- published: 15 Aug 2011
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- 20th century
- A1 road (London)
- A1(M)
- A1(M) motorway
- A10 road
- A10 road (England)
- A1023 road
- A1081 road
- A1090 road
- A11 road (England)
- A111 road (England)
- A12 road (England)
- A121 road (England)
- A126 road
- A127 road
- A13 road (England)
- A1306 road
- A167 road
- A18 road (England)
- A194 road
- A20 road (England)
- A206 road
- A21 road (England)
- A217 road
- A22 road
- A224 road
- A225 road
- A226 road
- A23 road
- A243 road
- A25 road
- A282 road
- A3 road
- A30 road
- A308(M) motorway
- A3113 road
- A316 road
- A317 road
- A320 road
- A329(M) motorway
- A38(M) motorway
- A4 autoroute
- A4 road (England)
- A40 road
- A40 road (London)
- A4010 road
- A4012 road
- A404 road
- A404(M) motorway
- A405 road
- A41 road
- A412 road
- A413 road
- A414 road
- A4146 road
- A4155 road
- A418 road
- A421 road
- A422 road
- A428 road
- A48(M) motorway
- A508 road
- A509 road
- A5130 road
- A57(M) motorway
- A601(M) motorway
- A6144(M) motorway
- A627(M) motorway
- A66 road
- A823(M) motorway
- Akeman Street
- Amersham
- Auto racing
- Aylesbury
- Balfour Beatty
- Barking
- Barnet
- Basildon
- Basingstoke
- BBC
- BBC News
- BBC Radio 4
- Bell Common
- Birmingham
- Bletchley TMD
- Bluewater
- Brentwood, Essex
- Brighton
- Brill Tramway
- Bromley
- Buckinghamshire
- Bundesautobahn 10
- Bundesautobahn 100
- Cambridge
- Canterbury
- Caterham
- Channel Tunnel
- Charing Cross
- Charles Bressey
- Chelmsford
- Chertsey
- Chiltern Main Line
- Chiltern Way
- Chorleywood
- Chris Rea
- City of London
- Cobham services
- Cobham, Surrey
- Colchester
- Concurrency (road)
- Cosgrove aqueduct
- Crawley
- Croydon
- Dagenham
- Dartford
- Dartford Crossing
- Dartford Tunnel
- Denham Aerodrome
- Denham Roundabout
- Dorking
- Dover
- East Cross Route
- East Grinstead
- East West Rail Link
- Eastbourne
- Edwin Lutyens
- Enfield Town
- Epping
- Epsom
- Erith
- Essex
- Essex Police
- European route E15
- European route E30
- Gatwick Airport
- Godstone
- Good Omens
- Grand Union Canal
- Greater London
- Greater Ridgeway
- Guildford
- H10 Bletcham Way
- H6 Childs Way
- Harlow
- Harrow, London
- Hastings
- Heathrow Airport
- Hemel Hempstead
- Hertford
- Hertfordshire
- Highways Agency
- Iain Sinclair
- Icknield Way
- Icknield Way Path
- James May
- Kent
- Kent Police
- Leatherhead
- Lewisham
- London
- London Assembly
- London Colney
- London Docklands
- London Ringways
- Loughton
- Luton
- Luton Airport
- M1 motorway
- M11 motorway
- M12 motorway
- M13 motorway
- M16 motorway
- M180 motorway
- M181 motorway
- M20 motorway
- M23 motorway
- M25 motorway
- M26 motorway
- M27 motorway
- M271 motorway
- M275 motorway
- M31 motorway
- M32 motorway
- M4 motorway
- M40 motorway
- M42 motorway
- M45 motorway
- M48 motorway
- M49 motorway
- M5 motorway
- M53 motorway
- M54 motorway
- M55 motorway
- M56 motorway
- M57 motorway
- M58 motorway
- M6 motorway
- M6 Toll
- M60 motorway
- M602 motorway
- M606 motorway
- M61 motorway
- M62 motorway
- M621 motorway
- M63 motorway
- M64 motorway
- M65 motorway
- M66 motorway
- M67 motorway
- M69 motorway
- M73 motorway
- M74 motorway
- M77 motorway
- M80 motorway
- M876 motorway
- M898 motorway
- M90 motorway
- Maidstone
- Manchester
- Maple Cross
- Margaret Thatcher
- Marlow Branch Line
- Marston Vale Line
- Metropolitan line
- Midshires Way
- Milton Keynes
- MK Metro
- Motorway
- National Trails
- Neil Gaiman
- New M4
- Newbury Bypass
- North Circular Road
- North Ockendon
- Orbital (band)
- Orbital motorway
- Orbital road
- Orpington
- Ouse Valley Way
- Oxford
- Patrick Abercrombie
- Philip Hammond
- Police areas
- Portsmouth
- Potters Bar
- Primary status
- Prime Minister
- Public inquiry
- Purfleet
- QE2 Bridge
- Racetrack
- Rainham, London
- Rave
- Reading, Berkshire
- Redhill, Surrey
- Reigate
- Richmond, London
- Rickmansworth
- Ringway 1
- Ringway 2
- Ringway 3
- Ringway 4
- River Great Ouse
- River Thames
- Romford
- Roy Phippen
- Sevenoaks
- Shakespeare's Way
- Shoulder (road)
- Silverstone Heliport
- Slip road
- Slough
- Slough Arm
- Sodium vapor lamp
- South Circular Road
- South Mimms
- South Mimms services
- South Mimms Services
- Southampton
- Southend
- Speed camera
- Speed limit
- Spur route
- St Albans
- Stack interchange
- Staines-upon-Thames
- Stansted Airport
- Supercars
- Surrey
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- Sutton, London
- Swanley
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- Terry Pratchett
- Thames
- Thames Gateway
- Thames Path
- Thames Valley Police
- The Ridgeway
- Thurrock
- Thurrock services
- Tilbury
- Toll road
- Transport in London
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- V6 Grafton Street
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- Waltham Abbey, Essex
- Waltham Cross
- Watford
- Watling Street
- Wendover Arm Canal
- West Coast Main Line
- West Cross Route
- West Thurrock
- Westerham
- Westway (London)
- Wikipedia Link rot
- Witham
- Woking
- Woolwich Ferry
- World War II
- Wycombe Air Park
- Wycombe Railway
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A1081 road
The A1081 road in Hertfordshire, England broadly follows and replaces the former route of the A6 south of Luton in Bedfordshire.
It runs from Luton Airport south via Harpenden to St Albans and then bears southeast via London Colney to High Barnet, where it meets the A1000 (the Great North Road).
The route was renumbered to avoid giving the impression that it was better engineered than it is.[citation needed] The main beneficiary of this renumbering is the city of St Albans where the A5 and A6 used to meet. A similar change has been made to that part of the A5, which was renumbered as A5183.
However, since the construction of the M25 the A1081 is split between London Colney and the South Mimms services - the motorway using the route of the former A6 dual carriageway between these locations.
Coordinates: 51°46′21″N 0°20′07″W / 51.7724°N 0.3354°W / 51.7724; -0.3354 (A1081 road)
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A127 road
The A127, also known as the Southend Arterial Road, is one of the main roads in England linking London with Southend-on-Sea in England, the other being the A13. Formerly classified as a trunk road, it was "de-trunked" in 1997 . It is a dual carriageway for its entire length, rare on a trunk road since the only others are the A14 and the A282, and is known as the Southend Arterial Road except for part of its length in Southend-on-Sea. It is also streetlit for its whole length despite its majority coverage through rural land.
The A127 starts as a turning off the A12 at Gallows Corner in the London Borough of Havering. Traffic heading towards London goes over a flyover and joins the A12 traffic which merges onto the slip-road from the roundabout below, which is where the A127 ends. Traffic heading towards Southend also uses the flyover as well as slip roads. Its first significant junction is a crossroads after 1⁄2 miles (0.80 km) (Squirrels Heath) with Squirrels Heath Road and Ardleigh Green Road. There are traffic lights here, but after that, there are no traffic lights or roundabouts until it enters Southend-on-Sea, though there are a few side turnings. Major junctions follow the layout similar to motorways, being served by high-level or low-level roundabouts accessed via slip roads.
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A167 road
The A167 is a road in North East England. Most of its route was formerly the A1 as most of it is the original route of the Great North Road until the A1 was re-routed with the opening of the A1(M) in the 1960s.
The route starts from the A168 at Topcliffe, North Yorkshire and runs to Cowgate, Tyne and Wear where the route splits in two. The northern fork continues to Kenton Bar, where it meets the A1 and the A696, while the southern fork heads west, again terminating at the A1, this time at Westerhope.
From the Topcliffe A168 Junction, the route runs north through Northallerton, and crosses the A66 road just east of the A66(M) section. It runs on through Darlington, across A1(M) junction 59, and on to Newton Aycliffe, Ferryhill, Durham and Chester-le-Street.
The A167 bypass at Chilton near Ferryhill was completed and opened to traffic on 20 June 2005. Construction had started in 2004, 65 years after first proposed when the route was still the A1.
Beyond Chester-le-Street the A167 continues to A1(M) junction 63 and through Birtley before crossing the A1 at the junction near the Angel of the North. (The first route of the Great North Road ran via Wrekenton on the present B1296. The second route ran via Low Fell on the A167. The third route ran from the A1(M) junction 65 via the A194(M) and the A19 Tyne Tunnel, to the Wideopen A1/A19 Junction.)
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A194 road
The A194 road is a road in Tyne and Wear, England. It runs northeast from its start at junction 65 of the A1/A1(M) near Washington, and the first 3 miles (4.8 km) are motorway standard, designated the A194(M). There are intermediate junctions with the A182 and the A195 before the motorway section ends at the A184 junction.
The A194 continues as a trunk road to its next major junction, the A19 which provides access to the Tyne Tunnel, Sunderland and Teesside. At this point, A194 ceases to be a trunk road and continues to its terminus in South Shields town centre.
Coordinates: 54°57′15″N 1°30′06″W / 54.9542°N 1.5017°W / 54.9542; -1.5017 (A194 road)
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A206 road
The A206 road links Greenwich with Greenhithe following the line of the River Thames. Today it is approximately 15 miles (24 km) in length, although the final section is a relatively new road. Its primary purpose is to link into the London Orbital motorway at the Dartford Crossing and is heavily used by lorries.
Coordinates: 51°28′56″N 0°06′44″E / 51.48213°N 0.11235°E / 51.48213; 0.11235
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A217 road
The A217 is a road in the United Kingdom. It runs south from Kings Road in Fulham, London, crossing the Thames at Wandsworth Bridge, then passing through Wandsworth, Tooting, Mitcham, Cheam, Banstead, crossing the M25 motorway at Junction 8, then passing through Reigate and terminating shortly before reaching Gatwick Airport.
The stretch of the A217 called 'The Mad Mile' has been popular for illegal street racing. It is a straight length of dual carriageway that runs downhill from the junction with the A2022 to the junction with the B2230 at Belmont. This length of road has been known locally for generations, used by bikers during the early 80's when starting grids were marked out at either end of the carriageways, then became popular again in early 2000 with the modified car scene where frequent races would take place, usually on Thursday nights. This information spread quite quickly with the use of the internet, as far north as Birmingham and as a result people from all over came to participate and watch these races. Police presence gradually diffused this illegal activity, but it has not completely disappeared. Measures to stop these races include crash barriers erected on the centre grass verge which runs the length of this stretch. People used to park here while the races were in progress.
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A225 road
The A225 road runs in a north-south direction, connecting Dartford with Sevenoaks in Kent, England. For much of its journey it follows the valley of the River Darenth.
The road begins in Dartford, leading out of the town in a southerly direction from the A226 ring-road passing along Lowfield Street. It then crosses the Dartford bypass road at a major junction. Interestingly the road from this junction until its junction to the M25, Princes Road, is also called the A225. Next is the junction to Wilmington and the road now becomes Hawley Road; before reaching that village it passes under both the A2 and the M25; there are no junctions with either. 4 miles (6.4 km) from its start, the A225 passes Sutton-at-Hone village; most of the following villages are not on the main road, but are located to the east on the river itself. Here the railway line crosses the road by a high brick viaduct at Farningham Road railway station. Horton Kirby village is next; the M20 motorway crosses overhead, again with no junction to the A225; and the road enters a roundabout junction with the A20 road, to lose its identity for a short distance as it follows the latter in an easterly direction, before a turning off once more to the south.
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A226 road
The A226 road travels in a west-east direction, from Crayford in the London Borough of Bexley, along north Kent through Gravesend to the Medway Towns. It is about 11 miles (17.6 km) in length. Before road numbering began in the United Kingdom, the road was part of the major route between London and Dover, the road taken by all traffic heading for mainland Europe. When the Ministry of Transport published its first list of road numbers, however, the building of the A2 had already begun; and the earliest map shows the projected route of that latter road; the previous road being relegated to what is now the A226.
The road begins with an end-on junction with the A207 to the east of the town of Crayford in the London Borough of Bexley. Both roads are marked on street maps as being part of the Roman road Watling Street; although the A207 is Crayford Road, the A226 being Dartford Road. After 1 mile (1.6 km) the road becomes West Hill where the descent into the valley of the River Darent and the town of Dartford begins. At the foot of the hill the clockwise ringroad is encountered: the original road continued through what is now the pedestrianised High Street. Roads making up the Ring Road are (from the west): Highfield Road; Westgate; Home Gardens; Market Street; Lowfield Street (which continues south as the A225 road); and Instone Road.
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A25 road
The A25 road is one of the three cross-country two-digit numbered roads in the southeast of England, the others being the A26 from Newhaven to Maidstone and the A27 along the south coast. It carries traffic from Guildford in Surrey through Dorking, and thence eastward along the southern edge of the North Downs, to reach Maidstone in Kent. En route, the road passes through Reigate, Redhill, Nutfield, Bletchingley, Godstone, Oxted, Westerham, Brasted, Sevenoaks and Borough Green. A short distance beyond Borough Green, at Wrotham Heath, the A25 ends at a junction with the A20, which continues eastward towards Maidstone.
Most of the route, apart from those places where the modern road uses bypasses, follows the erstwhile turnpikes, brought into being in the 18th Century. Many of the inns along its path were one time staging inns. One of the earliest sections of the M25 motorway runs parallel and to the north of the A25: hence the London Orbital Road was numbered M25.
Its route lies just south of the ancient Pilgrims' Way.
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A282 road
The A282 is a road (also known as the Canterbury Way or unofficially M25) that includes the Dartford Crossing across the River Thames between Essex and Kent in England. It forms part of the London Orbital connecting junctions 2 and 31 of the M25, and a part of the unsigned Euroroute E15. It has junctions numbered to fit inside the sequence of the M25. It is an all-purpose A road, not a motorway, so as to provide a river crossing for traffic without restrictions. Pedestrians and cyclists are carried across by a shuttle.
Coordinates: 51°27′54″N 0°15′31″E / 51.46513°N 0.25869°E / 51.46513; 0.25869
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A3 road
The A3, known as the Portsmouth Road for much of its length, is a major road connecting London and Portsmouth passing close to Kingston upon Thames, Guildford, Haslemere and Petersfield. For much of its 67-mile (108 km) length, it is classified as a trunk road and therefore managed by the Highways Agency. Much of the road has been upgraded to a dual carriageway standard. Close to its southerly end traffic for Portsmouth is signed via the A3(M), A27 and M275. However the designation A3 is still used to identify the old road.
The historic Portsmouth Road once had great strategic significance as the major link between the capital city and one of its major sea ports. Many of the towns and villages that it passed through gained income and prestige as a result — such as Kingston upon Thames, Esher, Guildford, Godalming, Haslemere and Petersfield. The modern A3 follows the general route of the Portsmouth Road, but bypasses many of the towns and villages along the way, leaving the various stretches of the old Portsmouth Road for local traffic — for instance, the A307 which passes through Kingston-upon-Thames and Esher, is also known as the Portsmouth Road. For some of its length, the road follows a similar line to the Portsmouth Direct Line railway, although one of the major exceptions is that the A3 does not go through or closely bypass Havant.
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A316 road
The A316, also known in parts as the Great Chertsey Road, is a major road in England, which runs from the A315 at Chiswick to the M3 motorway.
Outward from London it starts at Chiswick and crosses successively:
the A4 at the Hogarth Roundabout (the connection for central London),
the Thames on Chiswick Bridge,
the South Circular Road (A205) at Chalker's Corner,
and, after passing to the north of Richmond (bisecting Old Deer Park),
crosses the Thames again on Twickenham Bridge.
Then, after running near:
Twickenham Rugby Stadium.
the Kempton Park Steam Engines at the prominent waterworks,
and Kempton Park Racecourse,
it joins the motorway end-on at Sunbury Cross (Junction 1 of the M3) in Sunbury-on-Thames.
Coordinates: 51°28′37″N 0°15′50″W / 51.47686°N 0.26395°W / 51.47686; -0.26395
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A40 road
The A40 is a major trunk road connecting London to Fishguard, Wales and officially called The London to Fishguard Trunk Road (A40) in all legal documents and Acts. It is 256 miles (412 km) long.
It is one of the few remaining of the "old" trunk routes not to have been superseded by a direct motorway link, though some parts, such as the southern section from London to Oxford are now better served by the M40. Part of the A40 forms a section of the unsigned Euroroute E30, which the Welsh Assembly Government refers to as "one of the lowest standard sections of the Trans European Road Network in the United Kingdom"
The original (1923) route of the A40 was the City of London to Fishguard. The road still begins and ends in the same places, but a number of changes have been made to its route.
The first change dates from 1935, between Ross-on-Wye and Abergavenny. The original route of the A40 was via Skenfrith; this road was renumbered the B4521. The A40 was rerouted via Raglan; between Ross and Raglan it replaced part of the A48, between Raglan and Llanvihangel-nigh-Usk it replaced the B4234, and between Llanvihangel and Abergavenny it replaced part of the A471.
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A4010 road
The A4010 is an important primary north-south road in Buckinghamshire, Southern England. It runs from High Wycombe at Junction 4 of the M40 motorway to Stoke Mandeville, near Aylesbury on the A413.
The A4010 begins at the major junction at Handy Cross where the A404 meets the M40 motorway. It travels through the High Wycombe suburbs of Cressex and Sands to West Wycombe Road where it meets the A40 road. The two roads then combine for 0.5 miles (0.80 km) to the Pedestal roundabout, where they split.
The A4010 then runs as Bradenham Road, crossing under the Chiltern Main Line by means of a distinctive brick skew bridge and closely following it through Bradenham and Saunderton to Princes Risborough. The road travels straight through the town centre, meeting the A4129 at a roundabout. It then turns north-east through Monks Risborough.
The A4010 then travels through The Kimbles, (the villages of Great Kimble and Little Kimble). The road then comes out of the Chiltern Hills and, at a roundabout, turns north. 1 mile (1.6 km) later, it enters Stoke Mandeville. After passing another roundabout and Stoke Mandeville railway station, the road terminates at a roundabout on the A413. The A413 then carries on north-west into central Aylesbury.
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A4012 road
The A4012 is a road in the United Kingdom. It starts in the village of Husborne Crawley to the south east of Milton Keynes and heads southwest to the village of Woburn. Here it meets the A5130 and changes direction, heading southeast past Milton Bryan before crossing the A5 at right angles in the village of Hockliffe. After this it continues west on into the town of Leighton Buzzard. It finishes on encountering the A4146, the last stretch from Leighton town centre to the A4146 having been taken over from the former route of the A4146, which bypassed the town in 2007.
Coordinates: 51°57′47″N 0°35′35″W / 51.96302°N 0.59292°W / 51.96302; -0.59292
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A404 road
The A404 is a road in the United Kingdom that starts at Paddington in London and terminates near Maidenhead in Berkshire.
The road initially follows a course through north-west London via Harlesden, Wembley, Harrow, Northwood and Rickmansworth. The M25 Junction 18 is at Chorleywood. The A404 crosses into Buckinghamshire and continues towards Little Chalfont and Amersham.
Between Paddington and Amersham, the road closely follows the route of the London/Harrow-on-the-Hill/Aylesbury railway lines, The Chiltern Line, from Marylebone, and runs near several stations along that line.
At Amersham Common, the road turns south-west and continues in that direction joining the Amersham by-pass (A413) for a short distance, and then proceeds towards High Wycombe. After passing through the town centre, and crossing the A40, it changes to a dual carriageway up the hill to the M40 Junction 4, and continues as a dual carriageway past Marlow and Bisham.
The road eventually becomes the A404(M) at Maidenhead Thicket. It then runs a short distance towards the M4 where the A404(M) finally terminates at Junction 8/9.
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A405 road
The A405 is a road in Great Britain.
The A405 is a main (dual-carriageway) road in Hertfordshire. Although now just five miles in length, it has been a longer road. As the North Orbital Road, it occupied the section of the M25 London orbital motorway from Junction 17 (Maple Cross) to the end of the spur to Watford, (which is now Junction 19) at Hunton Bridge. It being one of the first sections of the subsequent M25 to open to the public. It then followed southwards, the route of the A41 as far as the junction with Kingsway, turning eastwards towards Garston, north of Watford, flowing into the old route of the A412 towards Chiswell Green and St Albans, whilst linking with the M1 at Junction 6. The A405 carved a route to the south of St Albans from Chiswell Green to Junction 1 of the M10 and what was then, the A5.
From the junction with the M10 (which has now been re-designated the A414) known as The Park Street Roundabout, it continued as the London Colney bypass (opened in 1960). The A405 crossed what was then the A6, and continued eastwards to its termination at the junction with the A1 south of Hatfield.
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A41 road
The A41 is a major trunk road in England that links London and Birkenhead, although it has now in parts been superseded by motorways. It passes through or near various towns and cities including Watford, Kings Langley, Hemel Hempstead, Aylesbury, Solihull, Birmingham, West Bromwich, Wolverhampton, Newport, Whitchurch, Chester and Ellesmere Port.
It follows part of the line of the old Roman road, Akeman Street and the eighteenth century Sparrows Herne turnpike.
With the opening of the M40 extension in 1990 linking with the M42 near Birmingham, much of the route was downgraded in importance - with the sections between Bicester and the M42 near Solihull being renumbered as the A4141, A4177 and B4100.
The route begins near Marble Arch in London, at the junction with Oxford Street (A40). Here, north-bound traffic uses Gloucester Place, the south-bound uses Baker Street. It becomes a dual-carriageway on Finchley Road, through Swiss Cottage, and along Hendon Way, and intersects with the North Circular Road near Brent Cross shopping centre. The road passes through Hendon and after the junction with the A5150, (close to the Metropolitan Police's police college and the RAF Museum), it runs directly next to the M1. The A41 overlaps the A1 at Five Ways Corner with the section known as Watford Way. It passes through Mill Hill, separating with the A1 at Apex Corner roundabout After crossing the M1, near Elstree, it links the M1 at Junction 4, and then meets the A5 at a roundabout (where the A5 becomes the A5183). The A41 continues next to the M1 into Hertfordshire. This section is known as Elton Way, as far as the roundabout with the B462. The next section is dual-carriageway.
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A412 road
The A412 is a road in England that links Slough and Watford. It was previously the main artery for this corridor, and continued to St Albans prior to the construction of the M25. It provides interchange to the A40/M40 at the Denham Roundabout, the M25 in Maple Cross, the A404 in Rickmansworth, and the A41 in Watford. The road links to the Watford Ring Road, and passes through the town centre, partially a grade separated dual carriageway.
Buckinghamshire
Hertfordshire
Coordinates: 51°39′12″N 0°25′08″W / 51.65328°N 0.4189°W / 51.65328; -0.4189
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A413 road
The A413 is a major road in England that links Gerrards Cross to Towcester. It passes through various towns and villages including Buckingham, Aylesbury, Wendover, Winslow, Great Missenden and Amersham.
It has been diverted a number of times over the last 50 years. In the 1960s, a by-pass was built around Great Missenden and re-routing has taken place through Aylesbury town centre. In the last 20 years[citation needed], by-passes have been built for Amersham and Wendover. In the early 21st century, the junction near Towcester where the A413 joins the A43 has also been redeveloped along with much-needed A43 redevelopment around Silverstone Circuit.
That part of the route which runs along the Misbourne Valley dates back into pre-history. In Medieval times, the Cartulary of Missenden Abbey simply recorded the road as "the Kings Highway". Also just north of Aylesbury the road crosses Holman's Bridge, the location in 1642 of the Battle of Aylesbury.
Aylesbury rockstar John Otway wrote a B-Side about the road on his Number 9 hit single "Bunsen Burner." The song was called "A413 Revisited" and is about John returning home no longer as a one hit wonder but as a two hit artist. The chorus is:
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A414 road
The A414 is a major road in England. It runs from the A41 at a junction west of Hemel Hempstead in Hertfordshire, through the town to junction 8 of the M1 motorway at Buncefield, and running parallel to the M1 until junction 7, heading south of St Albans, east through Hatfield, Hertford, then across the A10 and into Essex through Harlow, Chipping Ongar and Chelmsford before terminating at Maldon.
The section between the M1 and the Park Street roundabout junction south of St Albans was formerly classified as the M10 motorway. This was downgraded to A road status on 1 May 2009, following the completion of the M1 widening between Juncts. 7 and 8 of the M1.
Between the (former) M10 Junction 1 at Park Street, and the A1 junction, the A414 is named the North Orbital Road which reflects the planners' intent to build an outer orbital road around London.
The North Orbital Road route was never completed. The planners opting in the end to build the M25 orbital motorway instead. The section of the M25 between the Hunton Bridge Interchange, Watford (J19) and Maple Cross, Rickmansworth (J17) originally opened as the A405 ahead of the completion of the M25.
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A4146 road
The A4146 is an A-class road running through south-central England from M1 Junction 14 at Milton Keynes, around Linslade and Leighton Buzzard (as a new dual carriageway bypass), and via Dagnall to Hemel Hempstead, where it terminates at a roundabout with the A4251.
In Milton Keynes, the road briefly follows the H6 Childs Way from Junction 14 of the M1 Motorway before turning south onto the V11 Tongwell Street, west again onto the H10 Bletcham Way and once more to the south where it joins with the A5. It then separates again, continuing as the Milton Keynes southern bypass south of Fenny Stratford and Bletchley. At the end of the single carriageway bypass the road used to turn left and head south through the village of Stoke Hammond. However it now continues west onto a short stretch of dual carriageway bypass which was built in 2004.
From a point just south of Water Eaton, Milton Keynes, a brand new alignment has been built for the road, forming the Stoke Hammond and Linslade western bypass. The dual carriageway road hugs the route of the West Coast Main Line for most of the way south towards Leighton Buzzard. This route opened on 14 September 2007. The route is planned to tie in with a proposed A418 Wing bypass. The new road features five new roundabouts, including one on the 2004 section, four overbridges and three underpasses.The bypass was the focus on an anti-road protest. During the protest two women chained themselves to a digger. They were arrested and charged, but later acquitted.
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A4155 road
The A4155 is a road in the United Kingdom that starts at Bourne End in Buckinghamshire and leads westwards by way of Little Marlow, Marlow, Medmenham, Henley-on-Thames, Lower Shiplake and Caversham to terminate at Reading in Berkshire. Its route follows the north bank of the River Thames and thus it becomes very congested on the days of the various regattas and similar events in the towns it serves.[citation needed]
Coordinates: 51°31′20″N 0°53′37″W / 51.52228°N 0.89371°W / 51.52228; -0.89371
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A418 road
The A418 road is a main trunk road in Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire, England. It begins at a roundabout with the A4146 just north of Ascott, near Leighton Buzzard. It then runs south as a single carriageway through Wing to Aylesbury. This stretch is proposed for a dual carriageway bypass. After diving through Aylesbury the road runs past Aylesbury College before heading out into Stone. From here it runs past Haddenham to the M40 near Thame. The road has been rerouted in two locations so that it no longer runs through Hulcott and Haddenham.
From the A505 in Buckinghamshire:
In Oxfordshire:
Coordinates: 51°48′11″N 0°50′38″W / 51.80317°N 0.84397°W / 51.80317; -0.84397
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A421 road
The A421 is an important road for east/west journeys across England. Together with the A428, the A43 and A34, it forms the route from Cambridge through Milton Keynes to Oxford. The section between the A1 near St Neots and the A5 in Milton Keynes is a primary route.
The road begins at the A1, just south of St Neots (and the junction with the A428 from Cambridge), at the Black Cat Roundabout. The road bypasses Great Barford (the bypass opening on August 24, 2006) and Bedford to the south to reach the M1 at junction 13. From there, it swings up through the southern part of Milton Keynes, doubling as the local grid road H8 Standing Way. During this time it crosses the A5 (and connects to it via a short spur which is part of the V6 Grafton Street). Continuing westwards, it forms the Buckingham by-pass before joining the A43 from Northampton on the outskirts of Brackley.
(From there, the westward route becomes the B4031 through Croughton, Aynho and Deddington to join the A361 to Chipping Norton).
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A422 road
The A422 is an "A" road for east-west journeys in south central England, connecting the county towns of Bedford and Worcester by way of Milton Keynes, Buckingham, Banbury and Stratford-upon-Avon. For most of its length, is a narrow single carriageway.
The eastern end of the road is at Bromham on the outskirts of Bedford, where it branches off the A428. Its route then crosses into the Borough of Milton Keynes (and Buckinghamshire). It briefly merges with the A509 to bypass Newport Pagnell. Entering Milton Keynes itself, it crosses the northern part of the city as a dual carriageway known locally as the H3 Monks Way. It has followed these routes since they were developed in the 1970s as part of the grid road system in Milton Keynes.
Upon meeting the A5 the A422 follows its route for 3 miles (4.8 km) before crossing briefly into Northamptonshire and regaining its identity (and single carriageway status).It then bypasses Deanshanger, goes through the centre of Buckingham, around Brackley in Northamptonshire, into Oxfordshire, just before crossing the M40 at Junction 11 and into Banbury. From the A422/B4525 roundabout, on the western edge of Middleton Cheney, Banbury (east of Junction 11), the Road is dualled until it meets the A423 and resumes as a single carriageway. From there to Stratford upon Avon, it is a minor road crossing into Warwickshire at the Battle of Edgehill site, from there it declines steeply down the Sunrising Hill escarpment and then across the Fosse Way.
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A428 road
The A428 road is a major road in central and eastern England. It connects the cities of Coventry and Cambridge by way of the county towns of Northampton and Bedford.
The road starts on the A4600 Sky Blue Way in Coventry, heading Eastbound out of the city meeting the A444 and A4082 roads before crossing the A46 Eastern Bypass and into Warwickshire. The road then passes through the village of Binley Woods before becoming more rural in nature, meeting the Fosse Way and crossing the River Avon at Bretford. 3.8 miles (6.1 km) further along, the road enters Rugby where it meets the A4071 and A426 and passes Rugby School. It then continues out of the town to the east through the suburb of Hillmorton and crosses the A5 near Daventry International Railfreight Terminal (DIRFT). It meets the M1 at its original terminus, junction 18 and bypasses the towns of Crick and West Haddon. The road passes the Althorp family estate, eventually entering the Town of Northampton.
East of Northampton the road passes Little Houghton (the 2-mile (3.2 km) £1.4 million bypass opened in December 1979), Brafield-on-the-Green, Yardley Hastings. After here it enters Bedfordshire and the district of Bedford then meets the A509 at a roundabout. Continuing towards Bedford the road passes Lavendon, Cold Brayfield, Turvey, Bromham (the 2-mile (3.2 km) £4.8 million bypass opened in September 1986). It meets the A422 (for Milton Keynes north) at a roundabout entering Bedford.
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A508 road
The A508 is a short A-class road for north/south journeys in south central England, forming the route from Market Harborough in Leicestershire, via Northampton, to Old Stratford, north-west of Milton Keynes.
The road begins in the centre of Market Harborough and crosses into Northamptonshire just outside the town. Crossing the A14 at Kelmarsh, it continues on through the centre of Northampton, merging with the A5199 as it enters the town. Through Northampton the road repeatedly switches between being a dual carriageway and a single carriageway.
From there, it merges briefly with the A45 until it crosses the M1 at junction 15. Resuming its identity, it continues through Roade, Grafton Regis and rural south Northamptonshire, reaching the A5 and the A422 at Old Stratford, a small town which adjoins Milton Keynes.
Between Market Harborough and Northampton, travelling south, there are two fixed (Gatso) speed cameras. The first is on top of the A14 junction (40 mph (64 km/h) limit) and the second is approx 0.5 miles (0.80 km) from the village of Lamport (60 mph (97 km/h) limit). Both of these cameras are rotated, meaning that they face the opposite direction of travel every so often. There is a further speed camera just south of junction 15 and another in Roade. The majority of the stretch between Northampton and Milton Keynes is national speed limit (60 mph (97 km/h)), although there are 30 mph (48 km/h) limits in Roade and Grafton Regis.
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A509 road
The A509 is a short A-class road (around 30 miles (48 km) long) for north-south journeys in south central England, forming the route from Kettering in Northamptonshire to the M1 and A5 in Milton Keynes.
The road begins at Wicksteed Park in the outskirts of Kettering. It then crosses the A14 and goes through Isham and Great Harrowden. After this it goes on to form the Wellingborough western bypass before crossing into the Borough of Milton Keynes (ceremonial Buckinghamshire). From there, it crosses the A428 at a roundabout and cuts through the centre of Olney. South of Olney the road is 40 mph (64 km/h) for a distance before rising to 50 mph (80 km/h) as it passes Emberton, after which it regains the national speed limit (60 mph (97 km/h)). It then meets the A422 at a large roundabout and becomes a dual carriageway. It multiplexes with the A422 to form the Newport Pagnell Bypass. After passing Newport Pagnell the A509 turns left at a roundabout with the A422 continuing ahead. Here it becomes a single carriageway once more and crosses the M1 at Junction 14, where it enters Milton Keynes. Regaining the dual carriageway status it runs for a further 4 miles (6.4 km) past the edge of the centre and the National Hockey Stadium, to link up with the A5 at the National Badminton Centre in Loughton. Through Milton Keynes the road is known as the H5 Portway.
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A5130 road
The A5130 is a road in the United Kingdom. It starts on a roundabout with the A509 near Junction 14 of the M1 motorway and proceeds south round the eastern edge of the original Milton Keynes designated area. After crossing the A421 the 5130 continues past the village of Wavendon. It then crosses the Bedford-Bletchley railway by means of a level crossing and passes through Woburn Sands. It terminates a short distance to the south upon meeting the A4012 just inside the village of Woburn.
The road is de facto a part of the Milton Keynes Grid Road System, an unofficial V12, being absorbed as Broughton expands (see next).
With the eastern expansion of Milton Keynes now under construction, Milton Keynes Partnership are downgrading the road to what it calls "a High Street". This plan is controversial and is opposed locally, by local parish councils, residents and campaign group Urban Eden, but the Partnership says that it has completed due process and consultations and now has the authority to impose it. It is not yet clear whether or not this stretch will retain the A5130 number or if it will be deleted. A 40 mph (64 km/h) speed limit has been put in place along the stretch in question, and development has been built right up to the road's edge. MKP's eventual plan is to reduce the speed limit further to 30 mph (48 km/h).
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A66 road
The A66 is a major road in northern England which in part follows the course of the Roman road from Scotch Corner to Penrith. It runs from east of Middlesbrough in the ceremonial county of North Yorkshire to Workington in Cumbria. It is anomalously numbered since west of Penrith it trespasses into numbering zone 5; this is because it originally terminated at the A6 in Penrith, but was extended further west in order to create one continuous east–west route. Most of what is now the A66 west of Penrith was originally A594 – only a small stub of this road remains, from Maryport to Cockermouth.
From its eastern terminus between Redcar and Middlesbrough, it runs past Stockton-on-Tees and Darlington mainly as two to three lane dual-carriageway and single carriageway past Darlington, becoming motorway standard as the A66(M) shortly before meeting junction 57 of the A1(M). It follows the A1(M) south to Scotch Corner from where it continues west across the Pennines, past Brough, Appleby, Kirkby Thore, Temple Sowerby, Penrith, Keswick and Cockermouth, and on through the northern reaches of the Lake District, before arriving at the coastal town of Workington. There is a short stretch of two lane dual carriageway alongside the northern part of Bassenthwaite Lake between Keswick and Cockermouth. Whilst the eastbound section follows the straight line of the disused Cockermouth, Keswick and Penrith Railway, the westbound section has numerous bends with climbs and dips. The western end of the Bassenthwaite stretch has been permanently reduced to a single lane with a 50 miles per hour (80 km/h) limit monitored by average speed cameras.
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Akeman Street
Akeman Street was a major Roman road in England that linked Watling Street with the Fosse Way. Its junction with Watling Steet was just north of Verulamium (near modern St Albans) and that with the Fosse Way was at Corinium Dobunnorum (now Cirencester). Its course passes through towns and villages including Hemel Hempstead, Berkhamsted, Tring, Aylesbury, Alchester (outside modern Bicester), Chesterton, Kirtlington, Ramsden and Asthall.
Parts of the A41 road between Tring and Bicester use the course of the former Roman road. A minor road between Chesterton and Kirtlington also uses its course. Other parts are in use as public footpaths, including a 6-mile (9.7 km) stretch between Tackley and Stonesfield that is part of the Oxfordshire Way.
The origins of the road's name are uncertain but certainly date back to the Early Middle Ages. Some have suggested that "Akeman" derives from the Anglo-Saxon words for "oak-man". Others have suggested a connection with Bath, which the Anglo-Saxons called Acemannesceastre (Acemannes apparently being derived from the Roman name Aquae Sulis). It is unclear how this might have become associated with the road, but one possibility is that the name was originally used for the longer stretch of road from Bath.
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Amersham
Coordinates: 51°40′37″N 0°36′12″W / 51.6769°N 0.6034°W / 51.6769; -0.6034
Amersham is a market town and civil parish within Chiltern district in Buckinghamshire, England, 27 miles (43 km) north west of London, in the Chiltern Hills. It is part of the London commuter belt.
Amersham is split into two distinct areas: Old Amersham, set in the valley of the River Misbourne, which contains the 13th century parish church of St. Mary's and several old pubs and coaching inns; and Amersham-on-the-Hill, which grew rapidly around the railway station in the early part of the 20th century.
Records date back to pre-Anglo-Saxon times, when it was known as Egmondesham, and by the time that the Domesday Book was written around 1086 it had become known as Elmodesham. The Domesday entry is as follows:
Queen Edith was the wife of Edward the Confessor and sister of king Harold, and after her death in 1075 the land passed to William the Conqueror who granted it to Geoffrey de Mandeville.
In 1200 Geoffrey, Earl of Essex obtained a charter for Amersham allowing him to hold a Friday market and a fair on 7 and 8 September. In 1613 a new charter was granted to Edward, Earl of Bedford, changing the market day to Tuesday and establishing a statute fair on 19 September.
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Aylesbury
Coordinates: 51°49′00″N 0°48′45″W / 51.8168°N 0.8124°W / 51.8168; -0.8124
Aylesbury (
/ˈeɪlzbri/) is the county town of Buckinghamshire in South East England. However the town also falls into a notional geographical region known as the South Midlands an area that ecompasses the north of the South East, and the southern extremities of the East Midlands, and the western portion of the East of England. In the 2001 census the Aylesbury Urban Area, which includes Bierton, Fairford Leys, Stoke Mandeville and Watermead, had a population of 69,021, which included 56,392 for the Aylesbury civil parish.
The town name is of Old English origin. Its first recorded name Æglesburgh is thought to mean "Fort of Aegel", though who Aegel was is not recorded. Since earliest records there have been 57 variations of the name. Excavations in the town centre in 1985 found an Iron Age hillfort dating from the early 4th century BC. The town is sited on an outcrop of Portlandian limestone which accounts for its prominent position in the surrounding landscape, which is largely clay. Aylesbury was a major market town in Anglo-Saxon times, famous in addition as the burial place of Saint Osyth, whose shrine attracted pilgrims. The Early English parish church of St. Mary (which has many later additions) has a crypt beneath. Once thought to be Anglo-Saxon, it is now recognised as being of the same period as the medieval chapel above. At the Norman Conquest, the king took the manor of Aylesbury for himself, and it is listed as a royal manor in the Domesday Book, 1086.
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Barking
Coordinates: 51°32′N 0°05′E / 51.54°N 0.08°E / 51.54; 0.08
Barking is a suburban town in the London Borough of Barking and Dagenham, in East London, England. A retail and commercial centre situated in the west of the borough, it lies 9.1 miles (14.6 km) east of Charing Cross. The area is identified in the London Plan as one of 35 major centres in Greater London. Barking is an area of regeneration with two main centres of activity, Barking Town Centre and Barking Riverside.
Its name came from Anglo-Saxon Berecingas, meaning either "the settlement of the followers or descendants of a man called Bereca" or "the settlement by the birch trees".
"Barking", in English slang, is short for "barking mad". Barking is sometimes cited as the origin of the phrase. This is attributed to the alleged existence of a medieval insane asylum attached to Barking Abbey. However, the phrase is not medieval, and first appeared only in the 20th century. A more likely derivation is from comparing an insane person to a mad dog.
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Barnet
Coordinates: 51°38′40″N 0°11′59″W / 51.6444°N 0.1997°W / 51.6444; -0.1997
High Barnet or Chipping Barnet is a place in the London Borough of Barnet, North London, England. It is a suburban development built around a twelfth-century settlement and is located 10 miles (16 km) north north-west of Charing Cross. Its name is often abbreviated to Barnet, which is also the name of the London borough of which it forms a part. Chipping Barnet is the name of the Parliamentary constituency covering the local area - the word "Chipping" denotes the presence of a market (one was established here in the thirteenth century and persists to this day).
The town's name derives from an ancient settlement, recorded as Barneto c.1070, Barnet 1197, La Barnette 1248, that is 'the land cleared by burning', from Old English bærnet, referring to the clearing of this once densely forested area in early times.
This was the site of the Battle of Barnet in 1471 (more accurately, Hadley), where Yorkist troops led by King Edward IV killed the rebellious "Kingmaker" Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick and Warwick's brother, John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu. Barnet Hill is said to be the hill mentioned in the nursery rhyme "The Grand Old Duke of York".
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Basildon
Coordinates: 51°34′34″N 0°29′19″E / 51.5761°N 0.4886°E / 51.5761; 0.4886
Basildon ( /ˈbæzɪldən/)[citation needed] is a town located in the Basildon District of the county of Essex, England.
It lies 25 miles (40 km) east of Central London and 11 miles (18 km) south of the county town of Chelmsford. Nearby towns include Billericay to the north, Wickford northeast and South Benfleet to the east.
It was designated as a new town after World War II in 1948 to accommodate the London population overspill, created from the conglomeration of four small villages, namely Pitsea, Laindon, Basildon and Vange (the new town took the name Basildon as it was the most central of the four villages).
The local government district of Basildon, formed in 1974 was first led by Ryan O'Rourke and encapsulates a larger area than the town itself; the two neighbouring towns of Billericay and Wickford, as well as rural villages and smaller settlements set among the surrounding countryside, fall within its borders.
Basildon Town is one of the most densely populated areas in the County of Essex, mostly due to its influx of families from the Boroughs of London. However, it is thought that Basildon's population will continue to increase as many people are re-locating to the Town from the Boroughs of London, Essex and the Country. This is mostly due to Basildon's booming economy in industrial areas, the Towns tertiary sector, and its close travel link to Central London.
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Basingstoke
Coordinates: 51°16′00″N 1°05′15″W / 51.2667°N 1.0876°W / 51.2667; -1.0876
Basingstoke is a town in northeast Hampshire, in south central England. It lies across a valley at the source of the River Loddon. It is 48 miles (77 km) southwest of London, 30 miles (48 km) northeast of Southampton, 16 miles (26 km) southwest of Reading and 19 miles (31 km) northeast of the county town, Winchester. In 2008 it had an estimated population of 82,913. It is part of the borough of Basingstoke and Deane and part of the parliamentary constituency of Basingstoke. Basingstoke is often nicknamed "Doughnut City" or "Roundabout City" because of the number of roundabouts.
Often mistaken for a new town, Basingstoke is an old market town expanded in the 1960s as part of a tripartite agreement between London County Council, Hampshire County Council and Basingstoke Borough Council. It was developed rapidly, along with Andover and Tadley, to accommodate part of the London 'overspill' as perceived under the Greater London Plan, 1944. Basingstoke market was mentioned in the Domesday Book and Basingstoke remained a small market town until the 1950s. It still has a regular market, but is now bigger than Hampshire County Council's definition of a market town.
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Bell Common
Coordinates: 51°41′N 0°05′E / 51.68°N 00.08°E / 51.68; 00.08
Bell Common is a settlement in Essex, England and forms the southern part of the town of Epping.
The Bell Common Tunnel is a covered section of the M25 motorway in Bell Common. The route of the motorway at this point was forced into a very narrow gap between the ecologically important Epping Forest to the south and the settlements to the north. The decision was therefore made to put the motorway underground. The tunnel is 470 metres long and was constructed between 1982 and 1984 using the cut and cover method.
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Birmingham
Birmingham (
i/ˈbɜrmɪŋəm/ BUR-ming-əm, locally /ˈbɜrmɪŋɡəm/ BUR-ming-gəm) is a city and metropolitan borough in the West Midlands of England. It is the most populous British city outside the capital London, with a population of 1,036,900 (2010 estimate), and lies at the heart of the West Midlands conurbation, the second most populous urban area in the United Kingdom with a population of 2,284,093 (2001 census). Birmingham's metropolitan area is also the United Kingdom's second most populous with a population of 3,683,000.
A medium-sized market town during the medieval period, Birmingham grew to international prominence in the 18th century at the heart of the Midlands Enlightenment and subsequent Industrial Revolution, which saw the town at the forefront of worldwide developments in science, technology and economic organisation, producing a series of innovations that laid many of the foundations of modern industrial society. By 1791 it was being hailed as "the first manufacturing town in the world". Birmingham's distinctive economic profile, with thousands of small workshops practising a wide variety of specialised and highly-skilled trades, encouraged exceptional levels of creativity and innovation and provided a diverse and resilient economic base for industrial prosperity that was to last into the final quarter of the 20th century. Its resulting high level of social mobility also fostered a culture of broad-based political radicalism, that under leaders from Thomas Attwood to Joseph Chamberlain was to give it a political influence unparalleled in Britain outside London and a pivotal role in the development of British democracy.
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Bletchley TMD
Bletchley TMD is a (limited service) railway traction maintenance depot situated in Bletchley, (ceremonial) Buckinghamshire to the north of Bletchley Station on the West Coast Main Line (and the Marston Vale Line). The depot is operated by London Midland. The depot code is now BY but, in steam days, the shed code was 1E.
Bletchley TMD was downgraded from a full service depot on 30 May 2008 and now undertakes limited workloads. Bletchley had won awards for the reliability of its trains as recently as March 2007.
The local press has expressed concern that diesel trains used on the Marston Vale Line, which were previously serviced here, now have to come from Tyseley TMD in Birmingham, with consequent long delays to service resumption in the event of train failure.
Coordinates: 52°00′03″N 0°43′53″W / 52.000828°N 0.731331°W / 52.000828; -0.731331
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Brighton
Coordinates: 50°50′35″N 0°07′53″W / 50.842941°N 0.1313120°W / 50.842941; -0.1313120
Brightoni/ˈbraɪtən/ is the major part of the city of Brighton and Hove (formed from the previous towns of Brighton, Hove, Portslade and several other villages) in East Sussex, England on the south coast of Great Britain. For administrative purposes, Brighton and Hove is not part of the non-metropolitan county of East Sussex, but remains part of the ceremonial county of East Sussex, within the historic county of Sussex.
The ancient settlement of Brighthelmstone dates from before Domesday Book (1086), but it emerged as a health resort featuring sea bathing during the 18th century and became a destination for day-trippers from London after the arrival of the railway in 1841. Brighton experienced rapid population growth, reaching a peak of over 160,000 by 1961. Modern Brighton forms part of the Brighton/Worthing/Littlehampton conurbation stretching along the coast, with a population of around 480,000.
Brighton has two universities and a medical school (which is operated jointly by both universities).
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Bromley
Coordinates: 51°24′25″N 0°01′16″E / 51.4070°N 0.0210°E / 51.4070; 0.0210
Bromley is a large suburban district of south east London, England and the administrative headquarters of the London Borough of Bromley. It was historically a market town, and prior to 1963 was in the county of Kent and formed the administrative centre of the Municipal Borough of Bromley. Although technically in London, it is regarded by locals and Londoners alike as in the county of Kent. Its location on a coaching route and the opening of a railway station in 1858 were key to its development and the economic history of Bromley is underpinned by a shift from an agrarian village to commercial and retail hub. As part of the suburban growth of London in the 20th century, Bromley significantly increased in population and has formed part of Greater London since 1963. It has developed into one of a handful of regionally significant commercial and retail districts outside central London. It is located 9.3 miles (15 km) south east of Charing Cross and is one of the major metropolitan centres identified in the London Plan. Bromley has a number of affluent areas and is regarded as being one of the richest London Boroughs. There are a number of gated communities within the borough, most noticeably Keston Park (in Keston, Orpington), Farnborough Park (Farnborough, Orpington) and Bickley Park (in the affluent areas of Bickley and Chislehurst)
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Buckinghamshire
Buckinghamshire ( /ˈbʌkɪŋəmʃər/ or /ˈbʌkɪŋəmʃɪər/; archaically the County of Buckingham; abbreviated Bucks) is a ceremonial and non-metropolitan home county in South East England. The county town is Aylesbury, the largest town in the ceremonial county is Milton Keynes and largest town in the non-metropolitan county is High Wycombe.
The area under the control of Buckinghamshire County Council, or shire county, is divided into four districts—Aylesbury Vale, Chiltern, South Bucks and Wycombe. The Borough of Milton Keynes is a unitary authority and forms part of the county for various functions such as Lord Lieutenant but does not come under county council control. The ceremonial county, the area including Milton Keynes borough, borders Greater London (to the south east), Berkshire (to the south), Oxfordshire (to the west), Northamptonshire (to the north), Bedfordshire (to the north east) and Hertfordshire (to the east).
Sections of the county closer to London are part of the Metropolitan Green Belt, which limits development. It is the location of the nationally important Pinewood Studios and Dorney Lake, which will be holding the rowing events at the 2012 Summer Olympics. It is also well known for the new town of Milton Keynes and the Chiltern Hills area of outstanding natural beauty.
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Cambridge
The city of Cambridge (i/ˈkeɪmbrɪdʒ/ KAYM-brij) is a university town and the administrative centre of the county of Cambridgeshire, England. It lies in East Anglia, on the River Cam, about 50 miles (80 km) north of London. According to the United Kingdom Census 2001, its population was 108,863 (including 22,153 students), and was estimated to be 125,717 in mid-2010. There is archaeological evidence of settlement in the area in bronze age and Roman times, and under Viking rule Cambridge became an important trading centre. The first town charters were granted in the 12th century, although city status was not conferred until 1951.
Cambridge is most widely known as the home of the University of Cambridge, founded in 1209 and consistently ranked one of the top five universities in the world. The university includes the renowned Cavendish Laboratory, King's College Chapel, and the Cambridge University Library. The Cambridge skyline is dominated by the last two buildings, along with the chimney of Addenbrooke's Hospital in the far south of the city and St John's College Chapel tower.
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Canterbury
Coordinates: 51°16′30″N 1°05′13″E / 51.275°N 1.087°E / 51.275; 1.087
Canterbury (i/ˈkæntərbᵊri/ or /ˈkæntərbɛri/) is a historic English cathedral city, which lies at the heart of the City of Canterbury, a district of Kent in South East England. It lies on the River Stour.
Originally a Brythonic settlement, it was renamed Durovernum Cantiacorum by the Roman conquerors in the 1st century AD. After it became the chief Jutish settlement, it gained its English name Canterbury, itself derived from the Old English Cantwareburh ("Kent people's stronghold"). After the Kingdom of Kent's conversion to Christianity in 597, St Augustine founded an episcopal see in the city and became the first Archbishop of Canterbury, a position that now heads the Church of England and the worldwide Anglican Communion (though the modern-day Province of Canterbury covers the entire south of England). Thomas Becket's murder at Canterbury Cathedral in 1170 led to the cathedral becoming a place of pilgrimage for Christians worldwide. This pilgrimage provided the theme for Geoffrey Chaucer's 14th-century literary classic The Canterbury Tales. The literary heritage continued with the birth of the playwright Christopher Marlowe in the city in the 16th century.
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Caterham
Coordinates: 51°16′49″N 0°04′54″W / 51.2803°N 0.0816°W / 51.2803; -0.0816
Caterham is a town in the Tandridge District of Surrey, England. The town is geographically divided into two sections: Caterham on the Hill and Caterham Valley - the main town centre. The town lies close to the A22, 21 miles from Guildford and a few miles south of Croydon, in a valley cut into the dip slope of the North Downs. Caterham on the Hill is above the western side of the valley. The resident population of Caterham is 20,957 people. Caterham is predominantly a commuter town due to its proximity to London.
The town lies within the Anglo-Saxon administrative division of Tandridge hundred.
The original settlement was on the ridge above the modern town and is now called Caterham on the Hill. The modern town in the valley is a product of the Victorian age and the coming of the Caterham railway line in 1856. The Victorian expansion of the town required the building of a much larger parish church (St Mary the Virgin) in 1866 but the old Norman church of St Lawrence was retained and remains directly across the road from St Mary's. As it grew Caterham Valley gained its own church, St. John the Evangelist, which was consecrated in 1882. It is even larger than St. Mary's[citation needed].
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Charing Cross
Coordinates: 51°30′26″N 0°07′39″W / 51.5073°N 0.12755°W / 51.5073; -0.12755
Charing Cross denotes the junction of Strand, Whitehall and Cockspur Street, just south of Trafalgar Square in central London, England. It is named after the now demolished Eleanor cross that stood there, in what was once the hamlet of Charing. The site of the cross is now occupied by an equestrian statue of King Charles I. Since the second half of the 18th century Charing Cross has been seen as the centre of London. It is the primary of the central datum points for measuring distances from London along with the London Stone, Hicks Hall and the doors of St Mary-le-Bow church.
"Erect a rich and stately carved cross, Whereon her statue shall with glory shine; And henceforth see you call it Charing Cross." George Peele The Famous Chronicle of King Edward the First (1593)
The name of the hamlet of Charing is derived from the old English word "cierring", referring to the nearby bend in the River Thames.
The addition of the name "Cross" to the area's name originates from the Eleanor cross erected in 1291–94 by King Edward I as a memorial to his wife, Eleanor of Castile, and placed between the former hamlet of Charing and the entrance to the Royal Mews of the Palace of Whitehall (today the top of Whitehall on the south side of Trafalgar Square).
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Chelmsford
Coordinates: 51°44′10″N 0°28′47″E / 51.7361°N 0.4798°E / 51.7361; 0.4798
Chelmsford ( /ˈtʃɛlmzfərd/) is the only city in Essex, England, UK, and the principal settlement of the Borough of Chelmsford. It is located in the London commuter belt, approximately 32 miles (51 km) northeast of Charing Cross, London, and approximately the same distance from the once provincial Roman capital at Colchester. The city currently has a population of approximately 169,500 however this is thought to be rapidly increasing on a year by year basis with many people from Essex and the London borders re-locating to the town.
The main conurbation incorporates all or part of the former parishes of Broomfield, Great Baddow, Moulsham, Widford and Springfield, including Springfield Barnes, now known as Chelmer Village. American tourists often visit the suburb of Springfield, the origin of "Springfield" as a popular place name, first giving its name to the important City of Springfield, Massachusetts, and subsequently Springfield, Illinois, the state capital of Illinois, and Springfield, Missouri, among numerous others.[citation needed]
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Chertsey
Coordinates: 51°23′25″N 0°30′27″W / 51.3902°N 0.5074°W / 51.3902; -0.5074
Chertsey is a town in Surrey, England, on the River Thames and its tributary rivers such as the River Bourne. It can be accessed by road from junction 11 of the M25 London orbital motorway. It shares borders with Staines, Laleham, Shepperton, Addlestone, Woking, Thorpe and Egham. It lies within the Godley hundred, 29km southwest of central London, close to the M3 and the M25.
The town is part of the London commuter belt, and is served by Chertsey railway station. It is located on the Chertsey branch of the Waterloo to Reading Line which is currently operated by South West Trains as part of the UK state-owned National Rail network. The town is home to the head office of Compass Group and the UK head office of Samsung Electronics. The Thorpe Park entrance is also in the town, including frequent buses from Staines and car parking. Elevation is generally low at 14m in the High Street and 11m on the river Thames where the Boat House and Kingfisher restaurants are located, making this the lowest place in Chertsey. The highest point is St. Anne's Hill in the forest, which peaks at around 77m, making it the second highest point in Runnymede. Across the river Thames from Chertsey Bridge on the Middlesex side of the river is the Thames Path National Trail, and Chertsey Lock.
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Chorleywood
Coordinates: 51°39′N 0°31′W / 51.65°N 0.51°W / 51.65; -0.51
Chorleywood is a village and civil parish in the Three Rivers district of Hertfordshire in the United Kingdom. It had a population of 6,814 people at the 2001 census. The parish of Chorleywood as a whole has a population of 10,775. The town lies in the far south west of Hertfordshire, on the border with Buckinghamshire. Chorleywood is located 31.8 kilometres (19.8 mi) north-west of Charing Cross in London. It is part of the London commuter belt, and included in the government-defined Greater London Urban Area.
In a 2004 survey of neighbourhoods carried out by the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, Chorleywood West was found to be the neighbourhood in England with the highest quality of life. Of the 32,482 neighbourhoods surveyed, Chorleywood West came out top using thirty-seven criteria.
In the early 1960s, researchers at the British Baking Industries Research Association in Chorleywood improved upon an earlier American bread making process. This resulted in the Chorleywood Bread Process, which is now used in over 80% of commercial bread production throughout the UK.
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City of London
The City of London is an area in central London, England. In the medieval period it constituted most of London, but the conurbation has grown far beyond it. As the City’s boundaries have remained almost unchanged since the Middle Ages, it is now only a tiny part of the metropolis, though it remains a notable part of central London, holds city status in its own right, and is a separate ceremonial county.
It is often referred to as the City (often written on maps as "City") or the Square Mile, as it is just over one square mile (1.12 sq mi/2.90 km2) in area. These terms are also often used as metonyms for the United Kingdom's financial services industry, which continues a notable history of being based in the City.
The term London now refers to a much larger conurbation roughly corresponding to Greater London, a local government area which includes 32 London boroughs including the City of Westminster as well as the City of London. The local authority for the City, the City of London Corporation, is unique in the United Kingdom, and has some unusual responsibilities for a local authority in Britain, such as being the police authority for the City. It also has responsibilities and ownerships beyond the City's boundaries. The Corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London, an office separate from (and much older than) the Mayor of London.
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Colchester
Coordinates: 51°53′30″N 0°54′11″E / 51.8917°N 0.903°E / 51.8917; 0.903
Colchesteri/ˈkoʊltʃɛstə/ is an historic town and the largest settlement within the borough of Colchester in Essex, England.
At the time of the census in 2001, it had a population of 104,390. However, the population is rapidly increasing, and has been named as one of Britain's fastest growing towns. As the oldest recorded Roman town in Britain, Colchester claims to be the oldest town in Britain. It was for a time the capital of Roman Britain and also claims to have the United Kingdom's oldest recorded market. The town is a member of the Most Ancient European Towns Network.
Colchester is 60 miles (97 km) northeast of London. It is connected to the capital by the A12 road and the Great Eastern Main Line. It is seen as a popular town for commuters, and is less than 30 miles away from Stansted Airport.
Colchester is home to Colchester Castle and Colchester United Football Club. It has a Liberal Democrat Member of Parliament.
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Crawley
Crawley ( pronunciation (help·info)) is a town and local government district with Borough status in West Sussex, England. It is 28 miles (45 km) south of Charing Cross, 18 miles (29 km) north of Brighton and Hove, and 32 miles (51 km) northeast of the county town of Chichester, covers an area of 17.36 square miles (44.96 km2) and had a population of 99,744 at the time of the 2001 Census.
The area has been inhabited since the Stone Age, and was a centre of ironworking in Roman times. Crawley developed slowly as a market town from the 13th century, serving the surrounding villages in the Weald; its location on the main road from London to Brighton brought a passing trade, encouraging the development of coaching inns. It was connected to the railway network in the 1840s.
Gatwick Airport, now one of Britain's busiest international airports, opened on the edge of the town in the 1940s, encouraging commercial and industrial growth. After the Second World War, the British Government planned to move large numbers of people and jobs out of London and into new towns around South East England. The New Towns Act 1946 designated Crawley as the site of one of these. A master plan was developed for the establishment of new residential, commercial, industrial and civic areas, and rapid development greatly increased the size and population of the town in a few decades.
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Croydon
Coordinates: 51°22′22″N 0°06′36″W / 51.3727°N 0.1099°W / 51.3727; -0.1099
Croydon is a large town in South London, England, located within the London Borough of Croydon to which it gives its name. It is situated 9.5 miles (15.3 km) south of Charing Cross. The area is identified in the London Plan as one of 11 metropolitan centres in Greater London.
Croydon is located on the natural transport corridor between London and England's south coast, just to the north of two gaps in the North Downs, one followed by the route of the A23 Brighton Road from Purley to Merstham and the other followed by the A22 from Purley to the M25 Godstone interchange.
Historically a part of Surrey, at the time of the Norman conquest of England Croydon had a church, a mill and around 365 inhabitants (as recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086). Croydon expanded during the Middle Ages as a market town and a centre for charcoal production, leather tanning and brewing. The Surrey Iron Railway from Croydon to Wandsworth opened in 1803 and was the world's first public horse-drawn railway, which later developed into an important means of transport – facilitating Croydon's growth as a commuter town for the City of London and beyond. By the early 20th century, Croydon was an important industrial area, known for car manufacture, metal working and its airport. In the mid 20th century these sectors were replaced by retailing and service economy, brought about by massive redevelopment which saw the rise of office blocks and the Whitgift shopping centre. Croydon was amalgamated into Greater London in 1965. Road traffic is now diverted away from a largely pedestrianised town centre, but its main railway station, East Croydon, is still a major hub within the national railway transport system. The town is expected to have its urban planning changed as part of Croydon Vision 2020.
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Dagenham
Coordinates: 51°32′23″N 0°08′32″E / 51.5397°N 0.1422°E / 51.5397; 0.1422
Dagenham is a large suburb in East London, forming the eastern part of the London Borough of Barking and Dagenham and located 12 miles (19.3 km) east of Charing Cross. It was historically an agrarian village in the county of Essex and remained mostly undeveloped until 1921 when the London County Council began construction of the large Becontree estate. The population of the area significantly increased during the 20th century, with the parish of Dagenham becoming an urban district in 1926 and a municipal borough in 1938. It has formed part of Greater London since 1965 and is a predominantly residential area, with some areas of declining industrial activity, including the Ford Dagenham plant. The population is set to rise as the southern part of Dagenham, adjacent to the River Thames, forms part of the London Riverside section of the Thames Gateway redevelopment area.
Dagenham first appeared in a document (as Dæccanhaam) in a charter of Barking Abbey dating from 686 AD. The name almost certainly originated with a small farmstead, the "ham" or farm of a man called Daecca, as Dæccan hamm in Old English means home of a man called Dæcca.
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Dartford
Coordinates: 51°27′50″N 0°15′14″E / 51.464°N 0.254°E / 51.464; 0.254
Dartford is the principal town in the borough of Dartford. It is situated in the northwest corner of Kent, England, 16 miles (26 km) east south-east of central London.
The town centre is situated in a valley through which the River Darent flows, and where the old road from London to Dover crossed: hence the name, from Darent + ford. Dartford became a market town in medieval times and, although today it is principally a commuter town for Greater London, it has a long history of religious, industrial and cultural importance. It is an important rail hub; the main through-road now avoids the town itself.
In prehistory, the first people appeared in the Dartford area around 250,000 years ago: a tribe of prehistoric hunter-gatherers whose exemplar is called Swanscombe Man. Many other archaeological investigations have revealed a good picture of occupation of the district with important finds from the Stone Age, the Bronze Age and the Iron Age.
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Dartford Crossing
The Dartford - Thurrock River Crossing, Dartford River Crossing (DRC) (or simply the Dartford Crossing) is a major road crossing of the River Thames in England, connecting Dartford in the south to Thurrock in the north, via two road tunnels and the Queen Elizabeth II Bridge. It opened in stages, the west tunnel in 1963, the east tunnel in 1980, and the bridge in 1991. Until the opening of the bridge, built to the east of the two tunnels, the crossing was known as the Dartford Tunnel.
The two tunnels are 1,430 m (1,560 yd) long, while the cable-stayed bridge is 137 metres (449 ft) high with a main span of 450 metres (490 yd). The crossing carries nearly 150,000 vehicles a day and forms part of London's orbital route, the M25—although the crossing and its approach road are actually the A282, allowing traffic prohibited from motorways to use the crossing. Southbound traffic crosses the four lane bridge; northbound traffic uses both of the two lane road tunnels. However, in bad weather or high winds, the bridge is closed and the crossing reverts to using the tunnels for both directions.
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Denham Aerodrome
Denham Aerodrome (ICAO: EGLD) is an airfield located 1.5 NM (2.8 km; 1.7 mi) east of Gerrards Cross, near Denham, Buckinghamshire, England. It lies beneath London's Class A airspace. VFR entry/exit points are at Maple Cross (CHT) and St Giles Church. Entry lanes and circuit height are at 750 ft (230 m) AGL. It has one paved runway, aligned 06/24, a grass runway also aligned 06/24 which is referred to as the northside grass and one grass runway aligned 12/30. It also has plus substantial hangarage.
Denham Aerodrome has a CAA Ordinary Licence (Number P646) that allows flights for the public transport of passengers or for flying instruction as authorised by the licensee (Bickertons Aerodromes Limited).
There are a number of charter and flight instruction operators based at Denham Aerodrome. Those include the Denham School of Flying, (part of the Cabair Group) in partnership with Buckinghamshire New University (BNU), The Pilot Centre flying school, HeliAir, PremiAir, TAA UK, the London Air Ambulance unit, and other corporate and private firms. A restaurant near the control tower is named Biggles, after the fictional airman of that name.
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Denham Roundabout
The Denham Roundabout is a large road intersection to the west of London, at junction 1 (J1) on the M40 motorway.
When Western Avenue was originally built, it ended at a point west of Uxbridge at the intersection of the road from Uxbridge towards Gerrards Cross and High Wycombe (the old Oxford Road) with the road from Slough; a conventional roundabout was constructed to replace the former tee-junction where the older roads joined. When the M40 towards High Wycombe was built, Western Avenue was extended at high level to make an end-on join with the motorway, and a larger roundabout was built below the bridges carrying the motorway. When first laid out, the roundabout had the traffic going round it clockwise in the usual way, but as traffic volumes built up the layout was altered so that the traffic moved round the roundabout in both directions (so as to make the roundabout a kind of very small ring road) with mini-roundabouts at the points where other roads join the main roundabout.
More recently an access road to a golf club has had its own mini-roundabout created on the north side of the main roundabout.
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Dorking
Coordinates: 51°14′02″N 0°19′54″W / 51.2340°N 0.3318°W / 51.2340; -0.3318
Dorking ( /ˈdɔrkɪŋ/) is a historic market town at the foot of the North Downs approximately 21 miles (34 km) south of London, in Surrey, England.
Dorking began life as a small staging on Stane Street, the Roman Road that linked London to Chichester on the English Channel.
Dorking appears in Domesday Book of 1086 as the Manor of Dorchinges. It was held by William the Conqueror. Its domesday assets were: one church, 3 mills worth 15s 4d, 16 ploughs, 3 acres (1.2 ha) of meadow, woodland and herbage worth 88 hogs. It rendered £18.
Subsequent Lords of the Manor were to include the Dukes of Norfolk, who lived in Dorking until they moved to Arundel. One of them is buried in Dorking churchyard. In the Medieval period, Dorking was a prosperous agricultural and market town, benefitting from its position on the junction of a number of important roads and tracks.
In 1750, the construction of a Turnpike Road made Dorking a staging post on the route to Brighton and the coast. The Bull's Head in South Street had a famous coachman, William Broad, whose portrait hangs in Dorking Museum in West Street. The inn that now dominates the centre of Dorking, the White Horse, was developed in the 18th century; previous buildings on this site having belonged to the Knights Templar and later the Knights of St John.
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Dover
Coordinates: 51°07′46″N 1°18′32″E / 51.1295°N 1.3089°E / 51.1295; 1.3089
Dover ( /ˈdoʊvər/; French: Douvres) is a town and major ferry port in the home county of Kent, in South East England. It faces France across the narrowest part of the English Channel, and lies south-east of Canterbury; east of Kent's administrative capital Maidstone; and north-east along the coastline from Dungeness and Hastings. The town is the administrative centre of the Dover District and home of the Dover Calais ferry through the Port of Dover. The surrounding chalk cliffs have become known as the White Cliffs of Dover, and the narrow sea passage nearby – the Strait of Dover. Its strategic position has been evident throughout its history: archaeological finds have revealed that the area has always been a focus for peoples entering and leaving Britain. The name of the town derives from the name of the river that flows through River Dour. The town has been inhabited since the Stone Age according to archeological finds, and Dover is one of only a few places in Britain – London and Cornwall being other examples – to have a corresponding name in the French language, Douvres.
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East Cross Route
East Cross Route (ECR) is a dual-carriageway road constructed in east London as part of the uncompleted Ringway 1 as part of the London Ringways plan drawn up the 1960s to create a series of high speed roads circling and radiating out from central London. The road was constructed in the late 1960s and early 1970s and runs from Hackney Wick in north-east London, through the Blackwall Tunnel, to Kidbrooke in south-east London. The ECR was initially designated as part of the A102 but has, subsequently, been partially renumbered so that sections of it are now the A2 and A12.
At its northern end, the ECR (A12) follows part of the route of the former North London Railway between the closed Victoria Park and Old Ford stations. The railway junction at Victoria Park, where the still open section of the North London Line to Stratford station diverged, was reconstructed to permit the construction of the junction with the non-dual carriageway section of the A102 and the A106 and A115 roads, above which the line passes. The branch track to the docks that ran alongside the ECR to Old Ford, which had been used only for freight since the 1940s, was subsequently closed and lifted in the early 1980s.
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East Grinstead
Coordinates: 51°07′44″N 0°00′25″W / 51.129°N 0.007°W / 51.129; -0.007
East Grinstead is a town and civil parish in the northeastern corner of Mid Sussex, West Sussex in England near the East Sussex, Surrey, and Kent borders. It lies 27 miles (43 km) south of London, 21 miles (34 km) north northeast of Brighton, and 38 miles (61 km) east northeast of the county town of Chichester. The civil parish covers an area of 2443.45 hectares (6,035 acres) and had a population of 23,942 persons in the 2001 census. Nearby towns include Crawley to the west, Tunbridge Wells to the east and Redhill and Reigate to the northwest. The town is continuous with the village of Felbridge to the northwest. Until 1974 East Grinstead was the centre for local government - East Grinstead Urban District Council - and was located in the county of East Sussex. East Grinstead, along with Haywards Heath and Burgess Hill, as part of the former Cuckfield Rural District Council, came together as Mid-Sussex; moving to the jurisdiction of West Sussex County Council. The town has many historic buildings and is located on the Greenwich Meridian. It is located in the Weald and Ashdown Forest lies to the south of the town.
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Eastbourne
Eastbourne ( pronunciation (help·info)) is a large town and borough in East Sussex, within the historic County of Sussex, on the south coast of England between Brighton and Hastings. The town is situated at the eastern end of the chalk South Downs alongside the high cliff at Beachy Head. The modern town emerged in the early 19th century as a seaside resort, assisted by the arrival of the railway in 1849, and developed a spacious, regular layout.
Prior to its Victorian development, the area consisted of the estates of the Duke of Devonshire and others, which had evolved around the village of East Burne. From the Bronze Age onward there were small settlements in and around the "Burne", an ancient stream which ran from what is now Motcombe Gardens down to the sea. During the Middle Ages sheep farming and fishing were the main activities. Eastbourne's earliest claim as a seaside resort was a summer holiday visit by four of King George III's children in 1780. During the Napoleonic Wars, the Wish Tower and the Redoubt were built as defences. In the wake of the fall of France in 1940, the town’s population fell sharply as this part of the south coast was considered a likely invasion zone. The town was badly bombed thus gaining it the dubious reputation of being ‘the most raided town in the southeast’. Thousands of Canadian soldiers were stationed in and around Eastbourne from the summer of 1941 to the run-up to D-Day.
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Enfield Town
Coordinates: 51°39′06″N 0°05′01″W / 51.6516°N 0.0837°W / 51.6516; -0.0837
Enfield Town (often referred to as just 'Enfield') is the historic town centre of Enfield, formerly in the county of Middlesex and now in the London Borough of Enfield. It is 10.1 miles (16.3 km) north north-east of Charing Cross. The area is identified in the London Plan as one of 35 major centres in Greater London.
Historically, Enfield was a collection of small communities spread around the royal hunting grounds of Enfield Chase. At the time of the Domesday Book the area was spelt 'Enefelde', and had a priest who almost certainly resided in St. Andrews Church. By 1572 most of the basic street layout had been completed. The village green later became the historic marketplace between the church and where the fountain now stands. A market is still operated in this area, which is owned by the parish charity. Its name most likely came from Anglo-Saxon Ēanafeld or similar, meaning "open land belonging to a man called Ēana" or "open land for lambs".
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Epping
Coordinates: 51°42′01″N 0°06′31″E / 51.7004°N 0.1087°E / 51.7004; 0.1087
Epping is a small market town and civil parish in the Epping Forest district of the County of Essex, England. It is located 3.5 miles (5.6 km) north-east of Loughton, 4.6 miles (7.4 km) south of Harlow and 10.9 miles (17.5 km) north-west of Brentwood.
The town retains a rural appearance being surrounded by Epping Forest and working farmland, and has many very old buildings, many of which are Grade I and II listed buildings. The town also retains its weekly market which is held every Monday and dates back to 1253. In 2001 the parish had a population of 11,047 although this has increased marginally since then.
Epping has been twinned with the German town of Eppingen in north-west Baden-Württemberg since 1981. Although the once-famous Epping Butter, which was highly sought after in the 18th and 19th centuries, is no longer made, the equally well-known Epping sausages are still manufactured by Church's Butchers who have been trading on the same site since 1888.
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Epsom
Coordinates: 51°20′10″N 0°16′03″W / 51.3361°N 0.2674°W / 51.3361; -0.2674
Epsom is a town in the borough of Epsom and Ewell in Surrey, England. Some parts of Epsom are in the Borough of Reigate and Banstead. The town is located 16 miles (26 km) south-south-west of Charing Cross, within the Greater London Urban Area. The town lies on the chalk downland in the valley of Epsom Downs.
Epsom lies within the Copthorne hundred, an administrative division devised by the Saxons. The name of Epsom derives from Ebba's ham. Ebba was a Saxon landowner. There were a string of settlements, many ending in -ham, along the northern slopes of the Downs, including Effingham, Bookham, and Cheam. The only relic from this period is a 7th century brooch found in Epsom and now in the British Museum.
The early history of the area is bound up with the Abbey of Chertsey, whose ownership of Ebbisham was confirmed by King Athelstan in 933.
Epsom appears in Domesday Book of 1086 as Evesham. It was held by Chertsey Abbey. Its domesday assets were: 11 hides; 2 churches, 2 mills worth 10 shillings, 18 ploughs, 24 acres (97,000 m2) of meadow, woodland worth 20 hogs. It rendered £17. The town at the time of Domesday Book had 38 peasant households grouped near St. Martin's Church. Later, other small settlements grew up at the town pond (now the Market in the High Street), and at Epsom Court, Horton, Woodcote, and Langley Vale.
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Erith
Coordinates: 51°28′35″N 0°10′05″E / 51.4763°N 0.1681°E / 51.4763; 0.1681
Erithi/ˈɪərɨθ/ is a district of southeast London on the River Thames. Erith's town centre has undergone a series of modernisations since 1961. Erith is geographically an outer lying area of London, although it is can be seen as having many of the characteristics of the Inner city, namely most residences consisting largely of flats and council blocks, with fewer houses, and shops and other commercial properties interspersed between.
Work at the former British Gypsum site in Church Manorway by the Museum of London Archaeological Service showed that the area had a dense forest of oak, yew and alder during the Neolithic Period, which by the Bronze Age had given way in part to sedge fen.
Their work at the former site of Erith School in Belmont Road revealed the presence of prehistoric settlement, and of a substantial settlement or farmstead dating from the first century.
Following the collapse of Roman rule at the beginning of the 5th Century, Britain was colonised by invaders from northern Europe called the Anglo-Saxons. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle tells us that they won the Battle of Crayford in 457, slaying many men in the process, and shortly after claimed the whole of Kent. Their different way of life was reflected in their pattern of settlement. The town and country estates of the Roman bureaucrats gave way to a network of villages, occupied by warriors and farmers. Erith was one of these villages, and has a Saxon name, thought to have been derived from a word meaning `muddy harbour' or `gravelly landing place'. There was probably a church on the site of the present St John the Baptist church during Roman times and almost certainly a Saxon building. The early settlement was based around this church, meaning that the centre of Erith was once west of its current location.
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Essex
Essex ( /ˈɛsɨks/) is a ceremonial and non-metropolitan county in the East of England, and one of the home counties. It is located to the northeast of Greater London. It borders with Cambridgeshire and Suffolk to the north, Hertfordshire to the west, Kent to the South and London to the south west. Essex County Council is the principal local authority for much of the county, sharing functions with twelve district councils. The county town is Chelmsford. The southern Essex boroughs of Thurrock and Southend-on-Sea are governed separately as unitary authorities. It was established in antiquity and formed the eastern portion of the Kingdom of Essex. Sections of the county closer to London are part of the Metropolitan Green Belt, which prohibits development. It is the location of the regionally significant Lakeside Shopping Centre and London Stansted Airport; and the new towns of Basildon and Harlow.
The name Essex originates in the Anglo-Saxon period of the Early Middle Ages and has its root in the Old English Ēastseaxe (i.e. the "East Saxons"), the eastern kingdom of the Saxons. Originally (in 527 AD) it occupied territory to the north of the River Thames, incorporating all of what later became Middlesex and most of what later became Hertfordshire, though its territory was later restricted to lands east of the River Lea.Colchester in the north east of the county is Britain's oldest recorded town, dating back to before the Roman conquest, when it was known as Camulodunum and was sufficiently well-developed to have its own mint. Subsequently the Kingdom of Essex was subsumed into the Kingdom of England and Essex eventually became a county.
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European route E15
The European route E 15 is part of the United Nations international E-road network. It is a north-south "reference road", running from Inverness, Scotland south through England and France to Algeciras, Spain. Along most of its route between Paris and London, the road parallels the LGV Nord (as the French A1 autoroute) and High Speed 1 (as the English M20 motorway).
Like all other E-roads, the E15 is not signed in the United Kingdom. It follows the following roads:
The E15 has a gap at the English Channel between Dover and Calais, France. There is a ferry link between Dover and Calais. The Eurotunnel Shuttle (using the Channel Tunnel) provides an alternative link via Folkestone.
In France, the E15 follows the following roads:
A26 autoroute -Calais-Saint-Omer-Béthune-Arras (Autoroute des Anglais)
A1 autoroute -Arras-Compiègne-Senlis-Aéroporte CDG (Autoroute du Nord)
A3 autoroute -Aéroporte CDG-Bobigny-Paris Porte de Bagnolet
Boulevard Périphérique -Paris Porte de Bagnolet- Porte d'Italie
A6 autoroute -Paris Porte d'italie-Évry-Auxerre-Avallon-Beaune-Chalons sur Saône-Mâcon-Lyon (Autoroute du Soleil)
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Gatwick Airport
Gatwick Airport (IATA: LGW, ICAO: EGKK) is located 3.1 mi (5.0 km) north of the centre of Crawley,West Sussex, and 29.5 mi (47.5 km) south of Central London. Also known as London Gatwick, it is London's second largest international airport and second busiest by total passenger traffic in the United Kingdom after Heathrow. Furthermore, Gatwick is Europe's leading airport for point-to-point flights and has the world's busiest single-use runway averaging 52 aircraft movements an hour. Its two terminals – North and South – cover an area of 810,000 sq ft (75,000 m2) and 1,300,000 sq ft (120,000 m2) respectively.
In 2011, over 33.6 million passengers passed through Gatwick.
Charter airlines generally prefer Gatwick over Heathrow as a base for London and the South East of England. From 1978 to 2008, many flights to and from the United States used Gatwick because of restrictions on the use of Heathrow implemented in the Bermuda II agreement between the UK and the US.. Under the agreement Heathrow allowed the right for only two US carrier and two UK carrier to serve flights to the United States. Currently, US Airways is the only US carrier that still serves Gatwick from the US. The airport is a base for scheduled operators Aer Lingus, British Airways (BA), EasyJet, Flybe, Monarch Airlines and Virgin Atlantic, as well as charter airlines including Thomas Cook Airlines and Thomson Airways. Gatwick is unique amongst London's airports in having a significant airline presence representing each of the three main airline business models: full service, low/no frills and charter. As of January 2011, these respectively accounted for 37, 51 and 12% of total passenger traffic.
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Godstone
Coordinates: 51°14′52″N 0°03′52″W / 51.2479°N 0.0644°W / 51.2479; -0.0644
Godstone is a village in the county of Surrey, England. It is located approximately six miles east of Reigate at the junction of the A22 and A25 major roads, and near the M25 motorway.
The village lay within the Anglo-Saxon administrative division of Tandridge hundred. It is built along a stretch of the London to Brighton Way Roman road, which comes through the Caterham Gap and continues southward along Tilburstow Hill Road.
Godstone initially had a different name. The village had been known as Walkingstead, meaning 'Wolcen's place', from the Old English personal name Wolcen (related to modern English "welkin" meaning cloud") and stede "place, homestead", related to modern English stead. A record of the name from 932 as Wuulicinsted proves this. Another record, undated, shows the name as Wolinstede, suggesting the same etymology. In the Domesday Book of 1086 it was Wachelstede.
The name of the village was recorded in 1248 as Godeston, suggesting an etymology of the Old English personal name Goda and tun "farm, village", here in the sense "village" rather than "estate" considering the village size. Thus the suggested etymology is "Goda's farm". Goda was the daughter of Aethelred The Unready. She died in 1055 but the Domesday book of 1086 records the parish as being held by her husband, Count Eustace II of Boulogne.
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Grand Union Canal
The Grand Union Canal in England is part of the British canal system. Its main line starts in London and ends in Birmingham, stretching for 137 miles (220 km) with 166 locks. It has arms to places including Leicester, Slough, Aylesbury, Wendover and Northampton.
The Grand Union Canal was also the original name for part of what is now part of the Leicester Line of the modern Grand Union: this latter is now generally referred to as the Old Grand Union Canal in order to avoid ambiguity.
With competition from the railways having taken a large share of traffic in the second half of the 19th century, improvements in roads and vehicle technology in the early part of the 20th century meant that the lorry was also becoming a threat to the canals. Tolls had been reduced to compete with the railways, but there was little scope for further reduction. The Regent's Canal and the Grand Junction Canal agreed that amalgamation and modernisation were the only way to remain competitive.
The (present) Grand Union Canal came into being on 1 January 1929, extended in 1932. It was formed from the amalgamation of several different canals:
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Greater London
Greater London is the top-level administrative division of England covering London. It was created in 1965 and spans the City of London and the 32 London boroughs. This territory has the same boundaries as the London Government Office Region and the London European Parliament constituency. The region has by far the highest GVA per capita in the United Kingdom. It covers 1,572 km2 (607 sq mi) and had a 2009 mid-year estimated population of 7,753,600. The term Greater London was in use before 1965 to refer to a variously defined area, larger than the County of London and often similar to the Metropolitan Police District.
In addition to its administrative and statistical functions, Greater London (excluding the City of London) is one of the 48 ceremonial counties of England, and is under the Greater London Lieutenancy.
Instead of forming a single political unit, London is divided into the small, interior City of London and the much wider Greater London. This arrangement has come about because as the area of London grew and absorbed neighbouring settlements, a series of administrative reforms did not fully amalgamate the City of London with the metropolitan area, and its unique political structure was retained. Outside the limited boundaries of the old city, a variety of arrangements governed the wider area since 1855, culminating with the creation of the Greater London administrative area in 1965.
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Guildford
Coordinates: 51°14′12″N 0°34′13″W / 51.236538°N 0.570309°W / 51.236538; -0.570309
Guildfordi/ˈɡɪlfərd/ is the county town of Surrey, England, as well as the seat for the borough of Guildford. It is situated 27 miles (43 km) southwest of London on the A3 trunk road mid-way between the capital and Portsmouth.
The town has Saxon roots, and likely owes its location to the existence of a gap in the North Downs where the River Wey is forded by the Harrow Way. The town grew enough in importance that by 978 it was home to the Royal Mint. With the building of the Wey Navigation and Basingstoke Canal Guildford was in the centre of a network of waterways that aided its prosperity.
The Guildford pub bombing by the Provisional IRA in 1974 killed five people including four off-duty soldiers from the local barracks. The subsequently arrested suspects became known as the Guildford Four.
It is believed that Guildford was founded by Saxon settlers shortly after Roman authority had been removed from Britain (which was c.410AD). The site was likely chosen because the Harrow Way (an ancient trackway that continues along Hog's Back) crosses the River Wey at this point, via a ford. This probably gives rise to the second half of Guildford's name. The root of the first part is gold rather than society or meeting place.[citation needed] The Saxon name would have been Gyldeford, meaning golden ford. It has been suggested[by whom?] that the gold may refer to golden flowers by the ford, or the golden sand, but this is not certain. There is an old coaching Inn on the Epsom Road previously called the 'Sanford Arms', which almost certainly derives from 'Sand Ford', so this adds weight to the suggestion that 'Guildford' is a corruption of 'Gold Ford', referring to the very distinctive golden sand showing on the banks of the River Wey where it cuts through the sandy outcrop just south of the town.[citation needed]
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H10 Bletcham Way
The H10 Bletcham Way is a major local road in Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire. Its formal name is simply "Bletcham Way": the "H10" designation is an urban planning name that indicates that it is the tenth east-west grid road in the Milton Keynes grid road system.
Bletcham Way starts as a dual carriageway at the three-way Granby Roundabout with the V6 Grafton Street and V4 Watling Street at Denbigh. A short distance after this point it reduces to single carriageway as it passes the industrial estates of Mount Farm and Fenny Lock. At the end of this one-kilometre stretch the road crosses the A5 at an unusual bi-graded triple roundabout. From here it reverts to being dual carriageway and takes on the designation of A4146. It remains like this for two grid stretches before the A4146 turns off onto the V11 Tongwell Street 1. The H10 then continues east, again as a single carriageway for a short distance before finishing as a local distributor in the district of Old Farm Park on the very south eastern edge of Milton Keynes.
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H6 Childs Way
Coordinates: 52°00′15″N 0°48′17″W / 52.0043°N 0.8048°W / 52.0043; -0.8048
The H6 Childs Way is a major local road in Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire, England. It runs for 6 miles (10 kilometres) from the western boundary of Milton Keynes at Kingsmead to a point near its eastern edge, just short of Junction 14 of the M1 Motorway. The formal name of the road is simply Childs Way; the H6 is a number that signifies that the road is the sixth east-west road in the Milton Keynes grid system.
The H6 starts as a 30 mph (48 km/h) local distributor road between the districts of Kingsmead and Whitney. After crossing Whitney Roundabout the road becomes 60 mph (97 km/h) but remains as a single carriageway. After bridging Powis Lane in between Westcroft and Oxley Park the road becomes a dual carriageway at Shenley Roundabout. It then passes very close to the Grove Independent School and subsequently bridges both the A5 and the West Coast Main Line. The road then crosses the V6 Grafton Street and runs along the southern edge of Central Milton Keynes and Campbell Park before passing Willen Lake. After this it passes the original Milton Keynes village and then curves up to meet the A509, briefly becoming the A4146.
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Harlow
Harlow is a new town and local government district in Essex, England. It is located in the west of the county and on the border with Hertfordshire, on the Stort Valley, The town is near the M11 motorway and forms part of the London commuter belt.The district has a current population of 78,889 (2010 estimate).
There is some dispute as to where the placename Harlow derives from. One theory is that it derives from the Anglo-Saxon words 'here' and 'hlaw', meaning "army hill", probably to be identified with Mulberry Hill, which was used as the moot or meeting place for the district.
The other theory is that it derives from the words 'here' and 'hearg', meaning "temple hill/mound", probably to be identified with an Iron Age burial mound, later a Roman temple site on River Way.
The original village, mentioned in the Norman Domesday Book, developed as a typical rural community around what is now known as Old Harlow, with many of its buildings still standing.
The earliest deposits are of a Mesolithic (circa 10,000 BC) hunting camp excavated by Davey in Northbrooks in the 1970s(Unpublished) closely followed by the large and unexcavated deposits of Neolithic flint located at Gilden Way. These deposits are mostly known of due to the large numbers of surface bound worked flint ; indeed there is substanital amounts to speculate on organised working of flint in the area. Large amounts of debetage litter the area and tools found include Axeheads, hammers, blades, dowles and other boring tools and multipuprpose flints such as scrapers. An organised Field Walk in the late 1990s by Bartlett(Unpublished)indicates that most of the area, some 80 hectares, produces worked flint from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age with a smattering of Mesolithic ; so basically it indicates organised industry from 5000 BC to 2000 BC. Indeed the deposits are so large and dispersed that any major archaeological work in the area will have to take this into consideration before any ground work is started.
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Hastings
Coordinates: 50°51′N 0°34′E / 50.85°N 0.57°E / 50.85; 0.57
Hastings is a town and borough in the county of East Sussex on the south coast of England. The town is located 24 mi (39 km) east of the county town of Lewes and 53 mi (85 km) south east of London, and has an estimated population of 86,900.
In historical terms, Hastings can claim fame through its connection with the Norman conquest of England; and also because it became one of the medieval Cinque Ports. Hastings was, for centuries, an important fishing port; although nowadays much reduced, it still has the largest beach-based fishing fleet in England. The town became a watering place in the 1760s, and then, with the coming of the railway, a seaside resort.
The attraction of Hastings as a tourist destination continues; although the number of hotels has decreased, it caters for wider tastes, being home to internationally-based cultural and sporting events, such as chess and running. It has set out to become "a modern European town" and seeks to attract commercial business in the many industrial sites round the borough.
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Hemel Hempstead
Coordinates: 51°45′09″N 0°28′09″W / 51.7526°N 0.4692°W / 51.7526; -0.4692
Hemel Hempstead is a town in Hertfordshire in the East of England, 24 miles (38.6 km) to the north west of London and part of the Greater London Urban Area. The population at the 2001 Census was 81,143 (but now estimated at around 89,000 by Hertfordshire County Council).
Developed after World War II as a new town, it has existed as a settlement since the 8th century and was granted its town charter by King Henry VIII in 1539. It is part of the district (and borough since 1984) of Dacorum and the Hemel Hempstead constituency.
The settlement was called by the name Henamsted or Hean-Hempsted, i.e. High Hempstead, in Anglo-Saxon times and in William the Conqueror's time by the name of Hemel-Amstede. The name is referred to in the Domesday Book as "Hamelamesede", but in later centuries it became Hamelhamsted. In Old English, "-stead" or "-stede" simply meant a place, such as the site of a building or pasture, as in clearing in the woods, and this suffix is used in the names of other English places such as Hamstead and Berkhamsted.
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Hertford
Coordinates: 51°47′42″N 0°04′41″W / 51.795°N 0.078°W / 51.795; -0.078
Hertford ( /ˈhɑrtfərd/ or /ˈhɑrfərd/) is the county town of Hertfordshire, England, and is also a civil parish in the East Hertfordshire district of the county. Forming a civil parish, the 2001 census put the population of Hertford at about 24,180. Recent estimates are that it is now around 28,000[citation needed]. The name is Anglo Saxon and means the ford frequented by harts or stags.
Hertford has been the county town of Hertfordshire since Saxon times when it was governed by the king's reeves. By the 13th century, these had been replaced by a bailiff, elected by the burgesses. Charters of 1554 and 1589 established a common council of eleven chief burgesses and a bailiff. Another charter of 1605 changed the bailiff's title to mayor. In 1835, Hertford became a Municipal Corporation; the ratepayers elected twelve councillors, who chose four aldermen, aldermen and councillors composing the council. This body elected the mayor.
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Hertfordshire
Hertfordshire (i/ˈhɑrtfərdʃɪər/ or /ˈhɑrfərdʃər/; abbreviated Herts) is a ceremonial and non-metropolitan county in the East region of England. The county town is Hertford.
Hertfordshire is one of the home counties and lies inland, bordered by Greater London (to the south), Buckinghamshire (to the west), Bedfordshire (including the unitary authorities of Luton and Central Bedfordshire to the north), Cambridgeshire (to the north east) and Essex (to the east).
Hertfordshire was originally the area assigned to a fortress constructed at Hertford under the rule of Edward the Elder in 913. The name Hertford is derived from the Anglo-Saxon heort ford, meaning deer crossing (of a watercourse). The name Hertfordshire first appears in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 1011. Deer feature prominently in many county emblems.
There is evidence of human beings living in Hertfordshire since the Middle Stone Age. It was first farmed during the Neolithic period and permanent habitation appeared at the beginning of the Bronze Age. This was followed by tribes settling in the area during the Iron Age.
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Icknield Way
Coordinates: 51°50′40″N 0°36′12″W / 51.8445°N 0.6034°W / 51.8445; -0.6034
The Icknield Way is an ancient trackway in southern England. It follows the chalk escarpment that includes the Berkshire Downs and Chiltern Hills.
It is generally said to be one of the oldest roads in Great Britain, being one of the few long-distance trackways to have existed before the Romans occupied the country, of which the route can still be traced. However, this has been disputed, and the evidence for it being a prehistoric route has been questioned.
The name is Celto-British in derivation, and may be named after the Iceni tribe, who may have established this route to permit trade with other parts of the country from their base in East Anglia. It has also been suggested that the road has older prehistoric origins. However, the name is also said to have been initially used for the part to the west and south (i.e. south of the River Thames) but now refers usually to the track or traces north of the Thames.
From ancient times, at least early as the Iron Age period (before the Roman invasion of 43 AD) and through Anglo-Saxon times, it stretched from Berkshire through Oxfordshire and crossed the River Thames at Cholsey, near Wallingford.
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Kent
Kent /ˈkɛnt/ is a county in South East England, and one of the home counties. It borders East Sussex, Surrey and Greater London and has a defined boundary with Essex in the middle of the Thames Estuary. The ceremonial county boundaries of Kent include the shire county of Kent and the unitary borough of Medway. Kent has a nominal border with France halfway through the Channel Tunnel. Maidstone is its county town and historically Rochester and Canterbury have been accorded city status, though only the latter still holds it.
Kent's location between London and the continental Europe has led to its being in the front line of several conflicts, including the Battle of Britain during World War II. East Kent was known as Hell Fire Corner during the conflict. England has relied on the county's ports to provide warships through much of the past 800 years; the Cinque Ports in the 12th–14th centuries and Chatham Dockyard in the 16th–20th centuries were of particular importance to the country's security. France can be seen clearly in fine weather from Folkestone, and the iconic White Cliffs of Dover.
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Leatherhead
Coordinates: 51°17′42″N 0°19′44″W / 51.2951°N 0.3289°W / 51.2951; -0.3289
Leatherhead is a town in Surrey, England, on the River Mole, part of Mole Valley district. It is thought to be of Saxon origin. Neighbouring settlements include: Chessington, Epsom and Oxshott.
Located in the centre of the county of Surrey and at a junction of ancient north–south and east–west communications, the town has been a focus for transport throughout its history. Initially there was the construction of the bridge over the River Mole in the early medieval period. Later the Swan Hotel provided 300 years of service to horse-drawn coaches. In the late 20th century the M25 motorway was built nearby.
The origins of the town of Leatherhead appear to be Anglo-Saxon. Ashtead lay within the Copthorne hundred, an administrative division devised by the Saxons. The Leatherhead Museum has traced the history of the town from its beginnings in about AD 880 when it was known as Leodridan (dative case of a compound of "leode" and "rida"), meaning "place where people [can] ride [across the river]" in Anglo-Saxon). Later in the Domesday Book it was called Leret. Later forms recorded are "Lereda", "Ledreda", "Leddrede" (all second half of 12th century). The early settlement appears to have grown up on the east side of the River Mole, although Hawk's Hill, on the west side of the river, is said to be the site of an old Saxon burial ground. Some say that the Anglo-Saxon form was distorted from a Celtic form whose Welsh equivalent is Llwyd-rhyd = "grey ford".
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Lewisham
Coordinates: 51°27′41″N 0°00′19″W / 51.461456°N 0.00537°W / 51.461456; -0.00537
Lewisham /lˈʊɪʃəm/ is a district in South London, England, located in the London Borough of Lewisham. It is situated 6.2 miles (10.0 km) south-east of Charing Cross. The area is identified in the London Plan as one of 35 major centres in Greater London.
It is most likely to have been founded by a pagan Jute, Leof, who settled (by burning his boat) near St Mary's Church (Ladywell) where the ground was drier, in the 6th century. As to the etymology of the name, Daniel Lysons (1796) wrote:
"In the most ancient Saxon records this place is called Levesham, that is, the house among the meadows; leswe, læs, læse, or læsew, in the Saxon, signifies a meadow, and ham, a dwelling. It is now written, as well in parochial and other records as in common usage, Lewisham." "Leofshema" was an important settlement at the confluence of the rivers Quaggy (from Farnborough) and Ravensbourne (Caesar's Well, Keston), so the village expanded north into the wetter area as drainage techniques improved. In the mid-seventeenth century, then-vicar of Lewisham, Abraham Colfe, built a grammar school, primary school and six almshouses for the inhabitants. On 5 September 1711 William Legge, the Earl of Dartmouth became the (hereditary) Viscount Lewisham The village of Lewisham was originally centred further south around the parish church of St Mary, towards the present site of University Hospital Lewisham. The centre migrated north with the coming of the North Kent railway line to Dartford in 1849, encouraging commuter housing. Lewisham was administratively part of Kent until 1889, and formed part of the Metropolitan Borough of Lewisham in the County of London until 1965.
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London
Londoni/ˈlʌndən/ is the capital city of England and the United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its founding by the Romans, who named it Londinium. London's ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its square-mile mediaeval boundaries. Since at least the 19th century, the name London has also referred to the metropolis developed around this core. The bulk of this conurbation forms the London region and the Greater London administrative area, governed by the elected Mayor of London and the London Assembly.
London is a leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism and transport all contributing to its prominence. It is the world's leading financial centre alongside New York City and has the fifth-largest city GDP in the world (and the largest in Europe). London has been described as a world cultural capital. It was the world's most visited city during 2011 and London Heathrow is the world's busiest airport by number of international passengers. London's 43 universities form the largest concentration of higher education in Europe. In 2012 London will become the first city to host the modern Summer Olympic Games three times.
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London Colney
Coordinates: 51°43′34″N 0°18′00″W / 51.726°N 0.300°W / 51.726; -0.300
London Colney is a village and civil parish in Hertfordshire, England. It is located to the north of London, at Junction 22 of the M25 motorway.
It is near St Albans and part of the St Albans District. At the time of the 2001 census the population of London Colney ward was 7,742. It is considered a satellite or dormitory village of St Albans, where some villagers travel to work and shop. The long-running 84 bus route runs through London Colney towards St Albans, and Uno bus routes 602, 636, 658 and 659 also connect the village with St Albans, Hatfield, Watford, Borehamwood and Luton.
By repute it is the second largest village in the United Kingdom, after Cottingham near Hull.
London Colney Primary School was initially due to open on September 4, 1939. It was then closed on the same day, as war was declared. It opened properly a day later. London Colney has a great selection of open water fishing in the River Colne and associated lakes. Colney Fields shopping park is located there.
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London Docklands
Docklands is the semi-official name for an area in east and southeast London, England. It forms part of the boroughs of Southwark, Tower Hamlets, Newham and Greenwich. The docks were formerly part of the Port of London, at one time the world's largest port. They have now been redeveloped principally for commercial and residential use. The name London Docklands was used for the first time in a government report on redevelopment plans in 1971 but has since become virtually universally adopted. It also created conflict between the new and old communities of the London Docklands.
In Roman and medieval times, ships tended to dock at small quays in the present-day city of London or Southwark, an area known as the Pool of London. However, this gave no protection against the elements, was vulnerable to thieves and suffered from a lack of space at the quayside. The Howland Great Dock in Rotherhithe (built 1696 and later forming the core of the Surrey Commercial Docks) was designed to address these problems, providing a large, secure and sheltered anchorage with room for 120 large vessels. It was a major commercial success and provided for two phases of expansion during the Georgian and Victorian eras. The first of the Georgian docks was the West India (opened 1802), followed by the London (1805), the East India (also 1805), the Surrey (1807), St Katharine (1828) and the West India South (1829). The Victorian docks were mostly further east, comprising the Royal Victoria (1855), Millwall (1868) and Royal Albert (1880). The King George V Dock was a late addition in 1921.
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Loughton
Coordinates: 51°38′58″N 0°04′25″E / 51.6494°N 0.0735°E / 51.6494; 0.0735
Loughton ( /ˈlaʊtən/) is a town and civil parish in the Epping Forest district of Essex. It is located between 11 and 13 miles (21 km) north east of Charing Cross in London, south of the M25 and west of the M11 motorway and has boundaries with Chingford, Waltham Abbey, Theydon Bois, Chigwell and Buckhurst Hill. Loughton includes three conservation areas and there are 56 listed buildings in the town, together with a further 50 locally listed.
The parish of Loughton covers an area of about 3,724 acres (15 km2), of which over 1,300 acres (5 km2) are part of Epping Forest. The ancient parish contained over 3,900 acres (16 km2), but in 1996 some parts of the south of the old parish were transferred to Buckhurst Hill parish, and other small portions to Chigwell and Theydon Bois. At the time of the 2001 census Loughton had a population of 30,340. It is the most populous civil parish in the Epping Forest district, and within Essex it is the second most populous civil parish (after Canvey Island) and the second largest in area.
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Luton
Luton (i/ˈluːtən/ LOOT-ən, local /ˈluːʔən/) is a large town, borough and unitary authority of Bedfordshire, England, 30 miles (50 km) north of London. Luton and its near neighbours, Dunstable and Houghton Regis, form the Luton/Dunstable Urban Area with a population of about 250,000.
Luton is home to Blue Square Premier team Luton Town Football Club, whose history includes several spells in the top flight of the English league as well as a Football League Cup triumph in 1988. They play at Kenilworth Road stadium, which has been their home since 1905.
London Luton Airport, opened in 1938, is one of England's major airports. During the Second World War it doubled as an RAF base.
The University of Bedfordshire is based in the town.
The Luton Carnival, held on the late May bank holiday, is the largest one-day carnival in Europe.
The town was for many years famous for hat-making, and was also home to a large Vauxhall Motors factory; the head office of Vauxhall Motors is still situated in the town. Car production at the plant began in 1905 and continued until 2002, but commercial vehicle production remains.
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M1 motorway
The M1 is a north–south motorway in England connecting London to Leeds, where it joins the A1(M) near Aberford. It was the first inter-urban motorway to be completed in the United Kingdom; the first road to be built to motorway standard in the country was the Preston Bypass, which later became part of the M6.
The motorway is 193 miles (311 km) long and was constructed in four phases. Most of the motorway was opened between 1959 and 1968 but the southern end was extended in 1977 and the northern end was extended in 1999. It forms part of the unsigned European route E13.
The first motorways (autostrades) were built in Italy on the order of Benito Mussolini in the 1920s, with other countries subsequently following, notably Germany with the first 'autobahn' in 1931 and then developed by the Nazis under Adolf Hitler. There had been plans since before the Second World War for a motorway network in the United Kingdom. Lord Montagu formed a company to build a 'motorway like road' from London to Birmingham in 1923, however it was a further 26 years before the Special Roads Act 1949 was passed which allowed for the construction of roads limited to a limited vehicle classifications and the 1950s when the country's first motorways were given the government go-ahead. The first section of motorway was the Preston Bypass in Lancashire, which opened in 1958 (now part of the M6 motorway). The M1 was Britain's first full-length motorway and opened in 1959.
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M11 motorway
The M11 motorway in England is a major road running approximately north from the North Circular Road (A406) in South Woodford in north-east London to the A14, north-west of Cambridge.
The M11 starts in north-east London at the North Circular (A406), heading northwards east of Loughton to the M25 and then passing to the east of Harlow and Bishop's Stortford and to the west of Stansted Airport, ending at a junction with the A14 to the west of Cambridge.
The motorway has three lanes both ways from shortly after junction 4 up until junction 8, except for a brief two lane section at J6 beneath the M25. From junction 8 the road is two lanes both ways to junction 14 where it ends.
The motorway is illuminated at the southern terminus near junction 4, at junction 6 (M25 interchange), junction 8 (Stansted Airport/Bishop's Stortford), and the northern terminus at junction 14(A14). All four of these sections use modern high pressure sodium (SON) lighting. The older yellow low pressure sodium (SOX) lighting originally used at junctions 4 and 6 was replaced in 2005.
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M16 motorway
The M16 motorway was the designation planned in the late 1960s and early 1970s for use on Ringway 3, a new motorway planned as part of the London Ringways Plan to run a circular route around London.
Construction of the first section of the M16 began in 1973 between South Mimms and Potters Bar in Hertfordshire and opened in September 1975 with the temporary general purpose road designation A1178. During construction of the first section of the motorway, the majority of the Ringways plan was cancelled and, in 1975 the plans for Ringway 3 were modified to combine it with parts of another motorway, Ringway 4, the outermost Ringway.
The M16 designation was dropped and the combined motorway was given the designation M25 which had originally been intended for the southern and western part of Ringway 4. The section of Ringway 3 west of South Mimms anti-clockwise around London to Swanley in Kent was cancelled and the section clockwise from Potters Bar to the Dartford Tunnel was constructed between 1979 and 1982. The section of Ringway 3 south of the river between Dartford and Swanley was constructed between 1974 and 1977.
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M180 motorway
The M180 motorway is a short but major (25 miles (40 km)) motorway in England from junction 5 on the M18 motorway in the Metropolitan Borough of Doncaster to a point close to Humberside Airport some 5 miles (8 km) from the ports of Immingham and Grimsby and the east coast and provides access for major routes to Cleethorpes, Grimsby, Hull (via the Humber Bridge), Immingham, Lincoln, Scunthorpe and also provides major access for Humberside Airport and the Killingholme Oil Refineries. The road forms part of the unsigned Euroroute E22 and is the main route along the south bank of the Humber Estuary. It is the longest motorway in the United Kingdom to carry a three digit number.
The motorway bypass around Brigg was discussed for many years, but the Flixborough explosion gave it more importance, and was built three years later in 1977 as the second section of the motorway. At this time the A15 ran through Hibaldstow and Redbourne to Brigg, and the junction with the motorway was at Castlethorpe Corner, about 1 mile (1.6 km) east of the current A15 junction on the line of the Roman Ermine Street. The initial, and somewhat diminutive section of the motorway was the short-lived A18(M) also known as the Tudworth Link, which connected the roundabout junction with the M18 to the A18/A614. The easterly A18(M) sliproad is still used, though the original roundabout at junction 1 has now been replaced by a bridge close to Tudworth Hall Farm. The last section to be built was the Trent viaduct, opened in October 1979 by Kenneth Clarke, despite being 43 weeks late on account of strikes and bad weather.
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M181 motorway
The M181 motorway links the town of Scunthorpe, England, to the M180 motorway. A spur of the M180, the road is virtually straight through its entire 2-mile (3.2 km) length. It was opened in December 1978, at the same time as the section of M180 from junction 3 (A15) to the east side of the River Trent (the bridge was not opened until late 1979).
It begins just outside Scunthorpe, at the junction of the A1077 and A18. There is an out-of-town retail park, known locally as Gallagher Retail Park, which offers a wide variety of food and retail outlets, and Glanford Park, the home of Scunthorpe United Football Club at this junction. At the other end, the road has a junction for the M180 east, while the main carriageway merges with the M180 west. It has no intermediate junctions. It is built to typical British motorway standards, being two lanes in each direction, plus a hard shoulder for its entire length.
Coordinates: 53°34′24″N 0°42′04″W / 53.5734°N 0.7012°W / 53.5734; -0.7012 (M181, approximate mid-point)
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M20 motorway
The M20 is a motorway in Kent, England. It runs from the M25 motorway to Folkestone, providing a link to the Channel Tunnel and the ports at Dover. It is 50.6 miles (81.4 km) long. Although not signposted in England, this road is part of the European route E15.
The road starts at its junction with the M25 motorway and A20 road just east of Swanley, then continues south east across the River Darent, north of Farningham through the North Downs, past West Kingsdown and Wrotham to meet the M26. It then strikes east, running north of Addington. When it reaches junction 4 it passes south of New Hythe and runs parallel to the Medway Valley railway line before crossing it close to junction 5. This next section is the Maidstone bypass. High Speed 1 then runs parallel to the motorway as it continues to the north of Bearsted, crosses the Swanley to Ashford (via Maidstone East) Line then out into the countryside alongside Leeds Castle. Proceeding south of Lenham and Charing it is crossed by the Ashford and CTRL railway lines before becoming the Ashford bypass. Travelling past Brabourne Lees it is once again joined by the CTRL and the East Stour.
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M23 motorway
The M23 motorway is a motorway in the United Kingdom. The motorway runs from south of Hooley in Surrey, where it splits from the A23, to Pease Pottage, south of Crawley in West Sussex where it rejoins the A23. The northern end of the motorway starts at junction 7 on what is effectively a 2-mile (3.2 km) spur north from junction 7 of the M25 motorway (junction 8 on the M23). From Hooley it runs for 17 miles (27 km) past Redhill, Gatwick Airport and Crawley. A spur runs from junction 9 to Gatwick Airport.
The M23 was planned to relieve congestion on the A23 through Streatham, Thornton Heath, Purley and Coulsdon in south London and was originally intended to terminate in Streatham Vale at a junction with the controversial London Ringways Plan's Ringway 2 (the intended replacement of the South Circular Road (A205)).
In an earlier version of the Ringways Plan it would have continued into central London where it would have met the Balham Loop spur from Ringway 1 (the London Motorway Box) at Tooting. This was dropped in 1967 when the northern terminus was changed to Ringway 2.
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M25 motorway
The M25 motorway, London Ring Motorway, or London Orbital motorway is a 117-mile (188 km) motorway that almost encircles Greater London, England, in the United Kingdom. The motorway was first mooted early in the 20th century. A few sections, based on the now abandoned London Ringways plan, were constructed in the early 1970s and it was completed in 1986. The M25 is one of the world's longest orbital roads and one of the busiest and most congested parts of the British motorway network. 196,000 vehicles were recorded in a single day near London Heathrow Airport. Plans to widen additional sections to eight lanes (four each way) were scaled back in 2009 in response to rising costs.
Originally built mainly as a dual three-lane motorway, much of the motorway has subsequently been widened to dual four-lanes in places and to a dual five-lane section between junctions 12 and 14 and a dual six-lane between junctions 14 and 15. Further widening is in progress with plans for managed motorways on other sections.
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M26 motorway
The M26 is a motorway in Kent, England. It provides a short link between the M25/A21 at Sevenoaks and the M20 near Wrotham.
The motorway starts at junction 3 of the M20 and heads west, encountering almost immediately the single junction along its length where it has an interchange with the A20. This junction is numbered 2a to reflect its proximity to the M20's nearby junction 2 (also connecting with the A20) a short distance to the north-west.
8 miles (13 km) to the west the M26 merges with the M25 at junction 5. There is no exit from the M26 at junction 5 and all traffic must join the clockwise (westbound) M25. The next M25 junction, number 6, is 10 miles (16 km) west at Godstone, thus traffic joining the M26 at Junction 2a cannot leave the motorway for 18 miles (29 km) – the longest distance between motorway exits in Britain.
Travelling in the anti-clockwise direction from the M25, the main carriageway continues directly on to the M26 at junction 5. To remain on the M25, traffic must turn on to the slip road which connects to the M25 spur coming north from Sevenoaks (Which is the same with the A21). The awkwardness of junction 5 is a result of the history of the two motorways' planning and construction.
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M27 motorway
The M27 is a motorway in Hampshire, England. It is 25 miles (40 km) long and runs west-east from Cadnam to Portsmouth. It was opened in stages between 1975 and 1983. It is unfinished, as an extension to the east was planned. A number of smaller motorways were proposed, connecting the city centres of Southampton and Portsmouth to the motorway; of these only the M271 and M275 were built.
Two sections of the M27 near Southampton and Portsmouth have been widened to four lanes each way.
Running approximately parallel both to the coast of the Solent and to the A27, the M27 starts as an eastwards continuation of the A31 from Bournemouth and Poole, meets the A36 from Salisbury, crosses the Wessex Main Line railway, and then meets the M271 to central Southampton. After the M271, the road becomes a dual four lane motorway and passes Rownhams services, it then meets the M3, becoming a dual three lane motorway as it passes to the north of Southampton, passes Southampton Airport, meeting Junction 7 and becoming dual four lanes again, then becoming dual three lanes after Junction 8, it then runs alongside the West Coastway Line as it heads south-east towards Fareham. It then runs alongside the northern outskirts of Fareham, briefly with a fourth climbing lane in either direction, before its junction with the M275 to Portsmouth. At this point the motorway ends, becoming the A27.
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M271 motorway
The M271 is a motorway near Southampton in Hampshire, England. It is 3 miles (4.8 km) long. Construction began in 1973 and it opened in 1975. It provides part of the route to Southampton Docks from the M27.
The motorway begins at Redbridge near Totton at a grade separated roundabout with the A35, heading north, briefly as a dual 3 lane motorway. At its first junction, it reduces to 2 lanes and continues east of Hillyfields. After a further 1 mile (1.6 km) it reaches a junction with the M27 at a signal controlled roundabout. North of the M27 it enters the countryside and terminates after a further 1 mile (1.6 km) of dual 2 lane road at another roundabout, this time with the A3057 near Upton.
The route has several features that are inconsistent with UK motorway standards, including a sharp bend at its southern terminus, and an at-grade roundabout at its junction with the M27. Hampshire County Council's LTTP to 2026 (Long Term Transport Plan) identifies the need for an 'M271 Spur' at the southern end to connect it to the A33 towards the docks in a free-flow interchange.
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M275 motorway
The M275 is a 2-mile (3.2 km) long, dual three-lane motorway in Hampshire, southern England. It is the principal route for entering and leaving Portsmouth. It continues as the A3 into Portsmouth, and meets the M27 at its northern terminus. From the motorway, there are scenic views over Portsmouth harbour, and the Sails of the South between the two carriageways.
The M275 is one of few motorways in England which is not the responsibility of the Highways Agency. It is managed by Portsmouth City Council from the point where the slip roads to the M27 end. The M275 was not built with a full hard shoulder. For its entire length, a narrow verge is maintained, although there is space available for a full width shoulder. Instead, drivers are warned on entry from the A3 and M27 of the lack of hard shoulder, with signs saying "no hard shoulder for 2 miles".
The motorway was opened throughout its entire length in 1976. A junction was originally planned for a new development in the Tipner area of Portsmouth, known as the Gateway Project, which was shelved at the time. The junction's construction was abandoned primarily because planners realised that it would breach regulations that there must be a minimum of 1.25 miles (2.01 km) between motorway junctions. Before construction was halted, significant work had been carried out, including four incomplete slip roads with no road surfacing, two bridges above the site for the main roundabout, and realignment of Tipner Lane so that it served the roundabout. In 2001 the Sails of the South was unveiled close to the site of the missing junction.
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M31 motorway
The M31 motorway was planned as a Reading to M3 motorway which was dubbed the 'M3 – M4 link motorway'. It would have provided a direct high speed route between the two motorways. The motorway was planned at the same time as the largely unrealised London Ringways scheme and an additional section was planned that would have taken the M31 south and east from the M3 to connect to the scheme's Ringway 4 (now the M25) providing a shorter route for traffic travelling between the west and Surrey and Kent.
Only part of the planned route was built; it bears the designations A329(M) and A3290. Had the motorway been constructed it would have provided an alternative to the south-west section of the M25, reducing the motorway journey between Reading and Byfleet by approximately 10 miles (16 km) and alleviating traffic on what is the M25's busiest section.
Coordinates: 51°24′58″N 0°48′15″W / 51.41602°N 0.80423°W / 51.41602; -0.80423
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M32 motorway
The M32 is a motorway in South Gloucestershire and Bristol, England. It provides a link from Bristol city centre to the M4 and is part of the Bristol Parkway. At about 5 miles (8.0 km), it is one of Britain's shortest motorways. Most of the road has four lanes, though there is a climbing lane for 400 metres (440 yd) north of Junction 2, and the short section between Junction 1 and the M4 has six lanes.
The northern end of the M32 is at junction 19 of the M4, near Winterbourne Down. This was originally a grade separated roundabout junction, but has been modified in such a way that traffic joining the M4 need no longer give way at the roundabout. However any M4 traffic wishing to U-turn must now do so at junction 1, M32. The road then runs south between Filton in the west and Frenchay in the east. After meeting junction 1 it passes to the east of Horfield, Lockleaze and Easton. Junction 2 is located by Eastville Park. South of here, the road has a 60 mph (97 km/h) speed limit. It then continues further south and terminates at junction 3 north of St Pauls. The road continues as the A4032 into the centre of Bristol.
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M4 motorway
The M4 motorway links London with South Wales. It is part of the unsigned European route E30. Other major places along the route include Reading, Swindon, Bristol, Newport, Cardiff and Swansea. Originally referred to as the London-South Wales Motorway, the English section was constructed between 1965 and 1971, the Welsh section was completed in 1993 and the Second Severn Crossing opened in 1996.
The M4 runs close to the A4 from London to Bristol. After crossing the River Severn it follows the A48 through South Wales, using the Brynglas Tunnels at Junction 25a, Newport and terminates just north of Pontarddulais. The route of the M4 is known as the M4 corridor.
A new road from London to South Wales was first proposed in the 1930s, and the Ministry of Transport announced plans for the M4 as one of the first major post-war trunk road improvement projects in 1956.
The Chiswick Flyover opened in 1959. However it was not originally classed as a motorway. The Maidenhead bypass opened in 1961 whilst J1-J5 opened in 1965. From J18 to the west of Newport was opened in 1966 and included the Severn Bridge (now part of the M48). The Port Talbot by-pass, also built in the 1960s and now part of the M4, was originally the A48(M) motorway, a number now allocated to a short section of motorway near Cardiff. The Ministry of Transport originally intended that the M4 would terminate at Tredegar Park west of Newport, and it was only following the creation of the Welsh Office that the Government became committed to a high-standard dual carriageway to Pont Abraham in Carmarthenshire.
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M45 motorway
The M45 is a motorway in Northamptonshire and Warwickshire, England and is 7.9 miles (12.7 km) long. It runs from junction 17 of the M1 motorway south east of Rugby and ends with a junction with the A45 road southwest of Rugby. It has one of the lowest traffic volumes of the United Kingdom motorway system.
Built in 1959 when the M1 (as part of a link from London to Birmingham) went as far as Junction 18, the M45 was designed to dissipate some of the motorway traffic before the M1 terminated. Its equivalent at the southern end of the M1 is the former M10, which was downgraded on 1 May 2009 to become part of the A414.
As the signposted route to Birmingham in the 1960s it was one of the busiest roads in Britain, with motorists having to make the final 30 miles (48 km) or so of the journey along the predominantly dual carriageway A45.
In 1972, the opening of the M6 provided a much faster route through to the West Midlands from London. Most traffic diverted to this route, leaving the M45 with only a fraction of its previous traffic.
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M48 motorway
The M48 is a motorway in Great Britain joining Gloucestershire, England and Monmouthshire, Wales over the original Severn Bridge. The M48 is anomalously numbered, as it is entirely to the west of the M5 motorway and its number should really therefore begin with 5.
Travelling east to west, after leaving the M4 near Olveston in England, the M48 heads north-west towards Junction 1 near Aust. It then passes through a toll booth westbound only and crosses the Severn Bridge. On the Wye Bridge it crosses into Wales immediately to the south of Chepstow. It then heads south-west after Junction 2 past Crick and to the north of Caldicot. The motorway merges into the M4 near Magor. Junction 2 also gives access to the Wye Valley. Junction 1 is home to Severn View services, and can be accessed by the A403, from Avonmouth. Junction 2 for Chepstow can be accessed by the A466, which leads to the A48.
For Chepstow, travelling both east and west on the M4, the M48 is the most direct route.
The M48 was opened as part of the M4 in 1966. Before this date traffic between South West England and South Wales was either taken through on a motorail service through the Severn Tunnel, used the Aust Ferry (which was unsuitable for large goods vehicles) or travelled through Gloucester to pass north of the Severn Estuary.
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M49 motorway
The M49 motorway is a 5-mile (8.05 km) motorway west of Bristol, England, that forms a shortcut between the M5 motorway and the Second Severn Crossing on the M4 motorway. It was constructed in 1996, at the same time as the bridge and is unique as it is only accessible from other motorways. The original plans provided for an intermediate junction with the A403 to serve an expanded industrial area, but neither this nor the junction came to fruition.
The M49 is anomalously numbered, as it is entirely to the south of the M4 and should therefore begin with a 3.
It begins at junction 18A of the M5 and then heads roughly north and north west before it reaches its terminal junction with the M4 at junction 22, just before the Second Severn Crossing. It cuts journey times for traffic to and from Avonmouth docks, Central and southern Bristol and South West England. Having a two-way grade separated roundabout junction with the M4, it also fulfils the dual role of providing a bypass for the busy stretch of the M5 between the Avonmouth Bridge and the M4 in case of that route being shut.
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M53 motorway
The M53 is a 18.9-mile (30.4 km) motorway in the Metropolitan Borough of Wirral and Cheshire on the Wirral Peninsula in England. It can also be referred to as the Mid Wirral Motorway. It runs between the Kingsway Tunnel, at Wallasey in the north, and the A55 at Chester.
The main reason for the motorway was to provide a through route to the new Mersey Road Tunnel, Kingsway, which was built at the same time. Part of this motorway was originally the M531.
Starting at the northern end, the motorway starts in Wallasey at the exit slip roads from the Kingsway Tunnel from Liverpool. It loops round the north west of Birkenhead and then runs south as a dual 3-lane route between Upton, Woodchurch in the west and Prenton. From junctions 1 to 3 it runs parallel to the Borderlands railway line. It crosses this line south of junction 3. From this junction it proceeds south to the west of Bebington through junction 4 and then further south for 4 miles (6.4 km) (where it crosses the Wirral railway line), before narrowing to dual 2 lanes and turning sharply to the east. At junction 5, traffic for Wales can take the A41, A550 & A494 to join the A55 near Ewloe. The road passes north and then east of Hooton, then to the east of Overpool and Wolverham and with Ellesmere Port to the west.
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M55 motorway
The M55 is a motorway in Lancashire, England, which can also be referred to as the Preston Northern Bypass. It connects the seaside resort of Blackpool to the M6 at Preston. It is 11.4 miles (18.4 km) in length.
The M55 has three lanes in both directions for most of its length. After leaving the M6 at junction 32, the road immediately interchanges with the A6. It then crosses the West Coast Main Line and Lancaster Canal before passing north of Wesham to meet junction 3. It then continues west in a rural setting to meet junction 4, where the motorway ends and becomes the A5230. The western part of the M55, and the first few hundred metres of the A5230, occupy the route of the old Blackpool Branch railway line.
The first motorway constructed in Great Britain was the M6 Preston Bypass, opened in 1958. This ran from the current M6 junction 29 to the M55 junction 1. It was built as a 2 lane route. In 1965 the M6 was extended north from what is the current day junction 32 to meet the Lancaster Bypass, and the M6 junction was rebuilt to its current design to connect the A6 at the now M55 junction 1. Due to increasing traffic, it was decided to provide a motorway link to Blackpool and this road was opened in 1975.
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M56 motorway
The M56 motorway, also known as the North Cheshire motorway, is in Cheshire and Greater Manchester, England. It runs from junction 4 of the M60 to Dunkirk, Cheshire and is 33.3 miles (53.6 km) in length. It is often busy with long-distance commuter traffic towards North Wales. It serves commuters heading to Manchester particularly those from the wider Cheshire area and gives access to Manchester Airport from the national motorway network.
The road forms part of the unsigned Euroroute E22.
Although the main line of the motorway starts as a continuation of the A5103 Princess Parkway, the M56 begins on Sharston Spur. After passing through junctions 1 and 2, the spur joins the main line at junction 3, increasing from two lanes to four to accommodate Manchester Airport traffic.
The road then heads south to the west of Wythenshawe and Manchester Airport until it reaches junction 6, where it turns west. It runs to the south of Hale, reducing to three lanes. It passes junctions 7 and 8 which are part of the same complex. Junction 8 was planned to be used by the proposed A556(M)). The current proposals are to upgrade the A556 to a dual carriageway. Traffic for the southbound M6 leaves here and this junction can suffer from congestion. The motorway then enters a more rural setting between Broomedge and High Legh.
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M57 motorway
The M57 motorway, also known as the Liverpool Outer Ring Road, is a road in England. Designed as a bypass road for Liverpool, it is 14 miles (23 km) long and links various towns east of the city, as well as the M62 and M58 motorways.
Starting at the Tarbock Interchange in Tarbock, at the end of the A5300, the motorway heads north to the east of Huyton and west of Prescot and crosses the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. It then runs across the north east of Huyton before running west of Knowsley Village. After meeting the A580 at a split junction (numbered 4 & 5), it continues north west between Fazakerley and Kirkby, passes under the Kirkby and Ormskirk branches of the Merseyrail Northern Line before ending on Switch Island near Aintree. The motorway provides one of the main access routes to Aintree Racecourse.
The M57 was planned to be a complete bypass of Liverpool, meeting each of the main roads out of the city. As is normal in the United Kingdom, the M57 was to be built in stages. The first two opened were:
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M58 motorway
The M58 is a motorway passing through Merseyside and Lancashire, terminating in Greater Manchester, England. It is 12 miles (19 km) long and provides a link between the M6 motorway and the area north of Liverpool.
Apart from the approaches to its terminal roundabouts, the motorway is three lanes throughout. It starts at Switch Island in Merseyside and passes directly underneath the Merseyrail Northern Line. before striking out across open countryside and into Lancashire south of Maghull and Bickerstaffe. It then curves south westerly south of Skelmersdale before reaching the M6 at Orrell in the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan, Greater Manchester.
Since 1949 an upgrade of the Wigan to Ormskirk route had been proposed to improve traffic flows, yet with the decision in 1961 to develop Skelmersdale as a new town, the proposals were revised to provide a link to the M6 at one end and Liverpool at the other.
The first part of the road was opened in March 1968 as the Skelmersdale Regional Road between what is now junctions 4 & 5. It was originally a two lane single carriageway road that was upgraded to 2 lane plus with hard shoulders in 1973.
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M60 motorway
Coordinates: 53°24′32″N 2°10′28″W / 53.40902°N 2.174349°W / 53.40902; -2.174349
The M60 motorway, Manchester Ring Motorway, or Manchester Orbital, is an orbital motorway circling Greater Manchester, a metropolitan county in North West England. It passes through all Greater Manchester's metropolitan boroughs except for Wigan and Bolton. Most of the City of Manchester is encompassed within the motorway, except for the southern-most part of the city (primarily the Wythenshawe area and Manchester Airport). The road forms part of the unsigned Euroroutes E20 and E22.
The M60 is 36.1 miles long and was renamed the M60 in 2000, with the M62 and M63 being amalgamated into the new route. During 2008, the M60 was proposed as a cordon for congestion charging in Greater Manchester, although this was rejected in a referendum relating to the Greater Manchester Transport Innovation Fund. The M60 the only orbital motorway in the United Kingdom, as the M25 motorway in London is not, due to the Dartford Crossing being designated the A282.
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M602 motorway
The M602 motorway is a relatively short motorway, leading traffic into Manchester and Salford by-passing the suburban town of Eccles.
The motorway itself was meant to be a part of a bigger scheme, the South Lancashire Motorway. To be designated M52, the route would link Liverpool and Manchester, and would be built to provide links to the growing UK motorway network.
However, at the same time, the M62 was being extended north and east of Worsley, around the north of Manchester, and on to Yorkshire, to form part of the Trans-Pennine Motorway route. This would be an upgraded version to the original plan of the East Lancashire Road, the A580, but would link onto the existing route at Worsley. It was decided that the Trans-Pennine Motorway be extended to Liverpool too, to provide a cross-country trunk route. The M62 was re-coursed to run via the route of the M52 between Worsley and Liverpool. This would leave a short stump of motorway between the M62 and Salford - this was first renumbered M64 then M602, whilst the southern end of the M62 between Worsley and Stretford became the M63.
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M61 motorway
The M61 motorway is a motorway in North West England. It runs from the M60 motorway northwest of Manchester and heads northwest past Bolton and Chorley to join the M6 just north of the junction between the M6 and M65 motorways to the south of Preston.
Perhaps the most distinguishing section of the M61 is to be found at the southern end at the Worsley Braided Interchange between junctions 1 and 3. This stretch of the road on the approach to the terminus with the M60 ring road is a collection of sliproads and overpass tunnels providing free-flowing access to and from the following:
This complicated junction earns a place in the Guinness Book of World Records for having the most traffic lanes side by side (17), spread across several parallel carriageways at Linnyshaw. The Google Maps location of this incidence is [1]
The M61 has one service station: Rivington services (formerly Bolton West services), located between Junctions 6 and 8 (as Junction 7 was never built). This motorway service area was used in the filming of The Services, a pilot episode for the Farnworth-born comedian Peter Kay series That Peter Kay Thing, a spoof documentary of a day in the life of the services staff.
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M62 motorway
The M62 motorway is a west–east trans-Pennine motorway in Northern England, connecting Liverpool and Hull via Manchester and Leeds. The road also forms part of the unsigned Euroroutes E20 (Shannon to Saint Petersburg) and E22 (Holyhead to Ishim). The road is 107 miles (172 km) long; for 7 miles (11 km), it shares its route with the M60 motorway around Manchester. The motorway, which was first proposed in the 1930s, and originally conceived as two separate routes, was built in stages between 1971 and 1976, with construction beginning at Pole Moor and finishing in Tarbock on the outskirts of Liverpool. The motorway also absorbed the northern end of the Stretford-Eccles bypass, which was built between 1957 and 1960. Adjusted for inflation to 2007, the motorway cost approximately £765 million to build. The motorway is relatively busy, with an average daily traffic flow of 100,000 cars in Yorkshire, and has several areas prone to gridlock, in particular, between Leeds and Huddersfield in West Yorkshire.
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M621 motorway
The M621 motorway is a short loop of motorway in England that takes traffic into central Leeds between the M1 and M62 motorways.
The first section of the M621 to open, known at the time as the 'South West Urban Motorway', extends from the M62 to Junction 3 in central Leeds where it used to terminate at a roundabout which was also the terminus of the M1 motorway. This section opened in stages, from the M62 to Junction 1 in 1971, and from Junction 1 to Junction 3 in 1973.
When the M1 was diverted away from Leeds when the 'M1 - A1 Lofthouse to Bramham' extension opened in 1999 adjustments were made to Junction 3 and the Leeds section of the M1 was re-designated as M621 (Junctions 3-7).
Coordinates: 53°46′42″N 1°34′36″W / 53.7783°N 1.5768°W / 53.7783; -1.5768 (M621, approximate mid-point)
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M64 motorway
The United Kingdom's M64 motorway was planned during the 1970s to link the M6 at Stoke-on-Trent with the M1 near Castle Donington, by way of Uttoxeter and Derby.
Its purpose would have been to allow traffic travelling from the south-east to the north-west to avoid the busy M6 around Birmingham. It was cancelled in 1976.
The A50 was built during the 1990s instead, following roughly the same route.
Meanwhile the traffic congestion north of Birmingham was relieved by the M6 toll motorway.
Coordinates: 52°53′49″N 1°47′16″W / 52.89701°N 1.78764°W / 52.89701; -1.78764
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M65 motorway
The M65 is a motorway in Lancashire, England. It runs from just south of Preston through the major junction of the M6 and M61 motorways, east past Darwen, Blackburn, Accrington, Burnley, Nelson and ends at Colne.
The M65 was opened in the following sections:
The first section of the motorway was opened in 1981, connecting Burnley to Brierfield. Over the years, several extensions were made, the largest being the link from Whitebirk to the M6 and M61 motorways in 1997. This extension was the scene of a standoff between construction security workers and protesters (often known as 'eco-warriors').
Junctions 1a to 6 were opened 18 December 1997 by Jack Straw, Home Secretary and Member of Parliament for Blackburn. The opening ceremony took place on the westbound carriageway beneath junction 5 at Guide with a heavy police presence as protesters threatened to bring a halt to the proceedings.
Much of the 1997 extension was relaid shortly after it opened with a new, quieter tarmac because the amount of road noise had been so great that it prevented birds of prey (mainly owls) from foraging effectively.
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M66 motorway
The M66 is a motorway in Lancashire and Greater Manchester, England. It is 8 miles (13 km) long and provides part of the route between the M62 and M60 motorways and the M65, with the rest being provided by the A56.
The M66 starts at the Simister Island, and heads north as a continuation of the M60 as a 3 lane dual carriageway. It passes the eastern edge of Whitefield, through junction 3, goes underneath the East Lancashire Railway and enters the suburbs of Bury. It reduces to 2 lanes at junction 2 and then climbs onto an elevated section, passing through a post war housing estate. At the end of the elevated road a third climbing lane is added to the summit of the hill. The road then runs to the east of Ramsbottom and the East Lancashire Railway and ends near Edenfield.
In 1949 a report, the Road Plan for Lancashire, proposed the construction of Route 9 which would link north east Manchester with Burnley and Blackburn via Route 8. Originally planned to be an all purpose road. the route was redesignated as a motorway prior to construction. The first section (the so called Middleton Link) was opened in 1971. Construction then began on the southern section of the Bury bypass (Junctions 4 to 3) in February 1973 with this opening in August 1975. Immediately after construction began on the northern section (junctions 3 to terminus) with this opening in 1978.
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M67 motorway
The M67 is a 5-mile (8.0 km) urban motorway in Greater Manchester, England which heads east from the M60 motorway passing through Denton and Hyde before ending near Mottram. It was originally conceived as the first part of a trans-Pennine motorway between Manchester and Sheffield connecting the A57(M) motorway to the M1 motorway. Plans for a £180m improvement to the route by bypassing Mottram and Tintwistle, the A57/A628 Mottram in Longdendale, Hollingworth and Tintwistle Bypass, and the 'Glossop spur' linking to the A57 road are currently at the public inquiry stage but were 'suspended indefinitely' in January 2008.
The M67 heads east from the M60 motorway, passing through Denton and Hyde before ending near Mottram. From the end of the motorway traffic can either follow the A628 road or the A57 road further east to the M1 motorway and Sheffield.
Before the motorway reaches its eastern terminal at Hattersley/Mottram roundabout (where traffic continues along the A57 into Longdendale), there are the stub 'ski ramps' where the motorway would have continued eastwards, as there are at the western end.
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M69 motorway
The M69 is a lightly used 15.7-mile (25.3 km) dual three lane dual carriageway motorway in Leicestershire and Warwickshire, England connecting Leicester and Coventry. It opened in 1977.
The motorway, also known at the time as the 'Coventry – Leicester Motorway' was completed in 1977 following a public inquiry in 1972. It replaced the A46 road, which was subsequently downgraded.
Starting at the northeastern suburbs of Coventry at junction 2 of the M6, the motorway crosses the Coventry Canal and then continues northeast past Bulkington and west of Wolvey before turning more easterly to run south of Hinckley. It then crosses the Birmingham to Peterborough railway line before ending on the southwestern edge of Leicester.
The motorway has no services.
There is an aspiration to construct a new slip road and road bridge for traffic travelling southbound on the M1 south to join the M69. The M1 would also be widened to dual 4 lane or dual 5 lane between junctions 21 and 21a.
Since the completion of the M69 motorway linking Coventry and Leicester, the motorway's number has given its name to the derby between the two football clubs playing in each city - Coventry City and Leicester City. These two clubs are rivals in the M69 derby.
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M73 motorway
The M73 is a motorway in Glasgow and North Lanarkshire, Scotland. It is 7 miles (11 km) long and connects the M74 motorway with the M80 motorway, providing an eastern bypass for Glasgow. The short stretch between Junctions 1 and 2 is part of unsigned international E-road network E05, where it continues along the M8 through Glasgow. To the south, the M74 motorway is also part of the E05.
Starting at the M74 junction 4 (M73 junction 1) by the River Clyde, it proceeds north with Birkenshaw to the east and crosses the Whifflet railway line before meeting the M8 and A8 at a three-level interchange, west of Swinton. Immediately afterwards the North Clyde railway line and then passes alongside Woodend Loch before reaching junction 2A at Gartcosh. There is then a further 2 miles (3.2 km) of motorway, before traffic exits onto the M80 westbound.
The road is a dual 3 lane road between junctions 1 and 2, and a dual 2 lane road between junctions 2 and 3. It is subject to the national speed limit.
Construction began in 1969 with the motorway opening between May 1971 and April 1972. Junction 2A was added at a later date.
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M80 motorway
The M80 is a motorway in central Scotland, running through Glasgow, North Lanarkshire, Falkirk and Stirling and links the M8, the M73 and M9 motorways. Following completion in 2011, this road is 25 miles (40 km) long. From 1992 - 2011, the road was in two sections; the southern section, Glasgow to Stepps and the northern section Haggs to Stirling. A connecting Stepps to Haggs section was completed in September 2011. The new section partially opened in February 2011 when the Moodiesburn bypass opened to traffic, extending the southern section to Mollinsburn. The A80 between Mollinsburn and Auchenkilns was widened to three-lane carriageway in each direction, and the section from Auchenkilns to Haggs remains 2 lane, now with hard shoulders.
The M80 was constructed in 3 stages: M8 to Stepps (opened 1992), Stepps to Haggs (opened 2011), and Haggs to the Pirnhall (opened 1974).
This section of road was originally envisioned during the M8's construction in the 1960s, but was not realised until 1992), also known as the 'Stepps Bypass' begins at M8 Junction 13 in the Glasgow suburb of Blochairn. It runs to the north of Stepps, under the Cumbernauld Railway Line with exits for Bishopbriggs, Lenzie and Kirkintilloch, where it continues onto the new section, completed in 2011.
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M876 motorway
The M876 motorway is a motorway in Scotland. The motorway runs from Denny to Airth in the Falkirk council area, forming an approach road to the Kincardine Bridge. It was opened in 1980.
The road is 8 miles (13 km) long. It begins by turning off the M80 and bypasses Falkirk and Stenhousemuir. It is one of only three motorways in the UK which form a concurrency with another motorway, the M9 which it then leaves again and continues for 1 mile (1.6 km) before becoming the A876.
The original Kincardine Bridge was supplemented in 2008 by a second bridge, (the Clackmannanshire Bridge) for traffic towards Alloa. As part of the works, the terminal roundabout Bowtrees Roundabout was replaced with a grade separated junction, and the A876 beyond the junction has been upgraded to dual carriageway standard .
Coordinates: 56°02′17″N 3°49′55″W / 56.038°N 3.832°W / 56.038; -3.832
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M898 motorway
The M898 motorway is a 1⁄2-mile (0.80 km) motorway in Renfrewshire, Scotland. It is a spur route from the M8 motorway towards the Erskine Bridge. It is the highest numbered motorway in the United Kingdom, and one of the shortest. It lacks hard shoulders along its length. Its northern terminus comes at the junction with the A726 road, the former location of the toll booths for the Erskine Bridge, which were removed on 1 April 2006.
Coordinates: 55°54′14″N 4°28′35″W / 55.9040°N 4.4764°W / 55.9040; -4.4764
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M90 motorway
The M90 is a motorway in Scotland. It runs from Inverkeithing, at the north end of the Forth Road Bridge, to Perth, passing Dunfermline, Cowdenbeath and Kinross on the way. It is the most northerly motorway in the United Kingdom; the northernmost point being a spur into the western suburbs of Perth at Broxden.
The M90's most substantial engineering feature is the Friarton Bridge in Perth, a tall concrete pillared structure which traverses the River Tay. The bridge carries eastbound traffic from Broxden towards Dundee and along the Firth of Tay.
The road constitutes most of the southerly part of the A90 corridor from Edinburgh, through Perth, Dundee and Aberdeen to Peterhead along Scotland's North Sea coast.
The M90 is considered one of the UK's most sub-standard motorways of significant distance. Junctions 1 and 2 share a tiny common sliproad, forcing a conflict between entering and leaving traffic at the junction with the A823(M). It lacks hard shoulders for an 8-mile (13 km) section. In this section there are emergency lay-bys at 1⁄4-mile (400 m) intervals instead. The M90 also has one of the tightest corners on the UK motorway network, for which some traffic is forced to slow down. The corner cuts through the northern side of the Ochil Hills and has a curve radius of 694.5 m (a minimum of 914 m was standard practice at the time of construction). This corner also coincides with one of the steepest sections of the motorway, for which north-bound heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) are sign-posted to stay in a low gear and often brake continuously through the turn. South-bound HGVs are normally substantially reduced in speed as they make the incline.
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Maidstone
Coordinates: 51°16′19″N 0°31′44″E / 51.272°N 0.529°E / 51.272; 0.529
Maidstone is the county town of Kent, England, 32 miles (51 km) south-east of London. The River Medway runs through the centre of the town linking Maidstone to Rochester and the Thames Estuary. Historically, the river was a source and route for much of the town's trade. Maidstone was the centre of the agricultural county of Kent, known as the Garden of England. There is evidence of a settlement in the area dating back to beyond the Stone Age.
The town is within the borough of Maidstone. In 2001, the town had a population of 75,070.
Maidstone's economy has changed over the years from being involved in heavy industry, to more light and service industries.
Saxon charters (c975) show the first recorded instances of the town's name; de maeides stana and maegdan stane with the possible meaning of either stone of the maidens, or possibly stone of the people. The latter meaning may refer to the nearby megalith around which gatherings would take place. The name evolved through medestan/meddestane as reported in the Domesday Book until, in 1610, the modern name appeared. It has also been suggested that the name derives from stones set into the river to allow clothes to be rinsed in the cleaner water away from the banks of the river.[citation needed]
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Manchester
Coordinates: 53°28′N 2°14′W / 53.467°N 2.233°W / 53.467; -2.233
Manchesteri/ˈmæntʃɛstər/ is a city and metropolitan borough in Greater Manchester, England with an estimated population of 498,800 in 2010. Manchester lies within one of the United Kingdom's largest urban areas; the Greater Manchester Urban Area which has a population of 2.2 million. The demonym of Manchester is Mancunian and the local authority is Manchester City Council.
Manchester is situated in the south-central part of North West England, fringed by the Cheshire Plain to the south and the Pennines to the north and east. The recorded history of Manchester began with the civilian settlement associated with the Roman fort of Mamucium, which was established in c. 79 AD on a sandstone bluff near the confluence of the rivers Medlock and Irwell. Historically, most of the city was a part of Lancashire, although areas south of the River Mersey were in Cheshire. Throughout the Middle Ages Manchester remained a manorial township, but it began to expand "at an astonishing rate" around the turn of the 19th century. Manchester's unplanned urbanisation was brought on by a boom in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution, and resulted in it becoming the world's first industrialised city. An early 19th-century factory building boom transformed Manchester from a township into a major mill town and borough that was granted city status in 1853. In 1894 the Manchester Ship Canal was built, creating the Port of Manchester.
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Maple Cross
Coordinates: 51°37′30″N 0°30′29″W / 51.625°N 0.508°W / 51.625; -0.508
Maple Cross is a village in Hertfordshire, England with a large proportion of the housing being either council owned or previously council owned. The area is served by junction 17 of the M25 motorway, which makes up one of the boundaries of the village. It lies about 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) west of Watford.
Many multi-national businesses have offices in Maple Cross. The UK headquarters of construction company Skanska is based here. The corporate functions of the combined Cadbury and Trebor Bassett confectionery business moved to the area in 2000. Other businesses with offices include Nissan and Renault.
Maple Cross has one school, Maple Cross JMI, located on the main thoroughfare, Denham Way. Secondary education is generally provided for in Rickmansworth, Watford or Harefield (London).
Maple Cross is bound by the M25 motorway. The areas main thoroughfare, Denham Way also forms part of the A412.
One road in Maple Cross was named Bradbery, by the Three Rivers District Council in the 1960s. This was to commemorate William Bradbery, the watercress pioneer from West Hyde.
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Marston Vale Line
The Marston Vale Line (Network Rail route MD 140) is the railway line from Bletchley to Bedford in England. It is one of two surviving passenger-carrying sections of the "Varsity Line" between Oxford and Cambridge.
It was designated by the Department for Transport as a community rail line in November 2006.
The line was opened in 1845 by the London and Birmingham Railway.
In 1977 the Parliamentary Select Committee on Nationalised Industries recommmended considering electrification of more of Britain's rail network. By 1979 BR presented a range of options to do so by 2000, some of which included the Marston Vale Line. Under the 1979–90 Conservative governments that succeeded the 1976–79 Labour government, the proposal was not implemented.
The line is part of the Network Rail Strategic Route 18, SRS 18.12 and is classified as a Rural line.
Silverlink operated the link from privatisation in 1996 until the franchise renewal in 2007. Services were initially in the hands of a mixture of heritage slam-door diesel multiple units formed of 2-car Class 117 and single-car Class 121 units until replacement with Class 150/1 trains inherited from Central Trains.
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Midshires Way
The Midshires Way is a long distance footpath and bridleway that runs for 230 miles (370 km) through Middle England from Bledlow in Buckinghamshire to Stockport, Greater Manchester.
Between Northampton and Market Harborough it follows the route of a disused railway line, passing through two tunnels. The Midshires Way starts from Pulpit Hill, near Little Kimble and runs to Stockport, a total length of 230 miles, with 46 miles in Northamptonshire. One section within Northampton runs closely to the Grand Union Canal at Blisworth Junction in Rothersthorpe, Northampton.
The route was opened in 1994 as a collaboration between numerous Local Authorities and user groups. It is intended as a multi-user trail but there are places where the recommended route for walkers differs from the route for horse riders and cyclists.
Media related to Midshires Way at Wikimedia Commons
Coordinates: 52°18′N 00°56′W / 52.3°N 0.933°W / 52.3; -0.933
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Milton Keynes
Coordinates: 52°02′10″N 0°46′12″W / 52.036°N 0.770°W / 52.036; -0.770
Milton Keynes (i/ˌmɪltən ˈkiːnz/ mil-tən-KEENZ), sometimes abbreviated MK, is a large town in Buckinghamshire, about 45 miles (72 km) south-east of Leicester and 49 miles (79 km) north-west of London. It is the administrative centre of the Borough of Milton Keynes. It was formally designated as a new town on 23 January 1967, with the design brief to become a 'city' in scale.
At designation, its 89 km2 (34 sq mi) area incorporated the existing towns of Bletchley, Wolverton and Stony Stratford along with another fifteen villages and farmland in between. It took its name from the existing village of Milton Keynes, a few miles east of the planned centre.
At the 2001 census the population of the Milton Keynes urban area, including the adjacent Newport Pagnell, was 184,506, and that of the wider borough, which has been a unitary authority independent of Buckinghamshire County Council since 1997, was 207,063 (compared with a population of around 53,000 for the same area in 1961). The Borough’s population in 2009 is estimated to be nearly 241,000, with almost all the increase arising in the urban area.
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North Circular Road
The A406 or the North Circular Road is a road which crosses North London, UK, linking West and East London. The speed limit is either 30 or 50 mph depending on the stretch of the road, including the sections with multiple carriageways. It, together with the South Circular Road, forms a ring road through the inner part of Outer London. This ring road does not make a complete circuit of the city; being C-shaped rather than a complete loop as the crossing of the River Thames in the east is made on the Woolwich Ferry.
In the west, the A406 begins at junction 1 of the M4 Motorway at Gunnersbury, from which the South Circular Road (A205) heads South over Kew Bridge. The A406 runs North under the name "Gunnersbury Avenue". Whereas most of the South Circular goes by the names of the roads widened to accommodate it, the North Circular is typically called "North Circular Road". This is because the A406 has been subject to much more road improvement, often coupled with demolition of existing houses and urban infrastructure, hence the link with the old roads has been lost. In the West where the road made slowest progress and is now unlikely ever to be further widened, the original names are preserved.
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North Ockendon
Coordinates: 51°34′N 0°19′E / 51.56°N 0.31°E / 51.56; 0.31
North Ockendon is an outlying settlement of northeast London, England and part of the London Borough of Havering. It is located 18 miles (29 km) east northeast of Charing Cross and consists of a dispersed settlement within the Metropolitan Green Belt. It was historically an ancient parish in the county of Essex, that was abolished for civil purposes in 1936.
North Ockendon parish had an ancient shape that was elongated east-west, thus contrasting with a series of perpendicular parishes to its north and west. With the adjoining parishes this formed a large estate that is at least middle-Saxon or, perhaps, even Roman or Bronze age. From 1894 until it was abolished in 1936, North Ockendon formed a parish in the Orsett Rural District of Essex. The majority of its former area was used to enlarge the Cranham parish of Hornchurch Urban District and the remainder of the former parish, around 383 acres (1.55 km2), was used to form part of Thurrock Urban District in 1936. In 1965 Hornchurch Urban District was abolished and its former area, including North Ockendon, was transferred to Greater London and used to form the present-day London Borough of Havering; thus it became the only part of Greater London outside the M25 motorway.
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Orpington
Coordinates: 51°22′27″N 0°05′55″E / 51.3741°N 0.0986°E / 51.3741; 0.0986
Orpington is a suburban town and electoral ward in the London Borough of Bromley. It forms the southeastern edge of London's urban sprawl and is identified in the London Plan as one of 35 major centres in Greater London.
Stone Age tools have been found in several areas of Orpington, including Goddington Park, Priory Gardens, the Ramsden estate, and Poverest. Early Bronze Age pottery fragments have been found in the Park Avenue area. During the building of Ramsden Boys School in 1956, the remains of an Iron Age farmstead were excavated. The area was occupied in Roman times, as shown by Crofton Roman Villa, and the Roman bath-house at Fordcroft. The first record of the name Orpington occurs in 1038, when King Cnut's treasurer Eadsy gave land at "Orpedingetune" to the Monastery of Christ Church at Canterbury. The parish church also pre-dates the Domesday Book.
Until the railway came, the local commercial centre was nearby St Mary Cray, rather than Orpington. St Mary Cray had a regular market, and industry (paper mills and bell foundry), whereas Orpington was just a small country village surrounded by soft fruit farms, hopfields and orchards.
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Ouse Valley Way
The Ouse Valley Way is a 150-mile footpath in England, following the River Great Ouse from its source near Brackley in Northamptonshire to its mouth in The Wash near King's Lynn. The path begins outside the King's Head pub in Syresham (52°04′06″N 1°04′51″W / 52.0683°N 1.0807°W / 52.0683; -1.0807 (Ouse Valley Way (Syresham trailhead))) and ends on the Green Quay in King's Lynn (52°45′04″N 0°23′37″E / 52.7512°N 0.3935°E / 52.7512; 0.3935 (Ouse Valley Way (King's Lynn trailhead))).
There is a long-term plan to complete remaining gaps in the path, meanwhile it is possible to walk the entire route, although in places the footpath and river temporarily part company.
The route passes many interesting places and there is much to see, including attractive countryside, pretty villages, ancient English market towns, churches and a cathedral, and abundant wildlife.
Towns from source to mouth include Buckingham, Milton Keynes, Olney, Bedford, St Neots, Huntingdon, St Ives, Ely, Downham Market, and King's Lynn.
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Oxford
Oxfordi/ˈɒksfəd/ is a city in central southern England, the home of the University of Oxford. The city is the county town of Oxfordshire, and forms a district within the county. It has a population of just under 165,000, of whom 153,900 live within the district boundary. It lies about 50 miles (80 km) north-west of London. The rivers Cherwell and Thames (also sometimes known as the Isis locally) run through Oxford and meet south of the city centre.
Oxford has a diverse economic base. Its industries include motor manufacturing, education, publishing and a large number of information technology and science-based businesses.
Buildings in Oxford demonstrate an example of every English architectural period since the arrival of the Saxons, including the iconic, mid-18th century Radcliffe Camera. Oxford is known as the "city of dreaming spires", a term coined by poet Matthew Arnold in reference to the harmonious architecture of Oxford's university buildings. The University of Oxford is the oldest university in the English-speaking world.
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Portsmouth
Portsmouth (i/ˈpɔːtsməθ/) is the second largest city in the ceremonial county of Hampshire on the south coast of England. Portsmouth is notable for being the United Kingdom's only island city; it is located mainly on Portsea Island. It is situated 64 miles (103 km) south west from London and 19 miles (31 km) south east from Southampton.
As a significant naval port for centuries, Portsmouth is home to the world's oldest dry dock still in use and also home to some famous ships, including HMS Warrior, the Tudor carrack Mary Rose and Lord Nelson's flagship, HMS Victory. Although smaller than in its heyday, the naval base remains a major dockyard and base for the Royal Navy and Royal Marine Commandos whose Headquarters resides there. There is also a thriving commercial ferryport serving destinations on the continent for freight and passenger traffic. The City of Portsmouth and Portsmouth Football Club are both nicknamed Pompey.
The Spinnaker Tower is a striking recent addition to the city's skyline. It can be found in the redeveloped former HMS Vernon, formerly a shore establishment or 'stone frigate' of the Royal Navy, now an area of retail outlets, restaurants, clubs and bars now known as Gunwharf Quays.
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Potters Bar
Coordinates: 51°41′53″N 0°10′59″W / 51.698°N 0.183°W / 51.698; -0.183
Potters Bar is a town in the Hertsmere borough of Hertfordshire, England, located 18 miles (29 km) north of Central London. In 2001 it had a population of 21,618.
The town originated in the early 13th century and remained a small settlement until the arrival of the Great Northern Railway in 1850. It is part of the London commuter belt.
The origin of the Potters element of the town's name is uncertain but is generally thought to be either a reference to a Roman pottery, believed to have been sited locally, or alternatively to the Pottere family who lived in the South Mimms parish. The Bar is thought to refer to the gates leading from the South Mimms parish and into the Enfield Chase parish, or possibly from some sort of toll on the Great North Road. The original "Bar" is said to have been at what is now the Green Man pub, or at the current entrance to Morven House.
Potters Bar is located on the Great North Road, one of two road routes from the City of London to the north of England. The road was originally numbered as the A1, and later the A1000.
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Purfleet
Coordinates: 51°28′30″N 0°14′24″E / 51.4750°N 0.2400°E / 51.4750; 0.2400
Purfleet is a place in the Thurrock unitary authority in Essex, England. It is situated south of the A13 road on the River Thames and within the easterly bounds of the M25 motorway but just outside the Greater London boundary. It was within the traditional Church of England parish of West Thurrock. There is some industry to the south and the area forms part of the Thames Gateway redevelopment area. Purfleet is one of seven conservation areas in Thurrock. It was listed by the Ministry of Food as an A-bomb target in the 1950s.
The Royal Opera House's Bob and Tamar Manoukian scene making facility for their operas and ballets opened on the High House site in December 2010. The National Skills Academy for Creative & Cultural Skills will open on the site in May 2012.
In the 18th century, Purfleet was the location for the storage of gunpowder together with a garrison to protect it. There was a constant danger of explosion as a result of lightning strikes. Benjamin Franklin was asked for advice on the design of a lightning conductor. When King George III heard what his political opponent had to say, he chose an alternative design. Magazine number 5 is now the Purfleet Garrison Heritage and Military Centre.
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Reigate
Coordinates: 51°13′48″N 0°11′17″W / 51.230°N 0.188°W / 51.230; -0.188
Reigate ( /ˈraɪɡeɪt/) is a historic market town in Surrey, England, at the foot of the North Downs, and in the London commuter belt. It is one of the main constituents of the Borough of Reigate and Banstead. This part of Surrey including the adjacent town of Redhill is sometimes grouped together as part of the Gatwick Diamond, M23 corridor or Crawley Urban Area however is spaced out with Metropolitan Green Belt.
Colley Hill, one mile (1.6 km) north of Reigate, is the sixth highest point in Surrey at 756 feet (230 m). Reigate Hill, 2.5 miles (4.0 km) to the east of Colley Hill, is the seventh highest point in Surrey at 723 feet (220 m).
There are neolithic flint mines on the ridge of the North Downs above Reigate. The Bronze Age barrows on Reigate Heath indicate there was ancient settlement in the area. A Bronze Age spearhead was recovered on Park Hill in Reigate Priory Park. In 2004, a c. 92 AD Roman tile kiln (pictured left) was recovered from the grounds of Rosehill in Doods Way, Reigate. Tiles on the Rosehill site were first discovered in the 1880s. The tiles would have been used for important buildings in the area. The Rosehill find is also the oldest recorded use of Reigate Stone (Upper Greensand) for "ashlar masonry work".
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Rickmansworth
Coordinates: 51°38′18″N 0°27′57″W / 51.6383°N 0.4659°W / 51.6383; -0.4659
Rickmansworth is the administrative seat of the Three Rivers District Council in Hertfordshire, England. With a population of 14,571 recorded at the 2001 census, Rickmansworth is a small town in South-West Hertfordshire, located mainly to the north of the Grand Union Canal and the River Colne. The nearest large town is Watford, 4.4 miles (7.1 km) to the east. It grew dramatically during the Victorian era, and then again during the 1920s and 1930s as part of the Metro-land area, due to the extension of Metropolitan Railway, and became a commuter town. Chiltern Main Line diesel-express trains from Marylebone station, London, via Harrow-on-the Hill, to Aylesbury–change for Birmingham–and fast, electric Metropolitan trains from the City of London, via Baker Street, to Amersham-on-the-Hill (all stopping at Rickmansworth station) together with the rural surroundings, have all contributed to the growth of Rickmansworth.
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Romford
Coordinates: 51°34′36″N 0°10′48″E / 51.5768°N 0.1801°E / 51.5768; 0.1801
Romford is a large suburban town in northeast London, England and the administrative headquarters of the London Borough of Havering. It is located 14.1 miles (22.7 km) northeast of Charing Cross and is one of the major metropolitan centres identified in the London Plan. It was historically a market town in the county of Essex and formed the administrative centre of the liberty of Havering, until it was dissolved in 1892. Good road links and the opening of the railway station in 1839 were key to the development of the town and the economic history of Romford is underpinned by a shift from agriculture to light industry and more recently to retail and commerce. As part of the suburban growth of London in the 20th century, Romford significantly expanded and increased in population,becoming a municipal borough in 1937 and has formed part of Greater London since 1965. It now forms one of the largest commercial, retail, entertainment and leisure districts outside central London and has a developed night time economy.
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Sevenoaks
Coordinates: 51°16′41″N 0°11′15″E / 51.2781°N 0.1874°E / 51.2781; 0.1874
Sevenoaks is a commuter town situated on the London fringe of west Kent, England, 24 miles (38.6 km) south-east of Charing Cross, on one of the principal commuter rail lines from the capital. The town gives its name to the Sevenoaks district, of which it is the principal town, followed by Swanley and Edenbridge.
The presence of Knole House, a large mansion, led to the earlier settlement becoming a village and in the 13th century a market was established.[citation needed] Sevenoaks became part of the modern communications network when one of the earlier turnpikes was opened in the 18th century; the railway was relatively late in reaching it. It has a large commuting population although the nearby Fort Halstead defence installation is a large local employer.
There are several independent educational establishments in the town, including the prestigious Sevenoaks School.
The town's name is derived from the Saxon word "Seouenaca", the name given to a small chapel near seven oak trees in Knole Park around AD 800.[citation needed]
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Silverstone Heliport
Silverstone Heliport (ICAO: EGBV) is located 5 NM (9.3 km; 5.8 mi) north of Buckingham,Buckinghamshire, England and within Silverstone Circuit, formerly RAF Silverstone.
Silverstone Northern Heliport has a CAA Ordinary Licence (Number P874) that allows flights for the public transport of passengers or for flying instruction as authorised by the licensee (Silverstone Circuits Limited). The aerodrome is not licensed for night use.
The world record for the worlds busiest airport for one day, was the heliport at the Silverstone during the 1999 British Grand Prix. There were 4,200 documented aircraft movements (1 movement being a landing or a takeoff) in one day from dawn till dusk. The airfield was fully licensed and used a sophisticated air traffic control service, using six full air traffic control radio frequencies and a continuous message broadcast (ATIS) service, operated by a team of 24 air traffic controllers. This achievement was even more remarkable as it was coordinated completely on a VFR (Visual Flight Rules) basis without the assistance of radar or any other electronic navigation aids.
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Slough
Coordinates: 51°30′36″N 0°35′35″W / 51.51°N 0.593056°W / 51.51; -0.593056
Sloughi/ˈslaʊ/ is a borough and unitary authority within the ceremonial county of Royal Berkshire, England. The town straddles the A4 Bath Road (it becomes the Great West Road closer to London) and the Great Western Main Line, 22 miles (35 km) west of central London. At the 2001 census, the population of Slough was 119,070 (est. 122,000 in 2006) and the borough area was the most ethnically diverse local authority area outside London in the United Kingdom. Slough has the highest proportion of religious adherents in England.
Historically, the larger part of the present-day Slough area was formerly in Buckinghamshire with a small part of the borough originally in Middlesex. Slough is home to the Slough Trading Estate, which, coupled with extensive transport links, makes it an important business centre in South East England. It is the largest industrial estate in single private ownership in Europe.
Slough is at grid reference SU978797, just west of Greater London. Nearby towns are Windsor to the south, Maidenhead to the west, Uxbridge to the northeast and Beaconsfield to the north.
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South Circular Road
The A205 or South Circular Road is a direct route which crosses South London, UK, running from Woolwich in the east to the junction of the A406 (North Circular Road), the M4 and the A4 at Gunnersbury in the west.
Together with the North Circular Road, the South Circular forms a ring road through the inner part of Outer London. This ring road does not make a complete circuit of the city, as the crossing of the River Thames in the east is made on the Woolwich Ferry.
Unlike the North Circular, the South Circular is not a purpose-built route, but a collection of pre-existing suburban roads joined together, which has resulted in a disjointed feel, with totsos at several junctions. This makes it seem little more than a sequence of road signs.
The South Circular Road was first proposed in Sir Patrick Abercrombie's County of London Plan of 1943, as the southern half of one of a number of ring roads around the capital. Abercrombie designated it as the "C Ring" (the third ring out from the city centre); however, the plan for a high-quality road was not realised and the semi-circular route was assigned to existing roads through the southern suburbs; these roads retain their historic names.
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South Mimms
Coordinates: 51°41′56″N 0°13′44″W / 51.69889°N 0.22885°W / 51.69889; -0.22885
South Mimms, sometimes spelt South Mymms, is a village and civil parish forming part of the Hertsmere district of Hertfordshire in the East of England.
It is a small settlement located near to the junction of the M25 motorway with the A1(M) motorway and is perhaps more widely known because of the naming of the service station at that junction.
Potters Bar was originally a small settlement in the parish of South Mimms. Potters Bar became the location of the nearest railway station and eventually became much larger. Both Potters Bar and South Mimms were part of Middlesex until the creation of Greater London, which abolished the county of Middlesex in 1965. South Mimms was the northernmost village in Middlesex.
South Mimms parish was split in 1894 under the Local Government Act 1894 with the extreme southern tip forming South Mimms Urban parish in the Barnet Urban District and was transferred to Hertfordshire. This area now forms part of the London Borough of Barnet. The rest of the parish became the South Mimms Rural District, later renamed the Potters Bar Urban District.
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Southampton
Southamptoni/saʊθˈhæmptən/ is the largest city in the county of Hampshire on the south coast of England, and is situated 120 kilometres (75 mi) south-west of London and 30 kilometres (19 mi) north-west of Portsmouth. Southampton is a major port and the closest city to the New Forest. It lies at the northernmost point of Southampton Water at the confluence of the River Test and River Itchen, with the River Hamble joining to the south of the urban area. The local authority is Southampton City Council, which is a unitary authority.
The city represents the core of the Greater Southampton region, and the city itself has an estimated population of 239,700 Southampton combines with Portsmouth to form a single metropolitan area; with a population of over a million this makes the region one of the United Kingdom's most populous metropolitan areas. The city's name is sometimes abbreviated in writing to "So'ton" or "Soton", and a resident of Southampton is called a Sotonian.
Significant employers in Southampton include the University of Southampton, Southampton Airport, the Ford Transit factory, Ordnance Survey, BBC South, the NHS, ABP and Carnival. Southampton is noted for its association with the RMS Titanic, the Spitfire and more recently a number of the largest cruise ships in the world.
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St Albans
Coordinates: 51°45′18″N 0°20′10″W / 51.755°N 0.336°W / 51.755; -0.336
St Albans /sɨnt ˈɔːlbənz/ is a city in southern Hertfordshire, England, around 22 miles (35 km) north of central London, which forms the main urban area of the City and District of St Albans.
It is a historic market town, and is now a sought-after dormitory town within the London commuter belt. Property prices are notoriously high within the district, which is one of the most expensive in the UK.
St Albans has two official demonyms: Verulamian and Old Albanian. St Albans was a settlement of pre-Roman origin named Verlamion (or Verulam) by the Ancient British, Catuvellauni tribe. It became the first major town on the old Roman road of Watling Street for travellers heading north and became the Roman city of Verulamium.
Saint Alban, the first British Christian martyr, was beheaded in AD 308 by Maximian on the orders of Emperor Diocletian, who denounced the Christian faith and had ordered the deaths of all subjects and allies of the Roman Empire who refused to give up the faith. Saint Alban consequently gave the town its modern name.
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Surrey
Surrey /ˈsʌri/ is a county in the South East of England, and one of the home counties. The county borders Greater London, Kent, East Sussex, West Sussex, Hampshire, and Berkshire. The historic county town is Guildford.Surrey County Council sits at Kingston upon Thames, although this has been part of Greater London since 1965. The London boroughs of Lambeth, Wandsworth and Southwark were considered part of Surrey until 1889; and Croydon, Kingston, Merton, Sutton, Barnes and Richmond - all now reclassified as part of Greater London - were part of Surrey until 1965.
Surrey is divided into 11 boroughs and districts: Elmbridge, Epsom and Ewell, Guildford, Mole Valley, Reigate and Banstead, Runnymede, Spelthorne, Surrey Heath, Tandridge, Waverley, Woking. After the elections of 1 May 2008, the Conservatives are in control of 10 out of 11 councils in Surrey, with Epsom and Ewell in Residents Association control. The Conservatives hold all 11 Parliamentary constituencies within the county borders.
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Swanley
Coordinates: 51°24′N 0°11′E / 51.4°N 0.18°E / 51.4; 0.18
Swanley is a town and civil parish in the Sevenoaks District of Kent, England. It is located on the south-eastern outskirts of London, north of Sevenoaks town. The town boundaries encompass the settlements of Swanley itself, Hextable (Hextable recently voted to become an independent parish council) and Swanley Village. Swanley has a population of 20,986
In 1066, Swanley only consisted of a few cattle farms, surrounded in oak, sycamore and ash (Fraxinus) woodland. Because Swanley only consisted of a few homesteads,so it was not mentioned in the Domesday Book.
There is a theory that the placename Swanley developed from the Saxon term 'Swine-ley', "Ley" meaning a clearing in the woods and "swine" meaning pigs. So it has been suggested that it was originally a Saxon pig farm. This later developed into what we now know as Swanley. There is however no clear evidence that the derivation of the placename Swanley is 'a clearing for pigs'. This fiction may have been invented by a history teacher at Swanley School sometime in the late 1960s as a backhanded insult towards the kids he or she was expected to teach. If Swanley was a Saxon name chances are it would have received mention in Domesday. It didn't. The name is just as likely to be derived from the personal name Sven, Svein or something similar.
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Swanscombe
Coordinates: 51°26′57″N 0°17′57″E / 51.4491°N 0.2993°E / 51.4491; 0.2993
Swanscombe is a small town, part of the Borough of Dartford on the north Kent coast in England. It is part of the civil parish of Swanscombe and Greenhithe.
Bone fragments and tools, representing the earliest humans known to have lived in England, have been found from 1935 onwards at the Barnfield Pit about 2 km outside the village. This site is now the Swanscombe Heritage Park. Swanscombe Man (now thought to be female) was a late Homo erectus or an early Archaic Homo sapiens. The c. 400,000-year-old skull fragments are kept at the Natural History Museum in London with a replica on display at the Dartford Museum. Lower levels of the Barnfield Pit yielded evidence of an even earlier, more primitive human, dubbed Clactonian Man.
Nearby digs on land for the Channel Tunnel Rail Link revealed a c. 400,000-year-old site with human tools and the remains of a Straight-tusked Elephant (Palaeoloxodon antiquus), and evidence of water vole, pine vole, newts, frogs etc., indicating a site with standing water. (See below for discovery details).
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Thames Gateway
Coordinates: 51°29′13″N 0°19′05″E / 51.487°N 0.318°E / 51.487; 0.318 The Thames Gateway is an area of land stretching 70 kilometres (43 mi) east from inner east London on both sides of the River Thames and the Thames Estuary. The area, which includes much brownfield land, has been designated a national priority for urban regeneration, taking advantage of the development opportunities realised by the completion of the High Speed 1 (officially known as the Channel Tunnel Rail Link) rail line. It stretches from Westferry in Tower Hamlets to the Isle of Sheppey and extends across three of the regions of England. The development is delivered through regional development agencies, special purpose development corporations and local partnerships.
The Thames Gateway comprises sections of 16 different local government districts in three regions:
The area accommodates around 1.6 million people and contains some of the most deprived wards in the country, characterised by lack of access to public transport, services, employment and affordable quality housing. Its boundary was drawn to capture the riverside strip that formerly hosted many land extensive industries, serving London and the South East, whose decline has left a legacy of large scale dereliction and contaminated land, such as around Tilbury.[citation needed]
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Thames Path
The Thames Path is a National Trail, opened in 1996, following the length of the River Thames from its source near Kemble in Gloucestershire to the Thames Barrier at Charlton. It is about 184 miles (296 km) long.
The entire length of the path can be walked, and some parts cycled. Most of the path uses the original towpath but in some places this is not possible. The main reason for this is that towpath traffic used to cross the river at several points using ferries, but apart from Shepperton to Weybridge Ferry these no longer operate. This means that in several places such as Shiplake, Whitchurch-on-Thames and Moulsford, there are diversions away from the towpath. At other places, there are replacement connections. An example of this is at Hurley, where the Temple Footbridge was built in 1989.
Some parts of the Thames Path, particularly those west of Oxford, are subject to flooding during the winter months. The river is tidal downstream from Teddington Lock, and parts of the path may be underwater if there is a particularly high tide.
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The Ridgeway
The Ridgeway is a ridgeway or ancient trackway described as Britain's oldest road. The section clearly identified as an ancient trackway extends from Wiltshire along the chalk ridge of the Berkshire Downs to the River Thames at the Goring Gap, part of the Icknield Way which ran, not always on the ridge, from Salisbury Plain to East Anglia. The route was adapted and extended as a National Trail, created in 1972. The Ridgeway National Trail follows the ancient Ridgeway from Overton Hill, near Avebury, to Streatley, then follows footpaths and parts of the ancient Icknield Way through the Chiltern Hills to Ivinghoe Beacon in Buckinghamshire. The National Trail is 87 miles (139km) long.
For at least 5000 years travellers have used the Ridgeway. Originally connected to the Dorset coast, the Ridgeway provided a reliable trading route to The Wash in Norfolk. The high dry ground made travel easy and provided a measure of protection by giving traders a commanding view, warning against potential attacks.
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Thurrock
Thurrock is a unitary authority with borough status in the English ceremonial county of Essex. It is part of the London commuter belt and an area of regeneration within the Thames Gateway redevelopment zone. The local authority is Thurrock Council.
It lies on the River Thames just to the east of London. With over 18 miles (29 km) of riverfront it covers an area of 64 square miles (166 km²), with more than half defined as Green Belt. With Greater London to the west and the river to the south, the county of Essex abuts the Borough to the north and east, and across the river lies Kent.
The local authority is Thurrock Council. Elections are held 3 out of every 4 years. In the last election in 2012, Labour took control after a period in which no party had overall control.
Thurrock is covered by two parliamentary constituencies. Thurrock includes most of the borough while South Basildon and East Thurrock includes some wards in the east of the borough. Both seats were Conservative gains from Labour at the 2010 general election.
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Thurrock services
Thurrock services is a motorway service station on the M25 motorway in Thurrock, Essex. It is owned by Moto. The services were opened sometime between 1990 and 1992 (sources vary; see references).
Parts of the service station overlook a lake.
Coordinates: 51°29′32″N 0°16′16″E / 51.49222°N 0.27111°E / 51.49222; 0.27111
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Tilbury
Coordinates: 51°27′38″N 0°21′30″E / 51.4606°N 0.3582°E / 51.4606; 0.3582
Tilbury is a town in the borough of Thurrock, Essex, England. As a settlement it is of relatively recent existence, although it has important historical connections, being the location of a 16th century fort and an ancient cross-river ferry. It is also the location of a modern deep-water port.
The name of the present town of Tilbury is derived (by way of the port) from the nearby settlements of East and West Tilbury. The name of these settlements is derived from the Saxon burgh, "fortified place", either belonging to Tila, or perhaps at a lowland place. The 8th century spelling (Bede) was "Tilaburg", and the spelling in Domesday was "Tilberia".
Tilbury’s history is closely connected with its geographical location (see below). Its counterpart on the south bank of the River Thames, Gravesend, has long been an important communications link, and it was there that a cross-river ferry (see below) was connected, mainly due to the narrowness of the river at this point. In addition, Gravesend and Northfleet (also on the south shore) both became vitally important to shipping on the Thames: the former as the first port of call for foreign shipping bound for London, and the latter as a naval dockyard.
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Turweston Aerodrome
Turweston Aerodrome (ICAO: EGBT) located near the village of Turweston, on the Northamptonshire and Buckinghamshire border, is a former Royal Air Force World War II bomber training facility, now a business park and airfield.
Turweston Aerodrome has a CAA Ordinary Licence (Number P750) that allows flights for the public transport of passengers or for flying instruction as authorised by the licensee (Turweston Flight Centre Limited). The aerodrome is not licensed for night use. The runway direction now commonly being used is 09/27.
Based on 220 acres (89 ha) of land on the Northamptonshire and Buckinghamshire border, just off the A43 road and located 2 NM (3.7 km; 2.3 mi) east of the market town of Brackley, RAF Turweston served as a bomber training school during World War II. Opened on 23 November 1942 it had three concrete runways and one T1 hangar. The three runways were:
It initially housed the Vickers Wellingtons and Avro Ansons of 12 OTU until April 1943, when it began housing the B-25 Mitchells of 13 OTU. In May 1943 they were joined by the A-20 Bostons of No 307 FTU[disambiguation needed
], with both units remaining until closure. No 17 OTU Gunnery Flight began arriving in July 1943 with Wellingtons, and formed fully in November 1943 with a flight of Miles Martinets.
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Uxbridge
Coordinates: 51°32′25″N 0°28′40″W / 51.5404°N 0.4778°W / 51.5404; -0.4778
Uxbridge ( /ˈʌksbrɪdʒ/) is a large town located in west London, England and is the administrative headquarters of the London Borough of Hillingdon. It forms part of the ceremonial county of Greater London. It is located 15 miles (24.1 km) west-northwest of Charing Cross and is one of the major metropolitan centres identified in the London Plan. It historically formed part of the parish of Hillingdon in the county of Middlesex and was a significant local commercial centre from an early time. As part of the suburban growth of London in the 20th century it expanded and increased in population, becoming a municipal borough in 1955 and has formed part of Greater London since 1965. Uxbridge is a significant retail and commercial centre, and is the location of Brunel University and the Uxbridge campus of Buckinghamshire New University. The town is close to the boundary with Buckinghamshire, which is locally the River Colne.
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V6 Grafton Street
The V6 Grafton Street is a major local road in Milton Keynes. Its formal name is simply "Grafton Street": the "V6" designation is an urban planning name that indicates that it is the sixth north-south grid road in the Milton Keynes grid road system.
It starts beside Wolverton railway station in the north of Milton Keynes (52°04′05″N 0°48′20″W / 52.0680°N 0.8056°W / 52.0680; -0.8056 (V6 Grafton Street (northern end))), between Wolverton and New Bradwell (and extends as an unnumbered local rural road to Haversham and Castlethorpe). Travelling south from here it passes the district and village of Bradwell before becoming a dual carriageway at the point that it crosses the A422. It remains a dual carriageway from here for approximately 4 miles (6.4 km) until it meets the A421. During this time it crosses the A509 and passes through the Central Milton Keynes grid square where, for this short distance, it is named 'V6 Grafton Gate'.
After crossing the A421, Grafton Street acts for one grid square as a spur of the A421, connecting it to the A5. After crossing the A5 at Redmoor Roundabout, Grafton Street until recently reverted to being a single carriageway, although it has been widened during 2005. Shortly after providing access to the stadium:mk, the V6 terminates at Granby in a three-direction roundabout with the H10 Bletcham Way and V4 Watling Street (52°00′24″N 0°44′08″W / 52.0067°N 0.7355°W / 52.0067; -0.7355 (V6 Grafton Street (southern end))).
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Varsity Line
The Varsity Line (or Oxford to Cambridge Line) is an informal name for the railway route that formerly linked the English university cities of Oxford and Cambridge, operated successively by the London and North Western Railway, the London, Midland and Scottish Railway, and British Railways. A pun on the railway term main line was sometimes employed by describing the line as the "Brain Line".
Services were withdrawn from the Oxford - Bletchley section and the Bedford - Cambridge section at the end of 1967, even though the line had not been listed for closure as part of the Beeching Axe in 1963.
The only sections still in regular passenger use today are the Oxford to Bicester Line from Oxford to Bicester Town, and the Marston Vale Line operation from Bletchley to Bedford. The Bicester - Calvert section still carries freight traffic but the Calvert - Bletchley section, though still extant, is currently disused. There are well-developed plans to open a short section from Bicester Town to the Chiltern Main Line as part of Project Evergreen 3 and from Bicester to Bedford as part of the East West Rail Link.
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Waltham Cross
Coordinates: 51°41′10″N 0°01′59″W / 51.686°N 0.0331°W / 51.686; -0.0331
Waltham Cross is the most southeasterly town in Hertfordshire, England. It is 12 miles from the City of London and immediately north of the M25 motorway, forming part of the Greater London Urban Area and London commuter belt. Part of Waltham Cross is located within Greater London.
It is bordered by Greater London to the south and Essex to the east. It is located south of Cheshunt, west of Waltham Abbey and immediately north of the London Borough of Enfield, with the southern section of the town bordering the M25 motorway and Freezywater. Although located just outside Greater London, the town forms part of the Greater London Urban Area. The Waltham Cross post town includes some northern sections of Enfield, including the Holmesdale Estate.
Waltham Cross formed part of the ancient parish of Cheshunt in the Hertford hundred of Hertfordshire. It formed part of Cheshunt Urban District from 1894 to 1974. In April 1974 the town together with Cheshunt and the Hoddesdon urban district councils merged to form the Borough of Broxbourne. The town takes its name from the Eleanor Cross which stands in its centre.
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Watford
Watfordi/ˈwɒtfərd/ is a town and borough in Hertfordshire, England, situated 18 miles (29 km) northwest of central London and within the bounds of the M25 motorway. The borough is separated from Greater London to the south by the urbanised parish of Watford Rural in the Three Rivers District.
Watford was created as an urban district under the Local Government Act 1894, and became a municipal borough by grant of a charter in 1922. The borough had 79,726 inhabitants at the time of the 2001 Census. The most recent official estimates put the population of Watford at 79,600 at mid-2006.
The nearby areas of Croxley Green, Bushey, Rickmansworth, Chorleywood, Kings Langley, Abbots Langley, Carpenders Park and South Oxhey, located in Three Rivers and Hertsmere districts, also form part of the Watford postcode area. The Watford subdivision of the Greater London Urban Area, which includes much of the neighbouring districts, had a total population of 120,960 in the 2001 census.
Watford stands on a low hill near the point at which the River Colne was forded by travellers between London and the Midlands. This route, originally a pre-Roman trackway, departed from the ancient Roman Watling Street at Stanmore, heading for the Gade valley and thence up the Bulbourne valley to a low and easily traversed section of the Chiltern Hills near Tring. The modern High Street follows the route of this road.
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Watling Street
Coordinates: 52°39′22.5″N 1°55′37.7″W / 52.65625°N 1.927139°W / 52.65625; -1.927139
Watling Street is the name given to an ancient trackway in England and Wales that was first used by the Britons mainly between the modern cities of Canterbury and St Albans. The Romans later paved the route, part of which is identified on the Antonine Itinerary as Iter III: "Item a Londinio ad portum Dubris" - from London to the port of Dover. Its route is now covered by the A2 road from Dover to London, and the A5 road from London to Wroxeter.
The name derives from the Old English Wæcelinga Stræt. Originally the word "street" simply meant a paved road (Latin: "via strata"), and did not have the modern association with populated areas.
The Roman road followed the broad, grassy trackway already used by the Britons for many hundreds of years, although the newer road was made to follow a more direct course. It led from Richborough in the south-east by way of a ford of the Thames at present-day Westminster to near Wroxeter, where one section went on to Holyhead and another, by way of Chester, on towards Scotland.
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West Coast Main Line
The West Coast Main Line (WCML) is the busiest mixed-traffic railway route in Britain, being the country's most important rail backbone in terms of population served. Fast, long-distance inter-city passenger services are provided between London, the West Midlands, the North West, North Wales and the Central Belt of Scotland. Since an upgrade in recent years, much of the line has trains running at 125 mph (201 km/h), thereby meeting the European Union's definition of an upgraded high-speed line.
The WCML is the most important intercity rail passenger route in the United Kingdom, connecting London, Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool and Glasgow and many smaller towns and cities. In addition, several sections of the WCML form part of the suburban railway systems in London, Birmingham, Manchester and Glasgow, with many more smaller commuter stations, as well as providing a number of links to more rural towns. In 2008 the WCML handled 75 million passenger journeys.
The WCML is also one of the busiest freight routes in Europe, carrying 43% of all UK rail freight traffic. The line is the principal rail freight corridor linking the European mainland (via the Channel Tunnel) through London and south-east England to the West Midlands, north-west England and Scotland. The line has been declared a strategic European route and designated a priority Trans-European Networks (TENS) route.
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West Cross Route
The West Cross Route (WCR) is a short, 0.75 miles (1.21 km) dual carriageway section of the A3220 route in central London in The Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea, with a small part being shared with borderlining borough Hammersmith and Fulham. It runs north-south between the northern elevated roundabout junction with the western end of the Westway (A40) and the southern Holland Park Roundabout. It opened in 1970, together with the Westway.
The West Cross Route was formerly the M41 motorway. Its status was downgraded to an A-road in 2000 when responsibility for trunk roads in Greater London was transferred from the Highways Agency to the Greater London Authority.
Approximately half-way along the road's length a new junction was built to serve the Westfield London shopping development.
WCR was originally the designation for the western section of Ringway 1, the innermost circuit of the London Ringways network, a complex and comprehensive plan for a network of high-speed roads circling central London designed to manage and control the flow of traffic within the capital. The road would have run from Battersea to Harlesden and would have paralleled the National Rail West London Line as an elevated road.
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West Thurrock
Coordinates: 51°29′01″N 0°16′55″E / 51.4836°N 0.2820°E / 51.4836; 0.2820
West Thurrock is a traditional Church of England parish and town in Thurrock, Essex, England, located 17.5 miles (28.1 km) east south-east of Charing Cross, London.
West Thurrock is part of the unitary authority of Thurrock located on the north bank of the River Thames about 17 miles (27 km) from Charing Cross, London.
Nearest places:
Nearest stations:
Industry along the Thames includes a Unilever chilled distribution centre for all its chilled food products (Flora, Bertolli, I Can't Believe It's Not Butter, Stork, Peperami and AdeZ) and a Procter and Gamble (originally Hedley's) plant manufacturing detergents and soaps. The large coal-burning West Thurrock Power Station closed in 1993, and was replaced by a plant making industrial chemicals, particularly the raw materials for detergent manufacture. The 190 metre tall electricity pylons of 380kV Thames Crossing, the tallest electricity pylons in UK, remain. Just upstream of the pylons the tunnel of High Speed 1 passes under the Thames.
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Westerham
Coordinates: 51°16′17″N 0°04′12″E / 51.27134°N 0.07005°E / 51.27134; 0.07005
Westerham is a town and civil parish in the Sevenoaks District of Kent, in South East England with 5,000 people. The parish is south of the North Downs, ten miles west of Sevenoaks. It covers 5800 acres (2320ha). It is recorded as early as the 9th century, and was mentioned in the Domesday Book in a Norman form, Oistreham (compare Ouistreham in Normandy). Ham is Old English for a village or homestead, and so Westerham means a westerly homestead. The River Darent flows through the town, and formerly powered three watermills.
There is evidence that the area around Westerham has been settled for thousands of years: finds such as a Celtic fortification (c 2000 BC) and a Roman road are close by, along with the remains of a Roman encampment just past the ruins a of tower south of the town at the summit of Tower Woods.
The tower dates back to the 18th century, and was originally constructed by an ancestor of the Warde family, the present owners of Squerryes Court as a folly for their children's amusement. A romantic, if erroneous, theory is that the folly is in fact a medieval watchtower, a tale which has been further embellished by a few fanciful locals who insist that it may have been the holding place for Anne Boleyn on her journey from Hever Castle to London for her trial and execution. (Anne Boleyn's family originally hailed from Chiddingstone and then, later, owned and lived at Hever Castle. King Henry VIII is reported to have, on Anne Boleyn's execution, confiscated Hever Castle and kept it as his own). No evidence for this theory exists, and indeed it conflicts with the knowledge and belief of the Warde family themselves.
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Witham
Coordinates: 51°47′52″N 0°38′14″E / 51.7978°N 0.6373°E / 51.7978; 0.6373
Witham ( /ˈwɪtəm/) is a town in the county of Essex, in the south east of England with a population (2001 census) of 22,500. It is part of the District of Braintree and is twinned with the town of Waldbröl, Germany. Witham stands between the larger towns of Chelmsford (8 miles to the south-west) and Colchester (13 miles to the north-east). The River Brain runs through the town and joins the River Blackwater shortly outside it.
Excavations by Essex County Council field archaeological unit at the recent Maltings Lane development discovered evidence of Neolithic occupation of Witham including human remains and several trackways across ancient marsh. Excavations of the Witham Lodge (Ivy Chimneys) area of the town unveiled remains of a Roman temple in the 1970s as well as a pottery kiln. This would have been alongside the main Roman road from London to Colchester and used as a stop over point on the long journey, another notable find during the excavation was a Votive Offering pool in the grounds of the temple, the pool contained several artefacts that would have been offered to the gods.
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Woking
Coordinates: 51°18′58″N 0°33′40″W / 51.3162°N 0.561°W / 51.3162; -0.561
Woking ( /ˈwoʊkɪŋ/) is a large town and civil parish that shares its name with the surrounding local government district, located in the west of Surrey, UK. It is part of the Greater London Urban Area and the London commuter belt, with frequent trains and a journey time of approximately 24 minutes to Waterloo station. Woking is 23 miles (37 km) southwest of Charing Cross in central London. Woking town itself, excluding the surrounding district, has a population of 62,796, with the whole local government district (the borough of Woking) having a population of 92,400 (mid 2009 estimate). Currently, Woking is a Conservative constituency, with Jonathan Lord as Woking's Member of Parliament.
In literature, Woking is where the Martians first land in H. G. Wells' science fiction novel The War of the Worlds. In music, "Town Called Malice" was written about Woking by Paul Weller and recorded by his band, The Jam. The song reached No. 1 in the UK Charts.
wn.com/Woking -
Woolwich Ferry
The Woolwich Free Ferry is a boat service across the River Thames, London, UK, which is licensed and financed by London River Services, the maritime arm of Transport for London. The service is operated by Serco Group under licence from TfL and carries both foot passengers and vehicles.
The service links Woolwich in the Royal Borough of Greenwich with North Woolwich in the London Borough of Newham. It also links two ends of the inner London orbital road routes: the North Circular and the South Circular.
On weekdays, the ferry operates from 6.10am until 8pm with a two-boat service (10 minutes nominal interval between sailings); on Saturdays, from 6.10am to 8pm with a one-boat service (15 minutes nominal interval, and the last south-to-north sailing is 15 minutes earlier at 7.45pm); on Sundays, from 11.30am to 7.30pm with a one-boat service (last south-to-north sailing at 7.15pm).
The ferries can carry lorries and other road traffic across the river, plus large numbers of foot passengers (licensed capacity: 500 passengers and 200 tonnes of vehicles).
wn.com/Woolwich_Ferry -
Wycombe Air Park
Wycombe Air Park/Booker Airport (ICAO: EGTB) is located in Booker, Buckinghamshire, 2.4 NM (4.4 km; 2.8 mi) south-west of High Wycombe, England. It was formerly the Royal Air Force base, RAF Booker.
Wycombe Air Park (Booker) Aerodrome has a CAA Ordinary Licence (Number P523) that allows flights for the public transport of passengers or for flying instruction as authorised by the licensee (Airways Aero Associations Limited).
The lease on the aerodrome is held by Airways Aero Associations, who run the Airways Flying Club from the airfield. They provide Air Traffic Control, Firefighting and other services to all the park users. The shareholding of AAA Ltd was sold in 2007 to Arora Family Trust, of which Surinder Arora, a well known entrepreneur and property developer, and his family are beneficiaries.
Wycombe Air Park is also home to a number of tenant companies, including flight training organisations, engineers and approved medical examiners.
Flight training organisations: Booker Gliding Centre, Wycombe Air Centre, Light Sport Flying Club and School, Helicopter Services and Heli Air Ltd.
wn.com/Wycombe_Air_Park
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Charles Bressey
Sir Charles Herbert Bressey CB, CBE (3 January 1874 – 14 April 1951) was a civil engineer and surveyor who specialised in road design. Bressey was Chief Engineer for Roads at the Ministry of Transport from 1921 to 1938. Between 1935 and 1938 he carried out research on road planning and motorway design in preparation for his Highway Development Survey, 1937 for Greater London published in 1938. He served as President of the Institution of Chartered Surveyors in 1938-9.
Bressey was born in Wanstead, Essex (now in the London Borough of Redbridge), the son of architect John Thomas Bressey and Elizabeth Bressey (née Farrow). He was educated at Forest School, Walthamstow and in France and Germany before starting work in his father's practice in the City of London, becoming a partner in 1896. When his father retired, he succeeded him as surveyor to the Wanstead Urban District and continued the practice.
Bressey married Margeret Francis Hill in 1902 and the couple had two sons.
At the start of World War I, Bressey was commissioned into the Royal Engineers and spent time in France and Flanders constructing military roads. In 1916 he became a staff officer in the army's roads directorate, eventually holding the position of Assistant Director of Roads and attaining the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel before he left the army in November 1919. For his war service, he was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE), and received the Croix de Chevalier of the French Légion d'honneur.
wn.com/Charles_Bressey -
Chris Rea
Chris Rea ( /ˈriːə/ REE-ə; born Christopher Anton Rea, 4 March 1951) is an English singer-songwriter, recognisable for his distinctive, husky voice and slide guitar playing. The British Hit Singles & Albums stated that Rea was "one of the most popular UK singer-songwriters of the late 1980s. He was already a major European star by the time he finally cracked the UK Top 10 with his 18th chart entry; "The Road to Hell (Part 2)". By 2009, Rea had sold more than 30 million albums worldwide.
He is well known for his 1978 hit song "Fool (If You Think It's Over)" that charted #12 on the Billboard Hot 100 and spent three weeks at #1 on the U.S. Billboard adult contemporary chart. The song was later covered by Elkie Brooks and was a top 20 hit in the UK.
Although Rea had limited success in the United States, two of his albums, The Road to Hell and Auberge, topped the UK Albums Chart. The book Guinness Rockopedia described him as a "gravel-voiced guitar stalwart".
Rea was born in Middlesbrough, England, the son of ice cream producer Camillo Rea who together with his brother Gaetano owned an ice cream factory and ran twenty-one cafés.
wn.com/Chris_Rea -
Edwin Lutyens
Sir Edwin Landseer Lutyens ( /ˈlʌtjənz/), OM, KCIE, PRA, FRIBA (29 March 1869 – 1 January 1944) was a British architect who is known for imaginatively adapting traditional architectural styles to the requirements of his era. He designed many English country houses.
He has been referred to as "the greatest British architect" and is known best for having an instrumental role in designing and building a section of the metropolis of Delhi, known as New Delhi, which would later on serve as the seat of the Government of India. In recognition of his contribution, New Delhi is also known as "Lutyens' Delhi". In collboration with Herbert Baker, he was also the main architect of several monuments in New Delhi such as the India Gate; he also designed the Viceroy's House now known as the Rashtrapati Bhavan.
He was born in London and grew up in Thursley, Surrey, the son of Charles Henry Augustus Lutyens and Mary Theresa Gallwey. He was named after a friend of his father's, the painter and sculptor Edwin Henry Landseer. For many years he worked from offices at 29 Bloomsbury Square, London. Lutyens studied architecture at South Kensington School of Art, London from 1885 to 1887. After college he joined the Ernest George and Harold Peto architectural practice. It was here that he first met Sir Herbert Baker.
wn.com/Edwin_Lutyens -
Gatwick Airport
Gatwick Airport (IATA: LGW, ICAO: EGKK) is located 3.1 mi (5.0 km) north of the centre of Crawley,West Sussex, and 29.5 mi (47.5 km) south of Central London. Also known as London Gatwick, it is London's second largest international airport and second busiest by total passenger traffic in the United Kingdom after Heathrow. Furthermore, Gatwick is Europe's leading airport for point-to-point flights and has the world's busiest single-use runway averaging 52 aircraft movements an hour. Its two terminals – North and South – cover an area of 810,000 sq ft (75,000 m2) and 1,300,000 sq ft (120,000 m2) respectively.
In 2011, over 33.6 million passengers passed through Gatwick.
Charter airlines generally prefer Gatwick over Heathrow as a base for London and the South East of England. From 1978 to 2008, many flights to and from the United States used Gatwick because of restrictions on the use of Heathrow implemented in the Bermuda II agreement between the UK and the US.. Under the agreement Heathrow allowed the right for only two US carrier and two UK carrier to serve flights to the United States. Currently, US Airways is the only US carrier that still serves Gatwick from the US. The airport is a base for scheduled operators Aer Lingus, British Airways (BA), EasyJet, Flybe, Monarch Airlines and Virgin Atlantic, as well as charter airlines including Thomas Cook Airlines and Thomson Airways. Gatwick is unique amongst London's airports in having a significant airline presence representing each of the three main airline business models: full service, low/no frills and charter. As of January 2011, these respectively accounted for 37, 51 and 12% of total passenger traffic.
wn.com/Gatwick_Airport -
Iain Sinclair
Iain Sinclair FRSL (born 11 June 1943 in Cardiff, Wales) is a British writer and filmmaker. Much of his work is rooted in London, most recently within the influences of psychogeography.
Sinclair was educated at Trinity College, Dublin (where he edited Icarus). He attended the Courtauld Institute of Art (University of London), and the London School of Film Technique (now the London Film School).
His early work was mostly poetry, much of it published by his own small press, Albion Village Press. He was (and remains) closely connected with the British avantgarde poetry scene of the 1960s and 1970s – authors such as J.H. Prynne, Douglas Oliver, Peter Ackroyd and Brian Catling are often quoted in his work and even turn up in fictionalized form as characters; later on, taking over from John Muckle, Sinclair edited the Paladin Poetry Series and, in 1996, the Picador anthology Conductors of Chaos.
His early books Lud Heat (1975) and Suicide Bridge (1979) were a mixture of essay, fiction and poetry; they were followed by White Chappell, Scarlet Tracings (1987), a novel juxtaposing the tale of a disreputable band of bookdealers on the hunt for a priceless copy of Arthur Conan Doyle's A Study in Scarlet and the Jack the Ripper murders (here attributed to the physician William Gull).
wn.com/Iain_Sinclair -
James May
James Daniel May (born 16 January 1963) is an English television presenter, journalist and writer. He is best known for his role as co-presenter of the award-winning motoring program Top Gear alongside Jeremy Clarkson , and Richard Hammond.
On Top Gear, May has the nickname "Captain Slow" for his careful driving style, a love of small underpowered cars and habit of getting lost and distracted while driving. However, in a July 2010 episode of Top Gear he drove a Bugatti Veyron Super Sport, reaching a speed of 417.6 kilometres per hour (259.5 mph). After his attempt the Bugatti test driver Pierre-Henri Raphanel took the car to 430 kilometers per hour (267.5 mph).
May has presented a variety of other programs on themes including science and technology, toys, cars, wine culture, and the plight of manliness in modern times. In addition he has released a variety of DVDs and books with similar themes, and wrote a weekly column for The Daily Telegraph's motoring section.
James May was born in Bristol, one of four children; he has two sisters and a brother. May attended Caerleon Endowed Junior School in Newport, then in Monmouthshire. He spent his teenage years in South Yorkshire where he attended Oakwood Comprehensive School in Rotherham and was a choirboy at Whiston Parish Church. He was also at school with Life On Mars and Ashes to Ashes star Dean Andrews. A keen flautist and pianist, he later studied music at Pendle College, Lancaster University. After graduating, May briefly worked at a hospital in Chelsea as a records officer, and had a short stint in Her Majesty's Civil Service.
wn.com/James_May -
Margaret Thatcher
Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, LG, OM, PC, FRS, née Roberts (born 13 October 1925) is a British politician and the longest-serving (1979–1990) British prime minister of the 20th century, and the only woman ever to have held the post. A Soviet journalist nicknamed her the "Iron Lady", which later became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style. As prime minister, she implemented conservative policies that have come to be known as Thatcherism.
Originally a research chemist before becoming a barrister, Thatcher was elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Finchley in 1959. Edward Heath appointed her Secretary of State for Education and Science in his 1970 government. In 1975 Thatcher defeated Heath in the Conservative Party leadership election and became Leader of the Opposition, as well as the first woman to lead a major political party in the United Kingdom. She became prime minister after winning the 1979 general election.
After entering 10 Downing Street, Thatcher introduced a series of political and economic initiatives to reverse what she perceived as Britain's precipitous national decline. Her political philosophy and economic policies emphasised deregulation (particularly of the financial sector), flexible labour markets, the privatisation of state-owned companies, and reducing the power and influence of trade unions. Thatcher's popularity during her first years in office waned amid recession and high unemployment, until economic recovery and the 1982 Falklands War brought a resurgence of support, resulting in her re-election in 1983. Thatcher was re-elected for a third term in 1987, but her Community Charge (popularly referred to as "poll tax") was widely unpopular and her views on the European Community were not shared by others in her Cabinet. She resigned as Prime Minister and party leader in November 1990, after Michael Heseltine launched a challenge to her leadership.
wn.com/Margaret_Thatcher -
Neil Gaiman
Neil Richard Gaiman ( /ˈɡeɪmən/; born 10 November 1960) is an English author of short fiction, novels, comic books, graphic novels, audio theatre and films. His notable works include the comic book series The Sandman and novels Stardust, American Gods, Coraline, and The Graveyard Book. He has won numerous awards, including Hugo, Nebula, Bram Stoker, Newbery Medal, and Carnegie Medal in Literature. He is the first author to win both the Newbery and the Carnegie medals for the same work.
Gaiman's family is of Polish and other Eastern European Jewish origins; his great-grandfather emigrated from Antwerp before 1914 and his grandfather eventually settled in the Hampshire city of Portsmouth and established a chain of grocery stores. His father, David Bernard Gaiman, worked in the same chain of stores; his mother, Sheila Gaiman (née Goldman), was a pharmacist. He has two younger sisters, Claire and Lizzy. After living for a period in the nearby town of Portchester, Hampshire, where Neil was born in 1960, the Gaimans moved in 1965 to the West Sussex town of East Grinstead where his parents studied Dianetics at the Scientology centre in the town; one of Gaiman's sisters works for the Church of Scientology in Los Angeles. His other sister, Lizzy Calcioli, has said, "Most of our social activities were involved with Scientology or our Jewish family. It would get very confusing when people would ask my religion as a kid. I’d say, 'I’m a Jewish Scientologist.'" Gaiman says that he is not a Scientologist, and that like Judaism, Scientology is his family's religion.
wn.com/Neil_Gaiman -
Patrick Abercrombie
Sir Leslie Patrick Abercrombie ( /ˈæbərkrʌmbɪ/; 6 June 1879 in Ashton upon Mersey — 23 March 1957 in Aston Tirrold, Didcot, Berkshire (now in Oxfordshire)) was an English town planner. Educated at Uppingham School, Rutland; brother of Lascelles Abercrombie, poet and literary critic.
Sir Patrick trained as an architect before becoming the Professor of Civic Design at the Liverpool University School of Architecture in 1915, and later Professor of Town Planning at University College London. Afterwards, he made award-winning designs for Dublin city centre and gradually asserted his dominance as an architect of international renown, which came about through the replanning of Plymouth,Hull, Bath, Edinburgh and Bournemouth, among others.
Sir Patrick was closely involved in the founding of the Council for the Preservation of Rural England (CPRE). After its formation in December 1926, he served as its Honorary Secretary.
He is best known for the post-Second World War replanning of London. He created the County of London Plan (1943) and the Greater London Plan (1944) which are commonly referred to as the Abercrombie Plan. The latter document was an extended and more thorough product than the 1943 publication, and for Abercrombie it was an accumulation of nearly 50 years of experience and knowledge in the field of planning and architecture.
wn.com/Patrick_Abercrombie -
Philip Hammond
Philip Hammond MP (born 4 December 1955) is a British Conservative Party politician. He is the current Secretary of State for Defence in the Coalition government led by David Cameron, having succeeded Liam Fox on 14 October 2011. He previously served as Secretary of State for Transport from 13 May 2010, when he was appointed as a Privy Counsellor. He is the Member of Parliament (MP) for Runnymede and Weybridge.
Philip Hammond was born in Epping, Essex, the son of a civil engineer, he first attended Brookfield Junior school, further educated at Shenfield School (now Shenfield High School) in Brentwood, Essex, and University College, Oxford, where he was awarded a degree in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics.
He joined the medical equipment manufacturers Speywood Laboratories Ltd in 1977, becoming a director of Speywood Medical Limited in 1981. In 1982, an automatic electrocardiograph electrode manufacturing plant figured among his notable achievements. He left in 1983. From 1984, he was a director in Castlemead Ltd, and from 1993–95 he was a partner in CMA Consultants, and from 1994, a director in Castlemead Homes. He has had many business interests including house building and property, manufacturing, healthcare and oil and gas. He has undertaken various consulting assignments in Latin America for the World Bank in Washington, D.C., and was a consultant to the government of Malawi from 1995 until his election to Parliament.
wn.com/Philip_Hammond -
Terry Pratchett
Sir Terence David John "Terry" Pratchett, OBE (born 28 April 1948) is an English novelist, known for his frequently comical work in the fantasy genre. He is best known for his popular and long-running Discworld series of comic fantasy novels. Pratchett's first novel, The Carpet People, was published in 1971, and since his first Discworld novel (The Colour of Magic) was published in 1983, he has written two books a year on average. His latest Discworld book, Snuff is the third-fastest-selling novel since records began in the United Kingdom selling 55,000 copies in the first three days.
Pratchett was the UK's best-selling author of the 1990s, and has sold over 70 million books worldwide in thirty-seven languages. He is currently the second most-read writer in the UK, and seventh most-read non-US author in the US.
Pratchett was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 1998 and was knighted "for services to literature" in 2009. In addition, he was knighted in the 2009 New Year Honours. In 2001 he won the Carnegie Medal for his children's novel The Amazing Maurice and his Educated Rodents.
wn.com/Terry_Pratchett
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13th August 2011 - Driving on the M4 & M25 motorways England, UK (2)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 26:42
- Updated: 21 Dec 2012
http://wn.com/13th_August_2011_Driving_on_the_M4_M25_motorways_England,_UK_2
London streets - Rainy Highway - M23 - M25
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 24:20
- Updated: 11 Nov 2012
London streets - Rainy Highway - M23 - M25
http://wn.com/London_streets_Rainy_Highway_M23_M25
Amazing Extreme Football on the M25 Motorway 28-3-12 forget extreme ironing lol
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:00
- Updated: 03 Dec 2012
amazing kickabout in a massive traffic jam tonite on m25 so we started to play a bit of footy, great fun!
http://wn.com/Amazing_Extreme_Football_on_the_M25_Motorway_28-3-12_forget_extreme_ironing_lol
amazing kickabout in a massive traffic jam tonite on m25 so we started to play a bit of footy, great fun!
- published: 28 Mar 2012
- views: 655
- author: oldmanwyatt
M25 motorway, Hertfordshire
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:34
- Updated: 25 Jul 2011
A look at the motorway near Kings Langley
http://wn.com/M25_motorway,_Hertfordshire
Timelapse: Half Of The M25
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:03
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
My great tribute to the M25! A timelapse of the M25 from Junctions 21 to 5 and part of the M26. Recorded 5th August 2011 Camcorder: Sony Handycam DCR-HC27E Editing: Pinnacle Studio 14 HD Music: I Am The City - ABBA
http://wn.com/Timelapse_Half_Of_The_M25
My great tribute to the M25! A timelapse of the M25 from Junctions 21 to 5 and part of the M26. Recorded 5th August 2011 Camcorder: Sony Handycam DCR-HC27E Editing: Pinnacle Studio 14 HD Music: I Am The City - ABBA
- published: 15 Aug 2011
- views: 3960
- author: Paspiedreamcast
Sprinter Stablemates - Friday on the M25 Motorway
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:54
- Updated: 07 Nov 2012
My Sprinter meets his Stablemate brother from the dealership on the Queen Elizabeth 2 Bridge or Dartford Crossing. I met the owner the day we collected our vans together. Today, and some 18 months later we meet once again... Late Friday afternoon drive along the M25, clockwise, from Tunbridge Wells area towards Heathrow and the M40 Motorway - Friday afternoon 21st October 2011
http://wn.com/Sprinter_Stablemates_Friday_on_the_M25_Motorway
My Sprinter meets his Stablemate brother from the dealership on the Queen Elizabeth 2 Bridge or Dartford Crossing. I met the owner the day we collected our vans together. Today, and some 18 months later we meet once again... Late Friday afternoon drive along the M25, clockwise, from Tunbridge Wells area towards Heathrow and the M40 Motorway - Friday afternoon 21st October 2011
- published: 23 Oct 2011
- views: 2991
- author: Bevoin1970
13th August 2011 - Driving on the M4 & M25 motorways England, UK (1)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 28:07
- Updated: 20 Nov 2012
http://wn.com/13th_August_2011_Driving_on_the_M4_M25_motorways_England,_UK_1
Timelapse: M25+M11_4
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:46
- Updated: 23 Nov 2012
Here's another update to my popular M25+M11 range.
http://wn.com/Timelapse_M25+M11_4
Here's another update to my popular M25+M11 range.
- published: 01 Nov 2011
- views: 978
- author: Paspiedreamcast
UK Truck Simulator - Around the M25 Motorway Anticlockwise
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:28
- Updated: 26 Sep 2012
going round 1 lap of the M25 motorway anticlockwise
http://wn.com/UK_Truck_Simulator_Around_the_M25_Motorway_Anticlockwise
going round 1 lap of the M25 motorway anticlockwise
- published: 04 Jan 2011
- views: 10148
- author: freebbc
M25 Motorway Gridlock 15 February 2012
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:58
- Updated: 16 Feb 2012
Gridlock on the anti-clockwise carriageway of the M25 Motorway between junctions 25 and 26 during the early afternoon of Wednesday 15 February 2012, Apparently, the queues streched for 8 miles at times!
http://wn.com/M25_Motorway_Gridlock_15_February_2012
Gridlock on the anti-clockwise carriageway of the M25 Motorway between junctions 25 and 26 during the early afternoon of Wednesday 15 February 2012, Apparently, the queues streched for 8 miles at times!
- published: 15 Feb 2012
- views: 584
- author: voxley19
Margaret Thatcher - M25 Motorway - Thames News
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:50
- Updated: 03 Jul 2012
http://wn.com/Margaret_Thatcher_M25_Motorway_Thames_News
M25 motorway drunk driver crash
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:36
- Updated: 26 Dec 2012
Drunk driver crashed into another car in fast lane of M25 after narrowly missing couple other cars passing by.
http://wn.com/M25_motorway_drunk_driver_crash
Drunk driver crashed into another car in fast lane of M25 after narrowly missing couple other cars passing by.
- published: 17 Sep 2012
- views: 729
- author: PeteJoker64
UK Truck Simulator - around the M25 Motorway
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:53
- Updated: 23 Aug 2012
going round 1 lap of the M25 motorway at day
http://wn.com/UK_Truck_Simulator_around_the_M25_Motorway
M25 MOTORWAY
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:32
- Updated: 27 Aug 2010
LEFT STAINES TWENY LARS PASSED CATS
http://wn.com/M25_MOTORWAY
Joining the M25 Motorway Junction 9 towards Junction 8
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:40
- Updated: 09 Apr 2012
Joining the M25 Motorway Junction 9 towards Junction 8 in Leatherhead, Surrey UK on Boxing Day 2010 26th December 2010
http://wn.com/Joining_the_M25_Motorway_Junction_9_towards_Junction_8
Joining the M25 Motorway Junction 9 towards Junction 8 in Leatherhead, Surrey UK on Boxing Day 2010 26th December 2010
- published: 27 Dec 2010
- views: 1318
- author: SeansOddsandSods
4/2/2012 M25 Motorway Snowed In overnight
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:52
- Updated: 05 Dec 2012
Stranded on the M25 for 7 hours due to heavy snow. Jackknifed trucks had blocked the M25 close to the A10. A lane was eventually cleared by a snow plough and cars began to move as the trapped HGV's were being towed up the hills in both directions.
http://wn.com/4_2_2012_M25_Motorway_Snowed_In_overnight
Stranded on the M25 for 7 hours due to heavy snow. Jackknifed trucks had blocked the M25 close to the A10. A lane was eventually cleared by a snow plough and cars began to move as the trapped HGV's were being towed up the hills in both directions.
- published: 05 Feb 2012
- views: 637
- author: pmscooby
Driving along M25 Motorway in Surrey past Clackett Lane Services into traffic jam
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:03
- Updated: 19 Jul 2012
Driving along M25 Motorway in Surrey past Clackett Lane Services into traffic jam on 27th December 2010
http://wn.com/Driving_along_M25_Motorway_in_Surrey_past_Clackett_Lane_Services_into_traffic_jam
Driving along M25 Motorway in Surrey past Clackett Lane Services into traffic jam on 27th December 2010
- published: 27 Dec 2010
- views: 1081
- author: SeansOddsandSods
M25 motorway traffic - in the background a plane takes off
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:17
- Updated: 01 Apr 2012
www.londonphotoproject.co.uk The M25 motorway viewed from a bridge near Heathrow airport. In the background a plane takes off.
http://wn.com/M25_motorway_traffic_in_the_background_a_plane_takes_off
www.londonphotoproject.co.uk The M25 motorway viewed from a bridge near Heathrow airport. In the background a plane takes off.
- published: 07 Mar 2008
- views: 5491
- author: londonphotoproject
UK Truck Simulator - Round the M25 motorway at night
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:37
- Updated: 09 May 2012
going round 1 lap of the M25 motorway at night.
http://wn.com/UK_Truck_Simulator_Round_the_M25_motorway_at_night
S-Paramics model of M25 motorway
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:08
- Updated: 07 Nov 2011
This movie shows S-Paramics model of the M25 motorway and it demonstrates some systems for traffic control, including ramp metering and ATM.
http://wn.com/S-Paramics_model_of_M25_motorway
This movie shows S-Paramics model of the M25 motorway and it demonstrates some systems for traffic control, including ramp metering and ATM.
- published: 20 May 2011
- views: 665
- author: SIASmicrosimulation
M25 motorway High Speed Car Crash on Dash Cam
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:28
- Updated: 29 Dec 2012
Dash Camera and mic records my tyre blowout. Near the end of the clip you can see a Vauxhall Vavario van rolling over on the right side of the picture. Appologies for the quality, the VCR did`nt come off that well.
http://wn.com/M25_motorway_High_Speed_Car_Crash_on_Dash_Cam
Dash Camera and mic records my tyre blowout. Near the end of the clip you can see a Vauxhall Vavario van rolling over on the right side of the picture. Appologies for the quality, the VCR did`nt come off that well.
- published: 07 Mar 2008
- views: 310516
- author: 857804
YouTube 3D Stereo Video M25 Motorway and Dartford tunnel video on a motorcycle ( yt3d:enable=true )
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:21
- Updated: 12 Mar 2011
I thought I would experiment with mounting a 3D camera on my motorbike. This is the result. The bike is a Suzuki GSF1200 The tunnel is around the 6:50 mark, the reason for the nearly 7 min lead in to the tunnel is because you need to set the cameras going prior to getting on the motorway, as you cannot stop on the motorway to start them off, and of course it would be the height of stupidity to play about with cameras at 70mph. Or any speed on a moving motorbike for that matter. Note to self: Mount Cameras higher, the speedo and rev counter are throwing out the 3D ness :(
http://wn.com/YouTube_3D_Stereo_Video_M25_Motorway_and_Dartford_tunnel_video_on_a_motorcycle_yt3denable=true_
I thought I would experiment with mounting a 3D camera on my motorbike. This is the result. The bike is a Suzuki GSF1200 The tunnel is around the 6:50 mark, the reason for the nearly 7 min lead in to the tunnel is because you need to set the cameras going prior to getting on the motorway, as you cannot stop on the motorway to start them off, and of course it would be the height of stupidity to play about with cameras at 70mph. Or any speed on a moving motorbike for that matter. Note to self: Mount Cameras higher, the speedo and rev counter are throwing out the 3D ness :(
- published: 24 Jun 2010
- views: 1526
- author: astrobitsuk
M25 Motorway Junctions 6 to Junction 7 & 8
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:49
- Updated: 27 Dec 2010
Driving along M25 Motorway Junctions 6 to Junctions 7 & 8 on Monday 27th December 2010
http://wn.com/M25_Motorway_Junctions_6_to_Junction_7_8
Driving along M25 Motorway Junctions 6 to Junctions 7 & 8 on Monday 27th December 2010
- published: 27 Dec 2010
- views: 645
- author: SeansOddsandSods
photo: AP / Altaf Qadri
29 Dec 2012
Police in India have sealed off much of the capital, Delhi, and issued an appeal for calm after the death of a woman who was gang-raped in the city. The 23-year old woman, who has not been identified, died early on Saturday at a hospital in Singapore, where she had been taken for specialist treatment. Her body is to be flown back to India for burial ... Gatherings of more than five people have been banned in the city centre ... ....(size: 4.9Kb)
photo: US Navy / HMC Josh Ives
27 Dec 2012
Imperial adventures are nothing new in the Middle East. Neither is their glorification, as Peter O’Toole’s pained Lawrence of Arabia eternally reminds us. But for a decade or so now, things have been heating up, as if to coincide with climate change and fears of declining petroleum reserves ... The Belly for Belligerence? ... The question loomed over beltway intelligentsia like an ephemeral Gordian knot ... We’re All Hawks Now ... While George W ... ....(size: 9.3Kb)
photo: AP / Ben Curtis
28 Dec 2012
The president of Central African Republic (CAR) has urgently called on France and other foreign powers to help his government fend off rebels who are quickly seizing territory and approaching the capital. Speaking to crowds in Bangui, a city of some 600,000, Francois Bozize on Thursday pleaded with foreign powers to do what they could. He pointed in particular to France, Central African Republic's former colonial ruler ... 516 Share ... News ... ....(size: 19.5Kb)
photo: AP / Itsuo Inouye
29 Dec 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. A millennium before the English statesmen Edmund Burke, regarded as the father of Western Conservatism and who wrote, "good order is the foundation of all things," Japan's Seventeen-Article Constitution began with this conservative principle. "Harmony is to be cherished, and opposition for opposition's sake must be avoided as a matter of principle." ... militarism, those protesting U.S....(size: 9.7Kb)
photo: WN / Yolanda Leyba
28 Dec 2012
Galaxy Note 2 vs. iPhone 5. Do The Companies Have Their Game Plans Right?. Posted by Jay099 on December 28, 2012 02.15 pm 0. via. Mountain View at California seems to be a busy center now. Google is stepping up the gas on the march towards a holistic environment and experience for the consumers ... My Blog . My FB Page ... ....(size: 2.2Kb)
BBC News
19 Dec 2012
... flashing blue lights was used to try to pull drivers over on the M25 motorway, Surrey Police believe....(size: 0.5Kb)
The Times of India
17 Dec 2012
A business delegation from Britain currently visiting India loved the Hyderabadi biryani they had here and are now keen to see some food joints from the city selling the royal rice preparation and other delicacies in London ... Haleem is made by cooking minced meat with pulses, wheat and barley mixture ... "There is a huge potential if there is a niche ... There are thousands of restaurants within M25 (a motorway surrounding London area) radius....(size: 2.7Kb)
Gizmodo
14 Dec 2012
On other parts of the motorway where they have been authorised for use they’re simply not working, thanks to “technical” problems in upgrading the system to take the digital images from these new enforcers. Don’t go thinking the M25 is now a ... Motorway from Shutterstock. cars, fines, giz uk, m25, motorway, speed cameras, uk....(size: 4.5Kb)
The Daily Telegraph Australia
14 Dec 2012
David Walsh waged a 13-year campaign to expose Lance Armstrong's drug network. In his new book, Seven Deadly Sins, Walsh reveals the terrible impact of Armstrong's actions. This is an edited extract from the explosive book. A GREY Monday afternoon in a cafe off London's M25 motorway ... Its demands are ceaseless ... Source. AP ... BUT right now, in this cafe off the M25, I feel no joy at Pat McQuaid's volte-face over USADA and Armstrong ... ....(size: 12.8Kb)
The Australian
14 Dec 2012
David Walsh waged a 13-year campaign to expose Lance Armstrong's drug network. In his new book, Seven Deadly Sins, Walsh reveals the terrible impact of Armstrong's actions. This is an edited extract from the explosive book. A GREY Monday afternoon in a cafe off London's M25 motorway ... Its demands are ceaseless ... Source. AP ... BUT right now, in this cafe off the M25, I feel no joy at Pat McQuaid's volte-face over USADA and Armstrong ... ....(size: 13.6Kb)
noodls
05 Dec 2012
PFI schemes have been criticised over the years, but if targeted in the right areas they can deliver excellent results, such as the one which is currently managing and upgrading many miles of the M25 Motorway. With aging infrastructure to maintain and enhance, and requirements for new builds, such as power stations, roads, railways, schools ......(size: 7.6Kb)
Orange News
15 Nov 2012
Tweet. Heathrow Airport's owners have stepped up their campaign for a controversial third runway by claiming that a lack of capacity at the major hub is costing the economy up to £14bn annually ... Heathrow bosses are lobbying for a third, extra, runway at the west London airport and a separate study has previously suggested an expanded Heathrow would need to cross over the M25 motorway ... "That leaves three options for the UK Government ... ....(size: 2.4Kb)
Stuff
05 Nov 2012
A study of London's status as a hub for international travel will consider options including expanding Heathrow Airport via the construction of four new runways above the M25 motorway, in addition to long-standing plans such as an island terminal in the Thames estuary ... runways over the M25 and Wraysbury reservoir, reducing the impact on housing....(size: 1.8Kb)
Sydney Morning Herald
03 Nov 2012
A STUDY of London's status as a hub for international travel will consider options including expanding Heathrow Airport via the construction of four new runways above the M25 motorway, in addition to long-standing plans such as ......(size: 1.1Kb)
Bloomberg
02 Nov 2012
study into retaining London’s status as a hub for international travel will consider options including expanding Heathrow airport via the construction of four new runways above the M25 motorway, in addition to long- standing plans such as an island terminal in the Thames estuary ... M25 and Wraysbury reservoir, thereby reducing the impact on housing....(size: 5.9Kb)
BBC News
31 Oct 2012
A police and crime commissioner candidate for Bedfordshire, arrested just over a week ago, has denied committing any offence ... Police said officers arrested 53 men on suspicion of conspiracy to cause public nuisance in London ... The Metropolitan Police said the the men were held on the M25 motorway near Heathrow Airport and Uxbridge and on the M3 near Bagshot, Surrey ... ....(size: 1.9Kb)
BBC News
21 Oct 2012
The men were held on the M25 motorway near Heathrow Airport and Uxbridge and on the M3 near Swanley, Kent, on Saturday afternoon, police said ... A Met spokesman said ... ....(size: 1.0Kb)
|
|
|
|---|---|
 M25 is highlighted in dark blue. |
|
| Route information | |
Part of  E15  E30 |
|
| Length: | 117 mi (188 km) |
| Existed: | 1975 – present |
| History: | Completed 1975-1986 |
| Major junctions | |
| Orbital around London | |
|
  J12 → M3 motorway Junction 2   J15 → M4 motorway Junction 4b   J16 → M40 motorway Junction 1a   J21 → M1 motorway Junction 6a  .svg){kind=small} J23 → A1(M) motorway Junction 1   J27 → M11 motorway Junction 6 |
|
| Location | |
| Primary destinations: |
London, Dartford, Sevenoaks, Reigate, Staines, Heathrow Airport  , Enfield, Watford |
| Road network | |
The M25 motorway, London Ring Motorway, or London Orbital motorway is a 117-mile (188 km) motorway that almost encircles Greater London, England, in the United Kingdom. The motorway was first mooted early in the 20th century. A few sections, based on the now abandoned London Ringways plan, were constructed in the early 1970s and it was completed in 1986. The M25 is one of the world's longest orbital roads[1] and one of the busiest and most congested parts of the British motorway network. 196,000 vehicles were recorded in a single day near London Heathrow Airport. Plans to widen additional sections to eight lanes (four each way) were scaled back in 2009 in response to rising costs.[2]
Contents |
Description[link]
Originally built mainly as a dual three-lane motorway, much of the motorway has subsequently been widened to dual four-lanes in places and to a dual five-lane section between junctions 12 and 14 and a dual six-lane between junctions 14 and 15. Further widening is in progress with plans for managed motorways on other sections.
The M25 is not a continuous loop. To the east of London, the charged crossing of the Thames between Thurrock and Dartford is the lesser grade A282. The Dartford Crossing, which consists of two tunnels and the QE2 (Queen Elizabeth II) bridge, is named Canterbury Way. Passage across the bridge or through the tunnels is subject to a toll, depending on the kind of vehicle. Making this stretch a motorway would stop any traffic not permitted to use motorways from crossing the Thames east of the Woolwich Ferry. This is the one of the two motorways have an orbital, the other being the M60 motorway in Manchester.
At junction 5 near Sevenoaks, drivers continuing around the M25 in either direction must follow the slip roads. The anticlockwise carriageway continues eastward as the M26 (towards the M20); the clockwise carriageway continues towards the south coast as the A21.
The distance of the motorway from central London (taken as Charing Cross) varies from about 12 miles (19 km) near Potters Bar to 20 miles (32 km) near Byfleet. In some places (Enfield, Hillingdon and Havering) the Greater London boundary has been realigned to the M25 for minor stretches; while in others, most notably in Essex and Surrey, it is many miles distant. Major towns such as Epsom, Watford, and Loughton are within the M25. North Ockendon is the only settlement of Greater London situated outside the M25. In 2004, following an opinion poll, a move was mooted by the London Assembly to align the Greater London boundary with the M25.[3] "Inside the M25" and "outside the M25" or "beyond the M25" are used colloquially to refer to London and the provinces; the Communications Act 2003 explicitly uses the M25 as the boundary in requiring a proportion of television programmes to be made outside the London area.[4]
The three service areas are located in the central north (Junction 23 South Mimms), south east (Clacket Lane) and central east (Thurrock). A fourth is due to open near Cobham in 2012.[5]
Much of the M25 is lit to help reduce accidents. The current illuminated sections are from Dartford to junction 3, junction 5, junctions 6 to 21a and junctions 23 to 31. The type of lighting varies. Some sections use the older yellow low-pressure sodium (SOX) lighting while others use modern high-pressure sodium (SON) lighting. Some stretches have recently been upgraded to SON lighting. These include Junction 5, junctions around Heathrow and Junction 27.
The motorway passes through several police areas. Junctions 1–5 are in Kent, 6–14 in Surrey (passing in places through Greater London and Berkshire), 15–16 are in Buckinghamshire, 17–24 are in Hertfordshire, 25 in Greater London (the Hertfordshire border going around the junction's northern edge), 26–28 in Essex, 29 in Greater London and 30–31 in Essex. Policing the road is carried out by an integrated policing group made up of the Metropolitan, Thames Valley, Essex, Kent, Hertfordshire and Surrey forces.
The M25 is one of Europe's busiest motorways. In 2003, 196,000 vehicles a day were recorded on the motorway near London Heathrow Airport between junctions 13 and 14.[6]
History[link]
Plans and construction[link]
File:Ringways 3 & 4.png
Map of Ringways 3 & 4 showing sections combined to form the M25
A precursor of the M25 was the North Orbital Road (see A414 road).
The idea of an orbital road around London was first proposed early in the 20th century and then re-examined in Sir Charles Bressey's and Sir Edwin Lutyens' The Highway Development Survey, 1937. Sir Patrick Abercrombie's County of London Plan, 1943 and Greater London Plan, 1944 proposed a series of five roads encircling the capital. The northern sections of the M25 follow a similar route to the World War II Outer London Defence Ring.
Little was done to progress these plans until the 1960s when the Greater London Council developed their London Ringways plan which consisted of four 'rings' around the capital. Sections of the two outer rings - Ringway 3 (the 'M16 motorway') and Ringway 4 were constructed in the early 1970s and these were later integrated into the single M25 orbital motorway. The Ringways plan was however hugely controversial due to the destruction required for the inner two ring roads (Ringway 1 and Ringway 2). Parts of Ringway 1 were constructed (including West Cross Route and Westway) against stiff opposition before the overall plan was abandoned in 1973 following pressure from residents in the threatened areas.
Construction of parts of the two outer ring roads, Ringways 3 and 4, were however started in 1973. The first section, between South Mimms and Potters Bar in Hertfordshire (junction 23 to junction 24) opened in September 1975 and was given the temporary general purpose road designation A1178; a section south of London (junction 6 to junction 8) opened in 1976. A section of Ringway 3 south of the river between Dartford and Swanley (junction 1 to junction 3) was constructed between 1974 and 1977.
In 1975 the plans for Ringway 3 were modified to combine it with Ringway 4, the outermost Ringway. The combined motorway was given the designation M25 which had originally been intended for the southern and western part of Ringway 4 and the M16 designation was dropped. The section of Ringway 3 west of South Mimms anti-clockwise around London to Swanley in Kent was cancelled. The stages were not constructed contiguously but in small sections. As the orbital road developed the sections were linked. Each section was presented to planning authorities in its own right and was individually justified, with almost 40 public inquiries relating to sections of the route. Maps at this time depicting these short sections named the route as the M16 but this changed before completion.
The section from Potters Bar to the Dartford Tunnel was constructed between 1979 and 1982. Construction of the M25 continued in stages until its completion in 1986. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher officially opened the M25 on 29 October 1986, with a ceremony in the section between J22 and J23 (London Colney and South Mimms). The initial tenders for the construction of the M25 totalled £631.9 million. This did not include compulsory purchase of land and subsequent upgrades and repairs.
Operational history[link]
Soon after the motorway opened in 1986 traffic levels exceeded maximum designed capacity and in 1990 the Secretary of State for Transport announced plans to widen the whole of the M25 to four lanes.[7] By 1993 the motorway that was designed for a maximum of 88,000 vehicles per day was carrying 200,000,[8] 15% of UK motorway traffic volume was on the M25 and there were plans to add 6 lanes to the section from Junction 12 to 15 as well widening the rest of the motorway to 4 lanes[9]
In 1995 a contract was awarded to widen the section between junctions 8 and 10 from six to eight lanes for a cost of £93.4 million[10] and a Motorway Incident Detection and Automatic Signalling (MIDAS) system was introduced to the M25 from junction 10 to junction 15 at a cost of £13.5m in 1995 and then extended to junction 16 at a cost of £11.7m in 2002. This consists of a distributed network of traffic and weather sensors, speed cameras and variable-speed signs that control traffic speeds with little human supervision, and has improved traffic flow slightly, and reduced the amount of start-stop driving.[11]
In 1995 there was a proposal to widen the section close to Heathrow Airport to 14 lanes. This attracted fierce opposition from road protesters opposing the Newbury Bypass and other schemes[12] and it was cancelled shortly afterwards.[13] However, in 1997 the Department of Transport announced new proposals to widen the section from junction 12 (M3) and junction 15 (M4) to 12 lanes. At the Terminal Five public inquiry a Highways Agency official said that the widening was needed to accommodate traffic to the proposed new terminal, however the transport minister said that no such evidence had been given.[14] Environmental groups objected to the decision to go ahead a scheme that would create the widest motorways in the UK without holding a public inquiry.[15] The decision was again deferred. A decision to go-ahead was given for a 10-lane scheme in 1998[16] and the £148 million 'M25 Jct 12 to 15 Widening' contract was awarded to Balfour Beatty in 2003.[17] The scheme was completed in 2005 as dual-five lane between junctions 12 to 14 and dual six lanes from 14 to 15.[18]
In 2007 capacity at junction 25 (A10/Waltham Cross) was increased and the Holmesdale Tunnel was widened to 3 lanes in an eastern direction at a cost of £75 million.[19]
Work to widen the exit slip-roads in both directions at Junction 28 (A12 road/A1023) was completed in 2008. It was designed to reduce the amount of traffic queueing on the slip roads at busy periods, particularly traffic from the clockwise M25 joining the northbound A12 where the queue can extend onto the inside lane of the Motorway.[20]
Design, Build, Finance and Operate (DBFO) contract[link]
In 2006 the Highways Agency proposed to widen 63 miles (101 km) of M25 from six to eight lanes, between junctions 5-6 and 16-30 as part of a Design, Build, Finance and Operate (DBFO) project.[21] A shortlist of contractors was announced in October 2006 for the project which was expected to cost £4.5 billion.[22] Contractors were asked to resubmit their bids in January 2008[23] and in June 2009 the new transport minister indicated that the cost had risen to £5.5 billion and the benefit to cost ratio had dropped considerably.[24] In January 2009 the government announced that plans to widen the sections from Junction 5-7 and from 23-27 had been 'scrapped' and that hard shoulder running would be introduced instead.[25]
In 2009 a £6.2 billion M25 'Design, Build, Finance and Operate' (DBFO) private finance initiative contract[26] was awarded to Connect Plus to widen the sections between junctions 16 and 23 and between junctions 27 and 30 and maintain the M25 and the Dartford Crossing for a 30 year period.[27]
Current developments[link]
Cobham services[link]
Cobham services, a new motorway service area is being constructed between Jct 9-10 by linking two sides of the carriageway, and an underbridge running beneath the M25.[28]
Junctions 7-10: Controlled Motorway[link]
A proposal to convert the section from Junctions 7 to 10 to Controlled Motorway' was put out to consultation between November 2009 and March 2010.[29] Work on installing the gantries were complete by April 2011[30] it which point the system was used to display advisory speeds. As of May 2012 it was stated that the necessary legal processes to make these enforceable speeds were likely to be complete by 'early 2012'.[31]
M25 Jct 16 to 23 widening[link]
Works on widening the motorway between junctions 16 and 23 (M40-A1(M)) to dual 4 lanes[32] started in July 2009 at an estimated cost of £580m.[33] Work between junctions 16 and 21 (M40 to M1) is complete as of July 2011. The section from junctions 21 to 23 (M1 to the A1(M)) is the final stretch of the widening, with an estimated completion date in the summer of 2012.[34]
M25 Jct 27 to 30 widening[link]
Works on widening the motorway between junctions 27 and 30 (M11-A13) to dual 4 lanes started in July 2009. The section between junction 27 and junction 28 (M11-A12) was completed in July 2010.[35] The section from junctions 28 to 29 (A12-A127) was completed in June 2011. The section from junctions 29 to 30 (A127-A13) is scheduled for completion in summer 2012.[36]
Proposed developments[link]
M25 Jct 5 to 7 managed motorway[link]
The Highways Agency plans to introduce managed motorway with hard shoulder running on the M25 from Junctions 5 to 7 (M26 – M23/Redhill) with work starting after the London Olympics in 2012/3.[37]
M25 Jct 23 to 27 managed motorway[link]
The Highways Agency plans to introduce managed motorway with hard shoulder running on the M25 from Junctions 23 to 27 (A1(M)-M11)[38] with work starting after the London Olympics in 2013, opening in 2016.[39]
Junction 30 improvement[link]
Preparation work to increase capacity at Junction 30 (Thurrock) as part of the Thames Gateway Delivery Plan is underway although there is no guarantee of delivery. Plans were announced in 2007. An early estimate on the start of major works was given as 2013/2014.[40] Philip Hammond has confirmed that there will be no funding for the J30 improvements in this spending period, but has announced that preparation work would continue so that the scheme could be funded at a later date.[41]
Lower Thames Crossing[link]
Main article: Lower Thames Crossing
In 2009 the Department for Transport published options for a new Lower Thames Crossing to add capacity to the Dartford Crossing or create a new road and crossing linking to the M2 and M20 motorways.[42]
Comparisons[link]
Other cities encircled by motorways include Manchester using the M60 motorway, Birmingham using parts of the M5, M6 and M42 and from 2011 Glasgow has an orbital motorway made of the M8, M73 and M74 although one section of the route passes through the centre of the city.[43] The M25 is the second-longest ring road in Europe, after the Berlin Ring (A 10) which is 5 miles (8.0 km) longer. The M25 is one of the busiest motorways in Europe:
- M25 around London: 196,000 vehicles a day recorded in 2003 between junctions 13 and 14 near London Heathrow Airport.[6]
- A23 (near Vienna): More than 200,000 vehicles on an average day.
- A 100 (near Berlin): 216,000 vehicles in a day was recorded in 1998
- A4 motorway (near Paris): 257,000 vehicles a day recorded in 2002.[44]
Popular culture[link]
Iain Sinclair's book and film, London Orbital which was published in 2003 is based on a year long journey around the M25 on foot.[45]
The M25 (including the A282 Dartford Crossing) is known for its frequent traffic jams. These have been the subject of so much comment from such an early stage that even at the official opening ceremony Margaret Thatcher complained about "those who carp and criticise". The jams have inspired jokes ("the world's biggest car park", "the London Orbital Car Park") and songs (Chris Rea's "The Road to Hell").[46]
The M25 plays an important role in the comedy-fantasy novel Good Omens, being "evidence for the hidden hand of Satan in the affairs of Man".[47]
The road enjoyed a more positive reputation among ravers in the late 1980s as the then new Orbital Motorway was a popular route to the parties that took place around the outskirts of London. The use of the M25 for these raves inspired the name of electronic duo Orbital.[48]
Racing[link]
The orbital nature of the motorway, in common with racetracks, lent itself to unofficial, and illegal, motor racing. At the end of the 1980s, before the advent of speed enforcement devices, owners of supercars, many employed in the financial service industry in the City and in Docklands, would meet at night at service stations such as South Mimms and conduct time trials. Times below 1 hour were achieved; an average speed of over 117 mph (188 km/h), which included coming to a halt at the Dartford Tunnel road user charge payment booths.[49][50]
Junctions[link]
Data[51] from driver location signs provide carriageway identifier information. The numbers on the signs are kilometres from a point near the River Thames, east of London, when travelling clockwise on the motorway. The table below gives details of each junction, including the roads interchanged and the destinations that are signed from the motorway. Figures in kilometres are from the driver location signs; figures in miles are derived from them.
| A282 road - Dartford Crossing | |||||
| mi | km[51] | Clockwise exits (A Carriageway)[51] | Junction | Anti-clockwise exits (B Carriageway) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dartford Crossing A282 Dartford Tunnel |
River | Dartford Crossing A282 Queen Elizabeth Bridge |
|||
| 3.5 | 5.7 | Erith A206 | J1a | Erith A206, Swanscombe (A226) | |
| 4.7 | 7.5 | Dartford A225 | J1b | Exit via J2 - Dartford (A225) | |
| M25 motorway - London Orbital | |||||
| 5.5 | 8.8 | London (South East), Canterbury A2, (M2), Bluewater | J2 | London (SE & C), Lewisham A2(W), Canterbury A2(E) (M2), Dartford (A225) | |
| 8.7 | 14.0 | London (South East) A20 Maidstone M20 Swanley B2173 |
J3 | Maidstone, Channel Tunnel M20 London (SE & C), Lewisham A20 |
|
| 12.2 | 19.6 | Bromley A21 Orpington A224 |
J4 | Bromley, London (SE) A21 Orpington (A224) |
|
| 16.3–16.4 | 26.2–26.4 | Sevenoaks, Royal Tunbridge Wells, Hastings A21 | J5 | Maidstone, Channel Tunnel, Dover M26 (M20) Sevenoaks, Hastings A21 |
|
| 21.0 | 33.8 | Clacket Lane services | Services | Clacket Lane services | |
| 25.8 | 41.6 | East Grinstead, Eastbourne, Caterham, Godstone A22 Westerham (A25) |
J6 | Eastbourne, Caterham, Godstone A22, Westerham (A25) | |
| 28.6 | 46.0 | Gatwick Airport, Crawley, Brighton, East Grinstead, Croydon M23 | J7 | Gatwick, Brighton, M23(S), Croydon M23(N) | |
| 31.9 | 51.4 | Reigate, Sutton A217 Redhill (A25) |
J8 | Reigate, Sutton A217 Redhill (A25) |
|
| 38.5 - 39.5 |
62.0 - 63.5 |
Leatherhead A243 Dorking (A24) |
J9 | Leatherhead A243 Dorking (A24) |
|
| 42.6 - 43.2 |
68.6 - 69.5 |
Cobham Services (Scheduled opening 2012)[5][52] |
Services | Cobham Services | |
| 45.0 | 72.4 | London (South West), Sutton, Guildford, Portsmouth A3 | J10 | London (South West), Guildford, Portsmouth, A3 | |
| 49.8 | 80.2 | Chertsey A317 Woking A320 |
J11 | Woking A320 Chertsey A317 |
|
| 52.1 | 83.8 | Basingstoke, Southampton, Richmond M3 | J12 | Basingstoke, Southampton, Richmond M3 | |
| 55.2 | 88.8 | A30 London (West), Hounslow, Staines | J13 | A30 London (West), Hounslow, Staines | |
| 57.0 | 91.8 | Heathrow Airport (Terminals 4, 5 and Cargo) A3113 dedicated spur | J14 | Heathrow Airport (Terminals 4, 5 and Cargo) A3113 dedicated spur | |
| 59.0 | 95.0 | The West, Slough, Reading, London (West), Heathrow Airport (Terminals 1, 2 and 3) M4 | J15 | The West, Slough, Reading M4(W) London (W), Heathrow (Terminals 1, 2 & 3) M4(E) |
|
| 63.8 | 102.6 | The North Birmingham, Oxford, Uxbridge, London (W,C) M40 | J16 | Birmingham, Oxford M40(W) Uxbridge, London (W & C) M40(E) |
|
| 68.7 | 110.5 | Maple Cross (A412) | J17 | Maple Cross A412 | |
| 69.9 | 112.5 | Rickmansworth, Chorleywood, Amersham A404 | J18 | Chorleywood, Amersham, Rickmansworth A404 | |
| Watford A41 | J19 | No exit | |||
| 73.8 | 118.7 | Hemel Hempstead, Aylesbury A41 | J20 | Hemel Hempstead, Aylesbury, Watford A41 | |
| 76.3 | 122.8 | The North, Luton & Airport M1 | J21 | The North, Luton & Airport M1 | |
| 76.9 | 123.7 | Watford A405 Harrow (M1 South) |
J21A | St Albans A405 London (North West) (M1 (South)) |
|
| 80.6 | 129.7 | London Colney A1081 | J22 | St Albans A1081 | |
| 83.3 | 134.0 | Hatfield A1(M) London (North West) A1 Barnet A1081 South Mimms services |
J23 Services |
Hatfield A1(M), London (NW) A1 Barnet A1081, Services |
|
| 85.9 | 138.2 | Potters Bar A111 | J24 | Potters Bar A111 | |
| 91.4 | 147.1 | Enfield Town, Hertford A10 | J25 | Enfield, Hertford, London (N & C) A10 | |
| 94.9 | 152.7 | Waltham Abbey, Loughton A121 | J26 | Waltham Abbey, Loughton A121 | |
| 99.2 | 159.7 | London (NE), Stansted Airport, Harlow, Cambridge M11 | J27 | London (NE & C) M11(N), Stansted, Harlow, Cambridge M11(S) | |
| 107.1 | 172.4 | Chelmsford, Witham, Colchester A12 Brentwood A1023 |
J28 | Chelmsford, Romford A12 Brentwood A1023 |
|
| 109.9 | 176.8 | Romford, Basildon, Southend A127 | J29 | Basildon, Southend, Romford A127 | |
| 115.2 | 185.4 | Dagenham, Rainham, Tilbury, Barking, London (E & C) A13 Thurrock services |
J30 | Dagenham, Rainham, Tilbury, Basildon, London (E & C) A13, West Thurrock (A126) | |
| A282 Road - Dartford Crossing | |||||
| 115.9 | 186.6 | Access via J30 | J31 Services |
Thurrock (Lakeside), Services A1306, Purfleet (A1090), West Thurrock (A126) | |
| Dartford Crossing A282 Dartford Tunnel |
River | Dartford Crossing A282 Queen Elizabeth Bridge |
|||
| Motorway • Primary road • Secondary road Concurrency terminus • Closed/former • Incomplete access • Unopened |
|||||
Anti-clockwise information above gathered from Advanced Direction Signs August 2011 (J9 - J22, J20 - J15)
References[link]
- ^ "M25 London Orbital Motorway (Junctions 13 to 30)". The Motorway Archive. http://www.iht.org/motorway/m25j13j30.htm. Retrieved 3 January 2009.
- ^ Webster, Ben (2009-06-25). "Rising costs put the brakes on dozens of roadbuilding projects". The Times (London). http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/transport/article6571879.ece. Retrieved 2010-05-12.
- ^ Any such move would be bound to be resisted by the communities affected, including such major towns as Watford, Loughton and Epsom.London Assembly - Poll says M25 is London's "natural boundary". 2 March 2004.
- ^ Communications Act 2003, The National Archive, 2003, http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2003/21, retrieved 5 September 2011 requires "a suitable proportion of the programmes made in the United Kingdom" to be made "in the United Kingdom outside the M25 area", defined in Section 362 as "the area the outer boundary of which is represented by the London Orbital Motorway (M25)".
- ^ a b "M25 MSA New Barn Farm Cobham". Highways Agency. http://www.highways.gov.uk/roads/projects/26511.aspx. Retrieved 2010-08-14.
- ^ a b "Motorway traffic up 4% on 2003". BBC News. 12 August 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/3558822.stm. Retrieved 3 January 2009.
- ^ "HANSARD 3 December 1990 Written Answers (Commons) TRANSPORT". http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/written_answers/1990/dec/03/m25.
- ^ "The bluffer's briefing on: The M25". The Independent (London). 1993-03-24. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/the-bluffers-briefing-on-the-m25-1499570.html. Retrieved 2010-05-12.
- ^ "M25 (Widening)". Hansard. http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1993/feb/18/m25-widening.
- ^ "M25 scoop for Balfour in Surrey". http://www.cnplus.co.uk/news/m25-scoop-for-balfour-in-surrey/955396.article.
- ^ "Case Study - M25 Controlled Motorway". Highways Agency. http://www.dft.gov.uk/itstoolkit/CaseStudies/m25-controlled-motorway.htm.
- ^ Wolmar, Christian (1995-04-04). "The roadblock that became a bandwagon". The Independent (London). http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/the-roadblock-that-became-a-bandwagon-1614137.html. Retrieved 2010-05-12.
- ^ Cohen, Nick (1995-04-02). "Pointless lies that reveal so much". The Independent (London). http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/pointless-lies-that-reveal-so-much-1613955.html. Retrieved 2010-05-12.
- ^ Wolmar, Christian (1997-03-21). "Minister gives green light to widen M25". The Independent (London). http://www.independent.co.uk/news/minister-gives-green-light-to-widen-m25-1274054.html. Retrieved 2010-05-12.
- ^ "Plans to widen M25 to 12 lanes under attack". http://www.getsurrey.co.uk/news/s/80175_plans_to_widen_m25_to_12_lanes_under_attack.
- ^ "BAA makes plans for Terminal 5 despite inquiry". http://www.nce.co.uk/baa-makes-plans-for-terminal-5-despite-inquiry/845174.article.
- ^ "M25 Junctions 12 - 15 Widening". http://www.bbcel.co.uk/capabilities/roads/62_m25-junctions-12-15-widening. "In 2003, Balfour Beatty Civil Engineering was awarded the £148 million contract to widen the 10-mile stretch of the M25, between Junction 12 (the M3 Interchange) and Junction 15 (the M4 Interchange)."
- ^ "M25 Jct 12 to 15 Widening". Highways Agency. http://www.highways.gov.uk/roads/projects/4084.aspx.
- ^ "£75 MILLION REFURBISHMENT FOR M25 HOLMESDALE TUNNEL AND JUNCTION 25 IMPROVEMENT WORK STARTS ON SATURDAY 6 May". Highways Agency. http://www.highways.gov.uk/news/pressrelease.aspx?pressreleaseid=132377.
- ^ "M25 Junction 28 / A12 / Brook Street Interchange". Highways Agency. http://www.highways.gov.uk/roads/projects/3520.aspx.
- ^ "Prequalification Document". Highways Agency. http://www.highways.gov.uk/roads/7717.aspx. Retrieved 2008-01-20.
- ^ "Highways Agency announces shortlist for £4.5bn M25 DBFO". Contract Journal. http://www.contractjournal.com/Articles/2006/10/13/52504/highways-agency-announces-shortlist-for-4.5bn-m25-dbfo.html. Retrieved 2008-01-20.
- ^ Andrea Klettner (2008-01-16). "Highways Agency calls for M25 widening bids to be resubmitted". Construction Journal. http://www.cnplus.co.uk/News/2008/01/highways_agency_calls_for_m25_widening_bids_to_be_resubmitted.html. Retrieved 2008-01-20. [dead link]
- ^ "Cost escalation hits M25 widening benefit to cost ratios". http://www.nce.co.uk/major-projects/m25-widening/cost-escalation-hits-m25-widening-benefit-to-cost-ratios/5203578.article.
- ^ Helm, Toby (2009-01-18). "Ministers scrap plan to widen motorways". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2009/jan/18/motorways-geoff-hoon. Retrieved 2010-05-12.
- ^ Webster, Ben (2009-05-20). "PFI deal for M25 agreed despite price rise". The Times (London). http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/industry_sectors/transport/article6322870.ece. Retrieved 2010-05-12.
- ^ "£6.2 billion M25 Design, Build, Finance and Operate (DBFO) contract awarded". Highways Agency. http://www.highways.gov.uk/news/pressrelease.aspx?pressreleaseid=174136.
- ^ "M25 MSA New Barn Farm Cobham". Highways Agency. http://www.highways.gov.uk/roads/projects/26511.aspx.
- ^ "M25 J7 - J10 Controlled Motorway - Public Consultation". Highways Agency. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.highways.gov.uk/roads/27477.htm.
- ^ "M25 J7 to J10 Controlled Motorway Project". http://www.forwardspread.co.uk/2011/m25-j7-to-j10-controlled-motorways-project/.
- ^ "M25 J7-J10 controlled motorway". Highways Agency. http://www.highways.gov.uk/roads/projects/23473.aspx. Retrieved 1 May 2011.
- ^ "M25 Jct 16 to 23 Widening". http://www.highways.gov.uk/roads/projects/5747.aspx.
- ^ "M25 widening to four lanes begins". BBC News. 2009-07-08. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/8139940.stm. Retrieved 2010-05-12.
- ^ "Highways Agency Timetable". http://www.highways.gov.uk/roads/projects/13825.aspx.
- ^ "Weekly Summary of Roadworks in M25 Sphere - 30 September 2009". http://www.fleetdirectory.co.uk/fleet-news/index.php/2009/09/30/weekly-summary-of-roadworks-in-m25-sphere-30092009/.
- ^ "M25 Jct 27 to 30 Widening". http://www.highways.gov.uk/roads/projects/5739.aspx.
- ^ "M25 Junctions 5 to 7 Managed Motorways". http://www.highways.gov.uk/roads/projects/5735.aspx.
- ^ "M25 Junctions 23 to 27 Managed Motorways". http://www.highways.gov.uk/roads/projects/5743.aspx.
- ^ "Timetable". http://www.highways.gov.uk/roads/projects/13842.aspx.
- ^ "The Thames Gateway Delivery Plan". Communities and Local Government. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.communities.gov.uk/documents/thamesgateway/pdf/565039.pdf. Retrieved 2010-09-26.
- ^ Local Transport Today, Issue 557, Page 6
- ^ "Dartford River Crossing Study into Capacity Requirement". Department for Transport. 2009-04-20. http://www.dft.gov.uk/about/strategy/capacityrequirements/dartfordrivercrossing/chap1execsummary.pdf. Retrieved 2009-04-26. [dead link]
- ^ "Transport Scotland - M74 Completion Project". http://www.transportscotland.gov.uk/projects/m74-completion/the-project. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
- ^ "Compte Rendu Analytique Officiel de la Seance du 17 Decembre 2002" (in French). http://www.senat.fr/cra/s20021217/s20021217H4.html.
- ^ "London Orbital [Paperback"]. Amazon. http://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/0141014741.
- ^ "Chris Rea interviewed by Will Hodgkinson, The Guardian, Friday 13 September 2002". London. 2002-09-13. http://arts.guardian.co.uk/fridayreview/story/0,,790672,00.html. Retrieved 2009-01-31.
- ^ "Good Omens Annotations". http://www.lspace.org/books/apf/good-omens.html.
- ^ "Orbital information". http://www.loopz.co.uk/info.html. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- ^ May, James (20 October 2007). "Speed, Greed And The M25". BBC Radio 4. http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/factual/pip/ap895/?focuswin.
- ^ "Programme Information – Network Radio Week 43" (Press release). BBC Press Office. http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/proginfo/radio/wk43/sat.shtml.
- ^ a b c "M25 Road Network Driver Location Signs". Highways Agency. http://test1.highways.gov.uk/business/documents/070921-Final_DLS_map.pdf. Retrieved 2009-06-09.
- ^ "M25 Motorway Service Area (MSA) at New Barn Farm - Decision letter". Department for Transport. 7 February 2011. http://www.dft.gov.uk/pgr/roads/network/strategic/m25serviceareacobham/pdf/decision-letter.pdf. Retrieved 2011-05-02.
Further reading[link]
- Sinclair, Iain (2002), London Orbital: A Walk Around the M25, London: Granta Books, ISBN 1-86207-547-6 .
- Phippen, Roy (2005), Travelling M25 Clockwise, London: Pallas Athene, ISBN 1-873429-90-8 .
- Pratchett, Terry; Gaiman, Neil (2006), Good Omens, New York: William Morrow, pp. 13–14, ISBN 0-06-085396-4 .
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: M25 motorway |
- Highways Agency – Roadworks
- Highways Agency – Current Traffic Information
- Highways Agency – Dartford – Thurrock River Crossing
- The Motorway Archive's M25 page
- CBRD M25 Motorway Database
- CBRD M25 Opening Booklet
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Coordinates: 51°32′53″N 0°31′4″W / 51.54806°N 0.51778°W / 51.54806; -0.51778
http://wn.com/M25_motorway
Related pages:
http://fr.wn.com/Autoroute britannique M25
http://nl.wn.com/M25 (Groot-Brittannië)
http://pt.wn.com/M25 Motorway
http://de.wn.com/M25 motorway
http://it.wn.com/Motorway M25
http://pl.wn.com/Autostrada M25 (Wielka Brytania)
http://es.wn.com/Autopista M25 (Reino Unido)
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M25_motorway
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
For other uses, see Margaret Thatcher (disambiguation).
| The Right Honourable The Baroness Thatcher LG OM PC FRS |
|
|---|---|
 |
|
| Prime Minister of the United Kingdom | |
| In office 4 May 1979 – 28 November 1990 |
|
| Monarch | Elizabeth II |
| Deputy | William Whitelaw Geoffrey Howe |
| Preceded by | James Callaghan |
| Succeeded by | John Major |
| Leader of the Opposition | |
| In office 11 February 1975 – 4 May 1979 |
|
| Monarch | Elizabeth II |
| Prime Minister | Harold Wilson James Callaghan |
| Preceded by | Edward Heath |
| Succeeded by | James Callaghan |
| Leader of the Conservative Party | |
| In office 11 February 1975 – 28 November 1990 |
|
| Preceded by | Edward Heath |
| Succeeded by | John Major |
| Secretary of State for Education and Science | |
| In office 20 June 1970 – 4 March 1974 |
|
| Prime Minister | Edward Heath |
| Preceded by | Edward Short |
| Succeeded by | Reginald Prentice |
| Member of Parliament for Finchley |
|
| In office 8 October 1959 – 9 April 1992 |
|
| Preceded by | John Crowder |
| Succeeded by | Hartley Booth |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Margaret Hilda Roberts (1925-10-13) 13 October 1925 (age 86) Grantham, Lincolnshire, United Kingdom |
| Political party | Conservative |
| Spouse(s) | Denis Thatcher (married 1951–2003, his death) |
| Children | Carol Thatcher Mark Thatcher |
| Residence | Chester Square |
| Alma mater | Somerville College, Oxford Inns of Court |
| Profession | Chemist Lawyer |
| Religion | Church of England (Since 1951)[1] Methodism (Before 1951) |
| Signature |  |
Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, LG, OM, PC, FRS, née Roberts (born 13 October 1925) is a British politician and the longest-serving (1979–1990) British prime minister of the 20th century, and the only woman ever to have held the post. A Soviet journalist nicknamed her the "Iron Lady", which later became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style. As prime minister, she implemented conservative policies that have come to be known as Thatcherism.
Originally a research chemist before becoming a barrister, Thatcher was elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Finchley in 1959. Edward Heath appointed her Secretary of State for Education and Science in his 1970 government. In 1975 Thatcher defeated Heath in the Conservative Party leadership election and became Leader of the Opposition, as well as the first woman to lead a major political party in the United Kingdom. She became prime minister after winning the 1979 general election.
After entering 10 Downing Street, Thatcher introduced a series of political and economic initiatives to reverse what she perceived as Britain's precipitous national decline.[nb 1] Her political philosophy and economic policies emphasised deregulation (particularly of the financial sector), flexible labour markets, the privatisation of state-owned companies, and reducing the power and influence of trade unions. Thatcher's popularity during her first years in office waned amid recession and high unemployment, until economic recovery and the 1982 Falklands War brought a resurgence of support, resulting in her re-election in 1983. Thatcher was re-elected for a third term in 1987, but her Community Charge (popularly referred to as "poll tax") was widely unpopular and her views on the European Community were not shared by others in her Cabinet. She resigned as Prime Minister and party leader in November 1990, after Michael Heseltine launched a challenge to her leadership.
Thatcher holds a life peerage as Baroness Thatcher, of Kesteven in the County of Lincolnshire, which entitles her to sit in the House of Lords.
Contents |
Early life and education[link]
Margaret Thatcher was born Margaret Roberts in Grantham, Lincolnshire, on 13 October 1925. Her father was Alfred Roberts, originally from Northamptonshire, and her mother was Beatrice Ethel (née Stephenson) from Lincolnshire.[3] She spent her childhood in Grantham, where her father owned two grocery shops.[4] She and her older sister Muriel were raised in the flat above the larger of the two, located near the railway line.[4] Her father was active in local politics and the Christian church, serving as an alderman and a Methodist local preacher,[5] and brought up his daughter as a strict Methodist.[6] He came from a Liberal family but stood—as was then customary in local government—as an Independent. He was Mayor of Grantham in 1945–46 and lost his position as alderman in 1952 after the Labour Party won its first majority on Grantham Council in 1950.[5]
Roberts attended Huntingtower Road Primary School and won a scholarship to Kesteven and Grantham Girls' School.[7] Her school reports showed hard work and continual improvement; her extracurricular activities included the piano, field hockey, poetry recitals, swimming and walking.[8][9] She was head girl in 1942–43.[10] In her upper sixth year she applied for a scholarship to study chemistry at Somerville College, Oxford but was initially rejected, and was offered a place only after another candidate withdrew.[11][12] She arrived at Oxford in 1943 and graduated in 1947 with Second Class Honours in the four-year Chemistry Bachelor of Science degree; in her final year she specialised in X-ray crystallography under the supervision of Dorothy Hodgkin.[13][14]
Roberts became President of the Oxford University Conservative Association in 1946.[15][16] She was influenced at university by political works such as Friedrich von Hayek's The Road to Serfdom (1944),[17] which condemned economic intervention by government as a precursor to an authoritarian state.[18]
After graduating, Roberts moved to Colchester in Essex to work as a research chemist for BX Plastics.[19] She joined the local Conservative Association and attended the party conference at Llandudno in 1948, as a representative of the University Graduate Conservative Association.[20] One of her Oxford friends was also a friend of the Chair of the Dartford Conservative Association in Kent, who were looking for candidates.[20] Officials of the association were so impressed by her that they asked her to apply, even though she was not on the Conservative party's approved list: she was selected in January 1951 and added to the approved list post ante.[21] At a dinner following her formal adoption as Conservative candidate for Dartford in February 1951 she met Denis Thatcher, a successful and wealthy divorced businessman, who drove her to her Essex train.[20][21] In preparation for the election Roberts moved to Dartford, where she supported herself by working as a research chemist for J. Lyons and Co. in Hammersmith, part of a team developing emulsifiers for ice cream.[20][22]
Early political career[link]
In the 1950 and 1951 general elections she was the Conservative candidate for the safe Labour seat of Dartford, where she attracted media attention as the youngest and the only female candidate.[23][24] She lost both times to Norman Dodds, but reduced the Labour majority by 6,000, and then a further 1,000.[23] (By an odd coincidence, Edward Heath was elected for the first time in the neighbouring constituency in 1950.) During the campaigns, she was supported by her parents and by Denis Thatcher, whom she married in December 1951.[23][25] Denis funded his wife's studies for the bar;[26] she qualified as a barrister in 1953 and specialised in taxation.[27] That same year her twins, Carol and Mark, were born.[28]
Member of Parliament (1959–1970)[link]
Thatcher was not a candidate in the 1955 general election as it came fairly soon after the birth of her children, although she was narrowly defeated as the candidate for the Orpington by-election, 1955.[28] Afterwards, she began looking for a safe Conservative seat, and was selected as the candidate for Finchley in April 1958 (narrowly beating Ian Montagu Fraser). She was elected as MP for the seat after a hard campaign in the 1959 election.[29] Her maiden speech was in support of her private member's bill (Public Bodies (Admission to Meetings) Act 1960), requiring local authorities to hold their council meetings in public. In 1961 she went against the Conservative Party's official position by voting for the restoration of birching.[30] She regarded Finchley's Jewish residents as "her people" and became a founding member of the Anglo-Israel Friendship League of Finchley as well as a member of the Conservative Friends of Israel.[31] But she nevertheless believed that Israel had to trade land for peace, and condemned Israel's bombing of Osirak as "a grave breach of international law".[31]
In October 1961 Thatcher was promoted to the front bench as Parliamentary Undersecretary at the Ministry of Pensions and National Insurance in Harold Macmillan's administration.[32] After the Conservatives lost the 1964 election she became spokeswoman on Housing and Land, in which position she advocated her party's policy of allowing tenants to buy their council houses.[33] She moved to the Shadow Treasury team in 1966, and as Treasury spokeswoman opposed Labour's mandatory price and income controls, arguing that they would produce effects contrary to those intended and distort the economy.[33]
At the Conservative Party Conference of 1966 she criticised the high-tax policies of the Labour Government as being steps "not only towards Socialism, but towards Communism".[33] She argued that lower taxes served as an incentive to hard work.[33] Thatcher was one of the few Conservative MPs to support Leo Abse's Bill to decriminalise male homosexuality[34] and voted in favour of David Steel's bill to legalise abortion,[1][35] as well as a ban on hare coursing.[36][37] She supported the retention of capital punishment[38] and voted against the relaxation of divorce laws.[39][40]
In 1967 she was selected by the United States Embassy in London to take part in the International Visitor Leadership Program (then called the Foreign Leader Program), a professional exchange programme that gave her the opportunity to spend about six weeks visiting various US cities and political figures as well as institutions such as the International Monetary Fund.[41] Thatcher joined the Shadow Cabinet later that year as Fuel spokesman. Shortly before the 1970 general election, she was promoted to Shadow Transport spokesman and later to Education.[42]
Education Secretary (1970–1974)[link]
The Conservative party under Edward Heath won the 1970 general election, and Thatcher was subsequently appointed Secretary of State for Education and Science. During her first months in office she attracted public attention as a result of the administration's attempts to cut spending. She gave priority to academic needs in schools,[43] and imposed public expenditure cuts on the state education system, resulting in the abolition of free milk for schoolchildren aged seven to eleven.[44] She held that few children would suffer if schools were charged for milk, but she agreed to provide younger children with a third of a pint daily, for nutritional purposes.[44] Her decision provoked a storm of protest from the Labour party and the press,[45] leading to the moniker "Margaret Thatcher, Milk Snatcher".[44] Thatcher wrote in her autobiography: "I learned a valuable lesson [from the experience]. I had incurred the maximum of political odium for the minimum of political benefit."[45][46]
Thatcher's term of office was marked by proposals for more local education authorities to close grammar schools and to adopt comprehensive secondary education. Although she was committed to a tiered secondary modern-grammar school system of education, and determined to preserve grammar schools,[43] during her tenure as Education Secretary she turned down only 326 of 3,612 proposals for schools to become comprehensives; the proportion of pupils attending comprehensive schools consequently rose from 32 per cent to 62 per cent.[47]
Leader of the Opposition (1975–1979)[link]
The Heath government continued to experience difficulties with oil embargoes and union demands for wage increases in 1973, and lost the February 1974 general election.[45] Labour formed a minority government, and went on to win a narrow majority in the October 1974 general election. Heath's leadership of the Conservative Party looked increasingly in doubt. Thatcher was not initially the obvious replacement, but she eventually became the main challenger, promising a fresh start.[48] Her main support came from the Conservative 1922 Committee.[48] She defeated Heath on the first ballot and he resigned the leadership.[49] In the second ballot she defeated Heath's preferred successor, William Whitelaw, and became party leader on 11 February 1975;[50] she appointed Whitelaw as her deputy. Heath remained disenchanted with Thatcher to the end of his life, for what he and many of his supporters perceived as her disloyalty in standing against him.[51]
Thatcher began to attend lunches regularly at the Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA), a think tank founded by the poultry magnate Antony Fisher, a disciple of Friedrich von Hayek; she had been visiting the IEA and reading its publications since the early 1960s. There she was influenced by the ideas of Ralph Harris and Arthur Seldon, and she became the face of the ideological movement opposing the welfare state Keynesian economics they believed was weakening Britain. The institute's pamphlets proposed less government, lower taxes, and more freedom for business and consumers.[52][page needed]
The television critic Clive James, writing in The Observer during the voting for the leadership, compared her voice of 1973 to a cat sliding down a blackboard.[nb 2] Thatcher had already begun to work on her presentation on the advice of Gordon Reece, a former television producer. By chance Reece met the actor Laurence Olivier, who arranged lessons with the National Theatre's voice coach.[53][54][55] Thatcher succeeded in completely suppressing her Lincolnshire dialect except when under stress, notably after provocation from Denis Healey in the House of Commons in April 1983, when she accused the Labour front bench of being frit.[56][nb 3]
On 19 January 1976 Thatcher made a speech in Kensington Town Hall in which she made a scathing attack on the Soviet Union; in response, the Soviet Defence Ministry newspaper Krasnaya Zvezda (Red Star) called her the "Iron Lady":[57]
The Russians are bent on world dominance, and they are rapidly acquiring the means to become the most powerful imperial nation the world has seen. The men in the Soviet Politburo do not have to worry about the ebb and flow of public opinion. They put guns before butter, while we put just about everything before guns.[57]
In mid-1978, the economy began to improve and opinion polls showed Labour in the lead, with a general election being expected later that year and a Labour win a serious possibility. Prime Minister James Callaghan surprised many by announcing on 7 September that there would be no general election that year and he would wait until 1979 before going to the polls. Thatcher reacted to this by branding the Labour government as "chickens", and Liberal Party leader David Steel joined in, criticising Labour for "running scared".[58]
The Labour government then faced fresh public unease about the direction of the country and a damaging series of strikes during the winter of 1978–79, dubbed the "Winter of Discontent". The Conservatives attacked the Labour government's unemployment record, using advertising with the slogan Labour Isn't Working. A general election was called after James Callaghan's government lost a motion of no confidence in early 1979. The Conservatives won a 44-seat majority in the House of Commons, and Margaret Thatcher became the UK's first female Prime Minister.
Prime Minister (1979–1990)[link]
Main article: Premiership of Margaret Thatcher
Thatcher became Prime Minister on 4 May 1979. Arriving at 10 Downing Street, she said, in a paraphrase of the "Prayer of Saint Francis":
Where there is discord, may we bring harmony. Where there is error, may we bring truth. Where there is doubt, may we bring faith. And where there is despair, may we bring hope.
Domestic affairs[link]
Thatcher was Leader of the Opposition and Prime Minister at a time of increased racial tension in Britain. Commenting on the local elections of May 1977, The Economist noted "The Tory tide swamped the smaller parties. That specifically includes the National Front, which suffered a clear decline from last year".[59][60] Her standing in the polls rose by 11 percent after a January 1978 interview for World in Action in which she said "the British character has done so much for democracy, for law and done so much throughout the world that if there is any fear that it might be swamped people are going to react and be rather hostile to those coming in."; and "in many ways [minorities] add to the richness and variety of this country. The moment the minority threatens to become a big one, people get frightened."[61][62] In the 1979 General Election, the Conservatives attracted voters from the National Front, whose support almost collapsed.[63][64] In a meeting in July 1979 with Lord Carrington (the Foreign Secretary) and William Whitelaw (Home Secretary) she objected to the number of Asian immigrants,[65] in the context of limiting the number of Vietnamese boat people allowed to settle in the UK to fewer than 10,000.
As Prime Minister, Thatcher met weekly with Queen Elizabeth II to discuss government business, and their relationship came under close scrutiny.[66][67] In July 1986 the Sunday Times reported claims attributed to the Queen's advisers of a "rift" between Buckingham Palace and Downing Street "over a wide range of domestic and international issues".[68][69] The Palace issued an official denial, heading off speculation about a possible constitutional crisis.[69] After Thatcher's retirement a senior Palace source again dismissed as "nonsense" the "stereotyped idea" that she had not got along with the Queen, or that they had fallen out over Thatcherite policies.[70] Thatcher later wrote: "I always found the Queen's attitude towards the work of the Government absolutely correct ... stories of clashes between 'two powerful women' were just too good not to make up."[71]
During her time in office Thatcher practised great frugality in her official residence, including insisting on paying for her own ironing-board.[72]
Economy and taxation[link]
Thatcher's economic policy was influenced by monetarist thinking and economists such as Milton Friedman.[73] Together with Chancellor of the Exchequer Geoffrey Howe, she lowered direct taxes on income and increased indirect taxes.[74] She increased interest rates to slow the growth of the money supply and thereby lower inflation,[73] introduced cash limits on public spending, and reduced expenditure on social services such as education and housing.[74] Her cuts in higher education spending resulted in her being the first Oxford-educated post-war Prime Minister not to be awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Oxford, after a 738 to 319 vote of the governing assembly and a student petition.[75] Her new centrally-funded City Technology Colleges did not enjoy much success, and the Funding Agency for Schools was set up to control expenditure by opening and closing schools; the Social Market Foundation, a right-wing think tank, described it as having "an extraordinary range of dictatorial powers".[76]
| GDP and public spending by functional classification |
% change in real terms 1979/80 to 1989/90[77] |
|---|---|
| GDP | +23.3 |
| Total government spending | +12.9 |
| Law and order | +53.3 |
| Employment and training | +33.3 |
| Health | +31.8 |
| Social security | +31.8 |
| Transport | −5.8 |
| Trade and industry | −38.2 |
| Housing | −67.0 |
| Defence | −3.3[78] |
Some Heathite Conservatives in the Cabinet, the so-called "wets", expressed doubt over Thatcher's policies.[79] The 1981 riots in England resulted in the British media discussing the need for a policy U-turn. At the 1980 Conservative Party conference, Thatcher addressed the issue directly, with a speech written by the playwright Ronald Millar[80] that included the lines: "You turn if you want to. The lady's not for turning!"[79]
Thatcher's job approval rating fell to 23% by December 1980, lower than recorded for any previous Prime Minister.[81] As the recession of the early 1980s deepened she increased taxes,[82] despite concerns expressed in a statement signed by 364 leading economists issued towards the end of March 1981.[83]
By 1982 the UK began to experience signs of economic recovery;[84] inflation was down to 8.6% from a high of 18%, but unemployment was over 3 million for the first time since the 1930s.[85] By 1983 overall economic growth was stronger and inflation and mortgage rates were at their lowest levels since 1970, although manufacturing output had dropped by 30% since 1978[86] and unemployment remained high, peaking at 3.3 million in 1984.[87]
By 1987, unemployment was falling, the economy was stable and strong, and inflation was low. Opinion polls showed a comfortable Conservative lead, and local council election results had also been successful, prompting Thatcher to call a general election for 11 June that year, despite the deadline for an election still being 12 months away. The election saw Thatcher re-elected for a third successive term.[88]
Throughout the 1980s revenue from the 90% tax on North Sea oil extraction was used as a short-term funding source to balance the economy and pay the costs of reform.[89]
Thatcher reformed local government taxes by replacing domestic rates—a tax based on the nominal rental value of a home—with the Community Charge (or poll tax) in which the same amount was charged to each adult resident.[90] The new tax was introduced in Scotland in 1989 and in England and Wales the following year,[91] and proved to be among the most unpopular policies of her premiership.[90] Public disquiet culminated in a 70,000-strong demonstration in London on 31 March 1990; the demonstration around Trafalgar Square deteriorated into the Poll Tax Riots, leaving 113 people injured and 340 under arrest.[92] The Community Charge was abolished by her successor, John Major.[92]
Industrial relations[link]
Thatcher was committed to reducing the power of the trade unions, whose leadership she accused of undermining parliamentary democracy and economic performance through strike action.[93] Several unions launched strikes in response to legislation introduced to curb their power, but resistance eventually collapsed.[94] Only 39% of union members voted for Labour in the 1983 general election.[95] According to the BBC, Thatcher "managed to destroy the power of the trade unions for almost a generation".[96]
The miners' strike was the biggest confrontation between the unions and the Thatcher government. In March 1984 the National Coal Board (NCB) proposed to close 20 of the 174 state-owned mines and cut 20,000 jobs out of 187,000.[97][98][99] Two-thirds of the country's miners, led by the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) under Arthur Scargill, downed tools in protest.[97][100][101] Thatcher refused to meet the union's demands and compared the miners' dispute to the Falklands conflict two years earlier, declaring in a speech in 1984: "We had to fight the enemy without in the Falklands. We always have to be aware of the enemy within, which is much more difficult to fight and more dangerous to liberty."[102] After a year out on strike, in March 1985, the NUM leadership conceded without a deal. The cost to the economy was estimated to be at least £1.5 billion, and the strike was blamed for much of the pound's fall against the US dollar.[103] The government closed 25 unprofitable coal mines in 1985, and by 1992 a total of 97 had been closed;[99] those that remained were privatised in 1994.[104] The eventual closure of 150 coal mines, not all of which were losing money, resulted in the loss of tens of thousands of jobs and devastated entire communities.[99][105] Miners had helped bring down the Heath government, and Thatcher was determined to succeed where he had failed. Her strategy of preparing fuel stocks, appointing a union-busting NCB leader in Ian MacGregor, and ensuring police were adequately trained and equipped with riot gear, contributed to her victory.[106]
The number of stoppages across the UK peaked at 4583 in 1979, when more than 29 million working days were lost. In 1984, the year of the miners' strike, there were 1221, resulting in the loss of more than 27 million working days. Stoppages then fell steadily throughout the rest of Thatcher's premiership; in 1990 there were 630 and fewer than 2 million working days lost, and they continued to fall thereafter.[107] Trade union membership also fell, from 13.5 million in 1979 to fewer than 10 million by the time Thatcher left office in 1990.[108]
Privatisation[link]
The policy of privatisation has been called "a crucial ingredient of Thatcherism".[109] After the 1983 election the sale of state utilities accelerated;[110] more than £29 billion was raised from the sale of nationalised industries, and another £18 billion from the sale of council houses.[111]
The process of privatisation, especially the preparation of nationalised industries for privatisation, was associated with marked improvements in performance, particularly in terms of labour productivity.[112] Some of the privatised industries including gas, water, and electricity, were natural monopolies for which privatisation involved little increase in competition. The privatised industries that demonstrated improvement often did so while still under state ownership. British Steel, for instance, made great gains in profitability while still a nationalised industry under the government-appointed chairmanship of Ian MacGregor, who faced down trade-union opposition to close plants and reduce the workforce by half.[113] Regulation was also significantly expanded to compensate for the loss of direct government control, with the foundation of regulatory bodies like Ofgas, Oftel and the National Rivers Authority.[114] There was no clear pattern to the degree of competition, regulation, and performance among the privatised industries;[112] in most cases privatisation benefitted consumers in terms of lower prices and improved efficiency, but the results overall were "mixed".[115]
Thatcher always resisted rail privatisation, and was said to have told Transport Secretary Nicholas Ridley "Railway privatisation will be the Waterloo of this government. Please never mention the railways to me again." Shortly before her resignation, she accepted the arguments for privatising British Rail, which her successor John Major implemented in 1994.[116] The Economist later considered the move to have been "a disaster".[115]
The privatisation of public assets was combined with financial deregulation in an attempt to fuel economic growth. Geoffrey Howe abolished Britain's exchange controls in 1979, allowing more capital to be invested in foreign markets, and the Big Bang of 1986 removed many restrictions on the London Stock Exchange. The Thatcher government encouraged growth in the finance and service sectors to compensate for Britain's ailing manufacturing industry.
Northern Ireland[link]
In 1980 and 1981, Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) and Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) prisoners in Northern Ireland's Maze Prison carried out hunger strikes in an effort to regain the status of political prisoners that had been removed in 1976 under the preceding Labour government.[117] Bobby Sands began the 1981 strike, saying that he would fast until death unless prison inmates won concessions over their living conditions.[117] Thatcher refused to countenance a return to political status for the prisoners, declaring "Crime is crime is crime; it is not political",[117] but nevertheless the UK government privately contacted republican leaders in a bid to bring the hunger strikes to an end.[118] After the deaths of Sands and nine others, some rights were restored to paramilitary prisoners, but not official recognition of their political status.[119] Violence in Northern Ireland escalated significantly during the hunger strikes; in 1982 Sinn Féin politician Danny Morrison described Thatcher as "the biggest bastard we have ever known".[120]
Thatcher narrowly escaped injury in a IRA assassination attempt at a Brighton hotel early in the morning on 12 October 1984.[121] Five people were killed, including the wife of Cabinet Minister John Wakeham. Thatcher was staying at the hotel to attend the Conservative Party Conference, which she insisted should open as scheduled the following day.[121] She delivered her speech as planned,[122] a move that was widely supported across the political spectrum and enhanced her popularity with the public.[123]
On 6 November 1981 Thatcher and Irish Taoiseach Garret FitzGerald had established the Anglo-Irish Inter-Governmental Council, a forum for meetings between the two governments.[119] On 15 November 1985, Thatcher and FitzGerald signed the Hillsborough Anglo-Irish Agreement, the first time a British government had given the Republic of Ireland an advisory role in the governance of Northern Ireland. In protest the Ulster Says No movement attracted 100,000 to a rally in Belfast,[124] Ian Gow resigned as Minister of State in the HM Treasury,[125][126] and all fifteen Unionist MPs resigned their parliamentary seats; only one was not returned in the subsequent by-elections on 23 January 1986.[127]
Foreign affairs[link]
Thatcher took office in the penultimate decade of the Cold War and became closely aligned with the policies of United States President Ronald Reagan, based on their shared distrust of Communism,[94] although she strongly opposed Reagan's October 1983 invasion of Grenada.[128] During her first year as Prime Minister she supported NATO's decision to deploy US nuclear cruise and Pershing missiles in Western Europe,[94] and permitted the US to station more than 160 cruise missiles at RAF Greenham Common, starting on 14 November 1983 and triggering mass protests by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament.[94] She bought the Trident nuclear missile submarine system from the US to replace Polaris, tripling the UK's nuclear forces[129] at an eventual cost of more than £12 billion (at 1996–97 prices).[130] Thatcher's preference for defence ties with the US was demonstrated in the Westland affair of January 1986, when she acted with colleagues to allow the struggling helicopter manufacturer Westland to refuse a takeover offer from the Italian firm Agusta in favour of the management's preferred option, a link with Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation. The UK Defence Secretary, Michael Heseltine, who had supported the Agusta deal, resigned in protest.[131]
On 2 April 1982 the ruling military junta in Argentina ordered the invasion of the British-controlled Falkland Islands and South Georgia, triggering the Falklands War.[132] The subsequent crisis was "a defining moment of her [Thatcher's] premiership".[133] At the suggestion of Harold Macmillan and Robert Armstrong,[133] she set up and chaired a small War Cabinet (formally called ODSA, Overseas and Defence committee, South Atlantic) to take charge of the conduct of the war,[134] which by 5–6 April had authorised and dispatched a naval task force to retake the islands.[135] Argentina surrendered on 14 June and the operation was hailed a success, notwithstanding the deaths of 255 British servicemen and 3 Falkland Islanders. Argentinian deaths totalled 649, half of them after the nuclear-powered submarine HMS Conqueror torpedoed and sank the cruiser ARA General Belgrano on 2 May.[136] Thatcher was criticised for the neglect of the Falklands' defence that led to the war, and notably by Tam Dalyell in parliament for the decision to sink the General Belgrano, but overall she was considered a highly capable and committed war leader.[137] The "Falklands factor", an economic recovery beginning early in 1982, and a bitterly divided Labour opposition contributed to Thatcher's second election victory in 1983.[138] Thatcher often referred after the war to the "Falklands Spirit"; Hastings and Jenkins (1983) suggested that this reflected her preference for the streamlined decision-making of her War Cabinet over the painstaking deal-making of peace-time cabinet government.[139]
Although saying that she was against apartheid, Thatcher stood against the sanctions imposed on South Africa by the Commonwealth and the EC.[140] She attempted to preserve trade with South Africa while persuading the regime there to abandon apartheid. This included "[c]asting herself as President Botha's candid friend", and inviting him to visit the UK in June 1984, in spite of the "inevitable demonstrations" against his regime.[141] Thatcher, on the other hand, was no friend of the African National Congress (ANC), which Geoffrey Howe recalls her dismissing as late as October 1987 as "a typical terrorist organisation".[142]
The Thatcher government supported the Khmer Rouge keeping their seat in the UN after they were ousted from power in Cambodia by the Cambodian–Vietnamese War. Although denying it at the time they also sent the SAS to train the Khmer Rouge alliance to fight against the Vietnamese-backed People's Republic of Kampuchea government.[143][144][145]
Thatcher's antipathy towards European integration became more pronounced during her premiership, particularly after her third election victory in 1987. During a 1988 speech in Bruges she outlined her opposition to proposals from the European Community (EC), forerunner of the European Union, for a federal structure and increased centralisation of decision making.[146] Thatcher and her party had supported British membership of the EC in the 1975 national referendum,[147] but she believed that the role of the organisation should be limited to ensuring free trade and effective competition, and feared that the EC's approach was at odds with her views on smaller government and deregulation;[148] in 1988, she remarked, "We have not successfully rolled back the frontiers of the state in Britain, only to see them re-imposed at a European level, with a European super-state exercising a new dominance from Brussels".[148] Thatcher was firmly opposed to the UK's membership of the Exchange Rate Mechanism, a precursor to European monetary union, believing that it would constrain the British economy,[149] despite the urging of her Chancellor of the Exchequer Nigel Lawson and Foreign Secretary Geoffrey Howe,[150] but she was persuaded by John Major to join in October 1990, at what proved to be too high a rate.[151]
In April 1986, Thatcher permitted US F-111s to use Royal Air Force bases for the bombing of Libya in retaliation for the alleged Libyan bombing of a Berlin discothèque,[152] citing the right of self-defence under Article 51 of the UN Charter.[153][nb 4] Polls suggested that less than one in three British citizens approved of Thatcher's decision.[155] She was in the US on a state visit when Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein invaded neighbouring Kuwait in August 1990.[156] During her talks with US President George H. W. Bush, who had succeeded Reagan in 1989, she recommended intervention,[156] and put pressure on Bush to deploy troops in the Middle East to drive the Iraqi army out of Kuwait.[157] Bush was somewhat apprehensive about the plan, prompting Thatcher to remark to him during a telephone conversation that "This was no time to go wobbly!"[158] Thatcher's government provided military forces to the international coalition in the build-up to the Gulf War, but she had resigned by the time hostilities began on 17 January 1991.
Thatcher was one of the first Western leaders to respond warmly to reformist Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. Following Reagan–Gorbachev summit meetings and reforms enacted by Gorbachev in the USSR, she declared in November 1988 that "We're not in a Cold War now", but rather in a "new relationship much wider than the Cold War ever was".[159] She went on a state visit to the Soviet Union in 1984, and met with Gorbachev and Nikolai Ryzhkov, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers.[160] Thatcher was initially opposed to German reunification, telling Gorbachev that it "would lead to a change to postwar borders, and we cannot allow that because such a development would undermine the stability of the whole international situation and could endanger our security". She expressed concern that a united Germany would align itself more closely with the Soviet Union and move away from NATO.[161] In contrast she was an advocate of Croatian and Slovenian independence.[162] In a 1991 interview for Croatian Radiotelevision, Thatcher commented on the Yugoslav Wars; she was critical of Western governments for not recognising the breakaway republics of Croatia and Slovenia as independent states and supplying them with arms after the Serbian-led Yugoslav Army attacked.[163]
Challenges to leadership and resignation[link]
Thatcher was challenged for the leadership of the Conservative Party by the little-known backbench MP Sir Anthony Meyer in the 1989 leadership election.[164] Of the 374 Conservative MPs eligible to vote 314 voted for Thatcher and 33 for Meyer.[164] Her supporters in the party viewed the result as a success, and rejected suggestions that there was discontent within the party.[164]
During her premiership Thatcher had the second-lowest average approval rating, at 40 percent, of any post-war Prime Minister. Polls consistently showed that she was less popular than her party.[165] A self-described conviction politician, Thatcher always insisted that she did not care about her poll ratings, pointing instead to her unbeaten election record.[166]
Opinion polls in September 1990 reported that Labour had established a 14% lead over the Conservatives,[167] and by November the Conservatives had been trailing Labour for 18 months.[165] These ratings, together with Thatcher's combative personality and willingness to override colleagues' opinions, contributed to discontent within the Conservative party.[168]
On 1 November 1990 Geoffrey Howe, the last remaining member of Thatcher's original 1979 cabinet, resigned from his position as Deputy Prime Minister over her refusal to agree to a timetable for Britain to join the European single currency.[167][169] In his resignation speech on 13 November, Howe commented on Thatcher's European stance: "It is rather like sending your opening batsmen to the crease only for them to find the moment that the first balls are bowled that their bats have been broken before the game by the team captain."[170] His resignation was fatal to Thatcher's premiership.[171]
The next day, Michael Heseltine mounted a challenge for the leadership of the Conservative Party.[172] Opinion polls had indicated that he would give the Conservatives a national lead over Labour.[173] Although Thatcher won the first ballot, Heseltine attracted sufficient support (152 votes) to force a second ballot.[174] Thatcher initially stated that she intended to "fight on and fight to win" the second ballot, but consultation with her Cabinet persuaded her to withdraw.[168][174][175] After seeing the Queen, calling other world leaders, and making one final Commons speech, she left Downing Street in tears. She regarded her ousting as a betrayal.[176]
Thatcher was replaced as Prime Minister and party leader by her Chancellor John Major, who oversaw an upturn in Conservative support in the 17 months leading up to the 1992 general election and led the Conservatives to their fourth successive victory on 9 April 1992.[177] Thatcher favoured Major over Heseltine in the leadership contest, but her support for him weakened in later years.[178]
Later years[link]
Thatcher returned to the backbenches as MP for Finchley for two years after leaving the premiership.[179] She retired from the House at the 1992 election, aged 66, saying that leaving the Commons would allow her more freedom to speak her mind.[180]
Post-Commons[link]
After leaving the House of Commons, Thatcher became the first former Prime Minister to set up a foundation; it closed down in 2005 because of financial difficulties.[181] She wrote two volumes of memoirs, The Downing Street Years (1993) and The Path to Power (1995).
In July 1992, Thatcher was hired by the tobacco company Philip Morris as a "geopolitical consultant" for $250,000 per year and an annual contribution of $250,000 to her foundation.[182] She also earned $50,000 for each speech she delivered.[183]
In August 1992, Thatcher called for NATO to stop the Serbian assault on Goražde and Sarajevo to end ethnic cleansing during the Bosnian War. She compared the situation in Bosnia to "the worst excesses of the Nazis", and warned that there could be a "holocaust".[184] She made a series of speeches in the Lords criticising the Maastricht Treaty,[180] describing it as "a treaty too far" and stated "I could never have signed this treaty".[185] She cited A. V. Dicey when stating that as all three main parties were in favour of revisiting the treaty, the people should have their say.[186]
Thatcher was honorary Chancellor of the College of William and Mary in Virginia (1993–2000)[187] and also of the University of Buckingham (1992–1999), the UK's first private university, which she had opened in 1975.[188]
After Tony Blair's election as Labour Party leader in 1994, Thatcher praised Blair in an interview as "probably the most formidable Labour leader since Hugh Gaitskell. I see a lot of socialism behind their front bench, but not in Mr Blair. I think he genuinely has moved."[189]
In 1998, Thatcher called for the release of former Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet when Spain had him arrested and sought to try him for human rights violations, citing the help he gave Britain during the Falklands War.[190] In 1999, she visited him while he was under house arrest near London.[191] Pinochet was released in March 2000 on medical grounds by the Home Secretary Jack Straw, without facing trial.[192]
In the 2001 general election Thatcher supported the Conservative general election campaign, but did not endorse Iain Duncan Smith as she had done for John Major and William Hague. In the Conservative leadership election shortly after, she supported Smith over Kenneth Clarke.[193]
In March 2002, Thatcher's book Statecraft: Strategies for a Changing World, dedicated to Ronald Reagan, was released. In it, she claimed there would be no peace in the Middle East until Saddam Hussein was toppled, that Israel must trade land for peace, and that the European Union (EU) was "fundamentally unreformable", "a classic utopian project, a monument to the vanity of intellectuals, a programme whose inevitable destiny is failure". She argued that Britain should renegotiate its terms of membership or else leave the EU and join the North American Free Trade Area. The book was serialised in The Times on 18 March.
Thatcher suffered several small strokes in 2002 and was advised by her doctors not to engage in any more public speaking.[194] On 23 March she announced that on the advice of her doctors she would cancel all planned speaking engagements and accept no more.[195]
Since 2003[link]
Sir Denis Thatcher died on 26 June 2003 and was cremated on 3 July.[196] She had paid tribute to him in The Downing Street Years, writing "Being Prime Minister is a lonely job. In a sense, it ought to be: you cannot lead from the crowd. But with Denis there I was never alone. What a man. What a husband. What a friend".[197]
On 11 June 2004, Thatcher attended the state funeral service for Ronald Reagan.[198] She delivered her eulogy via videotape; in view of her health, the message had been pre-recorded several months earlier.[199] Thatcher then flew to California with the Reagan entourage, and attended the memorial service and interment ceremony for the president at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library.[200]
Thatcher celebrated her 80th birthday at the Mandarin Oriental Hotel in Hyde Park, London, on 13 October 2005; guests included the Queen, The Duke of Edinburgh, Princess Alexandra and Tony Blair.[201] Geoffrey Howe, by then Lord Howe of Aberavon, was also present, and said of his former leader: "Her real triumph was to have transformed not just one party but two, so that when Labour did eventually return, the great bulk of Thatcherism was accepted as irreversible."[202]
In 2006, Thatcher attended the official Washington, D.C. memorial service to commemorate the fifth anniversary of the 11 September 2001 attacks on the United States. She was a guest of Vice President Dick Cheney, and met with Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice during her visit.[203]
In February 2007, Thatcher became the first living UK Prime Minister to be honoured with a statue in the Houses of Parliament. The bronze statue stands opposite that of her political hero, Sir Winston Churchill,[204] and was unveiled on 21 February 2007 with Thatcher in attendance; she made a rare and brief speech in the members' lobby of the House of Commons, responding: "I might have preferred iron – but bronze will do ... It won't rust."[204] The statue shows her addressing the House of Commons, with her right arm outstretched.[205]
She is a public supporter of the Prague Declaration on European Conscience and Communism and the resulting Prague Process, and sent a public letter of support to its preceding conference.[206]
After collapsing at a House of Lords dinner, Thatcher was admitted to St Thomas' Hospital in central London on 7 March 2008 for tests.[207] Her daughter Carol has recounted how she was first struck by her mother's dementia when she muddled the Falklands conflict with the Yugoslav wars; she has also recalled the pain of needing to tell her mother repeatedly that Denis Thatcher was dead.[208][209]
Thatcher returned to 10 Downing Street in late November 2009 for the unveiling of an official portrait by the artist Richard Stone,[210] an unusual honour for a living ex-Prime Minister.[211] Stone had previously painted portraits of the Queen and the Queen Mother.[210]
At the Conservative Party conference in 2010, the new Prime Minister David Cameron announced that he would invite Thatcher back to 10 Downing Street on her 85th birthday for a party to be attended by past and present ministers. She pulled out of the celebration because of flu.[212][213] She was invited to the Royal Wedding on 29 April 2011 but did not attend, reportedly due to ill health.[214]
On 4 July 2011, Thatcher was to attend a ceremony for the unveiling of a 10-foot statue to former American President Ronald Reagan, outside the American Embassy but was unable to attend due to frail health.[215] On 31 July 2011 it was announced that the former prime minister's office in the House of Lords had been closed down.[216] Earlier in July 2011, Thatcher had been named the most competent British Prime Minister of the past 30 years in an Ipsos MORI poll.[217]
Legacy[link]
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Thatcher defined her own political philosophy, in a major and controversial break with One Nation Conservatives like her predecessor Edward Heath,[218] in her statement to Douglas Keay, published in Woman's Own magazine in September 1987:
I think we have gone through a period when too many children and people have been given to understand "I have a problem, it is the Government's job to cope with it!" or "I have a problem, I will go and get a grant to cope with it!" "I am homeless, the Government must house me!" and so they are casting their problems on society and who is society? There is no such thing! There are individual men and women and there are families and no government can do anything except through people and people look to themselves first. It is our duty to look after ourselves and then also to help look after our neighbour and life is a reciprocal business and people have got the entitlements too much in mind without the obligations.[219]
To her supporters, Margaret Thatcher remains a figure who revitalised Britain's economy, curbed the trade unions, and re-established the nation as a world power.[220] She oversaw an increase from 7% to 25% of adults owning shares, and more than a million families bought their council houses, giving an increase from 55% to 67% in owner-occupiers. Total personal wealth rose by 80%.[221]
Thatcher's premiership was also marked by high unemployment and social unrest,[220] and many critics fault her economic policies for the unemployment level; many of the areas affected by high unemployment as a result of her monetarist economic policies have still not fully recovered and are blighted by social problems such as drug abuse and family breakdown.[222] Speaking in Scotland in April 2009, before the 30th anniversary of her election as Prime Minister, Thatcher insisted she had no regrets and was right to introduce the poll tax, and to withdraw subsidies from "outdated industries, whose markets were in terminal decline", subsidies that created "the culture of dependency, which had done such damage to Britain".[223] Political economist Susan Strange called the new financial growth model "casino capitalism", reflecting her view that speculation and financial trading were becoming more important to the economy than industry.[224]
Critics have regretted Thatcher's influence in the abandonment of full employment, poverty reduction and a consensual civility as bedrock policy objectives. She has been criticised as being divisive[225] and for promoting greed and selfishness.[220] Many recent biographers have been critical of aspects of the Thatcher years and Michael White, writing in New Statesman in February 2009, challenged the view that her reforms had brought a net benefit.[226] Despite being Britain's first woman Prime Minister, some critics contend Thatcher did "little to advance the political cause of women",[227] either within her party or the government, and some British feminists regarded her as "an enemy".[228] Her stance on immigration was perceived as part of a rising racist public discourse, which Professor Martin Barker has called "new racism".[229]
Influenced at the outset by Keith Joseph,[230] the term "Thatcherism" came to refer to her policies as well as aspects of her ethical outlook and personal style, including moral absolutism, nationalism, interest in the individual, and an uncompromising approach to achieving political goals.[nb 5] The nickname "Iron Lady", originally given to her by the Soviets, became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style.[231][232][233]
In 2011, Labour leader Ed Miliband praised some of Thatcher's key policies, stating: "Some of what happened in the 1980s was right. It was right to let people buy their council houses. It was right to cut tax rates of 60, 70, 80 per cent. And it was right to change the rules on the closed shop, on strikes before ballots. These changes were right, and we were wrong to oppose it at the time."[234]
Thatcher's tenure of 11 years and 209 days as Prime Minister was the longest since Lord Salisbury (13 years and 252 days in three spells starting in 1885), and the longest continuous period in office since Lord Liverpool (14 years and 305 days starting in 1812).[235][236][237]
Honours[link]
Thatcher became a Privy Councillor (PC) upon becoming Secretary of State for Education and Science in 1970.[238] She was appointed a Member of the Order of Merit (OM) (an order within the personal gift of the Queen) within two weeks of leaving office. Denis Thatcher was made a Baronet at the same time.[239] She became a peer in the House of Lords in 1992 with a life peerage as Baroness Thatcher, of Kesteven in the County of Lincolnshire.[180][240] She was appointed a Lady Companion of the Order of the Garter, the UK's highest order of chivalry, in 1995.[241]
She was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1983,[22] and was the first woman entitled to full membership rights as an honorary member of the Carlton Club on becoming leader of the Conservative Party in 1975.[242]
In the Falklands, Margaret Thatcher Day has been marked every 10 January since 1992,[243] commemorating her visit in 1983.[244][245] Thatcher Drive in Stanley is named for her, as is Thatcher Peninsula in South Georgia, where the task force troops first set foot on the Falklands.[243]
Thatcher has been awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honour awarded by the US.[246] She is a patron of The Heritage Foundation,[247] which established the Margaret Thatcher Center for Freedom in 2005.[248] Speaking of Heritage president Ed Feulner, at the first Clare Booth Luce lecture in September 1993, Thatcher said: "You didn't just advise President Reagan on what he should do; you told him how he could do it. And as a practising politician I can testify that that is the only advice worth having."[249]
Other awards include Dame Grand Cross of the Croatian Grand Order of King Dmitar Zvonimir.[250]
Media depictions[link]
Main article: Cultural depictions of Margaret Thatcher
Margaret Thatcher has been depicted in many television programmes, documentaries, films and plays. She was played by Patricia Hodge in Ian Curteis's long unproduced The Falklands Play (2002) and by Andrea Riseborough in the TV film The Long Walk to Finchley (2008). She is the titular character in two films, portrayed by Lindsay Duncan in Margaret (2009) and by Meryl Streep in The Iron Lady (2011),[251] in which she is depicted as having Alzheimer's disease.[252]
Thatcher was lampooned by satirist John Wells in several media. Wells collaborated with Richard Ingrams on the spoof "Dear Bill" letters which ran as a column in Private Eye magazine, were published in book form, and were then adapted into a West End stage revue as Anyone for Denis?, starring Wells as Denis Thatcher. The stage show was followed by a 1982 TV special directed by Dick Clement.[253] In 1979, Wells was commissioned by comedy producer Martin Lewis to write and perform on a comedy record album titled Iron Lady: The Coming Of The Leader on which Thatcher was portrayed by comedienne and noted Thatcher impersonator Janet Brown. The album consisted of skits and songs satirising Thatcher's rise to power.
Spitting Image, a satirical British TV show, once portrayed Thatcher as a bullying tyrant, wearing trousers, and ridiculing her own ministers.[254]
Protest songs[link]
Thatcher was the subject or the inspiration for several protest songs. Paul Weller was a founding member of Red Wedge collective, which unsuccessfully sought to oust Thatcher with the help of music. In 1987, they organised a comedy tour with British comedians Lenny Henry, Ben Elton, Robbie Coltrane, Harry Enfield and others.[255]
Styles and titles[link]
- Miss Margaret Roberts (1925–1951)
- Mrs. Margaret Thatcher (1951–1959)
- Mrs. Margaret Thatcher, MP (1959–1970)
- The Rt Hon. Margaret Thatcher, MP (1970–1990)
- The Rt Hon. Lady Thatcher, OM, MP (1990–1992)
- The Rt Hon. The Baroness Thatcher, OM, PC (1992–1995)
- The Rt Hon. The Baroness Thatcher, LG, OM, PC (1995–present)
References[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ In her foreword to the 1979 Conservative manifesto, Thatcher wrote of "a feeling of helplessness, that a once great nation has somehow fallen behind".[2]
- ^ "The hang-up has always been the voice. Not the timbre so much as, well, the tone—the condescending explanatory whine which treats the squirming interlocutor as an eight-year-old child with personality deficiencies. It has been fascinating, recently, to watch her striving to eliminate this. BBC2 News Extra on Tuesday night rolled a clip from May 1973 demonstrating the Thatcher sneer at full pitch. (She was saying that she wouldn't dream of seeking the leadership.) She sounded like a cat sliding down a blackboard." James, Clive (9 February 1975). The Observer (London). Anthologised in James 1977, pp. 119–120.
- ^ Amid uproar from both sides of the house, Mrs Thatcher shouted: "So you are afraid of an election are you? Afraid, Afraid, Afraid. Frightened, frit – couldn't take it. Couldn't stand it." "PM taunts Labour over early election". The Guardian. 20 April 1983.
- ^ Speaking to the House of Commons, Thatcher stated that "the United States has more than 330,000 members of her forces in Europe to defend our liberty. Because they are here, they are subject to terrorist attack. It is inconceivable that they should be refused the right to use American aircraft and American pilots in the inherent right of self-defence, to defend their own people."[154]
- ^ Nigel Lawson listed the Thatcherite ideals as: "Free markets, financial discipline, firm control over public expenditure, tax cuts, nationalism, 'Victorian values' (of the Samuel Smiles self-help variety), privatisation and a dash of populism." Lawson 1992, p. 64
Footnotes[link]
- ^ a b Thatcher 1995, p. 150
- ^ Thatcher, Margaret (1979). "Conservative Party Manifesto 1979". Foreword. conservativemanifesto.com. http://www.conservativemanifesto.com/1979/1979-conservative-manifesto.shtml. Retrieved 28 July 2009.
- ^ Beckett 2006, p. 1
- ^ a b Beckett 2006, p. 3
- ^ a b Beckett 2006, p. 8
- ^ Johnson, Maureen (28 May 1988). "Bible-Quoting Thatcher Stirs Furious Debate". Associated Press.
- ^ Beckett 2006, p. 5
- ^ Beckett 2006, p. 6
- ^ Blundell 2008, pp. 21–22
- ^ "Kesteven & Grantham Girls' School". Kestevengrantham.lincs.sch.uk. http://www.kestevengrantham.lincs.sch.uk/. Retrieved 27 January 2011.
- ^ Beckett 2006, p. 12
- ^ Blundell 2008, p. 23
- ^ Blundell 2008, pp. 25–27
- ^ Beckett 2006, p. 16
- ^ Beckett 2006, pp. 20–21
- ^ Blundell 2008, p. 28
- ^ Blundell 2008, p. 30
- ^ Reitan 2003, p. 17
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- ^ "Lady Thatcher pulls out of 85th birthday party at No 10 for health reasons". The Guardian. Press Association (London: Guardian News and Media). 14 October 2010. http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2010/oct/14/lady-thatcher-pulls-out-85th-birthday-party-no-10. Retrieved 16 October 2010.
- ^ "Baroness Thatcher admitted to hospital". BBC News. 19 October 2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-11579988. Retrieved 19 October 2010.
- ^ Kirkup, James (29 April 2011). "Royal Wedding Invite". Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/royal-wedding/8482346/Royal-wedding-Tony-Blair-not-offended-by-lack-of-invite.html. Retrieved 29 October 2011.
- ^ "Ronald Reagan statue unveiled at US Embassy in London". BBC News. 4 July 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-14009137.
- ^ Walker, Tim (30 July 2011). "Baroness Thatcher's office is closed". The Telegraph (London: Telegraph Media Group). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/8671195/Baroness-Thatchers-office-is-closed.html. Retrieved 21 August 2011.
- ^ Stacey, Kiran (3 July 2011). "Thatcher heads poll of most competent PMs". financial times.com. http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/d4e23a0c-a3f9-11e0-8b4f-00144feabdc0.html#axzz1R5B1AzaY. Retrieved 31 July 2011.
- ^ Campbell, John (2008). Margaret Thatcher: The Iron Lady. Random House. pp. 530–532. ISBN 0-09-951677-2.
- ^ "Interview for Woman's Own ("no such thing as society") with journalist Douglas Keay". Margaret Thatcher Foundation. 23 September 1987. http://www.margaretthatcher.org/speeches/displaydocument.asp?docid=106689. Retrieved 10 April 2007.
- ^ a b c "Evaluating Thatcher's legacy". BBC News. 4 May 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3681973.stm. Retrieved 1 November 2008.
- ^ Marr 2007, p. 430
- ^ Richards 2004, p. 63
- ^ Allardyce, Jason (26 April 2009). "Thatcher: I did right by Scots; Thatcher: I regret nothing". Sunday Times: p. 1.
- ^ Gamble 2009, p. 16
- ^ "Who has been UK's greatest post-war PM?". BBC News. 16 September 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/newsnight/7593554.stm.
- ^ "Who was it who first removed the seat belts and airbags from the safe-but-boring Volvo that the West built after 1945? 'Her freer, more promiscuous version of capitalism' in Hugo Young's phrase is reaping a darker harvest." Michael White "The Making of Maggie" New Statesman 26 February 2009
- ^ Evans 2004, p. 25
- ^ Burns 2009, p. 234
- ^ Chin 2009, p. 92
- ^ Marr 2007, p. 358
- ^ "Margaret Thatcher: Britain's Iron Lady – CBC Archives". Archives.cbc.ca. http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/international_politics/clips/2029/. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
- ^ "Thatcher Quits Public Life, Citing Health". The New York Times. 23 March 2002. http://www.nytimes.com/2002/03/23/world/thatcher-quits-public-life-citing-health.html. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
- ^ 14 June 2009 2:30 am (14 June 2009). "Margaret Thatcher rushed to hospital". Perth Now. http://www.perthnow.com.au/news/world/margaret-thatcher-rushed-to-hospital/story-e6frg1p3-1225734493486. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
- ^ "Labour Party Conference: Ed Miliband's speech in full". Daily Telegraph (London: Telegraph Media Group). 27 September 2011. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/ed-miliband/8791870/Labour-Party-Conference-Ed-Milibands-speech-in-full.html. Retrieved 10 March 2012.
- ^ HM Government. "Margaret Thatcher". Number10.gov.uk. http://www.number10.gov.uk/history-and-tour/prime-ministers-in-history/margaret-thatcher. Retrieved 18 April 2011.
- ^ HM Government. "Marquess of Salisbury". Number10.gov.uk. http://www.number10.gov.uk/history-and-tour/prime-ministers-in-history/marquess-of-salisbury. Retrieved 18 April 2011.
- ^ HM Government. "Earl of Liverpool". Number10.gov.uk. http://www.number10.gov.uk/history-and-tour/prime-ministers-in-history/earl-of-liverpool. Retrieved 18 April 2011.
- ^ Gay, O.; Rees, A. (2005). "The Privy Council" (PDF). House of Commons Library Standard Note. SN/PC/2708. http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/briefings/snpc-3708.pdf. Retrieved 27 February 2009.
- ^ London Gazette: no. 52360. p. 19066. 11 December 1990. Retrieved 28 February 2008.
- ^ London Gazette: no. 52978. p. 11045. 26 June 1992. Retrieved 4 January 2012.
- ^ London Gazette: no. 54017. p. 6023. 25 April 1995. Retrieved 28 February 2008.
- ^ Ungoed-Thomas, Jon (8 February 1998). "Carlton Club to vote on women". The Sunday Times.
- ^ a b "Falklands to make 10 January Thatcher Day – Newspaper", Reuters News (6 January 1992).
- ^ Wheeler 2004, p. 171
- ^ Pat Roller, "Off the Record", Scottish Daily Record (10 January 2004), p. 10
- ^ "Speech receiving Medal of Freedom Award | Margaret Thatcher Foundation". http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/108263. Retrieved 21 March 2012.
- ^ "Heritage Foundation Board of Trustees". Heritage Foundation. http://www.heritage.org/About/Departments/trustees.cfm. Retrieved 14 June 2008.
- ^ Ros-Lehtinen, Ileana (13 September 2005). "Honoring the Iron Lady". Washington Times.
- ^ Thatcher, Margaret (23 September 1991). "First Clare Booth Luce Lecture". margaretthatcher.org. Margaret Thatcher Foundation. http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/108282. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- ^ Younge, Gary (21 September 1999). "The lady's not for leaving". The Guardian.
- ^ "Image of Meryl Streep as Margaret Thatcher unveiled". BBC News. 8 February 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-12393674. Retrieved 9 February 2011.
- ^ Steinberg, Julie (22 December 2011). "'The Iron Lady' Draws Fire For Depicting Margaret Thatcher With Alzheimer's — Speakeasy — WSJ". The Wall Street Journal. http://blogs.wsj.com/speakeasy/2011/12/22/the-iron-lady-draws-fire-for-depicting-thatcher-with-alzheimers/. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
- ^ "Anyone for Denis?". British Film Institute. http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/title/4789. Retrieved 19 January 2011.
- ^ Marr 2007, p. 417
- ^ Heard, Chris (4 May 2004). "Rocking against Thatcher". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/3682281.stm.
Bibliography[link]
- Beckett, Andy (2010). When the Lights Went Out; Britain in the Seventies. Faber & Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-22137-0.
- Burns, William E. (2009). A Brief History of Great Britain. Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-7728-1.
- Beckett, Clare (2006). Margaret Thatcher. Haus Publishing. ISBN 978-1-904950-71-4.
- Blundell, John (2008). Margaret Thatcher: a portrait of the Iron Lady. Algora. ISBN 978-0-87586-630-7.
- Butler, David; Butler, Gareth (1994). British Political Facts 1900–1994 (7 ed.). Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-52616-3.
- Campbell, John (2000). Margaret Thatcher; Volume One: The Grocer's Daughter. Pimlico. ISBN 0-7126-7418-7.
- Campbell, John (2003). Margaret Thatcher; Volume Two: The Iron Lady. Pimlico. ISBN 0-7126-6781-4.
- Childs, David (2006). Britain since 1945: a political history (6 ed.). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-39326-3.
- Chin, Rita C-K (2009). After the Nazi racial state: difference and democracy in Germany and Europe. ISBN 978-0-472-11686-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=tqlrRJHwjKoC&pg=PA92.
- Cochrane, Feargal (2001). Unionist Politics and the Politics of Unionism Since the Anglo-Irish Agreement. Cork University Press. ISBN 1-85918-259-3.
- English, Richard (2005). Armed Struggle: The History of the IRA. OUP. ISBN 978-0-19-517753-4.
- Evans, Eric (2004). Thatcher and Thatcherism (The Making of the Contemporary World) (2 ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-27013-7.
- Erickson, Carolly (2005). Lilibet: An Intimate Portrait of Elizabeth II. Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-33938-0.
- Feigenbaum, Harvey; Henig, Jeffrey; Hamnett, Chris (1998). Shrinking the State: The Political Underpinnings of Privatization. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-63918-7.
- Floud, Roderick; Johnson, Paul (2004). The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Britain, Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-52738-5.
- Foley, Michael (2002). John Major, Tony Blair and a Conflict of Leadership: Collision Course. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-6317-5.
- Gamble, Andrew (2009). The Spectre at the Feast: Capitalist Crisis and the Politics of Recession. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-23075-0.
- Gilbert, Martin (2002). A History of the Twentieth Century. Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-06-050594-X.
- Glyn, Andrew (1992). "The 'Productivity Miracle', Profits and Investment'". In Michie, Jonathan. The Economic Legacy, 1979–1992. Academic Press. pp. 77–87. ISBN 978-0-12-494060-4.
- Görtemaker, Manfred (2006). Britain and Germany in the Twentieth Century. Berg Publishers. ISBN 1-85973-842-7.
- Hastings, Max; Jenkins, Simon (1983). Battle for the Falklands. Norton. ISBN 0-393-30198-2.
- Howe, Geoffrey (1994). Conflict of Loyalty. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-59283-0.
- Jackling, Roger (2005). "The Impact of the Falklands Conflict on Defence Policy". In Badsey, Stephen; Grove, Mark; Havers, Rob. The Falklands Conflict Twenty Years On: Lessons for the Future (Sandhurst Conference Series). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-35030-3.
- James, Clive (1977). Visions Before Midnight. ISBN 978-0-224-01386-4.
- Jones, Bill (1999). Political Issues in Britain Today. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-5432-X.
- Jones, Bill; Kavanagh, Dennis; Moran, Michael (2007). "Media organisations and the political process". Politics UK (6 ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-2411-8.
- Khabaz, D.V. (2007). Manufactured Schema: Thatcher, the Miners and the Culture Industry. Matador. ISBN 978-1-905237-61-6.
- Kavanagh, Dennis (1997). The Reordering of British Politics: Politics after Thatcher. OUP. ISBN 978-0-19-878201-8.
- Lacey, Robert (2003). Monarch: The Life and Reign of Elizabeth II. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-3669-6.
- Lawson, Nigel (1992). The View from No. 11: Memoirs of a Tory Radical. Bantam. ISBN 978-0-593-02218-4.
- McAleese, Dermott (2004). Economics For Business: Competition, Macro-stability & Globalisation (3 ed.). Financial Times Management. ISBN 978-0-273-68398-8.
- Marr, Andrew (2007). A History of Modern Britain. Pan. ISBN 978-0-330-43983-1.
- Moloney, Ed (2002). A Secret History of the IRA. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-32502-4.
- Reitan, Earl Aaron (2003). The Thatcher Revolution: Margaret Thatcher, John Major, Tony Blair, and the Transformation of Modern Britain, 1979–2001. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-2203-2.
- Richards, Howard (2004). Understanding the Global Economy. Peace Education Books. ISBN 0-9748961-0-1.
- Seldon, Anthony; Collings, Daniel (2000). Britain Under Thatcher. Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-31714-7.
- Senden, Linda (2004). Soft Law in European Community Law. Hart Publishing. ISBN 1-84113-432-5.
- Seward, Ingrid (2001). The Queen and Di: The Untold Story. Arcade Publishing. ISBN 1-55970-561-2.
- Smith, Gordon (1989). Battles of the Falklands War. I. Allan. ISBN 978-0-7110-1792-4. http://www.naval-history.net/NAVAL1982FALKLANDS.htm.
- Thatcher, Margaret (1993). The Downing Street Years. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-255354-6.
- Thatcher, Margaret (1995). The Path to Power. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-638753-4.
- Thornton, Richard C. (2006). The Reagan Revolution II: Rebuilding the Western Alliance. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4120-1356-7.
- Toye, Richard; Gottlieb, Julie V. (2005). Making Reputations: Power, Persuasion and the Individual in Modern British Politics. I. B. Tauris. ISBN 1-85043-841-2.
- Veljanovski, Cento (1990). "The Political Economy of Regulation". In Dunleavy, Patrick; Gamble, Andrew; Peele, Gillian. Developments in British Politics 3. Macmillan.
- Wapshott, Nicholas (2007). Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher: A Political Marriage. Sentinel. ISBN 1-59523-047-5.
- Wheeler, Tony (2004). The Falklands and South Georgia Island. Lonely Planet. ISBN 1-74059-643-9.
- Williams, Andy (1998). UK Government & Politics. Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-435-33158-0.
Further reading[link]
- Biographies
- Abse, Leo (1989). Margaret, Daughter of Beatrice. Jonathan Cape. ISBN 978-0-224-02726-7.
- Dale, Iain, ed. (2000). Memories of Maggie. Politicos. ISBN 978-1-902301-51-8.
- Pugh, Peter; Flint, Carl (1997). Thatcher for Beginners. Icon Books. ISBN 978-1-874166-53-5.
- Young, Hugo (1993). One of Us: Life of Margaret Thatcher (2nd ed.). Pan Books. ISBN 978-0-330-32841-8.
- Political analysis
- Butler, David; Adonis, Andrew; Travers, Tony (1994). Failure in British government: the politics of the poll tax. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-827876-4.
- Jenkins, Peter (1987). Mrs. Thatcher's Revolution: Ending of the Socialist Era. Jonathan Cape. ISBN 978-0-674-58833-2.
- Letwin, Shirley Robin (1992). The Anatomy of Thatcherism. Flamingo. ISBN 978-0-00-686243-7.
- Young, Hugo (1986). The Thatcher Phenomenon. BBC. ISBN 978-0-563-20473-2.
- Books by Thatcher
- Thatcher, Margaret; Harris, Robin (1997). Harris, Robin Harris. ed. The Collected Speeches of Margaret Thatcher. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-018734-7.
- Thatcher, Margaret (2002). Statecraft: Strategies for a Changing World. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-019973-9.
- Ministerial autobiographies
- Heseltine, Michael (2001). Life in the Jungle: My Autobiography. Coronet. ISBN 978-0-340-73916-7.
- Major, John (1999). The Autobiography. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-653074-9.
- Parkinson, Cecil (1992). Right at the Centre. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-81262-3.
- Ridley, Nicholas (1991). 'My Style of Government': The Thatcher Years. Hutchinson. ISBN 978-0-09-175051-0.
- Tebbit, Norman (1988). Upwardly Mobile. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-79427-1.
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Margaret Thatcher |
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- Margaret Thatcher Foundation
- Margaret Thatcher and the Privatization Movement from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
- Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by Margaret Thatcher
- Margaret Thatcher on the Downing Street website.
- Archival material relating to Margaret Thatcher listed at the UK National Register of Archives
- Records of the Prime Minister's Office, digitised files from the Prime Minister's Office, covering from the 1979 general election to December 1979.
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- Margaret Thatcher at the Internet Movie Database
- Works by or about Margaret Thatcher in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Margaret Thatcher collected news and commentary at The Guardian
- Margaret Thatcher collected news and commentary at The New York Times
- Actresses (and actors) who have portrayed Thatcher, The Telegraph (London), 8 February 2011. Retrieved 28 May 2011
- Portraits of Margaret Hilda Thatcher (née Roberts), Baroness Thatcher at the National Portrait Gallery, London
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.svg)
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Thatcher, Margaret Hilda, Baroness Thatcher |
| Alternative names | Roberts, Margaret Hilda |
| Short description | Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1979–1990) |
| Date of birth | 13 October 1925 |
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