. 58. ISBN 0-7456-1523-6.
- ^ a b Rose, Louis (1998). The Freudian Calling: Early Psychoanalysis and the Pursuit of Cultural Science. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-8143-2621-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=DTMnqDhTzNgC&pg=PA52.
- ^ Professor extraordinarius, or professor without a chair. Gay, Peter (1988). Freud : a life for our time. London: Dent. p. 153. ISBN 978-0-460-04761-6. Makari, George (2008). Revolution in mind : the creation of psychoanalysis (Australian ed.). Carlton, Vic.: Melbourne University Publishing. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-522-85480-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=uPWBHwLjeXsC&printsec&pg=PA129.
- ^ a b c Schwartz, Joseph (2003). Cassandra's daughter : a history of psychoanalysis. London: Karnac. p. 100. ISBN 978-1-85575-939-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=zjw-9LEpR04C&pg=PA100.
- ^ Ellenberger, Henri F. (1970). The Discovery of the Unconscious : the History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry ([Repr.] ed.). New York: Basic Books. pp. 443, 454. ISBN 978-0-465-01673-0.
- ^ Stekel's review appeared in 1902. In it he declared that Freud's work heraled, "a new era in psychology". Rose, Louis (1998). The Freudian Calling: Early Psychoanalysis and the Pursuit of Cultural Science. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-8143-2621-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=DTMnqDhTzNgC&pg=PA52. . See also: Makari, George (2008). Revolution in Mind: the Creation of Psychoanalysis (Australian ed.). Carlton, Vic.: Melbourne University Publishing. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-522-85480-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=uPWBHwLjeXsC&printsec&pg=PA130. Boss, Japp; Groenendijk, Leendert (2007). "Marginalization through psychoanalysis: an introduction". In Japp Boss and Leendert Groenendijk (eds). The Self-Marginalization of Wilhelm Stekel: Freudian Circles Inside and Out. New York. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-387-32699-3. http://books.google.com/?id=xM2ZCFWADXUC&pg=PA8.
- ^ Rose, Louis (1998). "Freud and fetishism: previously unpublished minutes of the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society". Psychoanalytic Quartery 57: 147. http://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=PAQ.057.0147A.
- ^ Reitler's family had converted to Catholicism. Makari, George (2008). Revolution in Mind: the Creation of Psychoanalysis (Australian ed.). Carlton, Vic.: Melbourne University Publishing. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-522-85480-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=uPWBHwLjeXsC&printsec&pg=PA130.
- ^ Makari, George (2008). Revolution in Mind: the Creation of Psychoanalysis (Australian ed.). Carlton, Vic.: Melbourne University Publishing. pp. 130–131. ISBN 978-0-522-85480-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=uPWBHwLjeXsC&printsec&pg=PA130.
- ^ Rose, Louis (1998). The Freudian Calling: Early Psychoanalysis and the Pursuit of Cultural Science. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-8143-2621-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=DTMnqDhTzNgC&pg=PA52. Makari, George (2008). Revolution in Mind: the Creation of Psychoanalysis (Australian ed.). Carlton, Vic.: Melbourne University Publishing. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-522-85480-0. http://books.google.ie/books?id=uPWBHwLjeXsC&printsec&pg=PA130.
- ^ Stekel, Wilhelm (2007). 'On the history of the psychoanalytic movmement'. Jap Bos (trans. and annot.). In Japp Boss and Leendert Groenendijk (eds). The Self-Marginalization of Wilhelm Stekel: Freudian Circles Inside and Out. New York. p. 131
- ^ a b c Gay, Peter (1988). Freud : a life for our time. London: Dent. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-460-04761-6.
- ^ The real name of "Little Hans" was Herbert Graf. Gay, Peter (1988). Freud : a life for our time. London: Dent. pp. 156, 176. ISBN 978-0-460-04761-6.
- ^ Gay, Peter (1988). Freud : a life for our time. London: Dent. p. 175. ISBN 978-0-460-04761-6.
- ^ Sulloway, Frank J. (1991). "Reassessing Freud's case histories: the social construction of psychoanalysis". Isis 82 (2): 266.
- ^ Ellenberger, Henri F. (1970). The Discovery of the Unconscious: the History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry ([Repr.] ed.). New York: Basic Books. p. 455. ISBN 978-0-465-01673-0.
- ^ Martin Miller(1998) Freud and the Bolsheviks, Yale University Press, pp. 24, 45
- ^ http://www.ipa.org.uk/eng/about-ipa/the-origin-and-development-of-the-ipa/
- ^ Jones, Ernest (1964) Sigmund Freud: Life and Work. Edited and abridged by Lionel Trilling and Stephen Marcus. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books p. 332
- ^ Jones, Ernest (1964) Sigmund Freud: Life and Work. Edited and abridged by Lionel Trilling and Stephen Marcus. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books pp. 334, 352, 361
- ^ Gay, Peter. Freud: A Life for Our Time. London: Papermac, 1988, p. 186
- ^ a b Gay, Peter. Freud: A Life for Our Time. London: Papermac, 1988, p.212
- ^ Jacoby, Russell (2009-09-21). "Freud's Visit to Clark U.". The Chronicle Review. http://chronicle.com/article/Freuds-Visit-to-Clark-U/48424/. Retrieved 2012-05-21.
- ^ Three members of the Viennese Psychoanalytic Society resigned at the same time as Adler to establish the Society for Free Psychoanalysis. Six other members of the Viennese Psychoanalytic Society who attempted to retain links to both the Adlerian and Freudian camps were forced out after Freud insisted that they must chose one side or another. Makari, George (2008). Revolution in Mind: the Creation of Psychoanalysis (Australian ed.). Carlton, Vic.: Melbourne University Publishing. p. 262. ISBN 978-0-522-85480-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=uPWBHwLjeXsC&pg=PA262.
- ^ Ellenberger, Henri F. (1970). The Discovery of the Unconscious : the History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry ([Repr.] ed.). New York: Basic Books. pp. 456, 584–85. ISBN 978-0-465-01673-0.
- ^ Ellenberger, Henri F. (1970). The Discovery of the Unconscious: the History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry ([Repr.] ed.). New York: Basic Books. p. 456. ISBN 978-0-465-01673-0.
- ^ Gay, Peter. Freud: A Life for Our Time. London: Papermac, 1988, p.229-30
- ^ Gay, Peter. Freud: A Life for Our Time. London: Papermac, 1988, p.241
- ^ Gay, Peter. Freud: A Life for Our Time. London: Papermac, 1988, pp.474-481
- ^ Gay, Peter. Freud: A Life for Our Time. London: Papermac, 1988 p. 460
- ^ Danto, Elizabeth A. (2002) Freud’s Free Clinics: Psychoanalysis and Social Justice, 1918-1938. New York: Columbia University Press pp. 3, 104
- ^ Miller, Martin (1998) Freud and the Bolsheviks, Yale University Press p 24, 59
- ^ Appignanesi, Lisa & Forrester, John. Freud's Women. London: Penguin Books, 1992, p.108
- ^ Breger, Louis. Freud: Darkness in the Midst of Vision. Wiley, 2011, p.262
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- ^ Eysenck, Hans. Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire. Transaction Publishers, 2004
- ^ Crews, Frederick (ed.). Unauthorized Freud: Doubters Confront a Legend. New York: Penguin Books, 1999, p. 143
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- ^ Gay, Peter. Freud: A Life for Our Time. London: Papermac, 1988, pp. 419–420
- ^ "Freud, Sigmund, quote: What progress". Quotationsbook.com. 23 September 1939. http://quotationsbook.com/quote/34000/. Retrieved 6 February 2011.
- ^ Gay, Peter. Freud: A Life for Our Time. London: Papermac, 1988, pp.618–620
- ^ Gay, Peter. Freud: A Life for Our Time. London: Papermac, 1988, pp.624–625
- ^ Cohen, David. The Escape of Sigmund Freud London: JR Books 2009, pp.152–153
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- ^ Cohen, David. The Escape of Sigmund Freud London: JR Books 2009, p.166
- ^ Cohen, David. The Escape of Sigmund Freud London: JR Books 2009, pp.178, 205–207
- ^ Cohen, David. The Escape of Sigmund Freud London: JR Books 2009, p.194
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- ^ Rycroft, Charles. A Critical Dictionary of Psychoanalysis. London: Penguin Books, 1995, p.59
- ^ Rycroft, Charles. A Critical Dictionary of Psychoanalysis. London: Penguin Books, 1995, pp.185–186
- ^ Hirschmuller, Albrecht. The Life and Work of Josef Breuer. New York: New York University Press, 1989, pp. 101–116; 276–307.
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- ^ Hirschmuller, Albrecht. The Life and Work of Josef Breuer. New York: New York University Press, 1989, p.115.
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- ^ Borch-Jacobsen, Mikkel. Remembering Anna O.: A Century of Mystification. London: Routledge, 1996.
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- ^ "Freud Returns?". Butterflies and Wheels. 2004-05-03. http://www.butterfliesandwheels.org/2004/freud-returns/. Retrieved 2012-05-21.
- ^ "Domhoff: Beyond Freud and Jung". Psych.ucsc.edu. 2000-09-23. http://psych.ucsc.edu/dreams/Library/domhoff_2000d.html. Retrieved 2012-05-21.
- ^ Blass, R. Z. & Carmeli Z. "The case against neuropsychoanalysis: On fallacies underlying psychoanalysis' latest scientific trend and its negative impact on psychoanalytic discourse.", International Journal of Psychoanalysis, Volume 88, Issue 1, pp. 19–40, February 2007.
- ^ Jay, Martin. The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research. Berekely: University of California Press, 1996, pp. 86–112.
- ^ Adorno, Theodor W. Against Epistemology: A Metacritique. Studies in Husserl and the Phenomenological Antinomies. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1985, p. 96
- ^ Fromm, Erich. Beyond the Chains of Illusion: My Encounter with Marx & Freud. London: Sphere Books, 1980, p. 11
- ^ Robinson, Paul. The Freudian Left: Wilhelm Reich, Geza Roheim, Herbert Marcuse. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1990, p. 7
- ^ a b Thomas Baldwin (1995). Ted Honderich. ed. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 792. ISBN 0-19-866132-0.
- ^ Priest, Stephen. Merleau-Ponty. New York: Routledge, 2003, p. 28
- ^ Cleaver, Harry (2000). Reading Capital Politically. Leeds: Ak Press. p. 50. ISBN 1-902593-29-4.
- ^ Tony Purvis (2011). Sim, Stuart. ed. The Lyotard Dictionary. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 199–200. ISBN 978-0-7486-4006-5.
- ^ Dufresne, Todd. Tales from the Freudian Crypt: The Death Drive in Text and Context. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 2000, p. 130
- ^ Crews, Frederick. Skeptical Engagements. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986, pp. 170, 176
- ^ Williams, Bernard. Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy. London: Fontana Press, 1993, p.45
- ^ a b Friedan, Betty. The Feminine Mystique. W.W. Norton, 1963, pp.166–194
- ^ P. Robinson, Freud and His Critics, 1993, p. 1.
- ^ Millett, Kate. Sexual Politics. University of Chicago Press, 2000, pp.176–203
- ^ Weisstein, Naomi in Miriam Schneir (ed.). Feminism in Our Time. Vintage, 1994
- ^ Gallop, Jane. The Daughter's Seduction: Feminism and Psychoanalysis. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1992
- ^ Gallop, Jane & Burke, Carolyn, in Eisenstein, Hester & Jardine, Alice (eds.). The Future of Difference. New Brunswick and London: Rutgers University Press, 1987, pp. 106–108
- ^ Whitford, Margaret. Luce Irigaray: Philosophy in the Feminine. London and New York: Routledge, 1991, pp. 31–32
- ^ Khanna, Ranjana (2008). Indignity.. Positions 16:1.
- ^ Wilson, Elizabeth (1998). Neural Geographies: Feminism and the Microstructure of Cognition. Routledge.
- ^ Gilligan, Carol. In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: Harvard University Press, 1982, pp. 6–8, 18
Further reading[link]
- Brown, Norman O.. Life Against Death: The Psychoanalytic Meaning of History. Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, Second Edition 1985.
- Chaney, Edward. 'Egypt in England and America: The Cultural Memorials of Religion, Royalty and Religion', Sites of Exchange: European Crossroads and Faultlines, eds. M. Ascari and A. Corrado. Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 2006.
- Cioffi, Frank. Freud and the Question of Pseudoscience. Peru, IL: Open Court, 1999.
- Crews, Frederick. The Memory Wars: Freud's Legacy in Dispute. New York: The New York Review of Books, 1995.
- Crews, Frederick. Unauthorized Freud: Doubters Confront a Legend. New York: Penguin Books, 1998.
- Dufresne, Todd. Killing Freud: Twentieth-Century Culture and the Death of Psychoanalysis. New York: Continuum, 2003.
- Dufresne, Todd, ed. Against Freud: Critics Talk Back. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2007.
- Ellenberger, Henri. Beyond the Unconscious: Essays of Henri F. Ellenberger in the History of Psychiatry. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.
- Ellenberger, Henri. The Discovery of the Unconscious: The History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry. New York: Basic Books, 1970.
- Esterson, Allen. Seductive Mirage: An Exploration of the Work of Sigmund Freud. Chicago: Open Court, 1993.
- Gay, Peter. Freud: A Life for Our Time. London: Papermac, 1988; 2nd revised hardcover edition, Little Books (1 May 2006), 864 pages, ISBN 978-1-904435-53-2; Reprint hardcover edition, W. W. Norton & Company (1988); trade paperback, W. W. Norton & Company (17 May 2006), 864 pages, ISBN 978-0-393-32861-5
- Gellner, Ernest. The Psychoanalytic Movement: The Cunning of Unreason. London: Fontana Press, 1993.
- Grünbaum, Adolf. The Foundations of Psychoanalysis: A Philosophical Critique. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.
- Grünbaum, Adolf. Validation in the Clinical Theory of Psychoanalysis: A Study in the Philosophy of Psychoanalysis. Madison, Connecticut: International Universities Press, 1993.
- Hale, Nathan G., Jr. Freud and the Americans: The Beginnings of Psychoanalysis in the United States, 1876–1917. New York: Oxford University Press, 1971.
- Hale, Nathan G., Jr. The Rise and Crisis of Psychoanalysis in the United States: Freud and the Americans, 1917–1985. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
- Hirschmüller, Albrecht. The Life and Work of Josef Breuer. New York University Press, 1989.
- Jones, Ernest. The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud. 3 vols. New York: Basic Books, 1953–1957
- Jung, Carl Gustav. The Collected Works of C. G. Jung Volume 4: Freud and Psychoanalysis. Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, 1961.
- Macmillan, Malcolm. Freud Evaluated: The Completed Arc. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1997.
- Marcuse, Herbert. Eros and Civilization: A Philosophical Inquiry into Freud. Boston: Beacon Press, 1974
- Masson, Jeffrey Moussaieff. The Assault on Truth: Freud's Suppression of the Seduction Theory. New York: Pocket Books, 1998
- Puner, Helen Walker. Freud: His Life and His Mind. New York: Dell Publishing Co., 1947
- Ricoeur, Paul. Freud and Philosophy. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1970.
- Rieff, Philip. Freud: The Mind of the Moralist. Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1961
- Roazen, Paul. Freud and His Followers. New York: Knopf, 1975, hardcover; trade paperback, De Capo Press (22 March 1992), 600 pages, ISBN 978-0-306-80472-4
- Roazen, Paul. Freud: Political and Social Thought. London: Hogarth Press, 1969.
- Roth, Michael, ed. Freud: Conflict and Culture. New York: Vintage, 1998.
- Stannard, David E. Shrinking History: On Freud and the Failure of Psychohistory. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982.
- Sulloway, Frank J. Freud, Biologist of the Mind: Beyond the Psychoanalytic Legend. London: Basic Books, 1979
- Webster, Richard. Why Freud Was Wrong: Sin, Science and Psychoanalysis. Oxford: The Orwell Press, 2005.
- Wollheim, Richard. Freud. Fontana, 1971.
- Wollheim, Richard, and James Hopkins, eds. Philosophical Essays on Freud. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
External links[link]
| Find more about Sigmund Freud on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
|
Images and media from Commons |
|
Quotations from Wikiquote |
|
Source texts from Wikisource |
- A BBC recording of Freud speaking on YouTube, made in 1938
- Dream Psychology by Sigmund Freud
- Essays by Freud at Quotidiana.org
- Freud Archives at Library of Congress
- Freud Museum, Maresfield Gardens, London
- International Network of Freud Critics
- International Psychoanalytical Association, founded by Freud in 1910
- Sigmund Freud Collection at Bartleby.com (15 works in English)
- Works by Sigmund Freud (public domain in Canada)
- Works by Sigmund Freud at Project Gutenberg
- Works by Sigmund Freud in audio format from LibriVox
| Awards and achievements | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Patrick Hastings |
Cover of Time Magazine 27 October 1924 |
Succeeded by Thomas Lipton |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Freud, Sigismund Schlomo |
| Alternative names | Freud, Sigmund |
| Short description | Neurologist |
| Date of birth | 6 May 1856 |
| Place of birth | Freiberg (Příbor), Moravia, Slezsko, Czech Republic |
| Date of death | 23 September 1939 |
| Place of death | London |
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| Anton Zeilinger | |
|---|---|
 Anton Zeilinger (photo credit: J. Godany) |
|
| Born | 20 May 1945 Ried im Innkreis, Austria |
| Residence | Austria |
| Nationality | Austrian |
| Fields | Physicist |
| Institutions | University of Vienna Technical University of Munich Technical University of Vienna Massachusetts Institute of Technology Institute of Science and Technology Austria |
| Doctoral advisor | Helmut Rauch |
| Known for | Quantum teleportation Experimental validation of Bell's Inequality Greenberger–Horne–Zeilinger state |
| Notable awards |
Isaac Newton Medal (2007) |
Anton Zeilinger (born on 20 May 1945 in Ried im Innkreis, Austria) is an Austrian quantum physicist. He is currently professor of physics at the University of Vienna, previously University of Innsbruck. He is also the director of the Vienna branch of the Institute for Quantum Optics and Quantum Information IQOQI at the Austrian Academy of Sciences. Zeilinger has been called a pioneer in the new field of quantum information and is renowned for his realization of quantum teleportation with photons.
Contents |
Biography[link]
Anton Zeilinger, born 1945 in Austria, has held positions at the University of Innsbruck, the Technical University of Munich, the Technical University of Vienna and at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and distinguished visiting positions at Humboldt University in Berlin, Merton College of Oxford University and the Collège de France in Paris. Zeilinger received many awards for his scientific work, among the most recent being the King Faisal Prize (2005), and the first Newton Prize of the IOP (2007). He is a member of six Scientific Academies. Anton Zeilinger is currently Professor of Physics at the University of Vienna and Scientific Director of the Institute of Quantum Optics and Quantum Information of the Austrian Academy of Sciences. Since 2006, Zeilinger is the vice chairman of the board of trustees of the Institute of Science and Technology Austria, an ambitious project initiated by Zeilinger's proposal. He is a fan of the Hitchhiker's Guide To The Galaxy by Douglas Adams, going so far as to name his sailboat 42.[1]
2005 Anton Zeilinger was among the "10 people who could change the world", elect by the British newspaper New Statesman.[2]
In 2010 he received the Wolf Prize in Physics. [3]
Work[link]
Anton Zeilinger’s achievements have been most succinctly described in his citation for the Isaac Newton Medal of the Institute of Physics (UK): “For his pioneering conceptual and experimental contributions to the foundations of quantum physics, which have become the cornerstone for the rapidly-evolving field of quantum information.”
Neutron interferometry[link]
As a member of the group of his thesis supervisor, Helmut Rauch, at the Technical University of Vienna, Zeilinger participated in a number of neutron interferometry experiments at the Institut Laue-Langevin (ILL) in Grenoble. His very first such experiment confirmed a fundamental prediction of quantum mechanics, the sign change of a spinor phase upon rotation. This was followed by the first experimental realization of coherent spin superposition of matter waves. He continued his work in neutron interferometry at MIT with C.G. Shull (Nobel Laureate 1995) focusing specifically on dynamical diffraction effects of neutrons in perfect crystals which are due to multi-wave coherent superposition. After his return to Europe, he built up an interferometer for very cold neutrons which preceded later similar experiments with atoms. The fundamental experiments there included a most precise test of the linearity of quantum mechanics and a beautiful double-slit diffraction experiment with only one neutron at a time in the apparatus. Actually, in that experiment, while one neutron was registered, the next neutron still resided in its Uranium nucleus waiting for fission to happen.
Quantum entanglement[link]
In the late 1980s, Anton Zeilinger became interested in quantum entanglement. This work resulted in his most significant accomplishments and opened up the new fields of quantum teleportation, quantum information, quantum communication and quantum cryptography.
Together with Daniel Greenberger and Michael Horne, Zeilinger wrote the first paper ever on entanglement beyond two particles. The resulting GHZ theorem (see Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger state) is fundamental for quantum physics, as it provides the most succinct contradiction between local realism and the predictions of quantum mechanics. Also, GHZ states were the first instances of multi-particle entanglement ever investigated. Such states have become essential in quantum information science. GHZ states are now even an individual entry in the PACS code.
As a professor at the University of Innsbruck, Zeilinger started experiments on entangled photons, as the low phase space density of neutrons produced by reactors precluded their use in such experiments. His goal from the early 1990s on, to demonstrate the GHZ contradiction, was achieved finally in 1998.
Along the road, Zeilinger developed many novel tools for entangled photon physics, for example a bright source for polarization-entangled photons, ways to identify Bell states and methods for producing coherent emission of more than one entangled pair from one crystal. The resulting technology allowed him to perform a number of first quantum information experiments with entangled photons. The first ever use of entanglement in any quantum information protocol was his demonstration of hyperdense coding. His achievements also include the first entanglement-based quantum cryptography, the first quantum teleportation experiment of an independent photon, the first realization of entanglement swapping and an experiment closing the communication loophole in a test of Bell’s inequality.
Since 2000, Zeilinger’s research has focused on all-optical quantum computation, the development of entanglement-based quantum cryptography systems, and experiments with entangled photon pairs over very large distances. In all-optical quantum computation, Zeilinger with his group were the first to demonstrate a number of basic procedures, like entanglement purification and certain quantum gates. This culminated in the first demonstrations of one-way quantum computation, including most recently, ultra-fast active feed-forward. The one-way quantum computation scheme was used to realize Grover’s search algorithm and various quantum games, including prisoner’s dilemma.
In quantum cryptography, Zeilinger’s group is developing a prototype in collaboration with industry. While most of the community was working on the much easier scheme of using weak laser pulses, Zeilinger based his approach exclusively on the more demanding scheme using entangled photons. A recent proof that entanglement is a necessary condition for the security of the quantum channel confirms that this choice is correct.
Zeilinger’s experiments on the distribution of entanglement over large distances began with both free-space and fiber-based quantum communication and teleportation between laboratories located on the different sides of the river Danube. This was then extended to larger distances across the city of Vienna and most recently over 144 km between two Canary Islands, resulting in a successful demonstration that quantum communication with satellites is feasible. His dream was to bounce entangled light off of satellites in orbit.[1] This was achieved during an experiment at the Italian Matera Laser Ranging Observatory.[4]
An important fundamental spin-off of these experiments was the first test in 2007 of a non-local realistic theory proposed by Leggett which goes significantly beyond Bell's theorem. While Bell showed that a theory which is both local and realistic is at variance with quantum mechanics, Leggett considered nonlocal realistic theories where the individual photons are assumed to carry polarization. The resulting inequality was shown to be violated in the experiments of the Zeilinger group.
Atom and macromolecule interferometry[link]
Parallel with his work on quantum entanglement with photons, Anton Zeilinger in the early 1990s started experiments in the field of atom optics. He developed a number of ways to coherently manipulate atomic beams, many of which, like the coherent energy shift of an atomic De Broglie wave upon diffraction at a time-modulated light wave, have become cornerstones of today’s ultracold atom experiments.
In 1999, Zeilinger abandoned atom optics for experiments with very complex and massive macro-molecules - fullerenes. The successful demonstration of quantum interference for Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): C_{60}
and Failed to parse (Missing texvc executable; please see math/README to configure.): C_{70}
molecules (fullerenes) in 1999 opened up a very active field of research. Key results include the most precise quantitative study to date of decoherence by thermal radiation and by atomic collisions and the first quantum interference of complex biological macro-molecules. This work is continued by Markus Arndt.
Quantum optomechanics[link]
In 2005, Zeilinger with his group again started a new field, the quantum physics of mechanical cantilevers. The group was the first - in the year 2006 along with work from Heidmann in Paris and Kippenberg in Garching - to demonstrate experimentally the self-cooling of a micro-mirror by radiation pressure, that is, without feedback. That phenomenon can be seen as a consequence of the coupling of a high-entropy mechanical system with a low-entropy radiation field. This work is now continued independently by Markus Aspelmeyer.
See also[link]
 |
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Anton Zeilinger |
References[link]
- ^ a b Minkel, JR (2007-08-01). "The Gedanken Experimenter". Scientific American. http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=ABBA5449-E7F2-99DF-3ACFAC15B16FEC60&colID=30. Retrieved 2008-01-17.
- ^ http://www.newstatesman.com/contents/2005/10/17 , http://www.newstatesman.com/200510170013
- ^ Anton Zeilinger gets Wolf Prize for Physics, Austrian Times 02. 02. 2010.
- ^ [0803.1871v1] Experimental verification of the feasibility of a quantum channel between Space and Earth
External links[link]
- Zeilinger's homepage
- Quantum Teleportation by Zeilinger, 2003 update of 2000 Scientific American article
- Es stellt sich letztlich heraus, dass Information ein wesentlicher Grundbaustein der Welt ist, a German-language interview with Zeilinger by Andrea Naica-Loebell
- Spooky action and beyond an interview with Anton Zeilinger at signandsight.com
- The lecture delivered by Professor Anton Zeilinger as the inaugural recipient of the Isaac Newton Medal, Institute of Physics, 17 June 2008, [1] (68 min 25 sec).
Note: On the page linked, a second video is accommodated which shows Professor Zeilinger speaking amongst others about his personal life. - Anton Zeilinger on the opening panel discussion at the Quantum to Cosmos festival at Perimeter Institute with Katherine Freese, Leo Kadanoff, Lawrence Krauss, Neil Turok, Sean M. Carroll, Gino Segrè, Andrew White, and David Tong.
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Zeilinger, Anton |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Austrian physicist |
| Date of birth | 20 May 1945 |
| Place of birth | Ried im Innkreis, Austria |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Anton_Zeilinger
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http://fr.wn.com/Anton Zeilinger
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http://de.wn.com/Anton Zeilinger
http://it.wn.com/Anton Zeilinger
http://pl.wn.com/Anton Zeilinger
http://es.wn.com/Anton Zeilinger
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Zeilinger
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
