- published: 20 Apr 2009
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Cleveland, Ohio
Cleveland (
/ˈkliːvlənd/) is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio and is the county seat of Cuyahoga County, the most populous county in the state. The city is located in northeastern Ohio on the southern shore of Lake Erie, approximately 60 miles (97 km) west of the Pennsylvania border. It was founded in 1796 near the mouth of the Cuyahoga River, and became a manufacturing center owing to its location on the lake shore, as well as being connected to numerous canals and railroad lines. Cleveland's economy has diversified sectors that include manufacturing, financial services, healthcare, and biomedical. Cleveland is home to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.
As of the 2010 Census, the city proper had a total population of 396,815 and was the 45th largest city in the United States, and the second largest city in Ohio. It is the center of Greater Cleveland, the largest metropolitan area in Ohio. The Cleveland-Elyria-Mentor Metropolitan Statistical Area in 2011 ranked as the 28th largest in the United States with 2,068,283 people. Cleveland is part of the larger Cleveland-Akron-Elyria Combined Statistical Area, which in 2011 had a population of 2,871,084, and ranked as the country's 15th largest.
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Houston, Texas
Houston ( /ˈhjuːstən/) (Alibamu: Yosti ) is the largest city in the state of Texas, and the fourth-largest city in the United States. According to the 2010 U.S. Census, the city had a population of 2.1 million people within an area of 656.3 square miles (1,700 km2). Houston is the seat of Harris County and the economic center of Houston–Sugar Land–Baytown, which is the fifth-largest metropolitan area in the United States, with 6.08 million people as of July 1st, 2011.
Houston was founded in 1836 on land near the banks of Buffalo Bayou. It was incorporated as a city on June 5, 1837, and named after then-President of the Republic of Texas—former General Sam Houston—who had commanded at the Battle of San Jacinto, which took place 25 miles (40 km) east of where the city was established. The burgeoning port and railroad industry, combined with oil discovery in 1901, has induced continual surges in the city's population. In the mid-twentieth century, Houston became the home of the Texas Medical Center—the world's largest concentration of healthcare and research institutions—and NASA's Johnson Space Center, where the Mission Control Center is located.
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Maryland
Maryland (
i/ˈmɛrɨlənd/) is a U.S. state located in the Mid Atlantic region of the United States, bordering Virginia, West Virginia, and the District of Columbia to its south and west; Pennsylvania to its north; and Delaware to its east. Maryland was the seventh state to ratify the United States Constitution, and three nicknames for it (the Old Line State, the Free State, and the Chesapeake Bay State) are occasionally used. Maryland is the 9th smallest state by area, but the 19th most populous and the 5th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The state's most populated city is Baltimore. Its capital is Annapolis. It was named after Queen Henrietta Maria.
Maryland has an area of 12,406.68 square miles (32,133.2 km2) and is comparable in overall area with the European country of Belgium (11,787 square miles (30,530 km2)). It is the 42nd largest/9th smallest state, and is closest in size to Hawaii (10,930.98 square miles (28,311.1 km2)), the next smallest state. The next largest state, Maryland's neighbor West Virginia, is almost twice the size of Maryland (24,229.76 square miles (62,754.8 km2)).
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Milwaukee
Milwaukee /mɪlˈwɔːkiː/ is the largest city in the U.S. state of Wisconsin, the 28th most populous city in the United States, and 39th most populous region in the United States. It is the county seat of Milwaukee County and is located on the southwestern shore of Lake Michigan. According to 2010 census data, the City of Milwaukee has a population of 594,833. Milwaukee is the main cultural and economic center of the Milwaukee–Racine–Waukesha Metropolitan Area with a population of 1,751,316 as of 2010. Milwaukee is also the regional center of the seven county Greater Milwaukee Area, with an estimated population of 2,014,032 as of 2008.
The first Europeans to pass through the area were French missionaries and fur traders. In 1818, the French-Canadian explorer Solomon Juneau settled in the area, and in 1846 Juneau's town combined with two neighboring towns to incorporate as the City of Milwaukee. Large numbers of German and other immigrants helped increase the city's population during the 1840s and the following decades.
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NASA
Coordinates: 38°52′59″N 77°0′59″W / 38.88306°N 77.01639°W / 38.88306; -77.01639
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is the agency of the United States government that is responsible for the nation's civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace research. Since February 2006, NASA's mission statement has been to "pioneer the future in space exploration, scientific discovery and aeronautics research." On September 14, 2011, NASA announced that it had selected the design of a new Space Launch System that it said would take the agency's astronauts farther into space than ever before and provide the cornerstone for future human space exploration efforts by the U.S.
NASA was established by the National Aeronautics and Space Act on July 29, 1958, replacing its predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The agency became operational on October 1, 1958. U.S. space exploration efforts have since been led by NASA, including the Apollo moon-landing missions, the Skylab space station, and later the Space Shuttle. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle and Commercial Crew vehicles. The agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program (LSP) which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches.
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Terre Haute, Indiana
Terre Haute (/ˌtɛrə ˈhoʊt/) is a city and the county seat of Vigo County, Indiana, United States, near the state's western border with Illinois. As of the 2010 census, the city had a total population of 60,785 and its metropolitan area had a population of 170,943. The city is the county seat of Vigo County and the self-proclaimed capital of the Wabash Valley. The federal death row is in Terre Haute at the Terre Haute Federal Correctional Complex.
Terre Haute is located at 39°28′11″N 87°23′23″W / 39.46972°N 87.38972°W / 39.46972; -87.38972 (39.469586, −87.389762), alongside the eastern bank of the Wabash River in western Indiana. The city lies about 75 miles (121 km) west of Indianapolis.
According to the 2010 census, the city has a total area of 35.27 square miles (91.3 km2), of which 34.54 square miles (89.5 km2) (or 97.93%) is land and 0.73 square miles (1.9 km2) (or 2.07%) is water.
The Wabash River dominates the physical geography of the city, forming its western border. Small bluffs on the east side of city mark the edge of the historic flood plain. Lost Creek and Honey Creek drain the northern and southern sections of the city, respectively. In the late 19th century (particularly during the Terre Haute Oil Craze of 1889), several oil and mineral wells were productive in and near the center of the city. Those have not been tapped for many years.
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United States
The United States of America (commonly abbreviated to the United States, the U.S., the USA, America, and the States) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west, across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Pacific and Caribbean.
At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2) and with over 312 million people, the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area, and the third largest by both land area and population. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The U.S. economy is the world's largest national economy, with an estimated 2011 GDP of $15.1 trillion (22% of nominal global GDP and over 19% of global GDP at purchasing-power parity). Per capita income is the world's sixth-highest.
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Addie L. Wyatt
Addie L. Wyatt (née Cameron) (March 8, 1924 – March 28, 2012) was a leader in the United States Labor movement, and a civil rights activist. Wyatt is known for being the first African-American woman elected international vice president of a major labor union, the Amalgamated Meat Cutters Union. Wyatt began her career in the union in the early 1950s and advanced in leadership. In 1975, with the politician Barbara Jordan, she was the first African-American woman named by Time magazine as Person of the Year.
Wyatt was born to Ambrose and Maggie (Nolan) Cameron in Brookhaven, Mississippi on March 8, 1924. She is the second child and the oldest daughter of eight children. She moved with her family to Chicago in 1930 when she was six years old. She married Claude S. Wyatt Jr. on May 12, 1940. With Claude she had two sons, Renaldo Wyatt and Claude S. Wyatt III. She raised several of her younger siblings after her mother died and her father was unable to care for them because of illness.
After her marriage Wyatt took a job in a Chicago meat packing company in 1941 after failing to be hired as a typist because of her color. She worked as a meat packer from 1941 to 1954, and during this time became increasingly involved with the United Packinghouse and Food and Alliance Workers Union. In 1953, Wyatt was "elected vice president of her branch, Local 56, becoming the first black woman to hold senior office in an American labor union". Wyatt was the director of the Women's Affairs and Human Rights departments of the Amalgamated Meat Cutters. In the early 1960s, Eleanor Roosevelt recognized her leadership abilities and appointed her to a position on the Labor Legislation Committee of the United States Commission on the Status of Women.
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Alan Bean
Alan LaVern Bean (born March 15, 1932) is a former NASA astronaut, engineer, and painter. Bean was selected to become an astronaut by NASA in 1963 as part of Astronaut Group 3. He made his first flight into space aboard Apollo 12, the second manned mission to land on the Moon, at the age of thirty-seven years in November 1969. During this mission, Bean became the fourth human to walk on the Moon. He made his second and final flight into space on the Skylab 3 mission in 1973, the second manned mission to the Skylab space station. After retiring from the United States Navy in 1975 and NASA in 1981, Bean pursued his interest in painting, depicting various space-related scenes and documenting his own experiences in space as well as that of his fellow Apollo Program astronauts.
Bean was born in Wheeler, the seat of Wheeler County in the northeastern Texas Panhandle. He is of Scottish descent. As a boy, he lived in Minden, the seat of Webster Parish in northwestern Louisiana, where his father worked for the U.S. Soil Conservation Service. Bean graduated from R. L. Paschal High School in Fort Worth, Texas. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in aeronautical engineering from the University of Texas at Austin in 1955. At UT he was a member of Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity (Omega Chi chapter). After a four year tour as a fighter pilot assigned to a jet attack squadron in Jacksonville, Fla., he trained as a Navy Test Pilot where his instructor was his future Apollo 12 Commander Pete Conrad. He was awarded an honorary doctorate of science from Texas Wesleyan College in 1972, and was presented an honorary doctorate of engineering science degree from the University of Akron (Ohio) in 1974.
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Alan Shepard
Alan Bartlett Shepard, Jr. (November 18, 1923 – July 21, 1998) was an American naval aviator, test pilot, flag officer, and NASA astronaut who in 1961 became the second person, and the first American, in space. This Mercury flight was designed to enter space, but not to achieve orbit. Ten years later, at age 47 the oldest astronaut in the program, Shepard commanded the Apollo 14 mission, piloting the lander to the most accurate landing of the Apollo missions. He became the fifth person to walk on the Moon, and the only Mercury astronaut to walk on the moon. During the mission he hit two golf balls on the lunar surface.
These were his only two space flights, as his flight status was interrupted for five years (1964–69) during the Mercury and Gemini programs by Ménière's disease, an inner-ear disease that was surgically corrected before his moon flight. Shepard served as chief of the Astronaut Office from November 1963 – July 1969 (approximately the period of his grounding), and from June 1971 – August 1, 1974 (from his last flight, to his retirement). He was promoted from captain to rear admiral on August 25, 1971. He retired from the US Navy and NASA in 1974.
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Alison Cheek
Alison Cheek is a religious leader best known for being named by Time magazine as a Woman of the Year in 1975 representing the Women's Movement. Cheek was an Episcopal priest and became one of the first women to be an ordained priest in an Episcopal church. In August 1974 She was installed as assistant priest at the Church of St. Stephen and the Incarnation in Washington. In November 1974 Cheek became the first woman to celebrate communion in an Episcopal church in defiance of the diocesan bishop.
"A Dozen Who Made a Difference – Alison Cheek: Defiant Deacon". Time. 1976-01-05. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,947599-5,00.html. Retrieved 2008-02-14.
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Barbara Jordan
Barbara Charline Jordan (February 21, 1936 – January 17, 1996) was an American politician and a leader of the Civil Rights movement. She was the first African American elected to the Texas Senate after Reconstruction and the first southern black female elected to the United States House of Representatives. She received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, among numerous other honors. On her death she became the first African-American woman to be buried in the Texas State Cemetery.
Barbara Jordan was born in Houston, Texas' Fifth Ward. Her parents were Benjamin Jordan, a Baptist minister; and Arlyne Jordan, a "domestic worker". Barbara attended Roberson Elementary School. She graduated from Phillis Wheatley High School in 1952 as an honor student.
Because of segregation, she did not attend The University of Texas at Austin and instead chose Texas Southern University, majoring in political science and history. Barbara was a national champion debater, defeating her opponents from such schools as Yale and Brown and tying Harvard University. She graduated magna cum laude in 1956. At Texas Southern University, she pledged Delta Sigma Theta sorority. She attended Boston University School of Law, graduating in 1959.
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Betty Ford
Elizabeth Ann Bloomer Warren Ford (April 8, 1918 – July 8, 2011), better known as Betty Ford, was First Lady of the United States from 1974 to 1977 during the presidency of her husband Gerald Ford. As First Lady, she was active in social policy and created precedents as a politically active presidential wife.
Throughout her husband's term in office, she maintained high approval ratings despite opposition from some conservative Republicans who objected to her more moderate and liberal positions on social issues. Ford was noted for raising breast cancer awareness following her 1974 mastectomy and was a passionate supporter of, and activist for, the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). Pro-choice on abortion and a leader in the Women's Movement, she gained fame as one of the most candid first ladies in history, commenting on every hot-button issue of the time, including feminism, equal pay, the ERA, sex, drugs, abortion, and gun control. She also raised awareness of addiction when she announced her long-running battle with alcoholism in the 1970s.
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Bill Anders
William Alison Anders (born October 17, 1933) is a former United States Air Force officer, NASA astronaut, businessman, and engineer. He is, along with Apollo 8 crewmates Frank Borman and Jim Lovell, one of the first three persons to have left Earth orbit and traveled to the Moon (of only 24 people to date).
Anders was born to US Navy Lt. Arthur F. Anders and Muriel Adams Anders in Hong Kong and was active in the Boy Scouts of America where he achieved its second-highest rank, Life Scout. Anders attended St. Martin's Academy and Grossmont High School in La Mesa, California. He was born and raised Roman Catholic. However according to one article his outlook on religion changed profoundly after his participation in the Apollo 8 mission. He found his experience of space made a mockery of his beliefs and he gave up religion.
He received a Bachelor of Science degree from the United States Naval Academy in 1955 and a Master of Science degree in nuclear engineering from the Air Force Institute of Technology at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, in 1962. Anders completed the Harvard Business School Advanced Management Program in 1979.
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Billie Jean King
Billie Jean King (née Moffitt; born November 22, 1943) is a former professional tennis player from the United States. She won 12 Grand Slam singles titles, 16 Grand Slam women's doubles titles, and 11 Grand Slam mixed doubles titles. King has been an advocate against sexism in sports and society. She won "The Battle of the Sexes" in 1973, in which she defeated Bobby Riggs, a former Wimbledon men's singles champion, for $100,000, winner take all. She completed a career tour all surfaces win-loss performance of 81.76% (696-165). Her win-loss performance in all Grand Slam singles tournaments was 82.00% (190-39), at the French Open 77.77% (21-6), at Wimbledon 86.36% (95-15), at the US Open 80.55% (58–14), and at the Australian Open 80.00% (16-4).
King is the founder of the Women's Tennis Association, the Women's Sports Foundation, and owner of World Team Tennis, which was founded by her former husband, Larry King, Dennis Murphy, Frank Barman, and Jordan Kaiser.
Billie Jean Moffit was born in Long Beach, California, into a conservative Methodist family, the daughter of a fireman father and housewife mother. Her younger brother Randy Moffitt grew up to become a professional baseball player, pitching for 12 years in the major leagues for the San Francisco Giants, Houston Astros, and Toronto Blue Jays.
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Buzz Aldrin
Buzz Aldrin, Sc.D. (born Edwin Eugene Aldrin, Jr., January 20, 1930) is an American mechanical engineer, retired United States Air Force pilot and astronaut who was the lunar module pilot on Apollo 11, the first manned lunar landing in history. On July 20, 1969, he was the second human being to set foot on the moon, following mission commander Neil Armstrong.
Aldrin was born in Glen Ridge, New Jersey, to Edwin Eugene Aldrin, Sr., a career military man, and his wife Marion (née Moon). He is of Scottish, Swedish, and German ancestry. After graduating from Montclair High School in 1946, Aldrin turned down a full scholarship offer from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and went to the U.S. Military Academy at West Point. The nickname "Buzz" originated in childhood: the younger of his two elder sisters mispronounced "brother" as "buzzer", and this was shortened to Buzz. Aldrin made it his legal first name in 1988.
Aldrin graduated third in his class at West Point in 1951 with a bachelor of science degree in mechanical engineering. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the U.S. Air Force and served as a jet fighter pilot during the Korean War. He flew 66 combat missions in F-86 Sabres and shot down two Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 aircraft. The June 8, 1953, issue of LIFE magazine featured gun camera photos taken by Aldrin of one of the Russian pilots ejecting from his damaged aircraft.
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Carla Anderson Hills
Carla Anderson Hills (born January 3, 1934) is an American lawyer and a public figure. She served as United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development in the Gerald Ford administration, and as U.S. Trade Representative. She was the first woman to serve as Secretary of Housing and Urban Development and the third woman to serve as a cabinet officer.
Born Carla Anderson in Los Angeles, she received her B.A. degree from Stanford University, after studying at Oxford University. She earned her LL.B. degree from Yale University Law School in 1958 and married Roderick M. Hills the same year.
Hills was admitted to the California bar in 1959, and served as an Assistant United States Attorney in Los Angeles from 1959 to 1961. From 1962 to 1974, she was a partner at Munger, Tolles, Hills, and Rickershauser in Los Angeles. In 1972, she was an adjunct professor at UCLA. An authority on federal practice and anti-trust law, Mrs. Hills wrote of Federal Civil Practice and Antitrust Advisor. She is a former president of the National Association of Women Lawyers.
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Carol Sutton
Carol Sutton (June 29, 1933-February 19, 1985) was an American journalist. In 1974 she became the first female managing editor of a major U.S. daily newspaper, The Courier-Journal in Louisville, Kentucky. She was cited as the example of female achievement in journalism when Time named American Women as the 1975 People of the Year. During her tenure at the paper, it was awarded the 1976 Pulitzer Prize for Feature Photography for its coverage of school desegregation in Louisville. She is also credited with significantly raising the number of minority reporters on staff.
"Kentucky Women Remembered," a permanent exhibit at the Kentucky State Capitol's Main Floor of watercolors of Women of Kentucky and those who help(ed) change the mindset of those upcoming. "TODAY'S WOMAN" Magazine for KY & Indiana. Daughter Kate Whaley Archer accepts the First Postumous Award Ever Given. Carol Sutton knew of her Kentucky Journalism Hall of Fame award at the University of Kentucky before her death in 1985, and was very humbled and honored by it. The family holds a Carol Sutton Memorial Scholarship Award in her honor every year, which has grown from our first recipient to 8 or twelve deserving people. It is for we people who want and need more racial and ethnic equality within the news reporting workplace. She was the first white woman to be inducted into the National Association of Black Journalist's Hall of Fame.
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Charles Bassett
Charles Arthur "Art" Bassett, II (December 30, 1931 – February 28, 1966) was an American engineer and United States Air Force officer. He was selected as a NASA astronaut in 1963 and assigned to Gemini 9 but died in an airplane crash during training for his first spaceflight.
Bassett was born in Dayton, Ohio, on December 30, 1931. He was active in the Boy Scouts of America, where he achieved its second highest rank, Life Scout. After graduating from Berea High School in Berea, Ohio in 1950, he attended Ohio State University from 1950 to 1952, and Texas Technological College, now Texas Tech University, from 1958 to 1960. He received a bachelor of science degree in electrical engineering with honors from Texas Tech; he did graduate work at University of Southern California.
He graduated from the Aerospace Research Pilot School and the Air Force Experimental Pilot School and became a captain in the United States Air Force. He served as an experimental test pilot and engineering test pilot in the Fighter Projects Office at Edwards Air Force Base, California. He logged over 3,600 hours-flying time, including over 2,900 hours in a jet aircraft.
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Charles de Gaulle
Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle (/ˈtʃɑrlz/ or /ˈʃɑrl dəˈɡɔːl/; French: [ʃaʁl də ɡol] (
listen); 22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French general and statesman who led the Free French Forces during World War II. He later founded the French Fifth Republic in 1958 and served as its first President from 1959 to 1969.
A veteran of World War I, in the 1920s and 1930s de Gaulle came to the fore as a proponent of mobile armoured divisions, which he considered would become central in modern warfare. During World War II, he earned the rank of brigadier general (retained throughout his life), leading one of the few successful armoured counter-attacks during the 1940 Battle of France in May in Montcornet, and then briefly served in the French government as France was falling. De Gaulle was the most senior French military officer to reject the June 1940 armistice to Nazi Germany right from the outset.
He escaped to Britain and gave a famous radio address, broadcast by the BBC on 18 June 1940, exhorting the French people to resist Nazi Germany and organised the Free French Forces with exiled French officers in Britain. As the war progressed de Gaulle gradually gained control of all French colonies except Indochina most of which had at first been controlled by the pro-German Vichy regime. Despite earning a reputation for being a difficult man to do business with, by the time of the Allied invasion of France in 1944 he was heading what amounted to a French government in exile, but although he insisted that France be treated as a great independent power by the other Allies, the Americans in particular remained deeply suspicious of his motives. De Gaulle became prime minister in the French Provisional Government, resigning in 1946 because of political conflicts.
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Charles Hard Townes
Charles Hard Townes (born July 28, 1915) is an American Nobel Prize-winning physicist and educator. Townes is known for his work on the theory and application of the maser, on which he got the fundamental patent, and other work in quantum electronics connected with both maser and laser devices. He shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1964 with Nikolay Basov and Alexander Prokhorov. The Japanese FM Towns computer and game console is named in his honour.
Townes was born in Greenville, South Carolina on July 28, 1915, the son of Henry Keith Townes, an attorney, and Ellen (Hard) Townes. He attended the Greenville public schools and then Furman University in Greenville, where he completed the requirements for the Bachelor of Science degree in Physics and the Bachelor of Arts degree in Modern Languages, graduating summa cum laude in 1935, at the age of 19. Physics had fascinated him since his first course in the subject during his sophomore year in college because of its "beautifully logical structure". He was also interested in natural history while at Furman, serving as curator of the museum, and working during the summers as collector for Furman's biology camp. In addition, he was busy with other activities, including the swimming team, the college newspaper and the football band.
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Charles Stark Draper
Charles Stark Draper (October 2, 1901 – July 25, 1987) was an American scientist and engineer, often referred to as "the father of inertial navigation." He was the founder and director of the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory, later renamed the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, which under his direction designed and built the Apollo Guidance Computer for NASA, which made the Apollo moon landings possible.
Born in Windsor, Missouri, he attended the University of Missouri in 1917, then transferred to Stanford University, California in 1919, from which he earned a B.A. in psychology in 1922. After Stanford, he attended Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), from which he earned an S.B. in electrochemical engineering in 1926, and an S.M. and Sc.D. in physics in 1928 and 1938 respectively.
He started teaching while at MIT, first as an assistant, then quickly became a full professor in aeronautical engineering in 1939. It was here that he founded the Instrumentation Laboratory in the 1930s, spun off in 1973 as The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc. In 1961, Draper and the Instrumentation Lab were awarded the first contract given out for the Apollo program to send humans to the moon, which had just been announced by President John F. Kennedy. This led to the creation of the Apollo Guidance Computer, a one-cubic-foot computer that controlled the navigation and guidance of the Lunar Excursion Module to the surface of the moon during six successful landings.
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Christa McAuliffe
Christa McAuliffe (September 2, 1948 – January 28, 1986) was an American teacher from Concord, New Hampshire, and was one of the seven crew members killed in the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.
She received her bachelor's degree in education and history from Framingham State College in 1970, and also a Master of Arts from Bowie State University in 1978. She took a teaching post as a social studies teacher at Concord High School in New Hampshire in 1982.
In 1985, McAuliffe was selected from more than 11,000 applicants to participate in the NASA Teacher in Space Project and was scheduled to become the first teacher in space. As a member of mission STS-51-L, she was planning to conduct experiments and teach two lessons from Space Shuttle Challenger. On January 28, 1986, the spacecraft disintegrated 73 seconds after launch. After her death, schools and scholarships were named in her honor, and also in 2004 she was posthumously awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor.
Born Sharon Christa Corrigan in Boston, Massachusetts, the eldest of the five children of Edward Christopher Corrigan (1922–1990)—an accountant—and Grace Mary Corrigan (née George), a substitute teacher, she was of Irish, Lebanese, German, English, and Native American descent. McAuliffe's mother is of part Maronite Lebanese origin through her father (McAuliffe's grandfather), and is a niece of Lebanese-American historian Philip Khuri Hitti. McAuliffe was known by the name "Christa" from an early age, although in later years she signed her name "S. Christa Corrigan", and eventually "S. Christa McAuliffe".
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Donald A. Glaser
Donald Arthur Glaser (born September 21, 1926), is an American physicist, neurobiologist, and a winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics for his invention of the bubble chamber used in subatomic particle physics.
Born in Cleveland, Ohio, Glaser completed his B.Sc. degree in physics and mathematics from the Case Western Reserve University in 1946. He completed his Ph.D. in physics from the California Institute of Technology in 1949. Glaser accepted a position as an instructor at the University of Michigan, and was promoted to professor in 1957. He joined the faculty of the University of California at Berkeley, in 1959, as a Professor of Physics. During this time his research concerned short-lived elementary particles. The bubble chamber enabled him to observe the paths and lifetimes of the particles.
Starting in 1962, Glaser changed his field of research to molecular biology, starting with a project on ultraviolet-induced cancer. In 1964, he was given the additional title of Professor of Molecular Biology. Glaser's current position (since 1989) is Professor of Physics and Neurobiology in the Graduate School.
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Dwight D. Eisenhower
Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower (pronounced /ˈaɪzənhaʊər/, EYE-zən-how-ər; October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969) was the 34th President of the United States from 1953 until 1961. He had previously been a five-star general in the United States Army during World War II, and served as Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces in Europe; he had responsibility for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–43 and the successful invasion of France and Germany in 1944–45, from the Western Front. In 1951, he became the first supreme commander of NATO.
Eisenhower was of Pennsylvania Dutch ancestry, and was reared in a large family in Kansas, by parents with a robust work ethic and religious background. As one of five sons, he was conditioned by a competitive atmosphere which instilled self-reliance. He attended and graduated from West Point, and later was married with two sons. After World War II Eisenhower served as Chief of Staff under President Harry S. Truman, then assumed the post of President at Columbia University.
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Edward Higgins White
Edward Higgins White, II (Lt Col, USAF) (November 14, 1930 – January 27, 1967) was an engineer, United States Air Force officer and NASA astronaut. On June 3, 1965, he became the first American to "walk" in space. White died along with fellow astronauts Gus Grissom and Roger Chaffee during a pre-launch test for the first manned Apollo mission at Cape Kennedy. He was awarded the NASA Distinguished Service Medal for his Gemini 4 spaceflight and was posthumously awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor.
White was born in San Antonio, Texas, where he attended school and became a member of the Boy Scouts of America. After graduation from high school, he was accepted to the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, where in 1952 he earned his Bachelor of Science degree and was commissioned as a 2nd Lieutenant in the U.S. Air Force. White then chose a commission with the U.S. Air Force and attended flight school, a course that takes more than a year. Following graduation from flight school, white was assigned to the 22nd Fighter Day Squadron at Bitburg Air Base, Germany and would spend three and a half years in Germany flying in F-86 Sabre and F-100 Super Sabre squadrons.
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Edward Mills Purcell
Edward Mills Purcell (August 30, 1912 – March 7, 1997) was an American physicist who shared the 1952 Nobel Prize for Physics for his independent discovery (published 1946) of nuclear magnetic resonance in liquids and in solids.Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) has become widely used to study the molecular structure of pure materials and the composition of mixtures. See also Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Born and raised in Taylorville, Illinois, Purcell received his BSEE in electrical engineering from Purdue University, followed by his M.A. and Ph.D. in physics from Harvard University. He was a member of the Alpha Xi chapter of Phi Kappa Sigma while at Purdue. After spending the years of World War II working at the MIT Radiation Laboratory on the development of microwave radar, Purcell returned to Harvard to do research. In December 1946, he discovered nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) with his colleagues Pound and Torrey. NMR provides scientists with an elegant and precise way of determining chemical structure and properties of materials, and is widely used in physics and chemistry. It also is the basis of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), one of the most important medical advances of the 20th century. For his discovery of NMR, Purcell shared the 1952 Nobel Prize in physics with Felix Bloch of Stanford University.
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Edward Teller
Edward Teller (Hungarian: Teller Ede; January 15, 1908 – September 9, 2003) was a Hungarian-American theoretical physicist, known colloquially as "the father of the hydrogen bomb", even though he claimed he did not care for the title. Teller made numerous contributions to nuclear and molecular physics, spectroscopy (the Jahn–Teller and Renner–Teller effects), and surface physics. His extension of Fermi's theory of beta decay (in the form of the so-called Gamow–Teller transitions) provided an important stepping stone in the applications of this theory. The Jahn–Teller effect and the BET theory have retained their original formulation and are still mainstays in physics and chemistry. Teller also made contributions to Thomas–Fermi theory, the precursor of density functional theory, a standard modern tool in the quantum mechanical treatment of complex molecules. In 1953, along with Nicholas Metropolis and Marshall Rosenbluth, Teller co-authored a paper which is a standard starting point for the applications of the Monte Carlo method to statistical mechanics.
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Elizabeth II
Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary; born 21 April 1926) is the constitutional monarch of 16 sovereign states known as the Commonwealth realms, and head of the 54-member Commonwealth of Nations. She is also head of state of the Crown Dependencies.
Elizabeth was born in London, and educated privately at home. Her father acceded to the throne as George VI in 1936 on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII. She began to undertake public duties during the Second World War, in which she served in the Auxiliary Territorial Service. On the death of her father in 1952, she became Head of the Commonwealth and queen regnant of seven independent Commonwealth countries: the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan, and Ceylon. Her coronation service in 1953 was the first to be televised. Between 1956 and 1992, the number of her realms varied as territories gained independence and some realms became republics. Today, in addition to the first four aforementioned countries, Elizabeth is Queen of Jamaica, Barbados, the Bahamas, Grenada, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Belize, Antigua and Barbuda, and Saint Kitts and Nevis.
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Ella T. Grasso
Ella T. Grasso (May 10, 1919 – February 5, 1981) was an American politician, and the first woman elected governor of Connecticut.
Ella Rose Tambussi was born in Windsor Locks, Connecticut, to Italian immigrant parents Maria (née Oliva) and Giacomo Tambussi, a mill worker. Contrary to popular belief, she was not the first elected woman to serve as governor of a U.S. state; however, Grasso was the first woman who was elected governor "in her own right", i.e. without being the wife or widow of a past governor.
After attending St. Mary's School, Windsor Locks, and the Chaffee School, Windsor, she attended Mount Holyoke College, in South Hadley, Massachusetts, where she earned her B.A. in 1940, and her M.A. two years later. After graduation, she served as assistant director of research for the War Manpower Commission of Connecticut.
In 1952, Grasso was elected to the Connecticut House of Representatives and served until 1957. She became first woman to be elected Floor Leader of the House in 1955. In 1958 she was elected Secretary of the State of Connecticut and was re-elected in 1962 and 1966. She was the first woman to chair the Democratic State Platform Committee and served from 1956-68. She served as a member of the Platform Drafting Committee for the 1960 Democratic National Convention. She was the co-chairman for the Resolutions Committee for the Democratic National Conventions of 1964 and 1968. In 1970 she was elected as a Democratic representative to the 92nd Congress, and won re-election in 1972.
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Elliot See
Elliot McKay See, Jr. (July 23, 1927 – February 28, 1966), was an American astronaut, selected in the second group of astronauts.
Elliot See was born in Dallas, Texas and attended Highland Park High School. After initially attending The University of Texas where he was a member of Phi Kappa Psi Fraternity, he then attended the United States Merchant Marine Academy, graduating in 1949. He later obtained a masters degree from UCLA. He worked for General Electric before and after serving as a naval aviator from 1953 to 1956. He was married to Marilyn Denahy See, and had three children, Sally, Carolyn, and David.
See acted as backup pilot for Gemini 5 and was in line to fly as Prime Crew Pilot for Gemini 8 but was promoted to be the Command Pilot of Gemini 9. According to chief astronaut Deke Slayton's autobiography, Slayton did not assign See to Gemini 8 because he did not consider him physically capable of performing an extra-vehicular activity. Slayton further stated that he assigned See to Gemini 9 because he had become "sentimental" about getting him a flight.
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Emilio G. Segrè
Emilio Gino Segrè (1 February 1905 – 22 April 1989) was an Italian-born, naturalized American, physicist and Nobel laureate in physics, who with Owen Chamberlain, discovered antiprotons, a sub-atomic antiparticle.
Segrè was born into a Sephardic Jewish family in Tivoli, near Rome, and enrolled in the University of Rome La Sapienza as an engineering student. He switched to physics in 1927 and earned his doctorate in 1928, having studied under Enrico Fermi.
After a stint in the Italian Army from 1928 to 1929, he worked with Otto Stern in Hamburg and Pieter Zeeman in Amsterdam as a Rockefeller Foundation fellow in 1930. Segrè was appointed assistant professor of physics at the University of Rome in 1932 and served until 1936, becoming one of Via Panisperna boys. From 1936 to 1938 he was Director of the Physics Laboratory at the University of Palermo. After a visit to Ernest O. Lawrence's Berkeley Radiation Laboratory, he was sent a molybdenum strip from the laboratory's cyclotron deflector in 1937 which was emitting anomalous forms of radioactivity. After careful chemical and theoretical analysis, Segrè was able to prove that some of the radiation was being produced by a previously unknown element, dubbed technetium, and was the first artificially synthesized chemical element which does not occur in nature.
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Eugene Cernan
Eugene Andrew Cernan (born March 14, 1934) is a retired United States Navy officer and a former NASA astronaut and engineer. He has been into space three times: as pilot of Gemini 9A in June 1966; as lunar module pilot of Apollo 10 in May 1969; and as commander of Apollo 17 in December 1972, the final Apollo lunar landing.
On Apollo 17, Cernan became "the last man on the Moon" since he was the last to re-enter the lunar module Challenger during the mission's third and final extra-vehicular activity (EVA). (Crewmate Harrison Schmitt was "the last man to arrive on the Moon", as Cernan left the module first.) Cernan was also a backup crew member for the Gemini 12, Apollo 7 and Apollo 14 space missions.
A native of Chicago, Illinois, son of a Slovak father and a Czech mother, Cernan received his father's name, originally spelled Ondrej Čerňan (IPA: [ˈondrɛj ˈtʃɛrɲan]). He grew up in the towns of Bellwood and Maywood. He graduated from Proviso East High School in Maywood, Illinois. He attended Purdue University, where he became a member of Phi Gamma Delta, and graduated with a B.S. in electrical engineering in 1956. He was commissioned into the U.S. Navy through the Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps at Purdue, and became a Naval Aviator flying jets. He also received a M.S. in aeronautical engineering from the Naval Postgraduate School in 1963.
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Frank Borman
Frank Frederick Borman, II (born March 14, 1928) is a retired NASA astronaut and engineer, best remembered as the Commander of Apollo 8, the first mission to fly around the Moon, making him, along with fellow crew mates Jim Lovell and Bill Anders, the first of only 24 humans to do so. Before flying on Apollo, he set a fourteen-day spaceflight endurance record on Gemini 7, and also served on the NASA review board which investigated the Apollo 1 fire. After leaving NASA, he was the chief executive officer (CEO) of Eastern Air Lines from 1975 to 1986. Borman is a recipient of the Congressional Space Medal of Honor. In the HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon, Borman was played by David Andrews.
Borman was born in Gary, Indiana, where the Frank Borman Expressway is named after him. Because he suffered from numerous sinus problems in the cold and damp weather, his father packed up the family and moved to the better climate of Tucson, Arizona, which Borman considers his home town. He started to fly at the age of 15. He is a graduate of the Tucson High School. He graduated from the United States Military Academy in 1950 where he served as an Army Football Manager, and along with part of his graduating class, he entered the United States Air Force (USAF) and became a fighter pilot. He received his Master of Science degree in aeronautical engineering from the California Institute of Technology in 1957. Later, Borman was selected for the USAF test pilot school and became a test pilot.
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Fred Haise
Fred Wallace Haise, Jr. (/ˈheɪz/HAYZ; born November 14, 1933) is an American engineer and former NASA astronaut. He is one of only 24 humans to have flown to the Moon. Having flown on Apollo 13, Haise was to be the sixth human to walk on the Moon, but the mission did not land due to a failure aboard the spacecraft.
Haise was born in Biloxi, Mississippi. He attended Biloxi High School and Perkinston Junior College (now Mississippi Gulf Coast Community College).
He completed naval aviator training in 1954 and served as a United States Marine Corps fighter pilot.
He graduated with honors in aeronautical engineering from the University of Oklahoma in 1959. He completed post-graduate courses at the USAF Aerospace Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base in 1964 and the Harvard Business School PMD Program in 1972.
His NASA career began as an aeronautical research pilot at Lewis Research Center in 1959. Further assignments were held as a research pilot at the NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center in 1963 and as an astronaut at the Johnson Space Center in 1966. Haise was the first of the 1966 group to be assigned to Apollo duties – ahead of some group 3 members. He served on the back-up crew for the Apollo 8, Apollo 11, and Apollo 16 moon missions.
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Gene Cernan
Eugene Andrew Cernan (born March 14, 1934) is a retired United States Navy officer and a former NASA astronaut and engineer. He has been into space three times: as pilot of Gemini 9A in June 1966; as lunar module pilot of Apollo 10 in May 1969; and as commander of Apollo 17 in December 1972, the final Apollo lunar landing.
On Apollo 17, Cernan became "the last man on the Moon" since he was the last to re-enter the lunar module Challenger during the mission's third and final extra-vehicular activity (EVA). (Crewmate Harrison Schmitt was "the last man to arrive on the Moon", as Cernan left the module first.) Cernan was also a backup crew member for the Gemini 12, Apollo 7 and Apollo 14 space missions.
A native of Chicago, Illinois, son of a Slovak father and a Czech mother, Cernan received his father's name, originally spelled Ondrej Čerňan (IPA: [ˈondrɛj ˈtʃɛrɲan]). He grew up in the towns of Bellwood and Maywood. He graduated from Proviso East High School in Maywood, Illinois. He attended Purdue University, where he became a member of Phi Gamma Delta, and graduated with a B.S. in electrical engineering in 1956. He was commissioned into the U.S. Navy through the Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps at Purdue, and became a Naval Aviator flying jets. He also received a M.S. in aeronautical engineering from the Naval Postgraduate School in 1963.
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George Wells Beadle
George Wells Beadle (October 22, 1903 – June 9, 1989) was an American scientist in the field of genetics, and Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine Nobel laureate who with Edward Lawrie Tatum discovered the role of genes in regulating biochemical events within cells.
Beadle and Tatum's key experiments involved exposing the bread mold Neurospora crassa to x-rays, causing mutations. In a series of experiments, they showed that these mutations caused changes in specific enzymes involved in metabolic pathways. These experiments led them to propose a direct link between genes and enzymatic reactions, known as the "one gene, one enzyme" hypothesis.
George Wells Beadle was born in Wahoo, Nebraska. He was the son of Chauncey Elmer Beadle and Hattie Albro, who owned and operated a 40-acre (160,000 m2) farm nearby. George was educated at the Wahoo High School and might himself have become a farmer if one of his teachers at school had not directed his mind towards science and persuaded him to go to the College of Agriculture in Lincoln, Nebraska. In 1926 he took his B.Sc. degree at the University of Nebraska and subsequently worked for a year with Professor F.D. Keim, who was studying hybrid wheat. In 1927 he took his M.Sc. degree, and Professor Keim secured for him a post as Teaching Assistant at Cornell University, where he worked, until 1931, with Professors R.A. Emerson and L.W. Sharp on Mendelian asynopsis in Zea mays. For this work he obtained, in 1931, his Ph.D. degree. In 1931 he was awarded a National Research Council Fellowship at the California Institute of Technology at Pasadena, where he remained from 1931 until 1936. During this period he continued his work on Indian corn and began, in collaboration with Professors Th. Dobzhansky, S. Emerson, and A.H. Sturtevant, work on crossing-over in the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster.
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Gus Grissom
Virgil Ivan Grissom (April 3, 1926 – January 27, 1967), (Lt Col, USAF), better known as Gus Grissom, was one of the original NASA Project Mercury astronauts and a United States Air Force pilot. He was the second American to fly in space, and the first member of the NASA Astronaut Corps to fly in space twice.
Grissom was killed along with fellow astronauts Ed White and Roger Chaffee during a pre-launch test for the Apollo 1 mission at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (then known as Cape Kennedy), Florida. He was the first of the Mercury Seven to die. He was also a recipient of the Distinguished Flying Cross and, posthumously, the Congressional Space Medal of Honor.
Grissom was born in Mitchell, Indiana on April 3, 1926, the second child of Dennis and Cecile King Grissom. His father was a signalman for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, and his mother a homemaker. His older sister died shortly before his birth, and he was followed by three younger siblings, Wilma, Norman and Lowell. As a child he attended the local Church of Christ where he remained a lifelong member and joined the Boy Scouts' Troop 46. He was enrolled in public elementary schools and went on to attend Mitchell High School. Grissom met and befriended Betty Lavonne Moore at school through their extracurricular activities. He worked delivering newspapers for the Indianapolis Star and in a local meat market for his first jobs.
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Harlow Curtice
Harlow Herbert Curtice (August 15, 1893 - November 3, 1962) was an American auto industry executive who led General Motors (GM) from 1953 to 1958. As GM's chief, Curtice was selected as Man of the Year for 1955 by TIME magazine.
Curtice was born in Petrieville, Michigan. He joined General Motors at age 20, and rose through its AC Spark Plug division to head it by age 36, and made the division profitable during the Depression. Selected to head the Buick division of GM, he expanded its line and made it profitable in the 1930s.
In 1948, Curtice became executive vice president of GM, and succeeded to the presidency in 1953 when GM president Charles Wilson became Secretary of Defense. With Curtice as president, GM became immensely profitable, and became the first corporation to have $1 billion in profits in one year.
In 1958, Curtice retired just after his 65th birthday. The following year, he accidentally shot and killed a friend while duck hunting. He died in 1962 at age 69.
Curtice was born in Petrieville, Michigan, on August 15, 1893, the son of Marion Curtice and the former Mary Ellen Eckhart, and was raised in Eaton Rapids, Michigan, attending Eaton Rapids High School. During school vacations, he kept the books for his father, a commission merchant, and also worked in a woolen mill. He graduated from the Ferris Business College in 1914. After moving to Flint, Michigan later in 1914, Curtice began his meteoric rise at GM. He started as a bookkeeper for GM's AC Spark Plug Division. The 20-year-old, in his job interview by the company comptroller, told him that his ambition was to become comptroller himself within a year. He did so, becoming AC Spark Plug's comptroller at just 21. Curtice went beyond the ledger, exploring the plant to find out what the figures meant in terms of men and equipment.
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Henry Kissinger
Heinz Alfred "Henry" Kissinger ( /ˈkɪsɪndʒər/; born May 27, 1923) is a German-born American writer, political scientist, diplomat, and businessman. A recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize, he served as National Security Advisor and later concurrently as Secretary of State in the administrations of Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. After his term, his opinion was still sought by many subsequent presidents and many world leaders.
A proponent of Realpolitik, Kissinger played a dominant role in United States foreign policy between 1969 and 1977. During this period, he pioneered the policy of détente with the Soviet Union, orchestrated the opening of relations with the People's Republic of China, and negotiated the Paris Peace Accords, ending American involvement in the Vietnam War. Various American policies of that era, including the bombing of Cambodia, remain controversial to many.
Kissinger is still a controversial figure today. He is the founder and chairman of Kissinger Associates, an international consulting firm.
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Isidor Isaac Rabi
Isidor Isaac Rabi ( /ˈrɑːbi/; 29 July 1898 – 11 January 1988) was a Galician-born American physicist and Nobel laureate recognized in 1944 for his discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance.
Rabi was born into a traditional Jewish family in Rymanów, Galicia, Austria-Hungary (now Poland), and was brought to the United States as a child the following year. He was awarded a Bachelor of Science in Chemistry degree from Cornell University in 1919, continuing his studies at Columbia University and received his Ph.D. in 1927. A fellowship enabled him to spend the next two years in Europe working with such eminent physicists as Niels Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Wolfgang Pauli and Otto Stern. He then joined the Columbia faculty and never left.
In 1930 Rabi conducted investigations into the nature of the force binding protons to atomic nuclei. This research eventually led to the creation of the molecular-beam magnetic-resonance detection method, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1944.
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Jack Swigert
John Leonard "Jack" Swigert, Jr., (August 30, 1931 – December 27, 1982) was a NASA astronaut, one of the 24 persons who have flown to the Moon.
Before joining NASA, Swigert was a test pilot. After leaving NASA, he was elected to the United States House of Representatives, but died before being sworn in.
Swigert attended the Blessed Sacrament School, Regis Jesuit High School, and East High School. He graduated from the University of Colorado at Boulder, where he played varsity football and earned a bachelor-of-science degree in mechanical engineering. He earned a master-of-science degree in aerospace science from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, in Troy, New York, and a Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree from University of Hartford, in West Hartford, Connecticut.
He served in the United States Air Force from 1953 to 1956. After completing flight training at Nellis Air Force Base, he was assigned as a fighter pilot in Japan and Korea. After leaving active duty, Swigert was a test pilot for Pratt & Whitney (1957–1964) and North American Aviation (1964–1966). He served in the Massachusetts Air National Guard from September 1957 to March 1960 and as a member of the Connecticut Air National Guard from April 1960 to October 1965.
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James E. Hill
General James E. Hill (October 1, 1921 – May 20, 1999) was a World War II flying ace, U.S. Air Force General, and commander in chief of the North American Air Defense Command and the U.S. Air Force Aerospace Defense Command, with consolidated headquarters at Peterson Air Force Base, Colorado Springs, Colorado.
Hill was born in 1921, in Stillwater, Oklahoma. He graduated from Stillwater High School and then attended Oklahoma State University and the University of Oklahoma. He entered the U.S. Army Air Corps as an aviation cadet in March 1942 and was commissioned as a second lieutenant upon completing pilot training in February 1943.
In December 1943 Hill was assigned to the European theater of operations as a P-47 Thunderbolt fighter pilot. He become a World War II ace, credited with five enemy aircraft shot down while flying 127 combat missions. He returned to the United States in September 1945 and was released from active duty in December 1945. He then became the commander of a P-51 Mustang squadron in the Oklahoma Air National Guard.
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James Van Allen
James Alfred Van Allen (September 7, 1914 – August 9, 2006) was an American space scientist at the University of Iowa.
The Van Allen radiation belts were named after him, following the 1958 satellite missions (Explorer 1 and Explorer 3) in which Van Allen had argued that a Geiger counter should be used to detect charged particles.
In 1950 an event occurred that began small but was to affect the future of Van Allen and all his countrymen. In March, British Physicist Sydney Chapman dropped in on Van Allen [and] remarked that he would like to meet other scientists in the Washington area. Van Allen got on the phone, soon gathered eight or ten top scientists (Lloyd Berkner, S. Fred Singer, and Harry Vestine) in the living room of his small brick house. ‘It was what you might call a pedigreed bull session,’ he says. ... The talk turned to geophysics and the two ‘International Polar Years’ that had enlisted the world’s leading nations to study the Arctic and Antarctic regions in 1882 and 1932. Someone suggested that with the development of new tools such as rockets, radar and computers, the time was ripe for a worldwide geophysical year. The other men were enthusiastic, and their enthusiasm spread around the world from Washington DC. From this meeting Lloyd Berkner and other participants proposed to the International Council of Scientific Unions that an IGY be planned for 1957-58 during the maximum solar activity). ... The International Geophysical Year (1957-58) stimulated the U.S. Government to promise earth satellites as geophysical tools. The Soviet government countered by rushing its Sputniks into orbit. The race into space or Space Race may be said to have started in Van Allen’s living room that evening in 1950.
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Jeffrey Kluger
Jeffrey Kluger is a senior writer at TIME Magazine, and author of several books on science topics including Splendid Solution: Jonas Salk and the Conquest of Polio; Simplexity; Journey Beyond Selene; and Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13. The latter work was the basis for Ron Howard's 1995 film Apollo 13.
From June 1992 to September 1996, Kluger was a staff writer for Discover magazine, writing the humor column "Light Elements". He also worked as a writer and editor for the New York Times Business World Magazine, the Family Circle magazine, and Science Digest.
Kluger began his work with TIME in 1996 specializing in science coverage. He was named a senior writer in 1998. During his time at TIME magazine Kluger has written articles covering the Mars Pathfinder landing and the Columbia disaster.
Kluger was awarded the Whitman Bassow Award by the Overseas Press Club of America in 2002, an award he shared with two other colleagues. The award was given for "best reporting in any medium" on the international issues of global warming.
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Jill Ker Conway
Jill Ker Conway (born 9 October 1934) is an Australian-American author. Well known for her autobiographies, in particular her first memoir, The Road from Coorain. She was also Smith College's first woman president, from 1975–1985, and now serves as a Visiting Professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 2004 she was designated a Women's History Month Honoree by the National Women's History Project.
Conway was born in Hillston, New South Wales in the outback of Australia. Together with her two brothers, Conway was raised in near-total isolation on a family owned 73 square kilometres (18,000 acres) tract of land, Coorain (aboriginal word for "windy place"), which was eventually expanded into 129 square kilometres (32,000 acres). On Coorain she lived a lonely life, and grew up without playmates except for her brothers. She was schooled entirely by her mother and a country governess.
Conway spent her youth working the sheep station; by age seven, she was an important member of the workforce, helping with such activities as herding and tending the sheep, checking the perimeter fences and lugging heavy farm supplies around. The farm prospered until a drought that would last for seven years. This and her father's worsening health put an increasing burden on her shoulders. But this ended abruptly when she was 11 and her father drowned in an unfortunate diving accident, while trying to extend the farm's water piping.
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Jim Lovell
James "Jim" Arthur Lovell, Jr., (born March 25, 1928) is a former NASA astronaut and a retired captain in the United States Navy, most famous as the commander of the Apollo 13 mission, which suffered a critical failure en route to the Moon but was brought back safely to Earth by the efforts of the crew and mission control. Lovell was also the command module pilot of Apollo 8, the first Apollo mission to enter lunar orbit. Lovell is a recipient of the Congressional Space Medal of Honor and the Presidential Medal of Freedom. He is one of only 24 people to have flown to the Moon, the first of only three people to fly to the Moon twice, and the only one to have flown there twice without making a landing. Lovell was also the first person to fly in space four times.
Born in Cleveland, Ohio to a Czech mother, Lovell's family moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where he graduated from Juneau High School and became an Eagle Scout. His father died in a car accident when Lovell was young and, for about two years, he resided with a relative in Terre Haute, Indiana.
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John F. Kennedy
John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy
pronunciation (help·info) (May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), often referred to by his initials JFK, was the 35th President of the United States, serving from 1961 until his assassination in 1963.
After military service as commander of the Motor Torpedo Boats PT-109 and PT-59 during World War II in the South Pacific, Kennedy represented Massachusetts's 11th congressional district in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1947 to 1953 as a Democrat. Thereafter, he served in the U.S. Senate from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated then Vice President and Republican candidate Richard Nixon in the 1960 U.S. presidential election. He was the youngest elected to the office, at the age of 43, the second-youngest President (after Theodore Roosevelt), and the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president. Kennedy is the only Catholic president, and is the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize. Events during his presidency included the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the building of the Berlin Wall, the Space Race, the African American Civil Rights Movement, and early stages of the Vietnam War.
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John Foster Dulles
John Foster Dulles (February 25, 1888 – May 24, 1959) served as U.S. Secretary of State under President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1959. He was a significant figure in the early Cold War era, advocating an aggressive stance against communism throughout the world. He advocated support of the French in their war against the Viet Minh in Indochina and it is widely believed that he refused to shake the hand of Zhou Enlai at the Geneva Conference in 1954. He also played a major role in the Central Intelligence Agency operation to overthrow the democratic Mossadegh government of Iran in 1953 (Operation Ajax) and the democratic Arbenz government of Guatemala in 1954 (Operation PBSUCCESS).
Born in Washington, D.C., he was one of five children and the eldest son born to Presbyterian minister Allen Macy Dulles and his wife Edith (Foster). His paternal grandfather, John Welsh Dulles, had been a Presbyterian missionary in India. He attended public schools in Watertown, New York. After graduating from Princeton University (Phi Beta Kappa, 1908), where he competed on the American Whig-Cliosophic Society debate team, and graduating from The George Washington University Law School, he joined the New York City law firm of Sullivan & Cromwell, where he specialized in international law. He tried to join the United States Army during World War I but was rejected because of poor eyesight. Instead, Dulles received an Army commission as Major on the War Industries Board.
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John Franklin Enders
John Franklin Enders (February 10, 1897 – September 8, 1985) was an American medical scientist and Nobel laureate. Enders had been called "The Father of Modern Vaccines."
Enders was born in West Hartford, Connecticut and was educated at the Noah Webster School at Hartford and St. Paul's School in Concord, New Hampshire. He then attended Yale University for a short time before entering the United States Army Air Corps in 1918.
After returning from war he graduated from Yale, where he was a member of Scroll and Key as well as Delta Kappa Epsilon, and went on to become a businessman in real estate in 1922. He tried his hand at several careers before choosing to work in the biological field studying infectious diseases, gaining a Ph.D. at Harvard in 1930.
In 1954, while working at Children's Hospital Boston, Enders, Thomas Huckle Weller, and Frederick Chapman Robbins were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for their discovery of the ability of poliomyelitis viruses to grow in cultures of various types of tissue". This work was the first to show that viruses of this type could be grown and manipulated outside of the body. It was this technique dubbed the Enders-Weller-Robbins method that Jonas Salk used to develop the polio vaccine in 1952. After a large-scale test of the vaccine proved successful in 1954, Salk appeared on a radio show and announced his success to the world. Although he never claimed the credit for himself, he also did not offer up any credit to any of his colleagues, including Enders, Weller, and Robbins, whose technique made his success possible. Salk became a hero to the public, but was somewhat shunned by the scientific community. Despite this misappropriated credit many professionals in the field still regard Enders', Weller's and Robbins' work as substantial have given Enders the title of "The Father of Modern Vaccines".
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John Glenn
John Herschel Glenn, Jr. (born July 18, 1921) is a former United States Marine Corps pilot, astronaut, and United States senator who was the first American to orbit the Earth and the third American in space. Glenn was combat aviator in the Marine Corps and one of the seven elite US military test pilots to be selected by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (more commonly referred to as "NASA") to test fly and operate the experimental Mercury spacecraft outside of the mesosphere at altitudes above 115 miles (185 km) and at speeds exceeding 5,000 miles per hour (8,000 km/h) to become the first officially recognized American (US) astronauts. He flew the Friendship 7 mission on February 20, 1962. In 1965, Glenn retired from the military and resigned from NASA so he could be eligible to stand for election to public office. As a member of the Democratic Party he was elected to represent Ohio in the United States Senate from 1974 to 1999.
Glenn received a Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1978, and the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2012. He was inducted into the Astronaut Hall of Fame in 1990. On October 29, 1998, he became the oldest person to fly in space, and the only one to fly in both the Mercury and Space Shuttle programs, when at age 77, he flew on Discovery (STS-95). As of 2012, Glenn and M. Scott Carpenter are the last living members of the Mercury Seven.
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John Sirica
John Joseph Sirica (March 19, 1904–August 14, 1992) was the Chief Judge for the United States District Court for the District of Columbia, where he became famous for his role in the Watergate scandal. He rose to national prominence during the Watergate scandal when he ordered President Richard Nixon to turn over his recordings of White House conversations.
Sirica's involvement in the case began when he presided over the trial of the Watergate burglars. He did not believe the claim that they had acted alone, and persuaded or coerced them to implicate the men who had arranged the break-in. For his role in Watergate the judge was named TIME magazine's Man of the Year in 1973.
John Sirica was born in Waterbury, Connecticut to Ferdinand and Rose Zinno Sirica, both of whom were Italian immigrants. He moved to D.C. in 1918, where he attended Emerson Preparatory School and eventually transferred to Columbia Preparatory School. Sirica received his J.D. from the Georgetown University Law Center after doing undergraduate work at Duke University.
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Johnny Carson
John William "Johnny" Carson (October 23, 1925 – January 23, 2005) was an American television host and comedian, known for thirty years as host of The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (1962–1992). Carson received six Emmy Awards, the Governor Award, and a 1985 Peabody Award. He was inducted into the Television Academy Hall of Fame in 1987. Johnny Carson was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1992 and received a Kennedy Center Honor in 1993.
Although his show was already successful by the end of the 1960s, during the 1970s Carson became an American icon and remained so until his retirement in 1992. He adopted a casual, conversational approach with extensive interaction with guests, an approach pioneered by Arthur Godfrey and previous Tonight Show hosts Steve Allen and Jack Paar. Late night hosts David Letterman, Jay Leno, Conan O'Brien, Craig Ferguson, and Jimmy Fallon have all cited Carson's influence on their late-night talk shows, which resemble his in format and tone.
Carson was born in Corning, Iowa, in the year 1925, to Homer Lloyd "Kit" Carson, a power company manager, and Ruth Hook Carson, who was of Irish descent. He grew up in the nearby towns of Avoca, Clarinda, and Red Oak in southwest Iowa before moving to Norfolk, Nebraska, at the age of eight. At the age of twelve, Carson found a book on magic at a friend's house and immediately purchased a mail-order magician's kit. He debuted as "The Great Carsoni" at fourteen and was paid $3; many other performances at local picnics and country fairs followed.
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Joshua Lederberg
Joshua Lederberg ForMemRS (May 23, 1925 – February 2, 2008) was an American molecular biologist known for his work in microbial genetics, artificial intelligence, and the United States space program. He was just 33 years old when he won the 1958 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for discovering that bacteria can mate and exchange genes. He shared the prize with Edward L. Tatum and George Beadle who won for their work with genetics.
In addition to his contributions to biology, Lederberg did extensive research in artificial intelligence. This included work in the NASA experimental programs seeking life on Mars and the chemistry expert system Dendral.
Lederberg was born in Montclair, New Jersey, to a Jewish family, son of Esther Goldenbaum Schulman Lederberg and Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Lederberg, in 1925, and moved to Washington Heights, Manhattan as an infant. He had two younger brothers. Lederberg graduated from Stuyvesant High School in New York City at the age of 15 in 1941. After graduation, he was allowed lab space as part of the American Institute Science Laboratory, a forerunner of the Westinghouse Science Talent Search. He enrolled in Columbia University in 1941, majoring in zoology. Under the mentorship of Francis J. Ryan, he conducted biochemical and genetic studies on the bread mold Neurospora crassa. Intending to receive his MD and fulfill his military service obligations, Lederberg worked as a hospital corpsman during 1943 in the clinical pathology laboratory at St. Albans Naval Hospital, where he examined sailors' blood and stool samples for malaria. He went on to receive his undergraduate degree in 1944.
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Judith Resnik
Judith Arlene Resnik (April 5, 1949 – January 28, 1986) was an American engineer and a NASA astronaut who died in the destruction of the Space Shuttle Challenger during the launch of mission STS-51-L.
Resnik was the second American female astronaut, logging 145 hours in orbit. She was a graduate of Carnegie Mellon University and had a Ph.D. in electrical engineering from the University of Maryland. The IEEE Judith Resnik Award for space engineering is named in her honor.
Judith Arlene Resnik was born to Sara and Marvin, an optometrist, in Akron, Ohio; her brother Charles was born four years later. She attended Hebrew school. A graduate of Firestone High School in 1966, she excelled in mathematics and played classical piano. While at Firestone she achieved a perfect SAT score, the sole female to do so that year. She received a B.S. in electrical engineering from Pittsburgh's Carnegie Mellon University in 1970, the year she married fellow student Michael Oldak. They divorced in 1974. In 1977 Resnik was awarded a Ph.D. in electrical engineering at the University of Maryland.
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Kathleen Byerly
Kathleen M. Byerly (born ca. 1944) is known for being one of the women named by Time magazine Time Person of the Year in 1975, representing American women (at the height of the feminist movement). She was in the first female officer in the United States Navy to be appointed flag secretary and aide to an admiral.
Byerly graduated from Chestnut Hill College in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1966. Following graduation, she joined the U.S. Navy. In 1975 she held the rank of Lieutenant Commander and was a Navy executive and aide to Rear Admiral Allen Hill.
"A Dozen Who Made a Difference – Kathleen Byerly: Confident Commander". Time. 5 January 1976. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,947599-5,00.html. Retrieved 2008-02-14.
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Kevin Costner
Kevin Michael Costner (born January 18, 1955) is an American actor, singer, musician, producer, director, and businessman. He has won two Academy Awards, and two Golden Globe Awards and has been nominated for three BAFTA (British Academy of Film and Television Arts) Awards. Costner's roles include Lt. John J. Dunbar in the film Dances with Wolves, Jim Garrison in JFK, Ray Kinsella in Field of Dreams, Robin Hood in Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves, Crash Davis in Bull Durham, Robert "Butch" Haynes in A Perfect World, Frank Farmer in The Bodyguard, Lt. Cmdr. Tom Farrell in No Way Out, and Eliot Ness in The Untouchables. Costner also founded the band Modern West, and has performed with the band since 2007.
Born in Lynwood, California, the youngest of three sons (the middle of whom died at birth). His mother, Sharon Rae (née Tedrick), was a welfare worker, and his father, William Costner, was an electrician and later utilities executive at Southern California Edison. Costner's patrilineal ancestry originates with German immigrants to North Carolina in the 1700s; he also has English and Irish ancestry, and has said that one of his ancestors had "married a Cherokee woman". Costner was raised Baptist. He attended Cabrillo Middle School and Villa Park High School. Costner was not academically inclined. Rather, he enjoyed sports, took piano lessons, wrote poetry and sang in the First Baptist Choir. He has stated that a viewing of the film How the West Was Won at the age of seven had "formed" his childhood.
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Konrad Adenauer
Konrad Hermann Joseph Adenauer (German pronunciation: [ˈkɔnʁaːt ˈhɛɐman ˈjoːzɛf ˈaːdənaʊɐ]; 5 January 1876 – 19 April 1967) was a German statesman. As Chancellor of Germany (West Germany) from 1949 to 1963, he led his country from the ruins of World War II to a powerful and prosperous nation that forged close relations with old enemies France and the United States. In his years in power Germany achieved prosperity, democracy, stability and respect. He was the first chancellor (head of government) of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG, called West Germany), 1949–63. He was the first leader of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), a coalition of Catholics and Protestants that under his leadership became and has since remained the most dominant in Germany.
Adenauer, dubbed "Der Alte" ("the old one"), belied his age as the oldest elected leader in world history by his intense work habits and his uncanny political instinct. He displayed a strong dedication to a broad vision of democracy, capitalism, and anti-Communism. A shrewd politician, Adenauer was deeply committed to a Western-oriented foreign policy and restoring the position of West Germany on the world stage. He worked to restore the West German economy from the destruction in World War II to a central position in Europe, rebuilt its army and came to terms with France, helped make possible Western European unification, opposed rival East Germany, and made his nation a member of NATO and a firm ally of the United States.
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Linus Pauling
Linus Carl Pauling (February 28, 1901 – August 19, 1994) was an American chemist, biochemist, peace activist, author, and educator. He was one of the most influential chemists in history and ranks among the most important scientists of the 20th century. Pauling was among the first scientists to work in the fields of quantum chemistry and molecular biology.
Pauling is one of only four individuals to have won more than one Nobel Prize. He is one of only two people awarded Nobel Prizes in different fields (the Chemistry and Peace prizes), the other being Marie Curie (the Chemistry and Physics prizes), and the only person awarded two unshared prizes.
Pauling was born in Portland, Oregon, as the first-born child of Herman Henry William Pauling (1876–1910) and Lucy Isabelle "Belle" Darling (1881–1926). He was named "Linus Carl," in honor of Lucy's father, Linus, and Herman's father, Carl. Herman and Lucy – then 23 and 18 years old, respectively – had met at a dinner party in Condon. Six months later, the two were married.
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Lyndon B. Johnson
Lyndon Baines Johnson (August 27, 1908 – January 22, 1973), often referred to as LBJ, was the 36th President of the United States (1963–1969), a position he assumed after his service as the 37th Vice President of the United States (1961–1963). He is one of only four people who served in all four elected federal offices of the United States: Representative, Senator, Vice President, and President. Johnson, a Texas Democrat, served as a United States Representative from 1937–1949 and as a Senator from 1949–1961, including six years as United States Senate Majority Leader, two as Senate Minority Leader and two as Senate Majority Whip. After campaigning unsuccessfully for the Democratic nomination in 1960, Johnson was asked by John F. Kennedy to be his running mate for the 1960 presidential election.
Johnson succeeded to the presidency following the assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, completed the rest of Kennedy's term and was elected President in his own right, winning by a large margin in the 1964 election. Johnson was greatly supported by the Democratic Party and as President, he was responsible for designing the "Great Society" legislation that included laws that upheld civil rights, public broadcasting, Medicare, Medicaid, environmental protection, aid to education, and his "War on Poverty." He was renowned for his domineering personality and the "Johnson treatment," his coercion of powerful politicians in order to advance legislation.
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Mercury Seven
Mercury Seven was the group of seven Mercury astronauts selected by NASA on April 9, 1959. They are also referred to as the Original Seven and Astronaut Group 1. This was the only astronaut group with members that flew on all classes of NASA manned orbital spacecraft of the 20th century — Mercury, Gemini, Apollo, and the Space Shuttle.
These seven original American astronauts were Alan Shepard, Gus Grissom, John Glenn, Scott Carpenter, Wally Schirra, Gordon Cooper, and Deke Slayton.
Although NASA planned an open competition for its first astronauts, President Dwight D. Eisenhower insisted that all candidates be test pilots, which excluded women. Because of the small space inside the Mercury spacecraft, candidates could be no taller than 5 feet 11 inches (180 cm) and weigh no more than 180 pounds (82 kg). Other requirements included an age under 40, a bachelor's degree or equivalent, 1,500 hours of flying time, and qualification to fly jets.
After an advertisement among military test pilots drew more than 500 applications, NASA searched military personnel records in January 1959 and identified 110 pilots—five Marines, 47 from the Navy, and 58 from the Air Force—who qualified. Sixty-nine candidates were brought to Washington, DC, in two groups; the candidates' interest was so great, despite the extensive physical and mental exams from January to March, that the agency did not summon the last group. The tests included spending hours on treadmills and tilt tables, submerging their feet in ice water, three doses of castor oil, and five enemas. Six candidates were rejected as too tall for the planned spacecraft. Another 33 failed or dropped out during the first phase of exams. Four more refused to take part in the second round of tests, which eliminated eight more candidates, leaving 18.
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Mohammad Mosaddegh
Mohammad Mosaddegh or Mosaddeq (Persian: محمد مصدق, IPA: [mohæmˈmæd(-e) mosædˈdeɣ] ( listen)*), also spelled Mossadegh, Mossadeq, Mosadeck, or Musaddiq (16 June 1882 – 5 March 1967), was the Prime Minister of Iran from 1951 until being overthrown in a coup d'état in 1953.
His administration introduced a wide range of social and political reforms but is most notable for its nationalization of the Iranian oil industry, which had been under British control since 1913 through the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC/AIOC) (later British Petroleum or BP).
Mosaddegh was removed from power in a coup on 19 August 1953, organised and carried out by the United States CIA at the request of the British MI6 which chose Iranian General Fazlollah Zahedi to succeed Mosaddegh.
The coup is sometimes known as the TPAJAX Project after its CIA cryptonym, however, in Iran it is referred to as the 28 Mordad 1332 coup, after its date on the Iranian calendar., which is incorrect as the Operation's proper name was TPAjax (TP standing for Tudeh Party of Iran the Russian backed communist party of Iran} Mosaddegh was imprisoned for three years, then put under house arrest until his death.
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Neil Armstrong
Neil Alden Armstrong (born August 5, 1930) is an American former astronaut, test pilot, aerospace engineer, university professor, United States Naval Aviator, and the first person to set foot upon the Moon.
Before becoming an astronaut, Armstrong was in the United States Navy and served in the Korean War. After the war, he served as a test pilot at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) High-Speed Flight Station, now known as the Dryden Flight Research Center, where he flew over 900 flights in a variety of aircraft. As a research pilot, Armstrong served as project pilot on the F-100 Super Sabre A and C variants, F-101 Voodoo, and the Lockheed F-104A Starfighter. He also flew the Bell X-1B, Bell X-5, North American X-15, F-105 Thunderchief, F-106 Delta Dart, B-47 Stratojet, KC-135 Stratotanker, and was one of eight elite pilots involved in the paraglider research vehicle program (Paresev). He graduated from Purdue University and the University of Southern California.
A participant in the U.S. Air Force's Man In Space Soonest and X-20 Dyna-Soar human spaceflight programs, Armstrong joined the NASA Astronaut Corps in 1962. His first spaceflight was the NASA Gemini 8 mission in 1966, for which he was the command pilot, becoming one of the first U.S. civilians to fly in space.[citation needed] On this mission, he performed the first manned docking of two spacecraft with pilot David Scott. Armstrong's second and last spaceflight was as mission commander of the Apollo 11 moon landing mission on July 20, 1969. On this mission, Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin descended to the lunar surface and spent 2½ hours exploring while Michael Collins remained in orbit in the Command Module. Armstrong was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Richard Nixon along with Collins and Aldrin, the Congressional Space Medal of Honor by President Jimmy Carter in 1978, and the Congressional Gold Medal in 2009.
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Nikita Khrushchev
Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (April 15 [O.S. April 3] 1894, – September 11, 1971) led the Soviet Union during part of the Cold War. He served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, and as Chairman of the Council of Ministers, or Premier, from 1958 to 1964. Khrushchev was responsible for the partial de-Stalinization of the Soviet Union, for backing the progress of the early Soviet space program, and for several relatively liberal reforms in areas of domestic policy. Khrushchev's party colleagues removed him from power in 1964, replacing him with Leonid Brezhnev as First Secretary and Alexei Kosygin as Premier.
Khrushchev was born in the Russian village of Kalinovka in 1894, close to the present-day border between Russia and Ukraine. He was employed as a metalworker in his youth, and during the Russian Civil War was a political commissar. With the help of Lazar Kaganovich, he worked his way up the Soviet hierarchy. He supported Joseph Stalin's purges, and approved thousands of arrests. In 1939, Stalin sent him to govern Ukraine, and he continued the purges there. During what was known in the Soviet Union as the Great Patriotic War (Eastern Front of World War II), Khrushchev was again a commissar, serving as an intermediary between Stalin and his generals. Khrushchev was present at the bloody defense of Stalingrad, a fact he took great pride in throughout his life. After the war, he returned to Ukraine before being recalled to Moscow as one of Stalin's close advisers.
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Pete Conrad
Charles "Pete" Conrad, Jr. (June 2, 1930 – July 8, 1999) was an American engineer, U.S. Navy officer and NASA astronaut, and the third person to walk on the Moon during the Apollo 12 mission. He set an eight-day space endurance record along with command pilot Gordon Cooper on the Gemini 5 mission, and commanded the Gemini 11 mission. After Apollo, he commanded the Skylab 2 mission, on which he and his crew repaired significant launch damage to the Skylab space station. For this, President Jimmy Carter awarded him the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in 1978.
Pete Conrad was born on June 2, 1930, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the third child and first son of Charles Conrad, Sr. and Frances De Rappelage Conrad (née Vinson), a well-to-do real estate and banking family. His mother wanted very much to name her newborn son “Peter”, but Charles insisted that his first son bear his name. In a compromise between two iron wills, the name on his birth certificate would read “Charles Conrad, Jr.” but to his mother and virtually all who knew him, he was “Peter”. When he was 21, his fiancée’s father called him “Pete” and thereafter, Conrad adopted it. For the rest of his life, to virtually everyone, he was “Pete”.
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Pope John XXIII
Blessed Pope John XXIII (Latin: Ioannes PP. XXIII; Italian: Giovanni XXIII), born Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli (25 November 1881 – 3 June 1963), headed the Catholic Church and ruled Vatican City from 1958 until his death.
Pope John was elected on 28 October 1958. He called the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) but did not live to see it to completion. He died in 1963, only four-and-a-half years after his election, and two months after the completion of his final encyclical, Pacem in Terris. He was beatified, along with Pope Pius IX, on 3 September 2000.
Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli was born in Sotto il Monte, a small country village in the Bergamo province of the Lombardy region of Italy. He was the first-born son of Giovanni Battista Roncalli (1854–1935) and his wife Marianna Giulia Mazzolla (1854–1939), and fourth in a family of 13, including: Angelo Giuseppe, Alfredo (1889–??), Maria Caterina (1877–1883), Teresa (1879–1954), Ancilla (1880–1953), Domenico Giuseppe (22 February 1888 – 14 March 1888), Francesco Zaverio (1883–1976), Maria Elisa (1884–1955), Assunta Casilda (1886–??), Giovanni Francesco (1891–1956), Enrica (1893–1918), Giuseppe Luigi (1894–??) and Luigi (1896–1898). His family worked as sharecroppers as did most of the people of Sotto il Monte – a striking contrast to that of his predecessor, Eugenio Pacelli (Pope Pius XII), who came from an ancient aristocratic family, long connected to the Papacy. However, he was still a descendant of an Italian noble family, from a secondary and impoverished branch.
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Richard Nixon
Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was the 37th President of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974. The only president to resign the office, Nixon had previously served as a US representative and senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961.
Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California. After completing his undergraduate work at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937, and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife, Pat Nixon, moved to Washington to work for the federal government in 1942. He subsequently served in the United States Navy during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950. His pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the running mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president. He waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California in 1962. In 1968, he ran again for the presidency and was elected.
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Robert Crippen
Robert Laurel Crippen (born September 11, 1937 in Beaumont, Texas) is an engineer, retired United States Navy Captain and a former NASA astronaut. He flew on four Space Shuttle missions, including three as commander. Crippen is a recipient of the Congressional Space Medal of Honor.
He married Pandora Lee Puckett of Miami, Florida, and he has three daughters from a previous marriage.
After graduating from New Caney High School in New Caney, Texas, Crippen received a bachelor of science degree in aerospace engineering from the University of Texas at Austin in 1960. He was selected as a member of the Texas Alpha chapter of Sigma Gamma Tau.
Crippen was commissioned through the United States Navy's Aviation Officer Candidate School (AOCS) Program. As a Navy pilot from June 1962 to November 1964, he made multiple deployments aboard the aircraft carrier USS Independence, flying the A-4 Skyhawk in Attack Squadron 72 (VA-72). He later attended the U.S. Air Force Aerospace Research Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base, California. Upon graduation he remained at Edwards as an instructor until his selection for the Air Force Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) Program in October 1966.
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Roger B. Chaffee
Roger Bruce Chaffee (February 15, 1935 – January 27, 1967), Lieutenant Commander, United States Navy, was a Naval Aviator, aeronautical engineer and a NASA astronaut in the Apollo program. Chaffee died along with fellow astronauts Gus Grissom and Ed White during a pre-launch test for the Apollo 1 mission at the then-Cape Kennedy Air Force Station, Florida in 1967. Chaffee was posthumously awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor and the United States Navy Air Medal.
Roger Bruce Chaffee was born in Grand Rapids, Michigan, where he became an Eagle Scout and graduated from Central High School. Turning down a possible appointment to the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland, Chaffee accepted a Naval ROTC scholarship and in September 1953 enrolled at the Illinois Institute of Technology. After transferring to Purdue University in the fall of 1954, Chaffee earned a bachelor of science degree in aeronautical engineering in 1957. While there, he was a member of the Phi Kappa Sigma social fraternity, and the Tau Beta Pi and Sigma Gamma Tau engineering honor societies. While at Purdue, Chaffee took flight training as part of the NROTC program in order to prepare him for a career as a Naval Aviator, soloing on 29 March 1957 and obtained his private pilot's license on 24 May 1957.
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Ron Howard
Ronald William "Ron" Howard (born March 1, 1954) is an American film director, producer and former child actor. He came to prominence playing Opie Taylor in the sitcom The Andy Griffith Show for eight years, and later the teenaged Richie Cunningham in the sitcom Happy Days for six years. He appeared in the films American Graffiti in 1973 and The Shootist in 1976, the latter during his run on Happy Days. Howard made his directorial debut with the 1977 comedy Grand Theft Auto, and left Happy Days in 1980 to focus on directing. His films include the Academy Award-winning Cocoon, Apollo 13, How the Grinch Stole Christmas and A Beautiful Mind. In 2003, he was awarded the National Medal of Arts. Asteroid 12561 Howard is named after him.
Howard was born in Duncan, Oklahoma, the son of Jean Speegle Howard, an actress, and Rance Howard, a director, writer and actor. His father was born with the surname "Beckenholdt", and had taken the stage name "Howard" by 1948, for his acting career. Rance Howard was serving three years in the United States Air Force at the time of Ron's birth. The family moved to Hollywood in 1958, the year before the birth of his younger brother, Clint Howard. They rented a house on the block south of the Desilu Studios, where The Andy Griffith Show would later be filmed. They lived in Hollywood for at least three years, before moving to Burbank.
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Shannon Lucid
Shannon Matilda Wells Lucid (born January 14, 1943) is an American biochemist and a retired NASA astronaut. At one time, she held the record for the longest duration stay in space by an American, as well as by a woman. She has flown in space five times including a prolonged mission aboard the Mir space station.
Lucid was born in Shanghai, China, to Baptist missionary parents Oscar and Myrtle Wells, but grew up in Bethany, Oklahoma and graduated from Bethany High School. She attended the University of Oklahoma and obtained a Ph.D. in biochemistry from that school in 1973.
She is married to Michael F. Lucid of Indianapolis, Indiana and they have two daughters and one son, and five granddaughters and one grandson.
Lucid's experience includes a variety of academic assignments, such as teaching assistant at the University of Oklahoma's Department of Chemistry from 1963 to 1964; senior laboratory technician at the Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation from 1964 to 1966; chemist at Kerr-McGee, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, 1966 to 1968; graduate assistant at the University of Oklahoma Health Science Center's Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology from 1969 to 1973 and research associate with the Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, from 1974 until her selection to the astronaut candidate training program.
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Susan Brownmiller
Susan Brownmiller (born February 15, 1935) is an American feminist, journalist, author, and activist. She is best known for her pioneering work on the politics of rape in her 1975 book Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape, Brownmiller argues that rape had been hitherto defined by men rather than women; and that men use, and all men benefit from the use of, rape as a means of perpetuating male dominance by keeping all women in a state of fear. The book received criticism from Angela Davis, who thought Brownmiller disregarded the part that black women played in the anti-lynching movement and that Brownmiller's discussion of rape and race became an "unthinking partnership which borders on racism". In 1995 The New York Public Library selected Against Our Will as one of 100 most important books of the Twentieth Century.
Brownmiller also participated in civil rights activism, joining CORE and SNCC during the sit-in movement and volunteering for Freedom Summer in 1964, where she worked on voter registration in Meridian, Mississippi. Returning to New York, she began writing for The Village Voice and became a network TV newswriter at the American Broadcasting Company, a job she held until 1968. She first became involved in the Women's Liberation Movement in New York City in 1968, by joining a consciousness-raising group in the newly formed New York Radical Women organization. Brownmiller went on to co-ordinate a sit-in against Ladies' Home Journal in 1970, began work on Against Our Will after a New York Radical Feminists speak-out on rape in 1971, and co-founded Women Against Pornography in 1979. She continues to write and speak on feminist issues, including a recent memoir and history of Second Wave radical feminism. In Our Time: Memoir of a Revolution (1999).
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Susie Sharp
Susie Marshall Sharp (July 7, 1907 – March 1, 1996) was an American jurist who served as the first female Chief Justice of the North Carolina Supreme Court. She was not the first woman to head the highest court in a U.S. state, but is believed to be the first woman elected to such a post in a state, like North Carolina, in which the position is elected by the people separately from that of Associate Justice. In 1965, Lorna E. Lockwood became the first chief justice of a state supreme court, but in Arizona, the Supreme Court justices elect their chief justice.
Sharp was born in 1907 in Rocky Mount, North Carolina but spent most of her life in Rockingham County, North Carolina. In 1926 she entered law school at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill as the only woman in her class. In 1929, Sharp went into private practice with her father, James, in the firm of Sharp & Sharp.
In 1949, Governor Kerr Scott appointed her a state Superior Court judge, making her the first female judge in the history of the state. After Sharp became a Superior Court judge, Tom Bost of the Greensboro Daily News questioned "what would happen if Sharp was faced with trying a case of rape? Wouldn't that be too much for a woman?" Judge Sharp wrote back that "In the first place, there could have been no rape had not a woman been present, and I consider it eminently fitting that one be in on the 'pay-off'."
wn.com/Susie_Sharp -
Tim Daly
James Timothy "Tim" Daly (born March 1, 1956) is an American stage, screen and voice actor, director and producer. He is best known for his television role as Joe Hackett on the NBC sitcom Wings and for his voice role as Superman/Clark Kent in Superman: The Animated Series, as well as his recurring role of the drug-addicted screenwriter J.T. Dolan on The Sopranos for which he was nominated for an Emmy Award. He starred as Pete Wilder on Private Practice until he was fired.
Daly, an Irish American, was born in New York City, New York, the only son and youngest child of actors James Daly and Hope Newell. He is the younger brother of actress Tyne Daly, who is 10 years his senior, and is a brother-in-law of television and film composer Mark Snow. He has two other sisters, Mary Glynn (Snow's wife) and Pegeen Michael. He attended The Putney School, where he started to study acting.
Daly began his professional career while a student at Vermont's Bennington College, where he studied theatre and literature, in which he now holds a Bachelor of Arts, and acted in summer stock. He graduated from college in 1979 and returned to New York to continue studying acting and singing.
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Tom Hanks
Thomas Jeffrey "Tom" Hanks (born July 9, 1956) is an American actor, producer, writer, and director. Hanks is known for his roles in Philadelphia and as the title character in Forrest Gump, roles which won him two consecutive Academy Awards for Best Actor. Hanks is also known for his Oscar nominated roles in Big, Saving Private Ryan and Cast Away.
Hanks' other acting roles include Apollo 13 as Jim Lovell, The Green Mile as Paul Edgecomb, Toy Story as Woody and Charlie Wilson's War as Charlie Wilson.
Hanks was born in Concord, California. His father, Amos Mefford Hanks (born in Glenn County, California, on March 9, 1924 – died in Alameda, California, on January 31, 1992), was an itinerant cook. His mother, Janet Marylyn (née Frager; born in Alameda County, California, on January 18, 1932), was a hospital worker. Hanks' mother is of Portuguese ancestry, while two of his paternal great-grandparents immigrated from Britain. Hanks's parents divorced in 1960. The family's three oldest children, Sandra (now Sandra Hanks Benoiton, a writer)[citation needed], Larry (now Lawrence M. Hanks, PhD, an entomology professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) and Tom, went with their father, while the youngest, Jim, now an actor and film maker, remained with his mother in Red Bluff, California.[citation needed]
wn.com/Tom_Hanks -
Wally Schirra
Walter Marty Schirra, Jr. (March 12, 1923 – May 3, 2007) was an American test pilot, United States Navy officer, and one of the original Mercury 7 astronauts chosen for the Project Mercury, America's effort to put humans in space. He is the only person to fly in all of America's first three space programs (Mercury, Gemini and Apollo). He logged a total of 295 hours and 15 minutes in space.
Schirra was the fifth American and the ninth human to ride a rocket into space. He was the first person to go into space three times.
Schirra came from an aviation family in Hackensack, New Jersey. Schirra's father, Walter M. Schirra, Sr., who was born in Philadelphia, went to Canada during World War I and earned his pilot rating. He later became a barnstormer. Schirra's mother, Florence Leach Schirra, went along on her husband's barnstorming tours and performed wing walking stunts. By the time he was 15, Wally was flying his father's airplane.
Schirra was a Boy Scout and earned the rank of First Class in Troop 36 in Oradell, New Jersey.
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Willard Libby
Willard Frank Libby (December 17, 1908 – September 8, 1980) was an American physical chemist noted for his role in the 1949 development of radiocarbon dating, a process which revolutionized archaeology.
Libby was born in Grand Valley, Colorado. He received his B.S. in 1931 and Ph.D. in 1933 in chemistry from the University of California, Berkeley, where he then became a lecturer and later assistant professor. Libby spent the 1930s building sensitive geiger counters to measure weak natural and artificial radioactivity. In 1941 he joined Berkeley's chapter of Alpha Chi Sigma.
Awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship, he spent most of 1941 at Princeton University. After the start of World War II, he worked on the Manhattan Project at Columbia University with Nobel laureate chemist Harold Urey. Libby was responsible for the gaseous diffusion separation and enrichment of the uranium-235 which was used in the atomic bomb on Hiroshima.
In 1945 he became a professor at the University of Chicago. In 1954, he was appointed to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. In 1959, he became Professor of Chemistry at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), a position he held until his retirement in 1976. He taught honors freshman chemistry from 1959 to 1963 (in keeping with a University tradition that senior faculty teach this class). He was Director of the University of California statewide Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics (IGPP) for many years including the lunar landing time. In 1966 he married his second wife Leona Woods Marshall, an original experimenter on the world's first nuclear reactor and a UCLA professor of environmental engineering. He also started the first Environmental Engineering program at UCLA in 1972.
wn.com/Willard_Libby -
William Anders
William Alison Anders (born October 17, 1933) is a former United States Air Force officer, NASA astronaut, businessman, and engineer. He is, along with Apollo 8 crewmates Frank Borman and Jim Lovell, one of the first three persons to have left Earth orbit and traveled to the Moon (of only 24 people to date).
Anders was born to US Navy Lt. Arthur F. Anders and Muriel Adams Anders in Hong Kong and was active in the Boy Scouts of America where he achieved its second-highest rank, Life Scout. Anders attended St. Martin's Academy and Grossmont High School in La Mesa, California. He was born and raised Roman Catholic. However according to one article his outlook on religion changed profoundly after his participation in the Apollo 8 mission. He found his experience of space made a mockery of his beliefs and he gave up religion.
He received a Bachelor of Science degree from the United States Naval Academy in 1955 and a Master of Science degree in nuclear engineering from the Air Force Institute of Technology at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, in 1962. Anders completed the Harvard Business School Advanced Management Program in 1979.
wn.com/William_Anders -
William Shepherd
William McMichael Shepherd (born July 26, 1949) is a former American astronaut who served as commander of Expedition 1, the first crew on the International Space Station. Shepherd is a recipient of the Congressional Space Medal of Honor.
Shepherd was born in Oak Ridge, Tennessee on July 26, 1949, but considers Babylon, New York, his hometown. He is married to Beth Stringham of Houston, Texas. His mother, Barbara Shepherd, resides in Bethesda, Maryland. His father, George R. Shepherd, is deceased.
Shepherd graduated from Arcadia High School, in Phoenix, Arizona, in 1967, and received a degree in aerospace engineering from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1971. After successful completion of BUD/S, he joined the elite community of Naval Special Warfare and qualified as a Navy SEAL. Then, in 1978, he obtained both an MS in mechanical engineering and the degree of Ocean Engineer from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Shepherd was selected for the NASA astronaut corps in 1984. In 1986, his Navy SEAL training proved unexpectedly useful to NASA as he participated in salvage operations of the space shuttle Challenger after its destruction. Shepherd then served as a mission specialist on three space shuttle flights: mission STS-27 in 1988, mission STS-41 which deployed the Ulysses probe in 1990, and mission STS-52 in 1992.
wn.com/William_Shepherd -
William Shockley
William Bradford Shockley Jr. (February 13, 1910 – August 12, 1989) was an American physicist and inventor. Along with John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain, Shockley co-invented the transistor, for which all three were awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics.
Shockley's attempts to commercialize a new transistor design in the 1950s and 1960s led to California's "Silicon Valley" becoming a hotbed of electronics innovation. In his later life, Shockley was a professor at Stanford and became a staunch advocate of eugenics.
Shockley was born in London, England to American parents, and raised in his family's hometown of Palo Alto, California, from age three. His father, William senior, was a mining engineer who speculated in mines for a living, and spoke eight languages. His mother, Mary, grew up in the American West, graduated from Stanford University, and became the first female US Deputy mining surveyor.
He received his Bachelor of Science degree from the California Institute of Technology in 1932. While still a student, Shockley married Iowan Jean Bailey in August 1933. In March 1934 Jean had a baby girl, Alison; she also had a son, Richard (Dick) who also became a physicist. Shockley was awarded his PhD from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1936. The title of his doctoral thesis was Electronic Bands in Sodium Chloride, and was suggested by his thesis advisor, John C. Slater. After receiving his doctorate, he joined a research group headed by Clinton Davisson at Bell Labs in New Jersey. The next few years were productive ones for Shockley. He published a number of fundamental papers on solid state physics in Physical Review. In 1938, he got his first patent, "Electron Discharge Device" on electron multipliers.
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William Westmoreland
William Childs Westmoreland (March 26, 1914 – July 18, 2005) was a United States Army General, who commanded US military operations in the Vietnam War at its peak (1964–68), during the Tet Offensive. He adopted a strategy of attrition against the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam and the North Vietnamese Army. He later served as U.S. Army Chief of Staff from 1968 to 1972.
William Westmoreland was born in Spartanburg County, South Carolina, to Eugenia Talley Childs and James Ripley Westmoreland. His upper-middle-class family was involved in the local banking and textile industries. William was an Eagle Scout at Troop 1 Boy Scouts and became an Eagle Scout at the age of 15, and recipient of the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award and Silver Buffalo from the Boy Scouts of America as a young adult. After spending a year at The Citadel in 1932 he was appointed to attend the West Point Military Academy. His motive for entering West Point was "to see the world." He was a member of a distinguished West Point class that also included Creighton Abrams and Benjamin O. Davis Jr.. Westmoreland graduated as first captain - the highest graduating rank - and received the Pershing Sword, which is given to the most able cadet at the academy. Westmoreland also served as the Superintendent of the Protestant Sunday School Teachers. Following graduation in 1936, he became an artillery officer and served in several different commands. In World War II he saw combat in Tunisia, Sicily, France and Germany. He reached the temporary wartime rank of colonel, and on October 13, 1944, was appointed the chief of staff of the 9th Infantry Division.
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Willy Brandt
Willy Brandt (born Herbert Ernst Karl Frahm; German pronunciation: [ˈvɪli ˈbʁant]; 18 December 1913 – 8 October 1992) was a German politician, Mayor of West Berlin 1957–1966, Chancellor of West Germany 1969–1974, and leader of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) 1964–1987.
Brandt's most important legacy was Ostpolitik, a policy aimed at improving relations with East Germany, Poland, and the Soviet Union. This policy caused considerable controversy in West Germany, but won Brandt the Nobel Peace Prize in 1971.
In 1974, Brandt resigned as Chancellor after Günter Guillaume, one of his closest aides, was exposed as an agent of the Stasi, the East German secret service.
Willy Brandt was born Herbert Ernst Karl Frahm in the Free City of Lübeck (German Empire) to Martha Frahm, an unwed mother who worked as a cashier for a department store. His father was an accountant from Hamburg named John Möller, whom Brandt never met. As his mother worked six days a week, he was mainly brought up by his mother's stepfather Ludwig Frahm and his second wife Dora.
wn.com/Willy_Brandt
Lovell, Jim Filmography
- The Apollo Years (2009)
- Apollo Zero (2009)
- Apollo Zero (2009)
- Discovering Deerpath (2009)
- The Third Foot (An Interview with Buzz Aldrin) (2009)
- In the Shadow of the Moon (2007)
- 1968 with Tom Brokaw (2007)
- Secrets of the Moon Landings (2007)
- Apollo 13: The Inside Story (2006)
- Conquering Space: The Moon and Beyond (2005)
- Project Gemini: A Bridge to the Moon (2003)
- Failure Is Not an Option (2003)
- AFI Life Achievement Award: A Tribute to Tom Hanks (2002)
- Great Mysteries and Myths of the Twentieth Century (1996)
- Lost Moon: The Triumph of Apollo 13 (1996)
- American Dreamers (1996)
- Apollo 13 (1995)
- Apollo 13 (1995)
- Apollo 13: For the Record (1995)
- Apollo 13 (1995)
- Houston, We've Got a Problem (1994)
- Moon Shot (1994)
- Apollo 13: To the Edge and Back (1994)
- Moon Shot (1994)
- For All Mankind (1989)
- Spaceflight (1985)
- The Man Who Fell to Earth (1976)
Lovel, Jim Filmography
Lovell, Jim Filmography
Famous quotes by Jim Lovell:
"That training really helped us on the second time around, ... It was one of those acts of fate."
"I never thought I didn't have a card to play."
"I'm so proud of what they've done,"
"Instead of starting the eradication on the outskirts and forcing the rats in they bombed the garden and moved them out of the area and forced them here. I understand the pressure they were under to take care of the rats and open the school but they didn't consider anything else besides their own problem."
"We hadn't seen any rats or evidence of rats until the school district started the eradication program, and then we started to see evidence of the rats moving across the fence line."
"Back in those days, going to the moon, geology was important, ... But how do we train pilots to be geologists? We concentrated on observing, not the analytical parts of the rocks."
"A lot of stuff, we had to learn ourselves. Training became some school work in those areas we were not familiar with, like orbital mechanics, the extensive gyroscopic systems for control of the vehicle."
"The training in those days was rather ad hoc because the people running NASA were basically engineers,"
"Al was a very confident person, and he contributed a lot to the (space) program,"
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Astronaut Jim Lovell Speaks At Tom Hanks AFI Life Achievement Award
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:18
- Updated: 20 Nov 2012
Jim Lovell, the real Captain of Apollo 13, speaks at the AFI Life Achievement Award: A Tribute To Tom Hanks. CONNECT WITH AFI: facebook.com twitter.com AFI.com AFI FACEBOOK APP: apps.facebook.com
http://wn.com/Astronaut_Jim_Lovell_Speaks_At_Tom_Hanks_AFI_Life_Achievement_Award
jim lovell
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:01
- Updated: 16 Nov 2012
jim lovell speaks in san francisco about apollo 13
http://wn.com/jim_lovell
Jim Lovell - Astronaut - Living Legend of Aviation
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:07
- Updated: 20 Nov 2012
video honoring Jim Lovell created for the Living Legends of Aviation ceremony, edited together by Tyler Griffin, Produced by Bill Maxwell for Inventive Productions, all rights of original film and video clips owned by their respective creators.
http://wn.com/Jim_Lovell_Astronaut_Living_Legend_of_Aviation
Jim Lovell tells the Apollo 13 Story - Part 1 of 4
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:28
- Updated: 05 Jun 2012
Jim Lovell speaking at Purdue Ag. Fish Fry in Indianapolis. He discusses the launch and preparing to leave Earth's orbit.
http://wn.com/Jim_Lovell_tells_the_Apollo_13_Story_Part_1_of_4
Apollo 13 - Jim Lovell Pre-Flight Interview & Richard Nixon Speech In Hawaii (1970)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 64:01
- Updated: 15 Oct 2012
1 Hour 5 Minutes - Nixon speech in Hawaii; public reaction in London and Germany; and Lovell pre-flight interview. NASA/courtesy of nasaimages.org.
http://wn.com/Apollo_13_Jim_Lovell_Pre-Flight_Interview_Richard_Nixon_Speech_In_Hawaii_1970
Astronaut Jim Lovell - Interview on Obama Cuts for NASA (April 14, 2010)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:54
- Updated: 06 Nov 2012
Gemini & Apollo Astronaut speaks to FOX about his signing along with Neil Armstrong & other Veteran NASA Astronauts of an Open letter criticizing US President Barrack Obama's cancellation of NASA's future Manned return missions to the moon by cutting funds to the Agency. Jim Lovell Gemini 7 - Pilot (December 4 - 18, 1965) Gemini 12 - Commander (November 11 - 15, 1966) Apollo 8 - Command Module Pilot (December 21 - 27, 1968) Apollo 13 - Commander (April 11 - 17, 1970)
http://wn.com/Astronaut_Jim_Lovell_Interview_on_Obama_Cuts_for_NASA_April_14,_2010
Situation Critical: Apollo 13
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:20
- Updated: 06 Jun 2012
Commander Jim Lovell and fellow Apollo 13 astronaut, Fred Haise, recount the near-cataclysmic events of April 1970 when an oxygen tank exploded on the spacecraft.
http://wn.com/Situation_Critical_Apollo_13
Jim Lovell & Apollo 8: Christmas Eve Heard Round the World
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:17
- Updated: 16 Nov 2012
Christmas Eve, 1968. Apollo 8 orbits the moon, and the astronauts read from the book of Genesis. Why'd they do it? Who selected it? What did NASA think? WGN's Emmy-award winning producer Pam Grimes takes a look back at the 1968 Apollo mission through the eyes of astronaut Jim Lovell.
http://wn.com/Jim_Lovell_Apollo_8_Christmas_Eve_Heard_Round_the_World
Astronaut Jim Lovell introducing Apollo 13 movie @ Airventure Oshkosh 2007
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- Duration: 3:05
- Updated: 17 Nov 2012
Astronaut Jim Lovell introducing Apollo 13 movie at the Fly In Theater at Airventure Oshkosh 2007
http://wn.com/Astronaut_Jim_Lovell_introducing_Apollo_13_movie_@_Airventure_Oshkosh_2007
Apollo 13 onboards -- Jim Lovell and Jack Swigert
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:08
- Updated: 25 Apr 2012
Jack Swigert reviews a flight plan whilst Jim Lovell rubs his hands trying to fend off the chill inside the powered down Lunar Module.
http://wn.com/Apollo_13_onboards_-_Jim_Lovell_and_Jack_Swigert
Jim Lovell: NASA 50th Video Part 1 of 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:02
- Updated: 31 Mar 2012
This is the first portion of the video presentation hosted by former astronaut Jim Lovell at the AIAA 50th anniversary celebration for NASA on Sept. 24, 2008. Learn more at www.nasa.gov.
http://wn.com/Jim_Lovell_NASA_50th_Video_Part_1_of_2
Captain James "Jim" Lovell scholarship and speech
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- Duration: 57:26
- Updated: 29 Sep 2012
Captain James "Jim" Lovell, Gemini and Apollo astronaut, presents the Astronaut Scholarship to senior aerospace engineering major Emily Boster. Lovell also talks about his experiences as an astronaut and the Apollo 13 incident.
http://wn.com/Captain_James_Jim_Lovell_scholarship_and_speech
Jim Lovell Tells the Apollo 13 Story - Part 2 of 4
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:39
- Updated: 19 Jul 2012
Jim Lovell speaking at the Purdue Ag. Fish Fry in Indianapolis. So far, the mission is going fine. He talks about the TV broadcast from the Odyssey as well as what was happening down on Earth at the time.
http://wn.com/Jim_Lovell_Tells_the_Apollo_13_Story_Part_2_of_4
Jim Lovell Tells the Apollo 13 Story - Part 3 of 4
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:49
- Updated: 31 May 2012
Jim Lovell speaks at Purdue Ag. Fish Fry in Indianapolis. Now things are going wrong. Lunar landing now cancelled, there is gas escaping into space among other problems. The crew tries to figure out how to use the Lunar Module (Aquarius) as a lifeboat. Lovell learns "always expect the unexpected."
http://wn.com/Jim_Lovell_Tells_the_Apollo_13_Story_Part_3_of_4
Jim Lovell Tells the Apollo 13 Story - Part 4 of 4
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:54
- Updated: 31 May 2012
Jim Lovell speaks at the Purdue Ag. Fish Fry in Indianapolis. He talks about the struggle to survive the rest of the journey. Common theme: "We're not gonna get home." After this my camera's batteries die. To fill the main stuff in: They used a sock, duct tape, a piece of plastic, and some cardboard from the flight manual to construct a device to help the Lunar Module (Aquarius) remove Carbon Dioxide from the air... they slingshot around the moon... make a few vital angle corrections *manually* based on locations of stars, Earth, and the Sun... and power up the Command Module just before re-entering our atmosphere.
http://wn.com/Jim_Lovell_Tells_the_Apollo_13_Story_Part_4_of_4
Jim Lovell at the Captain James A. Lovell Hospital Dedication
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:24
- Updated: 05 Dec 2011
http://wn.com/Jim_Lovell_at_the_Captain_James_A_Lovell_Hospital_Dedication
Jim Lovell Interview
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:45
- Updated: 23 Aug 2012
Formal Naval pilot and NASA astronaut Captain James A. Lovell visits the Pritzker Military Library for a one-on-one interview with John Callaway. In this clip, he discusses the story behind the famous quote "Houston, we have a problem". The entire unedited interview can be viewed at www.pritzkermilitarylibrary.org
http://wn.com/Jim_Lovell_Interview
Captain Jim Lovell Keppler Speakers Profile
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- Duration: 2:38
- Updated: 28 Jul 2012
Apollo 13 astronaut, motivational speaker, and originator of the phrase "Houston, we have a problem", Captain Jim Lovell is shown here speaking about his NASA mission. He is available exclusively through Keppler Speakers bureau. www.kepplerspeakers.com
http://wn.com/Captain_Jim_Lovell_Keppler_Speakers_Profile
Courage & Faith: Tom Hanks (as Jim Lovell). Night Time Aircraft Carrier Landing
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- Duration: 1:49
- Updated: 15 Nov 2012
Tom Hanks (as Jim Lovell) talks about a night time aircraft carrier landing after his jet fighter lost power to his instrument panel. From the film by Ron Howard, "Apollo 13."
http://wn.com/Courage_Faith_Tom_Hanks_as_Jim_Lovell_Night_Time_Aircraft_Carrier_Landing
Gemini XII Mission 1966 NASA (Gemini 12) Jim Lovell & Buzz Aldrin
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 25:49
- Updated: 17 Nov 2012
more at scitech.quickfound.net Reupload of a previously uploaded film with improved sound and video, and all in one piece instead of parts. Project Gemini playlist: www.youtube.com "Traces the major accomplishments of the Gemini manned space-flight program and their relationships to the...
http://wn.com/Gemini_XII_Mission_1966_NASA_Gemini_12_Jim_Lovell_Buzz_Aldrin
Astronaut James Lovell presented with a moon rock at NASA ceromony.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:55
- Updated: 02 Dec 2011
Apollo 13 Commander Capt. James Lovell, is presented with a moon rock from the Apollo 16 moon mission in this NASA ceremony. Video courtesy of nasatv.
http://wn.com/Astronaut_James_Lovell_presented_with_a_moon_rock_at_NASA_ceromony
Jim Lovell: NASA 50th Video Part 2 of 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:08
- Updated: 31 Mar 2012
This is the second portion of the video presentation hosted by former astronaut Jim Lovell at the AIAA 50th anniversary celebration for NASA on Sept. 24, 2008. Learn more at www.nasa.gov.
http://wn.com/Jim_Lovell_NASA_50th_Video_Part_2_of_2
Captain Jim Lovell Audio Interview
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:02
- Updated: 03 Nov 2010
Captain Lovell discusses everything from the Apollo 13 mission, to his favorite space expedition, to what it was like posing for Vanity Fair.
http://wn.com/Captain_Jim_Lovell_Audio_Interview
photo: AP / Pablo Martinez Monsivais
20 Nov 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling President Barack Obama's whirlwind tour of southeast Asia and meetings with dignitaries will have to walk a tightrope between either appearing to endorse military juntas or truly being committed to ongoing pro-democracy movements. Specifically at issue is Burma's Aung San Suu Kyi, a democratic advocate...(size: 5.0Kb)
photo: AP / Sebastian D'souza
21 Nov 2012
MUMBAI, India - India executed the lone surviving gunman from the 2008 terror attack on Mumbai early Wednesday, India's home ministry said. Ajmal Kasab, a Pakistani citizen, was one of 10 gunmen who rampaged through the streets of India's financial capital in November 2008, killing 166 people. Kasab was hung at 7:30 a.m. Wednesday at a jail in...(size: 4.5Kb)
photo: AP / Melanie Gouby
21 Nov 2012
Hundreds of government soldiers and police in the Democratic Republic of Congo have surrendered to rebels at a stadium in Goma, Al Jazeera's Nazanine Moshiri has reported from the scene. The M23 rebel group, believed to be backed by Rwanda seized the strategic, provincial capital of Goma in eastern Congo on Tuesday, home to more than 1 million...(size: 18.7Kb)
photo: AP / Hatem Moussa
19 Nov 2012
Gaza/Jerusalem - Israel bombed dozens of targets in the Gaza Strip on Monday and said that while it was prepared to step up its offensive by sending in troops, it preferred a diplomatic solution that would end Palestinian rocket fire. Mediator Egypt said a deal for a truce to end the fighting could be close. The leader of Hamas said it was up to...(size: 4.1Kb)
photo: UN / Logan Abassi
21 Nov 2012
A report by the UN says global attempts to curb emissions of CO2 are falling well short of what is needed to stem dangerous climate change. The UN's Environment Programme says greenhouse gases are 14% above where they need to be in 2020 for temperature rises this century to remain below 2C. The authors say this target is still technically...(size: 3.5Kb)
Sun Sentinel
17 Nov 2012
Terry McMenamin may have been born in Illinois, but she considered herself a Floridian. For more than 40 years, McMenamin called the Sunshine State home, first living in Longwood and later in New Smyrna Beach. "She loved the sun. Loved the water. Loved the land," said son Casey Hampton of Jacksonville. "She saw a tremendous amount of beauty in...(size: 3.6Kb)
The Hindu
29 Oct 2012
On July 21, 1969, Buzz Aldrin climbed gingerly out of Eagle, Apollo 11's lunar module, and joined Neil Armstrong on the Sea of Tranquility. Looking up, he said, "Beautiful, beautiful, magnificent desolation." They were alone; but their presence on the moon's silent, gray surface was the culmination of a convulsive collective effort. Eight years...(size: 22.6Kb)
Sky & Telescope
24 Oct 2012
A new image from the Australia Telescope Compact Array reveals a spectacular series of knots strung along a jet. A string of almost-evenly spaced knots dots the jet shooting from the object PKS 0637–752. Leith Godfrey (ICRAR) / Jim Lovell (Univ. of Tasmania) Sometimes a beast can produce beauty. This image* shows bright knots in a powerful...(size: 3.4Kb)
Newstrack India
23 Oct 2012
Tweet Washington, October 23 (ANI): A new image captured by astronomers shows a supersonic jet of material that looks strikingly similar to the afterburner flow of a fighter jet, blasting over two million light-years from the centre of a distant galaxy. In this case the jet engine is a supermassive black hole and the jet material is moving at...(size: 3.7Kb)
Space
23 Oct 2012
The jet known as ‘PKS 0637-752’ as seen by the Australia Telescope Compact Array (ATCA) in New South Wales, Australia clearly showing the shock diamond-like shapes in the two million light year long structure. CREDIT: Dr Leith Godfrey, ICRAR and Dr Jim Lovell, UTas....(size: 7.9Kb)
PhysOrg
22 Oct 2012
Research published over the weekend in the Astrophysical Journal Letters shows the galaxy-scale jet to have bright and dark regions, similar to the phenomenon in an afterburner exhaust called 'shock diamonds.' A new image of the previously studied jet reveals regularly spaced areas that are brighter than the rest of the jet in a pattern that echoes...(size: 2.4Kb)
Sydney Morning Herald
22 Oct 2012
Scientists are a step closer to understanding how supermassive black holes behave after taking a photo of the phenomena, showing that it blasts a jet of material similar to a fighter jet's afterburner exhaust. Curtin University researcher Leith Godfrey said the jets of material needed to be understood if scientists were to...(size: 2.2Kb)
Wired News
22 Oct 2012
An extended jet of cosmic material traveling near the speed of light emerges from a distant galaxy, looking quite similar to the afterburner pattern of a jet engine on Earth. This galactic jet flow is more than 2 million light-years long, at least 20 times larger than our Milky Way galaxy. This outflow is coming from a distant quasar that formed...(size: 8.5Kb)
Wired News
20 Oct 2012
Image: NASA In 1960, most everyone who cared about such things knew what a space station was supposed to look like: it would take the form of a revolving wheel. The design, first portrayed in detail by Austrian Hermann Noordung in 1928, was popularized in the United States after the Second World War by Wernher von Braun in the pages of...(size: 34.6Kb)
noodls
08 Oct 2012
Jeannette Walls to speak at ISU Oct. 16 By: Paula Meyer, ISU Communications and Marketing Staff October 8, 2012 Author Jeannette Walls will take the stage Oct. 16 in Indiana State University's Tilson Auditorium in conjunction with the University Speakers Series. She will discuss her best-selling book, "The Glass Castle," which is...(size: 4.6Kb)
Huffington Post
07 Oct 2012
By: SPACE.com Staff Published: 10/05/2012 01:26 PM EDT on SPACE.com A pair of NASA space telescopes have captured a spectacular new photo of the Helix Nebula, a glowing celestial vision that resembles a giant cosmic eye....(size: 14.5Kb)
The Los Angeles Times
05 Oct 2012
WASHINGTON — President Obama has ended months of dispute over NASA relics by signing into law a bill that confers full ownership of early NASA artifacts to the astronauts who took them as souvenirs. The legislation was proposed during a public — and sometimes bitter — battle between NASA and its astronaut corps over the sale of...(size: 30.0Kb)
Mashable
02 Oct 2012
On Aug. 13, 1964, four NASA astronauts participated in desert survival training in the dusty sands of Reno, Nev. John Young, Frank Borman, Neil Armstrong and Deke Slayton wore brightly-colored parachute fabric that made the space travelers look like some sort of intergalactic Jedi monks. Add a Wookiee to the mix and you have the premise for a Star...(size: 18.3Kb)
For other people named James Lovell, see James Lovell (disambiguation).
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This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (June 2010) |
| Jim Lovell | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| NASA Astronaut | |
| Nationality | American |
| Status | Retired |
| Born | (1928-03-25) March 25, 1928 (age 84) Cleveland, Ohio |
| Other occupation | Test Pilot |
| Rank | Captain, USN |
| Time in space | 29d 19h 03m |
| Selection | 1962 NASA Group |
| Missions | Gemini 7, Gemini 12, Apollo 8, Apollo 13 |
| Mission insignia |
    |
James "Jim" Arthur Lovell, Jr., (born March 25, 1928) is a former NASA astronaut and a retired captain in the United States Navy, most famous as the commander of the Apollo 13 mission, which suffered a critical failure en route to the Moon but was brought back safely to Earth by the efforts of the crew and mission control. Lovell was also the command module pilot of Apollo 8, the first Apollo mission to enter lunar orbit. Lovell is a recipient of the Congressional Space Medal of Honor and the Presidential Medal of Freedom. He is one of only 24 people to have flown to the Moon, the first of only three people to fly to the Moon twice, and the only one to have flown there twice without making a landing. Lovell was also the first person to fly in space four times.
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Youth and education[link]
Born in Cleveland, Ohio to a Czech mother, Lovell's family moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where he graduated from Juneau High School and became an Eagle Scout.[1][2][3][4] His father died in a car accident when Lovell was young and, for about two years, he resided with a relative in Terre Haute, Indiana.
As a boy, Lovell was interested in rocketry, and built flying models.[5]
Later he attended the University of Wisconsin–Madison for two years, joining the Alpha Phi Omega fraternity. He continued on to the United States Naval Academy and, after graduating in 1952, entered the United States Navy.
He married Marilyn Gerlach that same year and they have four children: Barbara (born in 1953), James (1955), Susan (1958), and Jeffrey (1966).
United States Navy[link]
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Upon completion of pilot training Lovell served at sea flying Banshee night fighters. In January 1958, he entered a six-month test pilot training course at the Naval Air Test Center (now the U.S. Naval Test Pilot School) in Patuxent River, Maryland (also known as Pax River), along with Charles (Peter) Conrad and Wally Schirra. Lovell graduated first in his class.[5]
Later that year, Lovell, Conrad and Schirra became three of 110 military test pilots selected as potential astronaut candidates for Project Mercury. Schirra went on to become one of the Mercury Seven, but Lovell and Conrad failed to make the cut for medical reasons: Lovell because of a temporarily high bilirubin count in his blood;[5] and Conrad for refusing to take the second round of invasive medical tests. Lovell continued for four years at Pax River, using the call sign "Shaky", a nickname given him by Conrad.[6]
NASA career[link]
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In 1962, NASA needed a second group of astronauts for the Gemini and Apollo programs. Lovell applied again, and this time was accepted into NASA Astronaut Group 2, as was Conrad.
Gemini program[link]
Lovell was selected as backup Pilot for Gemini 4, which put him in position for his first space flight three missions later as Pilot of Gemini 7 with Command Pilot Frank Borman in December 1965. This flight set an endurance record of fourteen days in space, and also was the target vehicle for the first space rendezvous with Gemini 6A.
Lovell was later scheduled to be the backup Command Pilot of Gemini 10, but after the deaths of the Gemini 9 prime crew Elliot See and Charles Bassett, he replaced Thomas P. Stafford as backup commander of Gemini 9A. This again positioned Lovell for his second flight and first command, of Gemini 12 in November 1966 with Pilot Buzz Aldrin.
Lovell's two Gemini flights gave him more time in space than any other person as of 1966.
Apollo program[link]
Apollo 8[link]
Main article: Apollo 8
Lovell was originally chosen as Command Module Pilot on the backup crew for Apollo 9, planned as a high-apogee Earth orbital test of the Lunar Module, along with Neil Armstrong as Commander and Buzz Aldrin as Lunar Module Pilot. Lovell later replaced Michael Collins as CMP on the Apollo 9 prime crew, reuniting him with his Gemini 7 commander Frank Borman, and LM pilot William Anders, when Collins needed to have surgery for a bone spur on his spine.[7]
But then, delays in construction of the first manned LM prevented it from being ready in time to fly on Apollo 8, planned as a low Earth orbit test. It was decided to swap the Apollo 8 and Apollo 9 prime and backup crews in the flight schedule so that the crew trained for the low-orbit test could fly it as Apollo 9, when the LM would be ready. The original Apollo 9 medium Earth orbit test was replaced with a lunar orbital flight, now Apollo 8. Borman, Lovell and Anders were launched on December 21, 1968, becoming the first men to travel to the Moon.
As CM Pilot, Lovell served as the navigator, using the spacecraft's built-in sextant to determine its position by measuring star positions. This information was then used to calculate required mid-course corrections. The craft entered lunar orbit on Christmas Eve and made a total of ten orbits, most of them circular at an altitude of approximately 70 miles (110 km) for a total of twenty hours. They broadcast black-and-white television pictures of the lunar surface back to Earth, and Lovell took his turn with Borman and Anders in reading a passage from the Biblical creation story in the Book of Genesis.
They began their return to Earth on Christmas Day with a rocket burn made on the Moon's far side, out of radio contact with Earth. (For this reason, the lunar orbit insertion and trans-Earth injection burns were the two most tense moments of this first lunar mission.) When contact was re-established, Lovell was the first to announce the good news, "Please be informed, there is a Santa Claus." The crew splashed down safely on Earth December 27.
Apollo 13[link]
Main article: Apollo 13
Lovell was backup commander of Apollo 11 and was scheduled to command Apollo 14, but he and his crew swapped missions with the crew of Apollo 13, as it was felt the commander of the other crew, Alan Shepard, needed more time to train after having been grounded for a long period. Lovell lifted off aboard Apollo 13 on April 11, 1970 with CM Pilot Jack Swigert and LM Pilot Fred Haise. He and Haise were to land on the Moon.
But on April 13, while in Earth-Moon transit, a damaged heater coil in a cryogenic oxygen tank sparked during a routine tank stir. This quickly turned liquid oxygen into gas with a huge increase in pressure, which burst the tank and damaged a second tank, resulting in the loss of all stored oxygen in just over two hours. This disabled the fuel cell-driven electrical power system, crippling the Command/Service Module "Odyssey" and requiring immediate abort of the landing mission; the goal of the mission became safely returning to Earth.
Using the LM as a "life boat" providing power, oxygen and propulsion, Lovell and his crew immediately re-established the free return trajectory that they had left, and swung around the Moon to return home. Based on calculations made on Earth, Lovell had to adjust the course two times by manually controlling the Lunar Module's thrusters and engine, using his watch for timing. Apollo 13 returned safely to Earth on April 17. Lovell is one of only three men to travel to the Moon twice, but unlike John Young and Eugene Cernan, he never walked on it.
Lovell accrued over 715 hours, and had seen a total of 269 sunrises, from space on his Gemini and Apollo flights. This was a personal record that stood until the Skylab 3 mission in July through September of 1973.[8] It is also probable that Apollo 13's flight trajectory gives Lovell, Haise, and Swigert the record for the farthest distance that humans have ever travelled from Earth.[9]
Later career[link]
He retired from the Navy and the space program in 1973 and went to work at the Bay-Houston Towing Company in Houston, Texas, becoming CEO in 1975. He became president of Fisk Telephone Systems in 1977, and later worked for Centel, retiring as an executive vice president on January 1, 1991. Lovell, a recipient of the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award,[10] later served as the President of the National Eagle Scout Association in the mid-1990s. He was also recognized by the Boy Scouts of America with their prestigious Silver Buffalo Award.
Along with Jeffrey Kluger, Lovell wrote a book about the Apollo 13 mission, Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13.[5] This book was the basis for the later Ron Howard movie Apollo 13. Lovell's first impression on being approached about the film was that Kevin Costner would be a good choice to portray him, given the physical resemblance,[11] but Tom Hanks was cast in the role. In order to prepare, Hanks visited Lovell and his wife at their house in Texas and even went for a ride with Lovell in his private airplane.
In the film, Lovell has a cameo as the captain of the USS Iwo Jima, the naval vessel that led the operation to recover the Apollo 13 astronauts after their successful splashdown. Lovell can be seen as the naval officer shaking Hanks' hand, as Hanks speaks in voice-over, in the scene in which the astronauts come aboard the Iwo Jima. Filmmakers initially offered to make Lovell's character an admiral aboard the ship (presumably Rear Admiral Donald C. Davis, Commanding Officer of Task Force 130, who was the senior officer aboard and welcomed them home), but Lovell stated "I retired as a captain and a captain I will be", and he was so cast as the ship's skipper, Captain Leland E. Kirkemo.[12] Along with his wife, Marilyn, who also has a cameo in the film, he also provided a commentary track on both the single disc and the two-disc special edition DVD.
In 1999, Lovell, along with his family, opened "Lovell's of Lake Forest", a fine dining restaurant in Lake Forest, Illinois. The restaurant displays many artifacts from Lovell's time with NASA, as well as from the filming of Apollo 13. Lovell's son James "Jay" Lovell III is the executive chef. [13]
Lovell also visits colleges and universities where he gives speeches on his experiences as an astronaut and businessman. He strongly urges students to get involved in science and the space program and he credits NASA in the 1960s with bringing much of the country together for a common goal.
In 2006, the Adler Planetarium in Chicago opened its "Shoot for the Moon" exhibit based on the life of Jim Lovell, along with the Gemini and Apollo programs; the exhibit features his Gemini 12 spacecraft and an extensive collection of his personal space artifacts. Many of his mementos and spacesuit elements have long been displayed at Chicago's Museum of Science and Industry, along with his Apollo 8 command module.
Tributes[link]
A small crater on the far side of the Moon is named Lovell in his honor.[14]
North James Lovell Street is the stretch of 7th Street between W. State Street and W. Clybourn Street in downtown Milwaukee, Wisconsin.[15]
The James Lovell Museum of Science is on N. James Lovell St. in downtown Milwaukee.[16]
The Captain James A. Lovell Federal Health Care Center was completed in October 2010, merging the Naval Health Clinic Great Lakes and the North Chicago Veterans Affairs Medical Center [17]
Formal education[link]
- University of Wisconsin–Madison
- United States Naval Academy (BS, 1952)
- United States Naval Test Pilot School, Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland (1958)
- Aviation Safety School, University of Southern California (1961)
- Advanced Management Program, Harvard Business School (1978)
Awards and decorations[link]
Lovell's awards and decorations include [18][19][20]:
Military, federal service, and foreign awards[link]
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Naval Astronaut Badge |
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Naval Aviator Badge |
.png){kind=small}
Other awards and accomplishments[link]
- Eagle Scout (Boy Scouts of America) (1946) and Distinguished Eagle Scout Award (1976)
- Silver Buffalo (Boy Scouts of America) (1992)
- Harmon International Trophy (1966, 1967 and 1969)
- Alpha Phi Omega Fall Pledge Class Namesake (1967)
- Robert J. Collier Trophy (1968)
- Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy (1969)
- H. H. Arnold Trophy (1969)
- General Thomas D. White USAF Space Trophy (1969)
- Awarded an honorary doctor of laws degree at William Paterson College's commencement exercises (June 15, 1974)
- NASA Ambassadors of Exploration Award
- FAI De Laval Medal & Gold Space Medals
- National Geographic Society's Hubbard Medal
- Space Foundation's General James E. Hill Lifetime Space Achievement Award (2003)
- In a 2010 Space Foundation survey, Lovell was ranked as the #4 most popular space hero [21]
- Fellow in the Society of Experimental Test Pilots
- Time Magazine Person of the Year (1968; with Apollo 8 Astronauts Frank Borman and William Anders)
- Cover of Time Magazine on 3 January 1969 and 27 April 1970 [22]
- Cover of Life Magazine on 24 April 1970 [23]
- United States Astronaut Hall of Fame, March 19, 1993 [24]
In media[link]
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This biographical section of an article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (August 2009) |
About a month after the return to Earth of Apollo 13, Lovell and his crewmates, Fred Haise and Jack Swigert, appeared on The Tonight Show with host Johnny Carson. The introduction of this segment of the show is featured on "Lost Moon: The Triumph of Apollo 13" on the single disk DVD version of the movie.
In 1976, Lovell made a cameo appearance in the Nicolas Roeg movie The Man Who Fell to Earth.
In 1995, actor Tom Hanks portrayed Lovell in the hit movie Apollo 13, based on Lovell's book Lost Moon. Lovell himself makes a cameo in this movie, playing the captain of the USS Iwo Jima at the end of the film.
In 1998, actor Tim Daly portrayed Lovell in portions of the HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon. The film depicts Lovell during his missions aboard Gemini 12, Apollo 8, and Apollo 13, though he is not seen on screen during the latter mission.
Lovell is one of the astronauts featured in the book and documentaries In the Shadow of the Moon and When We Left Earth.
On November 13, 2008, Lovell and fellow Apollo 8 crew members Frank Borman and Bill Anders appeared on the NASA TV channel to discuss the Apollo 8 mission. The three former astronauts later appeared together for a panel discussion centering on Apollo 8 at the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library on April 23, 2009, a discussion that was videotaped by C-SPAN. [25]
References[link]
- ^ "Collecting the Final Frontier: Ohio Historical Society's Collections Blog". ohiohistory.org. http://ohiohistory.wordpress.com/2011/12/15/collecting-the-final-frontier/.
- ^ "Newsletter Spring 2000: Notable Americans with Czech Roots". afocr.org. Archived from the original on 2008-01-23. http://web.archive.org/web/20080123234750/http://www.afocr.org/newsletters/spring2000.htm. Retrieved 2007-11-29.
- ^ Townley, Alvin (26 December 2006). Legacy of Honor: The Values and Influence of America's Eagle Scouts. New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 80–86. ISBN 0-312-36653-1.
- ^ Ray, Mark (2007). "What It Means to Be an Eagle Scout". Scouting Magazine. Boy Scouts of America. http://www.scoutingmagazine.org/issues/0701/a-what.html. Retrieved 2007-01-05.
- ^ a b c d Lovell, Jim; Kluger, Jeffrey (1995). Apollo 13: Lost Moon. New York: Pocket Books. ISBN 0-671-53464-5.
- ^ Wolfe, Tom (1979). The Right Stuff. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-312-42756-6. OCLC 173092241.
- ^ Selecting and Training Crews. NASA History.
- ^ The Skylab 3 crew spent 1427 hours in space, in addition to commander Alan Bean's over 244 hours on Apollo 12, giving him the second record.
- ^ Salgado, José Francisco (30 June 2006). "Captain James A. Lovell, Jr. Timeline" (.PDF). Adler Planetarium & Astronomy Museum. Archived from the original on 2007-11-27. http://web.archive.org/web/20071127022319/http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/pressroom/lovell/lovell_timeline.pdf. Retrieved 2007-10-04.
- ^ "Distinguished Eagle Scouts". Scouting.org. http://www.scouting.org/filestore/pdf/02-529.pdf. Retrieved 2010-11-04.
- ^ Apollo 13: 2-Disc Anniversary Edition (Disc 1), Special Features:Commentary track by Jim and Marilyn Lovell (DVD). Universal Studios. 2005-03-19.
- ^ NASA photographic archive
- ^ Lovells of Lake Forest
- ^ http://www.servinghistory.com/topics/Lovell_%28crater%29
- ^ •http://en.academic.ru/dic.nsf/enwiki/202487
•http://maps.google.com/maps?q=north%20james%20lovell%20street&oe=utf-8&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&client=firefox-a&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&hl=en&tab=wl - ^ Lovell Museum of Science
- ^ Lovell Federal Health Care Center
- ^ James A. Lovell - NASA Biographical Data
- ^ Jim Lovell - Astronaut - Short Biographies
- ^ International Space Hall of Fame - New Mexico Museum of Space History
- ^ "Space Foundation Survey Reveals Broad Range of Space Heroes". http://www.spacefoundation.org/news/story.php?id=1038.
- ^ Time Magazine covers: Jim Lovell
- ^ Life Magazine cover: Jim Lovell
- ^ Lovell USAHoF
- ^ C-SPAN Apollo 8 Reunion
External links[link]
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Jim Lovell |
- NASA bio of Jim Lovell
- Jim Lovell at the Internet Movie Database
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- Works by or about Jim Lovell in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Spacefacts biography of Jim Lovell
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Lovell, Jim |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | March 25, 1928 |
| Place of birth | Cleveland, Ohio |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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This article is about the American actor. For the seismologist, see Thomas C. Hanks.
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| Tom Hanks | |
|---|---|
 Hanks at President Obama's 2009 inauguration. |
|
| Born | Thomas Jeffrey Hanks (1956-07-09) July 9, 1956 (age 55) Concord, California, U.S. |
| Occupation | Actor, producer, director, voice over artist, writer, speaker |
| Years active | 1979–present |
| Spouse | Samantha Lewes (m. 1978–1987; divorced) Rita Wilson (m. 1988–present) |
| Children | Colin, Elizabeth, Chester, Truman |
Thomas Jeffrey "Tom" Hanks (born July 9, 1956) is an American actor, producer, writer, and director. Hanks is known for his roles in Philadelphia and as the title character in Forrest Gump, roles which won him two consecutive Academy Awards for Best Actor. Hanks is also known for his Oscar nominated roles in Big, Saving Private Ryan and Cast Away.
Hanks' other acting roles include Apollo 13 as Jim Lovell, The Green Mile as Paul Edgecomb, Toy Story as Woody and Charlie Wilson's War as Charlie Wilson.
Contents |
Early life[link]
Hanks was born in Concord, California. His father, Amos Mefford Hanks (born in Glenn County, California, on March 9, 1924 – died in Alameda, California, on January 31, 1992), was an itinerant cook.[1] His mother, Janet Marylyn (née Frager; born in Alameda County, California, on January 18, 1932), was a hospital worker. Hanks' mother is of Portuguese ancestry, while two of his paternal great-grandparents immigrated from Britain.[2][3] Hanks's parents divorced in 1960. The family's three oldest children, Sandra (now Sandra Hanks Benoiton, a writer)[citation needed], Larry (now Lawrence M. Hanks, PhD, an entomology professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign)[4] and Tom, went with their father, while the youngest, Jim, now an actor and film maker, remained with his mother in Red Bluff, California.[citation needed]
In addition to having a family history of Catholicism and Mormonism, Hanks was a "Bible-toting evangelical teenager" for several years.[5] In school, Hanks was unpopular with students and teachers alike, later telling Rolling Stone magazine: "I was a geek, a spaz. I was horribly, painfully, terribly shy. At the same time, I was the guy who'd yell out funny captions during filmstrips. But I didn't get into trouble. I was always a real good kid and pretty responsible." In 1965, Amos Hanks married Frances Wong, a San Francisco native of Chinese descent. Frances had three children, two of whom lived with Tom during his high school years. Hanks acted in school plays, including South Pacific, while attending Skyline High School in Oakland, California.
Hanks studied theater at Chabot College in Hayward, California, and after two years, transferred to California State University, Sacramento. Hanks told New York magazine in 1986: "Acting classes looked like the best place for a guy who liked to make a lot of noise and be rather flamboyant ...I spent a lot of time going to plays. I wouldn't take dates with me. I'd just drive to a theater, buy myself a ticket, sit in the seat and read the program, and then get into the play completely. I spent a lot of time like that, seeing Brecht, Tennessee Williams, Ibsen, and all that."[6]
During his years studying theater, Hanks met Vincent Dowling, head of the Great Lakes Theater Festival in Cleveland, Ohio.[1] At Dowling's suggestion, Hanks became an intern at the Festival. His internship stretched into a three-year experience that covered most aspects of theater production, including lighting, set design, and stage management, all of which caused Hanks to drop out of college. During the same time, Hanks won the Cleveland Critics Circle Award for Best Actor for his 1978 performance as Proteus in Shakespeare's The Two Gentlemen of Verona, one of the few times he played a villain.[7]
Career[link]
Early career[link]
In 1979, Hanks moved to New York City, where he made his film debut in the low-budget slasher film He Knows You're Alone (1980)[1] and got a part in the television movie Mazes and Monsters. Early in 1979, Hanks was cast in the lead role of Callimaco in the Riverside Shakespeare Company's production of Niccolò Machiavelli's The Mandrake, directed by Daniel Southern. This remains Hanks's only New York stage performance to date; as a high profile Off Off Broadway showcase, the production helped Tom land an agent, Joe Ohla with the J. Michael Bloom Agency. The next year, Hanks landed a lead role on the ABC television pilot of Bosom Buddies, playing the role of Kip Wilson. Hanks moved to Los Angeles, where he and Peter Scolari played a pair of young advertising men forced to dress as women so they could live in an inexpensive all-female hotel.[1] Hanks had previously partnered with Scolari in the 1970s game show Make Me Laugh. Bosom Buddies ran for two seasons, and, although the ratings were never strong, television critics gave the program high marks. "The first day I saw him on the set," co-producer Ian Praiser told Rolling Stone, "I thought, 'Too bad he won't be in television for long.' I knew he'd be a movie star in two years." But if Praiser knew it, he was not able to convince Hanks. "The television show had come out of nowhere," best friend Tom Lizzio told Rolling Stone. "Then out of nowhere it got canceled. He figured he'd be back to pulling ropes and hanging lights in a theater."
Bosom Buddies and a guest appearance on a 1982 episode of Happy Days ("A Case of Revenge," where he played a disgruntled former classmate of The Fonz) prompted director Ron Howard to contact Hanks. Howard was working on Splash (1984), a romantic comedy fantasy about a mermaid who falls in love with a human. At first, Howard considered Hanks for the role of the main character's wisecracking brother, a role that eventually went to John Candy. Instead, Hanks got the lead role and a career boost from Splash, which went on to become a box office hit, grossing more than US$69 million. He also had a sizable hit with the sex comedy Bachelor Party, also in 1984.
In 1983–84, Hanks made three guest appearances on Family Ties as Elyse Keaton's alcoholic brother, Ned Donnelly.[8][9]
Period of successes and failures[link]
With Nothing in Common (1986) – about a young man alienated from his parents who must re-establish a relationship with his father, played by Jackie Gleason – Hanks began to establish the credentials of not only a comic actor but of someone who could carry a serious role. "It changed my desires about working in movies," Hanks told Rolling Stone. "Part of it was the nature of the material, what we were trying to say. But besides that, it focused on people's relationships. The story was about a guy and his father, unlike, say, The Money Pit, where the story is really about a guy and his house."[citation needed]
After a few more flops and a moderate success with Dragnet, Hanks succeeded with the film Big (1988), both at the box office and within the industry.[1] The film established Hanks as a major Hollywood talent. It was followed later that year by Punchline, in which he and Sally Field co-starred as struggling comedians. Hanks's character, Steven Gold, a failing medical student trying to break into stand-up, was somewhat edgy and complex. Hanks' portrayal of Gold offered a glimpse of the far more dramatic roles Hanks would master in films to come. Hanks then suffered a pile of box-office failures: The 'Burbs (1989), Joe Versus the Volcano (1990), and The Bonfire of the Vanities (1990),[1] as a greedy Wall Street type who gets enmeshed in a hit-and-run accident. Only the 1989 movie Turner & Hooch brought success for Hanks during this time. In a 1993 issue of Disney Adventures, Hanks said, "I saw Turner & Hooch the other day in the SAC store and couldn't help but be reminiscent. I cried like a baby." He did admit to making a couple of "bum tickers," however, and blamed his "...deductive reasoning and decision making skills."
Progression into dramatic roles[link]
Hanks climbed back to the top again with his portrayal of a washed-up baseball star turned manager in A League of Their Own (1992).[1] Hanks has admitted that his acting in earlier roles was not great and that he has improved. In an interview with Vanity Fair, Hanks noted his "modern era of moviemaking ... because enough self-discovery has gone on.... My work has become less pretentiously fake and over the top". This "modern era" began in 1993 for Hanks, first with Sleepless in Seattle and then with Philadelphia. The former was a blockbuster success about a widower who finds true love over the airwaves. Richard Schickel of TIME called his performance "charming," and most critics agreed that Hanks' portrayal ensured him a place among the premier romantic-comedy stars of his generation.[citation needed]
In Philadelphia, he played a gay lawyer with AIDS who sues his firm for discrimination.[1] Hanks lost thirty-five pounds and thinned his hair in order to appear sickly for the role. In a review for People, Leah Rozen stated "Above all, credit for Philadelphia's success belongs to Hanks, who makes sure that he plays a character, not a saint. He is flat-out terrific, giving a deeply felt, carefully nuanced performance that deserves an Oscar." Hanks won the 1993 Academy Award for Best Actor for his role in Philadelphia.[1] During his acceptance speech he revealed that his high school drama teacher Rawley Farnsworth and former classmate John Gilkerson, two people with whom he was close, were gay.[10]
Hanks followed Philadelphia with the 1994 summer hit Forrest Gump. Of the film, Hanks has remarked: "When I read the script for Gump, I saw it as one of those kind of grand, hopeful movies that the audience can go to and feel ... some hope for their lot and their position in life... I got that from the movies a hundred million times when I was a kid. I still do." Hanks won his second Best Actor Academy Award for his role in Forrest Gump, becoming only the second actor to have accomplished the feat of winning consecutive Best Actor Oscars. (Spencer Tracy was the first, winning in 1937–38. Hanks and Tracy were the same age at the time they received their Academy Awards: 37 for the first and 38 for the second.)
Hanks' next role—astronaut and commander Jim Lovell, in the 1995 movie Apollo 13--reunited him with Ron Howard.[1] Critics generally applauded the film and the performances of the entire cast, which included actors Kevin Bacon, Bill Paxton, Gary Sinise, Ed Harris, and Kathleen Quinlan. The movie also earned nine Academy Award nominations, winning two. The same year, Hanks starred in the animated blockbuster Toy Story as the voice of the toy Sheriff Woody.
1996 – present: Directing, producing and acting[link]
Hanks turned to directing with his 1996 film That Thing You Do! about a 1960s pop group, also playing the role of a music producer. Hanks and producer Gary Goetzman went on to create Playtone, a record and film production company named for the record company in the film.
Hanks executive produced, co-wrote, and co-directed the HBO docudrama From the Earth to the Moon. The twelve-part series chronicles the space program from its inception, through the familiar flights of Neil Armstrong and Jim Lovell, to the personal feelings surrounding the reality of moon landings. The Emmy Award-winning project was, at US$68 million, one of the most expensive ventures taken for television.
Hanks's next project was no less expensive. For Saving Private Ryan he teamed up with Steven Spielberg to make a film about a search through war-torn France after D-Day to bring back a soldier. It earned the praise and respect of the film community, critics, and the general public. It was labeled one of the finest war films ever made and earned Spielberg his second Academy Award for direction, and Hanks another Best Actor nomination. Later in 1998, Hanks re-teamed with his Sleepless in Seattle co-star Meg Ryan for You've Got Mail, a remake of 1940's The Shop Around the Corner.
In 1999, Hanks starred in an adaptation of the Stephen King novel The Green Mile. He also returned as the voice of Woody in Toy Story 2. The following year he won a Golden Globe for Best Actor and an Academy Award nomination for his portrayal of a marooned FedEx systems analyst in Robert Zemeckis's Cast Away. In 2001, Hanks helped direct and produce the acclaimed HBO mini-series Band of Brothers. He also appeared in the September 11 television special America: A Tribute to Heroes and the documentary Rescued From the Closet.
Next he teamed up with American Beauty director Sam Mendes for the adaptation of Max Allan Collins's and Richard Piers Rayner's graphic novel Road to Perdition, in which he played an anti-hero role as a hitman on the run with his son. That same year, Hanks collaborated with director Spielberg again, starring opposite Leonardo DiCaprio in the hit crime comedy Catch Me if You Can, based on the true story of Frank Abagnale, Jr. The same year, Hanks and his wife Rita Wilson produced the hit movie My Big Fat Greek Wedding. In August 2007, he along with co-producers Rita Wilson and Gary Goetzman, and writer and star Nia Vardalos, initiated a legal action against the production company Gold Circle Films for their share of profits from the movie.[11][12][13] At the age of 45, he became the youngest ever recipient of the American Film Institute's Life Achievement Award on June 12, 2002.
In 2004, he appeared in three films: The Coen Brothers' The Ladykillers, another Spielberg film, The Terminal, and The Polar Express, a family film from Robert Zemeckis. In a USA Weekend interview, Hanks talked about how he chooses projects: "[Since] A League of Their Own, it can't be just another movie for me. It has to get me going somehow.... There has to be some all-encompassing desire or feeling about wanting to do that particular movie. I'd like to assume that I'm willing to go down any avenue in order to do it right". In August 2005, Hanks was voted in as vice president of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences.[14]
Hanks next starred in the highly anticipated film The Da Vinci Code, based on the bestselling novel by Dan Brown. The film was released May 19, 2006 in the US and grossed over US$750 million worldwide. He followed the film with Ken Burns's 2007 documentary The War. For the documentary, Hanks did voice work, reading excerpts from World War II-era columns by Al McIntosh. In 2006, Hanks topped a 1,500-strong list of 'most trusted celebrities' compiled by Forbes magazine.[15] Hanks next appeared in a cameo role as himself in The Simpsons Movie, in which he appeared in an advertisement claiming that the US government has lost its credibility and is hence buying some of his. He also made an appearance in the credits, expressing a desire to be left alone when he is out in public. Later in 2006, Hanks produced the British film Starter for Ten, a comedy based on working class students attempting to win University Challenge.[16]
In 2007, Hanks starred in Mike Nichols's film Charlie Wilson's War (written by screenwriter Aaron Sorkin) in which he plays Democratic Texas Congressman Charles Wilson. The film opened on December 21, 2007, and Hanks received a Golden Globe nomination.
In 2008's The Great Buck Howard, Hanks played the on-screen father of a young man (Hanks' real-life son, Colin Hanks) who chooses to follow in the footsteps of a fading magician (John Malkovich). Tom Hanks's character was less than thrilled about his son's career decision.
Hanks's next endeavor, released on May 15, 2009, was a film adaptation of Angels & Demons, based on the novel of the same name by Dan Brown. Its April 11, 2007, announcement revealed that Hanks would reprise his role as Robert Langdon, and that he would reportedly receive the highest salary ever for an actor.[17][18] The following day he made his 10th appearance on NBC's Saturday Night Live, impersonating himself for the Celebrity Jeopardy sketch.
Hanks is producer of the Spike Jonze film Where The Wild Things Are, based on the children's book by Maurice Sendak.[19]
In 2010, Hanks reprised his role as Sheriff Woody in the third film in the Toy Story franchise, Toy Story 3, after he, Tim Allen, and John Ratzenberger were invited to a movie theater to see a complete story reel of the movie.[20]
In 2011, he directed and starred opposite Julia Roberts in the title role in the romantic comedy Larry Crowne.[21] The movie has received generally bad reviews with only 35% of the 175 Rotten Tomatoes reviews giving it high ratings.[22] Also in 2011, he starred in the drama film Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close.
Hanks is slated to play Walt Disney in the film Saving Mr. Banks co-starring Emma Thompson and directed by John Lee Hancock. Hanks will be the first actor to portray Disney in film. The film is scheduled to be released in 2014.[23] He has also been cast in a film based on the Maersk Alabama hijacking as Captain Richard Phillips. The film will be written by Billy Ray, and produced by the team behind The Social Network.[24]
Hanks is ranked the highest all time box office star with over $3.639 billion total box office gross, an average of $107 million per film.[25] He has been involved with seventeen films that grossed over $100 million at the worldwide box office, the highest grossing of which was 2010's Toy Story 3.[26]
Personal life[link]
Hanks was married to American actress Samantha Lewes[27] (née Susan Jane Dillingham) from 1978 to 1987. The couple had two children, son Colin Hanks (also an actor) and daughter Elizabeth Ann.[28][29]
In 1988, Hanks married actress Rita Wilson. The two first met on the set of Hanks's television show Bosom Buddies but later developed a romantic interest while working on the film Volunteers. They have two sons: Chester, or "Chet" (who has a small part as a student in Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull and released a rap single in 2011),[30] and Truman.
Hanks became a grandfather when his son Colin and daughter-in-law Samantha gave birth to granddaughter Olivia Jane Hanks on February 1, 2011.[31]
Regarding his religious views, Hanks has said, "I must say that when I go to church – and I do go to church – I ponder the mystery. I meditate on the 'why?' of 'Why people are as they are' and 'Why bad things happen to good people,' and 'Why good things happen to bad people'... The mystery is what I think it is, almost, the grand unifying theory of mankind."[5]
Politics[link]
Hanks has made donations to many Democratic politicians and has been open about his support for same-sex marriage, environmental causes and alternative fuels. Hanks made public his presidential candidate choice in the 2008 election when he uploaded a video to his MySpace account in which he announced his endorsement of Barack Obama.[32]
A proponent of environmentalism, Hanks is an investor in electric vehicles and owns both a Toyota RAV4 EV and the first production AC Propulsion eBox. Hanks was a lessee of an EV1 before it was recalled, as chronicled in the documentary Who Killed the Electric Car?[33][34] He is on the waiting list for an Aptera 2 Series.[35]
Hanks was extremely outspoken about his opposition to Proposition 8, an amendment to the California constitution that defined marriage as a union only between a man and a woman. Hanks and others who were in opposition to the proposition raised over US$44 million in contrast to the supporters' $39 million,[36] but Proposition 8 passed with 52% of the vote.[37]
While premiering a TV series in January 2009, Hanks called supporters of Proposition 8 "un-American" and criticized the LDS (Mormon) church members, who were major proponents of the bill, for their views on marriage and their role in supporting the bill.[38][39] About a week later, Hanks apologized for the remark, saying that nothing is more American than voting one's conscience.[40]
Hanks narrated a video created by Obama for America, entitled The Road We've Traveled.[41]
Other activities[link]
A supporter of NASA's manned space program, Hanks has said that he originally wanted to be an astronaut but "didn't have the math." Hanks is a member of the National Space Society, serving on the Board of Governors of the nonprofit educational space advocacy organization founded by Dr. Wernher Von Braun. He also produced the HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon about the Apollo program to send astronauts to the moon. In addition, Hanks co-wrote and co-produced Magnificent Desolation: Walking on the Moon 3D, an IMAX film about the moon landings. Hanks also provided the voice over for the premiere of the show Passport to the Universe at the Rose Center for Earth and Space in the Hayden Planetarium at the American Museum of Natural History in New York.
In 2006, the Space Foundation awarded Hanks the Douglas S. Morrow Public Outreach Award.[42] The award is given annually to an individual or organization that has made significant contributions to public awareness of space programs.
In June 2006 Hanks was inducted as an honorary member of the United States Army Rangers Hall of Fame for his accurate portrayal of a Captain in the movie Saving Private Ryan; Hanks, who was unable to attend the induction ceremony, was the first actor to receive such an honor.[43] In addition to his role in Saving Private Ryan, Hanks was cited for serving as the national spokesperson for the World War II Memorial Campaign, for being the honorary chairperson of the D-Day Museum Capital Campaign, and for his role in writing and helping to produce the Emmy Award-winning miniseries, Band of Brothers.[citation needed]
Hanks is one of several celebrities who frequently participates in planned comedy bits on Conan O'Brien's talk shows, including Late Night, The Tonight Show, and Conan while a guest. On one visit, Hanks asked Conan to join his run for president on the "Bad Haircut Party" ticket, with confetti and balloons and a hand held sign with the slogan "You'd be stupid to vote for us". On another episode, O'Brien, noting that Hanks was missing Christmas on his promotional tour, brought the season to him, including a gift (the skeleton of Hooch), and a mass of snow burying them both. On yet another episode, Conan gave Hanks a painting he had commissioned reflecting two of his interests: Astronauts landing on the beach at Normandy. On March 10, 2008, Hanks was on hand at the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame to induct sixties band The Dave Clark Five.[44] Asteroid 12818 Tomhanks is named for him.[45]
Filmography[link]
| Year | Title | Role | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1980 | He Knows You're Alone | Elliot | |
| 1982 | Mazes and Monsters | Robbie Wheeling | Made for television |
| 1984 | Splash | Allen Bauer | |
| 1984 | Bachelor Party | Rick Gassko | |
| 1985 | Man with One Red Shoe, TheThe Man with One Red Shoe | Richard Harlan Drew | |
| 1985 | Volunteers | Lawrence Whatley Bourne III | |
| 1986 | Money Pit, TheThe Money Pit | Walter Fielding, Jr. | |
| 1986 | Nothing in Common | David Basner | |
| 1986 | Every Time We Say Goodbye | David Bradley | |
| 1987 | Dragnet | Pep Streebeck | |
| 1988 | Big | Adult Josh Baskin | |
| 1988 | Punchline | Steven Gold | |
| 1989 | Turner & Hooch | Detective Scott Turner | |
| 1989 | BurbsThe 'Burbs | Ray Peterson | |
| 1990 | Joe Versus the Volcano | Joe Banks | |
| 1990 | Bonfire of the Vanities, TheThe Bonfire of the Vanities | Sherman McCoy | |
| 1992 | League of Their Own, AA League of Their Own | Jimmy Dugan | |
| 1992 | Radio Flyer | Older Mike | (uncredited) |
| 1993 | Sleepless in Seattle | Sam Baldwin |
|
| 1993 | Philadelphia | Andrew Beckett | |
| 1994 | Forrest Gump | Forrest Gump |
|
| 1995 | Apollo 13 | Jim Lovell | |
| 1995 | Toy Story | Woody | (voice) |
| 1996 | That Thing You Do! | Mr. White | (writer and director) |
| 1998 | Saving Private Ryan | Captain John H. Miller |
|
| 1998 | You've Got Mail | Joe Fox | |
| 1999 | Toy Story 2 | Woody | (voice) |
| 1999 | Green Mile, TheThe Green Mile | Paul Edgecomb | |
| 2000 | Cast Away | Chuck Noland |
|
| 2002 | Road to Perdition | Michael Sullivan, Sr. | |
| 2002 | Catch Me If You Can | FBI Agent Carl Hanratty | |
| 2004 | Terminal, TheThe Terminal | Viktor Navorski | |
| 2004 | Ladykillers, TheThe Ladykillers | Professor G.H. Dorr | |
| 2004 | Elvis Has Left the Building | Mailbox Elvis | (cameo) |
| 2004 | Polar Express, TheThe Polar Express |
|
|
| 2006 | Da Vinci Code, TheThe Da Vinci Code | Professor Robert Langdon | |
| 2006 | Cars | Woody Car | (voice) |
| 2007 | Simpsons Movie, TheThe Simpsons Movie | Himself | (voice) |
| 2007 | Charlie Wilson's War | Charlie Wilson | Nominated—Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy |
| 2008 | Great Buck Howard, TheThe Great Buck Howard | Mr. Gable | |
| 2008 | Mamma Mia! | (producer) | |
| 2009 | Angels & Demons | Professor Robert Langdon | |
| 2009 | National Parks: America's Best Idea, TheThe National Parks: America's Best Idea | Various historical figures | (voice) |
| 2009 | Where the Wild Things Are | (producer) | |
| 2010 | Toy Story 3 | Woody |
|
| 2011 | Larry Crowne | Larry Crowne | (director, producer, writer) |
| 2011 | Hawaiian Vacation | Woody | (voice) |
| 2011 | Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close | Thomas Schell Jr. | |
| 2012 | Cloud Atlas | Dr. Henry Goose | filming |
| Year | Title | Role | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1980 | Love Boat, TheThe Love Boat | Rick Martin | TV series, episode: "Friends and Lovers/Sergeant Bull/Miss Mother" |
| 1980–1982 | Bosom Buddies | Kip Wilson | |
| 1982 | Taxi | Gordon | |
| 1982 | Mazes and Monsters | Robbie Wheeling | |
| 1982 | Happy Days | Dr. Dwayne Twitchell | TV series, episode: "A Case of Revenge" |
| 1983 | Family Ties | Ned | Elyse Keaton's brother |
| 1994 | Vault of Horror I | Director | |
| 1998 | From the Earth to the Moon | Narrator (also executive producer/director/writer) | Miniseries |
| 2001 | Band of Brothers | Producer, director, writer | Miniseries |
| 2002 | Rutles 2: Can't Buy Me Lunch, TheThe Rutles 2: Can't Buy Me Lunch | Interviewee | |
| 2006–2011 | Big Love | Executive producer | TV series |
| 2008 | John Adams | Executive producer | Miniseries |
| 2010 | Pacific, TheThe Pacific | Executive producer/Narrator | Miniseries |
| 2011 | Saturday Night Live | Guest cast member | |
| 2011 | 30 Rock | Himself | Guest star in the show's 100th episode |
Other accolades[link]
| Organization | Year | Award |
|---|---|---|
| Hollywood Women's Press Club | 1988 | Golden Apple Award |
| Hasty Pudding Theatricals | 1995 | Man of the Year |
| American Film Institute | 2002 | AFI Life Achievement Award[49] |
| Hollywood Film Festival | 2002 | Actor of the Year |
| BAFTA/LA Britannia Awards | 2004 | Britannia Award for Excellence in Film |
| Bambi Awards | 2004 | Bambi for Film – International |
| Film Society of Lincoln Center | 2009 | Gala Tribute |
References[link]
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Stated on Inside the Actors Studio, 1999
- ^ Friday Night with Jonathan Ross, January 2008 on YouTube
- ^ "The all-American icons with British roots - Showbiz - Evening Standard". Thisislondon.co.uk. 2006-11-08. http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/showbiz/article-23373847-the-all-american-icons-with-british-roots.do. Retrieved 2012-03-12.
- ^ Lawrence M. Hanks, Associate Professor – University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
- ^ a b Terry Mattingly (April 12, 2009). "Actor Tom Hanks talks about religion". The Mercury. http://www.pottsmerc.com/articles/2009/04/12/opinion/srv0000005095974.txt. Retrieved October 19, 2010.
- ^ Blum, David (July 28, 1986). "Tom Hanks's Real Splash: A Funny Guy Grows Up in 'Nothing in Common'". New York (New York Media) 19 (29): 39. ISSN 0028-7369. http://books.google.com/books?id=9OYCAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA39.
- ^ Mytnick, Colleen (October 2009). "Life According to Tom Hanks". Cleveland Magazine. http://www.clevelandmagazine.com/ME2/dirmod.asp?sid=E73ABD6180B44874871A91F6BA5C249C&nm=&type=Publishing&mod=Publications%3A%3AArticle&mid=1578600D80804596A222593669321019&tier=4&id=516286375F5F4B71A3896EF13FF6915D. Retrieved November 6, 2010.
- ^ Television listings. November 27, 2003. http://books.google.com/?id=Uek4AAAAIAAJ&q=Tom+Hanks+Family+Ties&dq=Tom+Hanks+Family+Ties. Retrieved January 20, 2009.
- ^ Riggs, Thomas (2002). Contemporary Theatre, Film, and Television. Gale Research. p. 117. ISBN 0-7876-5116-8.
- ^ Winner Speeches.
- ^ "Hanks files big fat 'Greek' lawsuit"[dead link] – United Press International – (c/o NewsDaily.com) – August 8, 2007.
- ^ http://web.archive.org/web/20080208234100/http://www.newsdaily.com/index.php?feed=Entertainment&article=UPI-1-20070808-11481500-bc-us-hanks.xml Archive of UPS article at Archive.org |Retrieved 2011-10-21
- ^ "Hanks sues over unpaid 'My big fat Greek wedding' profits", Irish Examiner, August 8, 2007.
- ^ "Actor Hanks voted in by Academy", BBC, August 25, 2005.
- ^ "Hanks tops 'most trusted' index", BBC, September 27, 2006.
- ^ "A real Movie challenge". BBC. November 9, 2006.
- ^ Tyler, Joshua. "Tom Hanks Confirmed For Da Vinci Code Sequel", Cinema Blend, April 10, 2007.
- ^ Fleming, Michael. "Howard moves fast with 'Code' sequel", Variety, October 24, 2007.
- ^ "Where the Wild Things Are". Box Office Mojo. Accessed October 19, 2009.
- ^ Tom Hanks on Toy Story 3 from firstshowing.net.
- ^ Holden, Stephen (2011-06-30). "Stymied in Middle Age, Reaching for a New Life". The New York Times. http://movies.nytimes.com/2011/07/01/movies/tom-hanks-and-julia-roberts-in-larry-crowne-review.html. Retrieved 2011-07-23.
- ^ "Larry Crowne (2011)". Rotten Tomatoes. http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/larry_crowne/. Retrieved 2011-07-23.
- ^ "Tom Hanks to play Walt Disney in Saving Mr Banks". The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2012/apr/11/tom-hanks-walt-disney-mary-poppins. Retrieved 2012-04-13.
- ^ "Tom Hanks to Play Capt. Richard Phillips in Somali Pirate Hostage Story". Hollywood Reporter. 15th March, 2011. http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/tom-hanks-play-capt-richard-167846. Retrieved 2012-04-13.
- ^ "People Index." Box Office Mojo.
- ^ "Tom Hanks profile at Box Office Mojo". Boxofficemojo.com. http://www.boxofficemojo.com/people/chart/?id=tomhanks.htm. Retrieved March 15, 2011.
- ^ Danny Leigh (January 12, 2001). "Desert island risks". The Guardian (UK). http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2001/jan/12/culture.awardsandprizes. Retrieved October 9, 2010.
- ^ http://www.usmagazine.com/fe_dev.php/celebrities/tom-hanks,[dead link] Us Magazine.
- ^ Tom Hanks, E! Entertainment Television.
- ^ Jennifer Suh (January 13, 2011). "Frat star to rap star: Chet Hanks". The Northwestern Daily. http://www.dailynorthwestern.com/the-current/frat-star-to-rap-star-chet-hanks-1.2431525. Retrieved January 13, 2011. [dead link]
- ^ Jordan, Julie (February 3, 2011). "Tom Hanks's Son Colin Hanks Welcomes Daughter Olivia Jane". People. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20463405,00.html. Retrieved February 22, 2011.
- ^ Beware: Celebrity Endorsement par Tom Hanks from Vidéos MySpaceTV
- ^ "Hollywood Loves Hybrid Cars", Washington Post
- ^ Video on YouTube[dead link]
- ^ "Bird-like electric car to make Palo Alto debut". Retrieved February 1, 2010
- ^ "Tracking the Money: The Final Numbers", Los Angeles Times
- ^ California propositions: Proposition 8, county-by-county map, margin of victory, Los Angeles Times
- ^ "Tom Hanks Get Payback for Prop 8" from Lonsberry.com.
- ^ "Tom Hanks Says Mormon Supporters of Proposition 8 'Un-American'", Fox News.
- ^ "Tom Hanks Apologizes for Calling Mormon Supporters of Proposition 8 'Un-American'", Fox News
- ^ Memoli, Michael (March 16, 2012). "Grassroots reactions to Obama's "The Road We've Traveled" Video". Las Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/news/politics/la-pn-grassroots-reactions-to-obamas-the-road-weve-traveled-video-20120316,0,6154612.story?track=rss&utm_source=dlvr.it&utm_medium=twitter&dlvrit=56325. Retrieved March 17, 2012.
- ^ Douglas S. Morrow Public Outreach Award. Retrieved February 1, 2010.[dead link]
- ^ "Army honors Tom Hanks",[dead link] Associated Press
- ^ "The Dave Clark Five". Captainerniesshowboat.com. http://www.captainerniesshowboat.com/marshalj. Retrieved March 15, 2011.
- ^ "12818 Tomhanks (1996 GU8)". NASA.gov. http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=12818+Tomhanks. Retrieved 2011-08-03.
- ^ "Berlinale: 1994 Prize Winners". berlinale.de. http://www.berlinale.de/en/archiv/jahresarchive/1994/03_preistr_ger_1994/03_Preistraeger_1994.html. Retrieved 2011-12-29.
- ^ "2010 IGN Award for Favorite Hero". IGN. http://uk.movies.ign.com/summer-awards/2010/favorite-hero.html. Retrieved November 13, 2011.
- ^ "2010 IGN Award for Best Ensemble Cast". IGN. http://uk.movies.ign.com/summer-awards/2010/best-ensemble-cast.html. Retrieved November 13, 2011.
- ^ AFI Life Achievement Award
Further reading[link]
- Gardner, David, Tom Hanks: The Unauthorized Biography, London, England 1999
- Gardner, David, Tom Hanks: Enigma 2007
- Pfeiffer, Lee, The Films of Tom Hanks, Secaucus, New Jersey, 1996
- Salamon, Julie, The Devil's Candy: The Bonfire of the Vanities Goes to Hollywood, Boston, 1991
- Trakin, Roy, Tom Hanks: Journey to Stardom, 1987; rev. ed.1995
- Wallner, Rosemary, Tom Hanks: Academy Award-Winning Actor, Edina, Minnesota, 1994
External links[link]
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Tom Hanks |
- Tom Hanks at the Internet Movie Database
- Tom Hanks on Twitter
- Tom Hanks' Facebook Page
- Tom Hanks's channel on YouTube
- Tom Hanks at Yahoo! Movies
- Tom Hanks's thoughts on Earth Day 2006
- Interview from 1989 issue of Film Comment
- Tom Hanks's films of the 1980s
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Hanks, Tom |
| Alternative names | Hanks, Thomas Jeffrey |
| Short description | Actor |
| Date of birth | July 9, 1956 |
| Place of birth | Concord, California, U.S. |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Hanks
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
"Nixon" redirects here. For other uses, see Nixon (disambiguation). For other people named Nixon, see Nixon (surname).
| Richard Nixon | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| 37th President of the United States | |
| In office January 20, 1969 – August 9, 1974 |
|
| Vice President |
|
| Preceded by | Lyndon Johnson |
| Succeeded by | Gerald Ford |
| 36th Vice President of the United States | |
| In office January 20, 1953 – January 20, 1961 |
|
| President | Dwight Eisenhower |
| Preceded by | Alben Barkley |
| Succeeded by | Lyndon Johnson |
| United States Senator from California |
|
| In office December 4, 1950 – January 1, 1953 |
|
| Preceded by | Sheridan Downey |
| Succeeded by | Thomas Kuchel |
| Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from California's 12th district |
|
| In office January 3, 1947 – December 1, 1950 |
|
| Preceded by | Jerry Voorhis |
| Succeeded by | Patrick Hillings |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Richard Milhous Nixon (1913-01-09)January 9, 1913 Yorba Linda, California, US |
| Died | April 22, 1994(1994-04-22) (aged 81) New York City, New York, US |
| Resting place | Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum, Yorba Linda, California 33°53′21″N 117°49′10″W / 33.88917°N 117.81944°W / 33.88917; -117.81944 |
| Political party | Republican |
| Spouse(s) | Pat Ryan (1940–1993, died) |
| Children | |
| Alma mater | |
| Profession | Lawyer |
| Religion | Quaker |
| Signature |  |
| Military service | |
| Service/branch | United States Navy |
| Years of service | 1942–46 |
| Rank | Lieutenant commander |
| Battles/wars | |
| Awards | |
Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was the 37th President of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974. The only president to resign the office, Nixon had previously served as a US representative and senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961.
Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California. After completing his undergraduate work at Whittier College, he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937, and returned to California to practice law. He and his wife, Pat Nixon, moved to Washington to work for the federal government in 1942. He subsequently served in the United States Navy during World War II. Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950. His pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti-communist, and elevated him to national prominence. He was the running mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election. Nixon served for eight years as vice president. He waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960, narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy, and lost a race for Governor of California in 1962. In 1968, he ran again for the presidency and was elected.
Although Nixon initially escalated the war in Vietnam, he subsequently ended US involvement in 1973. Nixon's visit to the People's Republic of China in 1972 opened diplomatic relations between the two nations, and he initiated détente and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty with the Soviet Union the same year. Domestically, his administration generally embraced policies that transferred power from Washington to the states. Among other things, he initiated wars on cancer and drugs, imposed wage and price controls, enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency. Though he presided over Apollo 11, he scaled back manned space exploration. He was reelected by a landslide in 1972.
Nixon's second term saw an Arab oil embargo, the resignation of his vice president, Spiro Agnew, and a continuing series of revelations about the Watergate scandal. The scandal escalated, costing Nixon much of his political support, and on August 9, 1974, he resigned in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office. After his resignation, he was controversially issued a pardon by his successor, Gerald Ford. In retirement, Nixon's work authoring several books and undertaking many foreign trips helped to rehabilitate his public image as an elder statesman. He suffered a debilitating stroke on April 18, 1994, and died four days later at the age of 81. Nixon remains a source of considerable interest among historians and the public.
Contents
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Early life[link]
Nixon was born to Francis A. Nixon and Hannah Milhous Nixon on January 9, 1913, in a house his father built in Yorba Linda, California.[1][2] His mother was a Quaker (his father converted from Methodism after his marriage), and his upbringing was marked by conservative Quaker observances of the time, such as refraining from alcohol, dancing, and swearing. Nixon had four brothers: Harold (1909–33), Donald (1914–87), Arthur (1918–25), and Edward (born 1930).[3] Four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in historical or legendary England; Richard, for example, was named after Richard the Lionheart.[4]
Nixon's early life was marked by hardship, and he later quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood: "We were poor, but the glory of it was, we didn't know it."[5] The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922, and the family moved to Whittier, California. In an area with many Quakers, Frank Nixon opened a grocery store and gas station.[6] Richard's younger brother Arthur died in 1925 after a short illness.[7] At the age of twelve, Richard was found to have a spot on his lung, and with a family history of tuberculosis, he was forbidden to play sports. Eventually, the spot was found to be scar tissue from an early bout of pneumonia.[8][9] Young Richard attended East Whittier Elementary School, where he was president of his eighth-grade class.[10]
His parents believed that attendance at Whittier High School had caused Richard's older brother Harold to live a dissolute lifestyle before the older boy fell ill of tuberculosis (he died of the disease in 1933). Instead, they sent Richard to the larger Fullerton Union High School.[11][12] He received excellent grades, even though he had to ride a school bus for an hour each way during his freshman year—later, he lived with an aunt in Fullerton during the week.[13] He played junior varsity football, and rarely missed a practice, even though he was rarely used in games.[14] He had greater success as a debater, winning a number of championships and taking his only formal tutelage in public speaking from Fullerton's Head of English, H. Lynn Sheller. Nixon later remembered Sheller's words, "Remember, speaking is conversation ... don't shout at people. Talk to them. Converse with them."[15] Nixon stated that he tried to use the conversational tone as much as possible.[15]
His parents permitted Richard to transfer to Whittier High School for his junior year, beginning in September 1928. At Whittier High, Nixon suffered his first electoral defeat, for student body president. He generally rose at 4 a.m., to drive the family truck into Los Angeles and purchase vegetables at the market. He then drove to the store to wash and display them, before going to school. Harold had been diagnosed with tuberculosis the previous year; when their mother took him to Arizona in the hopes of improving his health, the demands on Richard increased, causing him to give up football. Nevertheless Richard graduated from Whittier High third in his class of 207 students.[16]
Nixon was offered a tuition grant to attend Harvard University, but Harold's continued illness and the need for their mother to care for him meant Richard was needed at the store. He remained in his hometown and attended Whittier College, his expenses there covered by a bequest from his maternal grandfather.[17] Nixon played for the basketball team; he also tried out for football, but lacked the size to play. He remained on the team as a substitute, and was noted for his enthusiasm.[18] Instead of fraternities and sororities, Whittier had literary societies. Nixon was snubbed by the only one for men, the Franklins; many members of the Franklins were from prominent families but Nixon was not. He responded by helping to found a new society, the Orthogonian Society.[19] In addition to the society, schoolwork, and work at the store, Nixon found time for a large number of extracurricular activities, becoming a champion debater and gaining a reputation as a hard worker.[20] In 1933, he became engaged to Ola Florence Welch, daughter of the Whittier police chief. The two broke up in 1935.[21]
After his graduation from Whittier in 1934, Nixon received a full scholarship to attend Duke University School of Law.[22] The school was new and sought to attract top students by offering scholarships.[23] It paid high salaries to its professors, many of whom had national or international reputations.[24] The number of scholarships was greatly reduced for second and third year students, forcing recipients into intense competition.[23] Nixon not only kept his scholarship but was elected president of the Duke Bar Association[25], inducted into the Order of the Coif[26], and graduated third in his class in June 1937.[22] He later wrote of his alma mater: "I always remember that whatever I have done in the past or may do in the future, Duke University is responsible in one way or another."[27]
Early career, marriage and war service[link]
After graduating from Duke, Nixon initially hoped to join the Federal Bureau of Investigation. He received no response to his letter of application and learned years later that he had been hired, but his appointment had been canceled at the last minute due to budget cuts.[28] Instead, he returned to California and was admitted to the bar in 1937. He began practicing with the law firm Wingert and Bewley in Whittier,[22] working on commercial litigation for local petroleum companies and other corporate matters, as well as on wills.[29] In later years, Nixon proudly stated that he was the only modern president to have previously worked as a practicing attorney. Nixon was reluctant to work on divorce cases, disliking frank sexual talk from women.[30] In 1938, he opened up his own branch of Wingert and Bewley in La Habra, California,[31] and became a full partner in the firm the following year.[32]
In January 1938, Nixon was cast in the Whittier Community Players production of The Dark Tower. There he played opposite a high school teacher named Thelma "Pat" Ryan.[22] Nixon described it in his memoirs as "a case of love at first sight"[33]—for Nixon only, as Pat Ryan turned down the young lawyer several times before agreeing to date him.[34] Once they began their courtship, Ryan was reluctant to marry Nixon; the relationship dragged on two years before she assented to his proposal. They wed at a small ceremony on June 21, 1940. After a honeymoon in Mexico, the Nixons began their married life in Whittier.[35] They had two children, Tricia (born 1946) and Julie (born 1948).[36]
In January 1942, the couple moved to Washington, D.C., where Nixon took a job at the Office of Price Administration.[22] In his political campaigns, Nixon would suggest that this was his response to Pearl Harbor, but he had sought the position throughout the latter part of 1941. Both Nixon and his wife believed he was limiting his prospects by remaining in Whittier.[37] He was assigned to the tire rationing division, where he was tasked with replying to correspondence. He did not enjoy the role, and four months later, applied to join the United States Navy. As a birthright Quaker, he could have claimed exemption from the draft, and deferments were routinely granted for those in government service. His application was successful, and he was inducted into the Navy in August 1942.[38]
Nixon completed Officers Candidate School and was commissioned as an ensign in October 1942. His first post was as aide to the commander of the Ottumwa Naval Air Station in Iowa. Seeking more excitement, he requested sea duty and was reassigned as the naval passenger control officer for the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command, supporting the logistics of operations in the South West Pacific theater.[39][40] After requesting more challenging duties, he was given command of cargo handling units.[41] Nixon earned two service stars and a citation of commendation, although he saw no actual combat. Upon his return to the US, Nixon was appointed the administrative officer of the Alameda Naval Air Station in California. In January 1945, he was transferred to the Bureau of Aeronautics office in Philadelphia to help negotiate the termination of war contracts, and he received another letter of commendation for his work there.[42] Later, Nixon was transferred to other offices to work on contracts and finally to Baltimore.[43] In October 1945, he was promoted to lieutenant commander.[42] He resigned his commission on New Year's Day 1946.[44]
Rising politician[link]
Congressional career[link]
For more information on Nixon's congressional election campaigns, see California's 12th congressional district election, 1946 and United States Senate election in California, 1950.
In 1945, Republicans in California's 12th congressional district, frustrated by their inability to defeat Democratic Congressman Jerry Voorhis, sought a consensus candidate who would run a strong campaign against him. They formed a "Committee of 100" to decide on a candidate, hoping to avoid internal dissensions which had led to Voorhis victories. After the committee failed to attract higher-profile candidates, Herman Perry, Whittier's Bank of America branch manager, suggested Nixon, a family friend with whom he had served on the Whittier College Board of Trustees before the war. Perry wrote to Nixon in Baltimore. After a night of excited talk between the Nixons, the naval officer responded to Perry with enthusiasm. Nixon flew to California and was selected by the committee. When he left the Navy at the start of 1946, Nixon and his wife returned to Whittier, where Nixon began a year of intensive campaigning.[45][46] He contended that Voorhis had been ineffective as a congressman and suggested that Voorhis's endorsement by a group linked to communists meant that Voorhis must have radical views.[47] Nixon won the election, receiving 65,586 votes to Voorhis' 49,994.[48]
In Congress, Nixon supported the Taft–Hartley Act of 1947, a federal law that monitors the activities and power of labor unions, and served on the Education and Labor Committee. He was part of the Herter Committee, which went to Europe to report on the need for US foreign aid. Nixon was the youngest member of the committee, and the only Westerner.[49] Advocacy by Herter Committee members, including Nixon, led to congressional passage of the Marshall Plan.[50]
Nixon first gained national attention in 1948 when his investigation, as a member of the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), broke the Alger Hiss spy case. While many doubted Whittaker Chambers' allegations that Hiss, a former State Department official, had been a Soviet spy, Nixon believed them to be true. He discovered that Chambers saved microfilm reproductions of incriminating documents by hiding the film in a pumpkin.[51] Hiss was convicted of perjury in 1950 for denying under oath he had passed documents to Chambers.[52] In 1948, Nixon successfully cross-filed as a candidate in his district, winning both major party primaries,[53] and was comfortably reelected.[54]
In 1949, Nixon began to consider running for the United States Senate against the Democratic incumbent, Sheridan Downey,[55] and entered the race in November of that year.[56] Downey, faced with a bitter primary battle with Representative Helen Gahagan Douglas, announced his retirement in March 1950.[57] Nixon and Douglas won the primary elections[58] and engaged in a contentious campaign in which the ongoing Korean War was a major issue.[59] Nixon tried to focus attention on Douglas' liberal voting record. As part of that effort, a "Pink Sheet" was distributed by the Nixon campaign suggesting that, as Douglas' voting record was similar to that of New York Congressman Vito Marcantonio (believed by some to be a communist), their political views must be nearly identical.[60] Nixon won the election by almost twenty percentage points.[61]
In the Senate, Nixon took a prominent position in opposing global communism, traveling frequently and speaking out against "the threat".[62] He maintained friendly relations with his fellow anti-communist, the controversial Wisconsin senator, Joseph McCarthy, but was careful to keep some distance between himself and McCarthy's allegations.[63] Nixon also criticized President Harry S. Truman's handling of the Korean War.[62] He supported statehood for Alaska and Hawaii, voted in favor of civil rights for minorities, and supported federal disaster relief for India and Yugoslavia.[64] He voted against price controls and other monetary restrictions, benefits for illegal immigrants, and public power.[64]
Vice president[link]
Further information: Checkers speech
General Dwight D. Eisenhower was nominated for president by the Republicans in 1952. He had no strong preference for a vice presidential candidate, and Republican officeholders and party officials met in a "smoke-filled room" and recommended Nixon to the general, who agreed to the senator's selection. Nixon's youth (he was then 39), stance against communism, and his political base in California—one of the largest states—were all seen as vote-winners by the leaders. Among the candidates considered along with Nixon were Ohio Senator Robert Taft, New Jersey Governor Alfred Driscoll and Illinois Senator Everett Dirksen.[65][66] On the campaign trail, Eisenhower spoke to his plans for the country, leaving the negative campaigning to his running mate.[67]
In mid-September, the media reported that Nixon had a political fund, maintained by his backers, which reimbursed him for political expenses. Such a fund was not illegal, but it exposed Nixon to allegations of possible conflict of interest. With pressure building for Eisenhower to demand Nixon's resignation from the ticket, the senator went on television to deliver an address to the nation on September 23, 1952.[68] The address, later termed the Checkers speech, was heard by about 60 million Americans—including the largest television audience up to that point.[69] Nixon emotionally defended himself, stating that the fund was not secret, nor had donors received special favors. He painted himself as a man of modest means (his wife had no mink coat; instead she wore a "respectable Republican cloth coat") and a patriot.[68] The speech would be remembered for the gift which Nixon had received, but which he would not give back: "a little cocker spaniel dog ... sent all the way from Texas. And our little girl—Tricia, the 6-year-old—named it Checkers."[68] The speech was a masterpiece of rhetoric and prompted a huge public outpouring of support for Nixon.[70] Eisenhower decided to retain him on the ticket,[71] which proved victorious in the November election.[67]
Eisenhower had pledged to give Nixon responsibilities during his term as vice president that would enable him to be effective from the start as a successor. Nixon attended Cabinet and National Security Council meetings and chaired them when Eisenhower was absent. A 1953 tour of the Far East succeeded in increasing local goodwill toward the United States and prompted Nixon to appreciate the potential of the region as an industrial center. He visited Saigon and Hanoi in French Indochina.[72] On his return to the United States at the end of 1953, Nixon increased the amount of time he devoted to foreign relations.[73]
Biographer Irwin Gellman, who chronicled Nixon's congressional years, said of his vice presidency:
Eisenhower radically altered the role of his running mate by presenting him with critical assignments in both foreign and domestic affairs once he assumed his office. The vice president welcomed the president's initiatives and worked energetically to accomplish White House objectives. Because of the collaboration between these two leaders, Nixon deserves the title, "the first modern vice president".[74]
Despite intense campaigning by Nixon, who reprised his strong attacks on the Democrats, the Republicans lost control of both houses of Congress in the 1954 elections. These losses caused Nixon to contemplate leaving politics once he had served out his term.[75] On September 24, 1955, President Eisenhower suffered a heart attack; his condition was initially believed to be life-threatening. Eisenhower was unable to perform his duties for six weeks. The 25th Amendment to the United States Constitution had not yet been proposed, and the Vice President had no formal power to act. During this time, however, Nixon acted in Eisenhower's stead, presiding over Cabinet meetings and ensuring that aides and Cabinet officers did not seek power.[76] According to Nixon biographer Stephen Ambrose, Nixon had "earned the high praise he received for his conduct during the crisis ... he made no attempt to seize power".[77]
His spirits buoyed, Nixon sought a second term, but some of Eisenhower's aides aimed to displace him. In a December 1955 meeting, Eisenhower proposed that Nixon not run for reelection in order to give him administrative experience before a 1960 presidential run and instead become a Cabinet officer in a second Eisenhower administration. Nixon, however, believed such an action would destroy his political career. When Eisenhower announced his reelection bid in February 1956, he hedged on the choice of his running mate, stating that it was improper to address that question until he had been renominated. Although no Republican was opposing Eisenhower, Nixon received a substantial number of write-in votes against the President in the 1956 New Hampshire primary election. In late April, the President announced that Nixon would again be his running mate.[78] Eisenhower and Nixon were reelected by a comfortable margin in the November 1956 election.[79]
In the spring of 1957, Nixon undertook another major foreign trip, this time to Africa. On his return, he helped shepherd the Civil Rights Act of 1957 through Congress. The bill was weakened in the Senate, and civil rights leaders were divided over whether Eisenhower should sign it. Nixon advised the President to sign the bill, which he did.[80] Eisenhower suffered a mild stroke in November 1957, and Nixon gave a press conference, assuring the nation that the Cabinet was functioning well as a team during Eisenhower's brief illness.[81]
On April 27, 1958, Richard and Pat Nixon embarked on a goodwill tour of South America. In Montevideo, Uruguay, Nixon made an impromptu visit to a college campus, where he fielded questions from students on US foreign policy. The trip was uneventful until the Nixon party reached Lima, Peru, where he was met with student demonstrations. Nixon went to the campus, got out of his car to confront the students, and stayed until forced back into the car by a volley of thrown objects. At his hotel, Nixon faced another mob, and one demonstrator spat on him.[82] In Caracas, Nixon and his wife were spat on by anti-American demonstrators and their limousine was attacked by a pipe-wielding mob.[83] According to Ambrose, Nixon's courageous conduct "caused even some of his bitterest enemies to give him some grudging respect".[84]
In July 1959, President Eisenhower sent Nixon to the Soviet Union for the opening of the American National Exhibition in Moscow. On July 24, while touring the exhibits with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, the two stopped at a model of an American kitchen and engaged in an impromptu exchange about the merits of capitalism versus communism that became known as the "Kitchen Debate".[85]
1960 and 1962 elections; wilderness years[link]
Main article: United States presidential election, 1960
In 1960, Nixon launched his first campaign for President of the United States. He faced little opposition in the Republican primaries[86] and chose former Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. as his running mate.[87] His Democratic opponent was John F. Kennedy, and the race remained close for the duration.[88] Nixon campaigned on his experience, but Kennedy called for new blood and claimed the Eisenhower–Nixon administration had allowed the Soviet Union to overtake the US in ballistic missiles (the "missile gap").[89] A new political medium was introduced in the campaign: televised presidential debates. In the first of four such debates, Nixon appeared pale, with a five o'clock shadow, in contrast to the photogenic Kennedy.[87] Nixon's performance in the debate was perceived to be mediocre in the visual medium of television, though many people listening on the radio thought that Nixon had won.[90] Nixon lost the election narrowly, with Kennedy ahead by only 120,000 votes (0.2 percent) in the popular vote.[87]
There were charges of vote fraud in Texas and Illinois, both states won by Kennedy; Nixon refused however to consider contesting the election, feeling a lengthy election contest would diminish the United States in the eyes of the world, and the uncertainty would hurt US interests.[91] At the end of his term of office as vice president in January 1961, Nixon and his family returned to California, where he practiced law and wrote a bestselling book, Six Crises, which included coverage of the Hiss case, Eisenhower's heart attack, and the Fund Crisis, which had been resolved by the Checkers speech.[87][92]
Local and national Republican leaders encouraged Nixon to challenge incumbent Pat Brown for Governor of California in the 1962 election.[87] Despite initial reluctance, Nixon entered the race.[87] The campaign was clouded by public suspicion that Nixon viewed the office as a stepping-stone for another presidential run, some opposition from the far-right of the party, and his own lack of interest in being California's governor.[87] Nixon hoped that a successful run would confirm him in his status as the nation's leading active Republican politician, and ensure he remained a major player in national politics.[93] Instead, he lost to Brown by nearly 300,000 votes, and the defeat was widely believed to be the end of his political career.[87] In an impromptu concession speech the morning after the election, Nixon blamed the media for favoring his opponent, saying, "You won't have Nixon to kick around anymore because, gentlemen, this is my last press conference".[94] The California defeat was highlighted in the November 11, 1962, episode of ABC's Howard K. Smith: News and Comment entitled "The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon".[95] Alger Hiss appeared on the program, and many members of the public complained that it was unseemly to allow a convicted felon air time to attack a former vice president. The furor drove Smith and his program from the air,[96] and public sympathy for Nixon grew.[95]
The Nixon family traveled to Europe in 1963, where Nixon gave press conferences and met with leaders of the countries he visited.[97] The family moved to New York City, where Nixon became a senior partner in the leading law firm Nixon, Mudge, Rose, Guthrie & Alexander.[87] Nixon had pledged, when announcing his California campaign, not to run for president in 1964; even if he had not, he believed it would be difficult to defeat Kennedy, or after his assassination, Kennedy's successor Lyndon Johnson.[98] In 1964, he supported Arizona Senator Barry Goldwater for the Republican nomination for president; when Goldwater was successful in gaining the nomination, Nixon was selected to introduce the candidate to the convention. Although he thought Goldwater unlikely to win, Nixon campaigned for him loyally. The election was a disaster for the Republicans; Goldwater's landslide loss to Johnson was matched by heavy losses for the party in Congress and among state governors.[99]
Nixon was one of the few leading Republicans not blamed for the disastrous results, and he sought to build on that in the 1966 congressional elections. He campaigned for many Republicans seeking to regain seats lost in the Johnson landslide and received credit for helping the Republicans make major gains in the midterm election.[100]
1968 presidential election[link]
Main articles: Richard Nixon presidential campaign, 1968 and United States presidential election, 1968
At the end of 1967, Nixon told his family he planned to run for president a second time. Although Pat Nixon did not always enjoy public life[101] (for example, she had been embarrassed by the need to reveal how little the family owned in the Checkers speech),[102] she was supportive of her husband's ambitions. Nixon believed that with the Democrats torn over the issue of the Vietnam War, a Republican had a good chance of winning, although he expected the election to be as close as in 1960.[101]
One of the most tumultuous primary election seasons ever began as the Tet Offensive was launched, followed by the withdrawal of President Johnson as a candidate after doing unexpectedly poorly in the New Hampshire primary; it concluded with the assassination of one of the Democratic candidates, Senator Robert F. Kennedy just moments after his victory in the California primary. On the Republican side, Nixon's main opposition was Michigan Governor George Romney, though New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller and California Governor Ronald Reagan each hoped to be nominated in a brokered convention. Nixon secured the nomination on the first ballot.[103] He selected Maryland Governor Spiro Agnew as his running mate, a choice which Nixon believed would unite the party, appealing to both Northern moderates and Southerners disaffected with the Democrats.[104]
Nixon's Democratic opponent in the general election was Vice President Hubert Humphrey, who was nominated at a convention marked by violent protests.[105] Throughout the campaign, Nixon portrayed himself as a figure of stability during a period of national unrest and upheaval.[105] He appealed to what he later called the "silent majority" of socially conservative Americans who disliked the hippie counterculture and the anti-war demonstrators. Agnew became an increasingly vocal critic of these groups, solidifying Nixon's position with the right.[106]
Nixon waged a prominent television advertising campaign, meeting with supporters in front of cameras.[107] He stressed that the crime rate was too high, and attacked what he perceived as a surrender by the Democrats of the United States' nuclear superiority.[108] Nixon promised "peace with honor" in the Vietnam War and proclaimed that "new leadership will end the war and win the peace in the Pacific".[109] He did not release specifics of how he hoped to end the war, resulting in media intimations that he must have a "secret plan".[109] His slogan of "Nixon's the One" proved to be effective.[107]
In a three-way race between Nixon, Humphrey, and independent candidate Alabama Governor George Wallace, Nixon defeated Humphrey by nearly 500,000 votes (seven-tenths of a percentage point), with 301 electoral votes to 191 for Humphrey and 46 for Wallace.[105][110] In his victory speech, Nixon pledged that his administration would try to bring the divided nation together.[111] Nixon said: "I have received a very gracious message from the Vice President, congratulating me for winning the election. I congratulated him for his gallant and courageous fight against great odds. I also told him that I know exactly how he felt. I know how it feels to lose a close one."[112]
Presidency (1969–74)[link]
Nixon was inaugurated as president on January 20, 1969, sworn in by his onetime political rival, Chief Justice Earl Warren. Pat Nixon held the family Bibles open at Isaiah 2:4, which reads, "They shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks." In his inaugural address, which received almost uniformly positive reviews, Nixon remarked that "the greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker"[113]—a phrase that would later be placed on his gravestone.[114] He spoke about turning partisan politics into a new age of unity:
In these difficult years, America has suffered from a fever of words; from inflated rhetoric that promises more than it can deliver; from angry rhetoric that fans discontents into hatreds; from bombastic rhetoric that postures instead of persuading. We cannot learn from one another until we stop shouting at one another, until we speak quietly enough so that our words can be heard as well as our voices.[115]
Foreign policy[link]
China[link]
Main article: 1972 Nixon visit to China
Nixon laid the groundwork for his overture to China even before he became president, writing in Foreign Affairs a year before his election: "There is no place on this small planet for a billion of its potentially most able people to live in angry isolation."[116] Assisting him in this venture was his National Security Advisor and future Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger, with whom the President worked closely, bypassing Cabinet officials. With relations between the Soviet Union and China at a nadir—border clashes between the two took place during Nixon's first year in office—Nixon sent private word to the Chinese that he desired closer relations. A breakthrough came in early 1971, when Chairman Mao invited a team of American table tennis players to visit China and play against top Chinese players. Nixon followed up by sending Kissinger to China for clandestine meetings with Chinese officials.[116] On July 15, 1971, it was simultaneously announced by Beijing and by Nixon (on television and radio) that the President would visit China the following February. The announcements astounded the world.[117] The secrecy allowed both sets of leaders time to prepare the political climate in their countries for the contact.[118]
In February 1972, Nixon and his wife traveled to China. Kissinger briefed Nixon for over 40 hours in preparation.[119] Upon touching down, the President and First Lady emerged from Air Force One and greeted Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai. Nixon made a point of shaking Zhou's hand, something which then-Secretary of State John Foster Dulles had refused to do in 1954 when the two met in Geneva.[120] Over 100 television journalists accompanied the president. On Nixon's orders, television was strongly favored over printed publications, as Nixon felt that the medium would capture the visit much better than print. It also gave him the opportunity to snub the print journalists he despised.[120]
Nixon and Kissinger met for an hour with Mao and Zhou at Mao's official private residence, where they discussed a range of issues.[121] Mao later told his doctor that he had been impressed by Nixon, whom he considered forthright, unlike the leftists and the Soviets.[121] He also said he was suspicious of Kissinger,[121] though the National Security Advisor referred to their meeting as his "encounter with history".[120] A formal banquet welcoming the presidential party was given that evening in the Great Hall of the People. The following day, Nixon met with Zhou; the joint communique following this meeting recognized Taiwan as a part of China, and looked forward to a peaceful solution to the problem of reunification.[122] When not in meetings, Nixon toured architectural wonders including the Forbidden City, Ming Tombs, and the Great Wall.[120] Americans received their first glimpse into Chinese life through the cameras which accompanied Pat Nixon, who toured the city of Beijing and visited communes, schools, factories, and hospitals.[120]
The visit ushered in a new era of Sino-American relations.[105] Fearing the possibility of a Sino-American alliance, the Soviet Union yielded to pressure for détente with the United States.[123]
Vietnam War[link]
Main articles: Vietnam War and Role of the United States in the Vietnam War
When Nixon took office, about 300 American soldiers were dying each week in Vietnam, and the war was broadly unpopular in the United States, with violent protests against the war ongoing. The Johnson administration had agreed to suspend bombing in exchange for negotiations without preconditions, but this agreement never fully took force. Nixon sought some arrangement which would permit American forces to withdraw, while leaving South Vietnam secure against attack.[124]
Nixon approved a secret bombing campaign of North Vietnamese positions in Cambodia in March 1969 (code-named Operation Menu) to destroy what was believed to be the headquarters of the Viet Cong.[125] These operations resulted in heavy bombing of Cambodia; by one measurement more bombs were dropped over Cambodia under Johnson and Nixon than the Allies dropped during World War II.[126] In mid-1969, Nixon began efforts to negotiate peace with the North Vietnamese, sending a personal letter to North Vietnamese leaders, and peace talks began in Paris. Initial talks, however, did not result in an agreement.[127] In July 1969, Nixon visited South Vietnam, where he met with his US military commanders and President Nguyen Van Thieu. Amid protests at home demanding an immediate pullout, he implemented a strategy of replacing American troops with Vietnamese troops, known as "Vietnamization".[105] He soon instituted phased US troop withdrawals[128] but authorized incursions into Laos, in part to interrupt the Ho Chi Minh trail, used to supply North Vietnamese forces, that passed through Laos and Cambodia. Nixon announced the ground invasion of Cambodia to the American public on April 30, 1970.[129] His responses to protesters included an impromptu, early morning meeting with them at the Lincoln Memorial on May 9, 1970.[130][131][132] Nixon's campaign promise to curb the war, contrasted with the escalated bombing, led to claims that Nixon had a "credibility gap" on the issue.[128]
In 1971, excerpts from the "Pentagon Papers", which had been leaked by Daniel Ellsberg, were published by The New York Times and The Washington Post. When news of the leak first appeared, Nixon was inclined to do nothing; the Papers, a history of United States' involvement in Vietnam, mostly concerned the lies of prior administrations and contained few real revelations. He was persuaded by Kissinger that the papers were more harmful than they appeared, and the President tried to prevent publication. The Supreme Court eventually ruled for the newspapers.[133]
As US troop withdrawals continued, conscription was reduced and in 1973 ended; the armed forces became all-volunteer.[134] After years of fighting, the Paris Peace Accords were signed at the beginning of 1973. The agreement implemented a cease fire and allowed for the withdrawal of remaining American troops; however, it did not require the 160,000 North Vietnam Army regulars located in the South to withdraw.[135] Once American combat support ended, there was a brief truce, before fighting broke out again, this time without American combat involvement. North Vietnam conquered South Vietnam in 1975.[136]
Latin American policy[link]
Nixon had been a firm supporter of Kennedy in the 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion and 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis; on taking office he stepped up covert operations against Cuba and its president, Fidel Castro. He maintained close relations with the Cuban-American exile community through his friend, Bebe Rebozo, who often suggested ways of irritating Castro. These activities concerned the Soviets and Cubans, who feared Nixon might attack Cuba in violation of the understanding between Kennedy and Khrushchev which had ended the missile crisis. In August 1970, the Soviets asked Nixon to reaffirm the agreement. Despite his hard line against Castro, Nixon agreed. The process—which began in secret, but quickly leaked—had not been completed when the US deduced that the Soviets were expanding their base at the Cuban port of Cienfuegos in October 1970. A minor confrontation ensued, which was concluded with an understanding that the Soviets would not use Cienfuegos for submarines bearing ballistic missiles. The final round of diplomatic notes, reaffirming the 1962 accord, were exchanged in November.[137]
The election of Marxist candidate Salvador Allende as President of Chile in September 1970 led Nixon to order that Allende not be allowed to take office. Edward Korry, US Ambassador to Chile, told Nixon that he saw no alternative to Allende, and Nixon ruled out American intervention, though he remained willing to assist opponents of Allende who might come forward. With the Chilean armed forces in disarray following the assassination of the Army leader, General René Schneider, Allende took office.[138] The military regrouped under General Augusto Pinochet, who overthrew Allende in 1973. During the coup, the deposed president died under disputed circumstances, concerning which there have been allegations of American involvement.[139]
Soviet Union[link]
Nixon used the improving international environment to address the topic of nuclear peace. Following the announcement of his visit to China, the Nixon administration concluded negotiations for the president to visit the Soviet Union. The president and first lady arrived in Moscow on May 22, 1972 and met with Leonid Brezhnev, the General Secretary of the Communist Party; Alexei Kosygin, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers; and Nikolai Podgorny, the head of state, among other leading Soviet officials.[140]
Nixon engaged in intense negotiations with Brezhnev.[140] Out of the summit came agreements for increased trade and two landmark arms control treaties: SALT I, the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers,[105] and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, which banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles. Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of "peaceful coexistence A banquet was held that evening at the Kremlin.[140]
Seeking to foster better relations with the United States, both China and the Soviet Union cut back on their diplomatic support for North Vietnam and advised Hanoi to come to terms militarily.[141][142][143] Nixon later described his strategy:
I had long believed that an indispensable element of any successful peace initiative in Vietnam was to enlist, if possible, the help of the Soviets and the Chinese. Though rapprochement with China and détente with the Soviet Union were ends in themselves, I also considered them possible means to hasten the end of the war. At worst, Hanoi was bound to feel less confident if Washington was dealing with Moscow and Beijing. At best, if the two major Communist powers decided that they had bigger fish to fry, Hanoi would be pressured into negotiating a settlement we could accept.[144]
Having made considerable progress over the previous two years in US-Soviet relations, Nixon embarked on a second trip to the Soviet Union in 1974.[145] He arrived in Moscow on June 27 to a welcome ceremony, cheering crowds, and a state dinner at the Grand Kremlin Palace that evening.[145] Nixon and Brezhnev met in Yalta, where they discussed a proposed mutual defense pact, détente, and MIRVs. While he considered proposing a comprehensive test-ban treaty, Nixon felt he would not have time as president to complete it.[145] There were no significant breakthroughs in these negotiations.[145]
Middle Eastern policy[link]
As part of the Nixon Doctrine that the US would avoid direct combat assistance to allies where possible, instead giving them assistance to defend themselves, the US greatly increased arms sales to the Middle East—particularly Israel, Iran and Saudi Arabia—during the Nixon administration.[146] The Nixon administration strongly supported Israel, an American ally in the Middle East but the support was not unconditional. Nixon believed that Israel should make peace with its Arab neighbors and that the United States should encourage it. The president believed that—except during the Suez Crisis—the US had failed to intervene with Israel, and should use the leverage of the large US military aid to Israel to urge the parties to the negotiating table. However, the Arab-Israeli conflict was not a major focus of Nixon's attention during his first term—for one thing, he felt that no matter what he did, American Jews would oppose his reelection.[a]
When an Arab coalition led by Egypt and Syria attacked in October 1973, beginning the Yom Kippur War, Israel suffered initial losses. The US took no action for several days, until Nixon ordered an airlift to Israel, taking personal responsibility for any response by Arab nations. Nixon cut through inter-departmental squabbles and bureaucracy to initiate an airlift of American arms. By the time the US and Soviet Union negotiated a truce, Israel had penetrated deep into enemy territory. The war resulted in the 1973 oil crisis, in which Arab nations refused to sell crude oil to the US in retaliation for its support of Israel.[147] The embargo caused gasoline shortages and rationing in the United States in late 1973, and was eventually ended by the oil-producing nations as peace took hold.[148] Kissinger played a major role in the settlement, and was also able to reestablish US relations with Egypt for the first time since 1967; Nixon made one of his final international visits as president there in June 1974.[149]
Domestic policy[link]
File:Nixon Opening Day 1969 Two.jpg
Nixon chats with a future voter at the Washington Senators' 1969 Opening Day, with Baseball Commissioner Bowie Kuhn (to the right of Nixon), Senators owner Bob Short and Nixon aide Jack Brennan (in uniform).
Economy[link]
Further information: Nixon Shock and 1970s energy crisis
At the time Nixon took office in 1969, inflation was at 4.7 percent—its highest rate since the Korean War. The Great Society had been enacted under Johnson, which, together with the Vietnam War costs, was causing large budget deficits. There was little unemployment, but interest rates were at their highest in a century.[150] Nixon's major economic goal was to reduce inflation; the most obvious means of doing so was to end the war.[150] This could not be accomplished overnight, and the US economy continued to struggle through 1970, contributing to a lackluster Republican performance in the midterm congressional elections (Democrats controlled both Houses of Congress throughout Nixon's presidency).[151] According to political economist Nigel Bowles in his 2011 study of Nixon's economic policies, the new president did little to alter Johnson's policies through the first year of his presidency.[152]
Nixon was far more interested in foreign affairs than domestic policies, but believed that voters tend to focus on their own financial condition, and that economic conditions were a threat to his reelection. As part of his "New Federalism" views, he proposed grants to the states, but these proposals were for the most part lost in the congressional budget process. However, Nixon gained political credit for advocating them.[151] In 1970, Congress had granted the President the power to impose wage and price freezes, though the Democratic majorities, knowing Nixon had opposed such controls through his career, did not expect Nixon to actually use the authority.[152] With inflation unresolved by August 1971, and an election year looming, Nixon convened a summit of his economic advisers at Camp David. He then announced temporary wage and price controls, allowed the dollar to float against other currencies, and ended the convertibility of the dollar into gold.[153] Bowles points out, "by identifying himself with a policy whose purpose was inflation's defeat, Nixon made it difficult for Democratic opponents ... to criticize him. His opponents could offer no alternative policy that was either plausible or believable since the one they favored was one they had designed but which the president had appropriated for himself."[152] Nixon's policies dampened inflation through 1972, although their aftereffects contributed to inflation during his second term and into the Ford administration.[153]
After he won reelection, Nixon found inflation returning.[154] He reimposed price controls in June 1973. The price controls became unpopular with the public and businesspeople, who saw powerful labor unions as preferable to the price board bureaucracy.[154] The controls produced food shortages, as meat disappeared from grocery stores and farmers drowned chickens rather than sell them at a loss.[154] Despite the failure to control inflation, controls were slowly ended, and on April 30, 1974, their statutory authorization lapsed.[154]
Governmental initiatives and organization[link]
Nixon advocated a "New Federalism", which would devolve power to state and local elected officials, though Congress was hostile to these ideas and enacted few of them.[155] He eliminated the Cabinet-level United States Post Office Department, which in 1971 became the government-run United States Postal Service.[156]
Nixon was a late convert to the conservation movement. Environmental policy had not been a significant issue in the 1968 election; the candidates were rarely asked for their views on the subject. He saw that the first Earth Day in April 1970 presaged a wave of voter interest on the subject, and sought to use that to his benefit; in June he announced the formation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Nixon broke new ground by discussing environment policy in his State of the Union speech; other initiatives supported by Nixon included the Clean Air Act of 1970 and Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA); the National Environmental Policy Act required environmental impact statements for many Federal projects.[157] Nixon vetoed the Clean Water Act of 1972—objecting not to the policy goals of the legislation but to the amount of money to be spent on them, which he deemed excessive. After Congress overrode his veto, Nixon impounded the funds he deemed unjustifiable.[158]
In 1971, Senator Edward Kennedy of Massachusetts proposed a plan for universal federally run health insurance, partly motivated by dramatic rises in public and private health care expenditures. In response, Nixon proposed a health care plan which would provide insurance for low-income families, and require that all employees be provided with health care. As this still would have left some forty million people uncovered, Kennedy and the other Democrats declined to support it, and the measure failed, though a Nixon proposal for increased use of health maintenance organizations passed Congress in 1973.[159]
As one policy initiative, Pres. Nixon called for more money for sickle cell research, treatment, and education in February 1971[160] and signed the National Sickle Cell Anemia Control Act on May 16, 1972.[161][162][b] However, one writer on sickle cell states that while Nixon called for increased spending on such high-profile items as cancer and sickle cell, at the same time he sought to reduce overall spending at NIH (National Institutes of Health) as part of his general conservative approach to government.[163]
US space program[link]
Further information: Space policy of the United States
After a nearly decade-long national effort, the United States won the race to land astronauts on the moon on July 20, 1969, with the flight of Apollo 11. Nixon spoke with Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin during their moonwalk. He called the conversation "the most historic phone call ever made from the White House".[164] Nixon, however, was unwilling to keep funding for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) at the high level seen through the 1960s as NASA prepared to send men to the moon. NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine drew up ambitious plans for the establishment of a permanent base on the moon by the end of the 1970s and the launch of a manned expedition to Mars as early as 1981. Nixon, however, rejected both proposals.[165]
On May 24, 1972, Nixon approved a five-year cooperative program between NASA and the Soviet space program, culminating in the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project, a joint mission of an American Apollo and a Soviet Soyuz spacecraft in 1975.[166]
Civil rights[link]
The Nixon years witnessed the first large-scale integration of public schools in the South.[167] Nixon sought a middle way between the segregationist Wallace and liberal Democrats, whose support of integration was alienating some Southern whites.[168] Hopeful of doing well in the South in 1972, he sought to dispose of desegregation as a political issue before then. Soon after his inauguration, he appointed Vice President Agnew to lead a task force, which worked with local leaders—both white and black—to determine how to integrate local schools. Agnew had little interest in the work, and most of it was done by Labor Secretary George Shultz. Federal aid was available, and a meeting with President Nixon was a possible reward for compliant committees. By September 1970, fewer than ten percent of black children were attending segregated schools. By 1971, however, tensions over desegregation surfaced in Northern cities, with angry protests over the busing of children to schools outside their neighborhood to achieve racial balance. Nixon opposed busing personally but enforced court orders requiring its use.[169]
In addition to desegregating public schools, Nixon implemented the Philadelphia Plan in 1970—the first significant federal affirmative action program.[170] He also endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment after it passed both houses of Congress in 1972 and went to the states for ratification.[171] Nixon had campaigned as an ERA supporter in 1968, though feminists criticized him for doing little to help the ERA or their cause after his election, though he appointed more women to administration positions than Lyndon Johnson had.[172]
Reelection, Watergate scandal, and resignation[link]
1972 presidential campaign[link]
Main article: United States presidential election, 1972
Nixon believed his rise to power had peaked at a moment of political realignment. The Democratic "Solid South" had long been a frustration to Republican ambitions. Goldwater had won several Southern states by opposing the Civil Rights Act of 1964 but had alienated more moderate Southerners. Nixon's efforts to gain Southern support in 1968 were diluted by Wallace's candidacy. Through his first term, he pursued a Southern Strategy with policies, such as his desegregation plans, that would be broadly acceptable among Southern whites, encouraging them to realign with the Republicans in the aftermath of the Civil Rights era. He nominated two Southern conservatives, Clement Haynsworth and G. Harrold Carswell to the Supreme Court, but neither was confirmed by the Senate.[173]
Nixon entered his name on the New Hampshire primary ballot on January 5, 1972, effectively announcing his candidacy for reelection.[174] Virtually assured the Republican nomination,[175] the President had initially expected his Democratic opponent to be Massachusetts Senator Ted Kennedy (brother of the late president), but he was largely removed from contention after the 1969 Chappaquiddick incident.[176] Instead, Maine Senator Edmund Muskie became the front runner, with South Dakota Senator George McGovern in a close second place.[174]
On June 10, McGovern won the California primary and secured the Democratic nomination.[177] The following month, Nixon was renominated at the 1972 Republican National Convention. He dismissed the Democratic platform as cowardly and divisive.[178] McGovern intended to sharply reduce defense spending[179] and supported amnesty for draft evaders as well as abortion rights. With some of his supporters believed to be in favor of drug legalization, McGovern was perceived as standing for "amnesty, abortion and acid". McGovern was also damaged by his vacillating support for his original running mate, Missouri Senator Thomas Eagleton, dumped from the ticket following revelations that he had received treatment for depression.[180][181] Nixon was ahead in most polls for the entire election cycle, and was reelected on November 7, 1972 in one of the largest landslide election victories in American history. He defeated McGovern with over 60 percent of the popular vote, losing only in Massachusetts and the District of Columbia.[182]
Watergate[link]
Main article: Watergate scandal
The term Watergate has come to encompass an array of clandestine and often illegal activities undertaken by members of the Nixon administration. Those activities included "dirty tricks" such as bugging the offices of political opponents and people of whom Nixon or his officials were suspicious. Nixon and his close aides ordered harassment of activist groups and political figures, using the FBI, CIA, and the Internal Revenue Service. The activities became known after five men were caught breaking into Democratic party headquarters at the Watergate complex in Washington, D.C. on June 17, 1972. The Washington Post picked up on the story; reporters Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward relied on an informant known as "Deep Throat"—later revealed to be Mark Felt, associate director at the FBI—to link the men to the Nixon administration. Nixon downplayed the scandal as mere politics, calling news articles biased and misleading. As a series of revelations made it clear that Nixon aides had committed crimes in attempts to sabotage the Democrats and others, senior aides such as White House Counsel John Dean and Chief of Staff H. R. Haldeman faced prosecution.[105][183][184]
In July 1973, White House aide Alexander Butterfield testified that Nixon had a secret taping system that recorded his conversations and phone calls in the Oval Office. These tapes were subpoenaed by Watergate Special Counsel Archibald Cox. Nixon refused to release them, citing executive privilege. With the White House and Cox at loggerheads, Nixon had Cox fired in October in the "Saturday Night Massacre"; he was replaced by Leon Jaworski. In November, Nixon's lawyers revealed that an audio tape of conversations, held in the White House on June 20, 1972, featured an 18½ minute gap.[184] Rose Mary Woods, the President's personal secretary, claimed responsibility for the gap, alleging that she had accidentally wiped the section while transcribing the tape, though her tale was widely mocked. The gap, while not conclusive proof of wrongdoing by the President, cast doubt on Nixon's statement that he had been unaware of the cover-up.[185]
Though Nixon lost much popular support, even from his own party, he rejected accusations of wrongdoing and vowed to stay in office.[184] He insisted that he had made mistakes, but had no prior knowledge of the burglary, did not break any laws, and did not learn of the cover-up until early 1973.[186] On October 10, 1973, Vice President Agnew resigned amid allegations—unrelated to Watergate—of bribery, tax evasion and money laundering from his tenure as Maryland's governor. Nixon chose Gerald Ford, Minority Leader of the House of Representatives, to replace Agnew.[187]
On November 17, 1973, during a televised question and answer session with the press,[188] Nixon said,
People have got to know whether or not their President is a crook. Well, I'm not a crook. I've earned everything I've got.[189]
The legal battle over the tapes continued through early 1974, and in April 1974 Nixon announced the release of 1,200 pages of transcripts of White House conversations between him and his aides. The House Judiciary Committee, opened impeachment hearings against the President on May 9, 1974, which were televised on the major networks. These hearings culminated in votes for articles of impeachment, the first being 27–11 in favor on July 27, 1974 on obstruction of justice.[186] On July 24, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that the full tapes, not just selected transcripts must be released.[190]
Even with support diminished by the continuing series of revelations, Nixon hoped to win through. However, one of the new tapes, recorded soon after the break-in, demonstrated that Nixon had been told of the White House connection to the Watergate burglaries soon after they took place, and had approved plans to thwart the investigation. In a statement accompanying the release of the "Smoking Gun Tape" on August 5, 1974, Nixon accepted blame for misleading the country about when he had been told of the truth behind the Watergate break-in, stating that he had a lapse of memory.[191] He met with Republican congressional leaders soon after, and was told he faced certain impeachment in the House and had, at most, 15 senators prepared to vote for his acquittal—far fewer than the 34 he needed to avoid removal from office.[192]
[edit] Resignation
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In light of his loss of political support and the near certainty of impeachment, Nixon resigned the office of the presidency on August 9, 1974, after addressing the nation on television the previous evening.[186] The resignation speech was delivered from the Oval Office and was carried live on radio and television. Nixon stated that he was resigning for the good of the country and asked the nation to support the new president, Gerald Ford. Nixon went on to review the accomplishments of his presidency, especially in foreign policy.[193] He defended his record as president, and stated:
Sometimes I have succeeded and sometimes I have failed, but always I have taken heart from what Theodore Roosevelt once said about the man in the arena, "whose face is marred by dust and sweat and blood, who strives valiantly, who errs and comes up short again and again because there is not effort without error and shortcoming, but who does actually strive to do the deed, who knows the great enthusiasms, the great devotions, who spends himself in a worthy cause, who at the best knows in the end the triumphs of high achievements and who at the worst, if he fails, at least fails while daring greatly".[194]
Nixon's speech contained no admission of wrongdoing, and was termed "a masterpiece" by Conrad Black, one of his biographers. Black opined that "What was intended to be an unprecedented humiliation for any American president, Nixon converted into a virtual parliamentary acknowledgement of almost blameless insufficiency of legislative support to continue. He left while devoting half his address to a recitation of his accomplishments in office."[195] The initial response from network commentators was generally favorable, with only Roger Mudd of CBS stating that Nixon had evaded the issue, and had not admitted his role in the cover-up.[196]
Later years and death[link]
Pardon and illness[link]
Following his resignation, the Nixons flew to their home La Casa Pacifica in San Clemente, California.[197] According to his biographer, Aitken, after his resignation, "Nixon was a soul in torment".[198] Congress had funded Nixon's transition costs, including some salary expenses, though reducing the appropriation from $850,000 to $200,000. With some of his staff still with him, Nixon was at his desk by 7 a.m.—with little to do.[198] His former press secretary, Ron Ziegler, sat with him alone for hours each day.[199]
Nixon's resignation had not put an end to the desire among many to see him punished. The Ford White House considered a pardon of Nixon, though it would be unpopular in the country. Nixon, contacted by Ford emissaries, was initially reluctant to accept the pardon, but then agreed to do so. Ford, however, insisted on a statement of contrition; Nixon felt he had not committed any crimes and should not have to issue such a document. Ford eventually agreed, and on September 8, 1974, he granted Nixon a "full, free, and absolute pardon", which ended any possibility of an indictment. Nixon then released a statement:
I was wrong in not acting more decisively and more forthrightly in dealing with Watergate, particularly when it reached the stage of judicial proceedings and grew from a political scandal into a national tragedy. No words can describe the depth of my regret and pain at the anguish my mistakes over Watergate have caused the nation and the presidency, a nation I so deeply love, and an institution I so greatly respect.[200][201]
In October 1974, Nixon fell ill with phlebitis. Told by his doctors that he could either be operated on or die, a reluctant Nixon chose surgery, and President Ford visited him in the hospital. Nixon was under subpoena for the trial of three of his former aides—Dean, Haldeman, and John Ehrlichman—and The Washington Post, disbelieving his illness, printed a cartoon showing Nixon with a cast on the "wrong foot". Judge John Sirica excused Nixon's presence despite the defendants' objections.[202] Congress instructed Ford to retain Nixon's presidential papers—beginning a three-decade legal battle over the documents that eventually would be won by the former president and his estate.[203] Nixon was in the hospital when the 1974 midterm elections were held, and Watergate and the pardon were contributing factors to the Republican loss of 43 seats in the House and three in the Senate.[204]
Return to public life[link]
In December 1974, Nixon began planning his comeback despite the considerable ill-will against him in the country. He wrote in his diary, referring to himself and Pat,
So be it. We will see it through. We've had tough times before and we can take the tougher ones that we will have to go through now. That is perhaps what we were made for—to be able to take punishment beyond what anyone in this office has had before particularly after leaving office. This is a test of character and we must not fail the test.[205]
By early 1975, Nixon's health was improving. He maintained an office in a Coast Guard station 300 yards from his home, at first taking a golf cart and later walking the route each day; he mainly worked on his memoirs.[206] He had hoped to wait before writing his memoirs; the fact that his assets were being eaten away by expenses and lawyer fees compelled him to begin work quickly.[207] He was handicapped in this work by the end of his transition allowance in February, which compelled him to part with much of his staff, including Ziegler.[208] In August of that year, he met with British talk-show host and producer David Frost, who paid him $600,000 for a series of sit-down interviews, filmed and aired in 1977.[209] They began on the topic of foreign policy, recounting the leaders he had known, but the most remembered section of the interviews was that on Watergate. Nixon admitted that he had "let down the country" and that "I brought myself down. I gave them a sword and they stuck it in. And they twisted it with relish. And, I guess, if I'd been in their position, I'd have done the same thing."[210] The interviews garnered 45–50 million viewers—becoming the most-watched program of their kind in television history.[211]
The interviews helped improve Nixon's financial position—at one point in early 1975 he had only $500 in the bank—as did the sale of his Key Biscayne property to a trust set up by wealthy Nixon friends such as Bebe Rebozo.[212] In February 1976, Nixon visited China at the personal invitation of Mao. Nixon had wanted to return to China, but chose to wait until after Ford's own visit in 1975.[213] Nixon remained neutral in the close 1976 primary battle between Ford and Reagan. Ford won, but was defeated by Georgia Governor Jimmy Carter in the general election. The Carter administration had little use for Nixon and blocked his planned trip to Australia, causing the government of Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser to withhold from him an official invitation.[214]
In early 1978, Nixon went to the United Kingdom. He was shunned by American diplomats and by most ministers of the James Callaghan government. He was welcomed, however, by the Leader of the Opposition, Margaret Thatcher, as well as by former prime ministers Lord Home and Sir Harold Wilson, though two other former prime ministers, Harold Macmillan and Edward Heath declined to meet with him. Nixon addressed the Oxford Union regarding Watergate:
Some people say I didn't handle it properly and they're right. I screwed it up. Mea culpa. But let's get on to my achievements. You'll be here in the year 2000 and we'll see how I'm regarded then.[215]
Author and elder statesman[link]
In 1978, Nixon published his memoirs, RN: The Memoirs of Richard Nixon, the first of ten books he was to author in his retirement.[197] The book was a bestseller and attracted a generally positive critical response.[216] Nixon journeyed to the White House in 1979, invited by Carter for the state dinner for Chinese Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping. Carter had not wanted to invite Nixon, but Deng had stated he would visit Nixon in California if the former president was not invited. Nixon had a private meeting with Deng and visited Beijing again in mid-1979.[217]
In early 1980, the Nixons purchased a New York City townhouse after being rejected by two Manhattan co-ops.[218] When the former Shah of Iran died in Egypt in July 1980, Nixon defied the State Department, which intended to send no US representative, by attending the funeral. Though Nixon had no official credentials, as a former president he was seen as the American presence at its former ally's funeral.[219] Nixon supported Ronald Reagan for president in 1980, making television appearances portraying himself as, in biographer Stephen Ambrose's words, "the senior statesman above the fray".[220] He wrote guest articles for many publications both during the campaign and after Reagan's victory.[221] After eighteen months in the New York City townhouse, Nixon and his wife moved in 1981 to Saddle River, New Jersey.[197]
Throughout the 1980s, Nixon maintained an ambitious schedule of speaking engagements and writing,[197] traveled, and met with many foreign leaders, especially those of Third World countries. He joined former Presidents Ford and Carter as representatives of the United States at the funeral of Egyptian President Anwar Sadat.[197] On a trip to the Middle East, Nixon made his views known regarding Saudi Arabia and Libya, which attracted significant US media attention; The Washington Post ran stories on Nixon's "rehabilitation".[222] Nixon journeyed to the Soviet Union in 1986 and on his return sent President Reagan a lengthy memorandum containing foreign policy suggestions and his personal impressions of Mikhail Gorbachev.[197] Following this trip, Nixon was ranked in a Gallup poll as one of the ten most admired men in the world.[223]
In 1986, Nixon addressed a convention of newspaper publishers, impressing his audience with his tour d'horizon of the world.[224] At the time, political pundit Elizabeth Drew wrote, "Even when he was wrong, Nixon still showed that he knew a great deal and had a capacious memory, as well as the capacity to speak with apparent authority, enough to impress people who had little regard for him in earlier times."[224] Newsweek ran a story on "Nixon's comeback" with the headline "He's back".[225]
On July 19, 1990, the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace in Yorba Linda, California opened as a private institution with the Nixons in attendance. They were joined by a large crowd of people, including Presidents Ford, Reagan, and George H. W. Bush, as well as their wives, Betty, Nancy, and Barbara.[226] In January 1991, the former president founded the Nixon Center (today the Center for the National Interest), a Washington policy think tank and conference center.[227]
Pat Nixon died on June 22, 1993, of emphysema and lung cancer. Her funeral services were held on the grounds of the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace. Former President Nixon was distraught throughout the interment.[228] Inside the building, he delivered a moving tribute to her.[228]
Death and funeral[link]
Main article: Death and funeral of Richard Nixon
Nixon suffered a severe stroke on April 18, 1994, while preparing to eat dinner in his Park Ridge, New Jersey home.[229] A blood clot resulting from his heart condition had formed in his upper heart, broken off, and traveled to his brain. He was taken to New York Hospital–Cornell Medical Center in Manhattan, initially alert but unable to speak or to move his right arm or leg.[229] Damage to the brain caused swelling (cerebral edema), and Nixon slipped into a deep coma. He died at 9:08 p.m. on April 22, 1994, with his daughters at his bedside. He was 81 years old.[229]
Nixon's funeral took place on April 27, 1994—the first for an American president since Lyndon B. Johnson's in 1973, over which Nixon had presided. Eulogists at the Nixon Library ceremony included then-President Bill Clinton, former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, Senate Minority Leader Bob Dole, California Governor Pete Wilson, and the Reverend Billy Graham. Also in attendance were former Presidents Ford, Carter, Reagan, George H. W. Bush, and their wives.[230]
Richard Nixon rests beside his wife Pat on the grounds of the Nixon Library. He was survived by his two daughters, Tricia and Julie, and four grandchildren.[229] In keeping with his wishes, his funeral was not a full state funeral, though his body did lie in repose in the Nixon Library lobby from April 26 to the morning of the funeral services.[231] Mourners waited in line up to eight hours in chilly, wet weather to pay their respects.[232] At its peak, the line to pass by Nixon's casket was three miles long with an estimated 42,000 people waiting to pay their respects.[233]
John F. Stacks of Time magazine said of Nixon shortly after his death, "An outsize energy and determination drove him on to recover and rebuild after every self-created disaster that he faced. To reclaim a respected place in American public life after his resignation, he kept traveling and thinking and talking to the world's leaders ... and by the time Bill Clinton came to the White House [in 1993], Nixon had virtually cemented his role as an elder statesman. Clinton, whose wife served on the staff of the committee that voted to impeach Nixon, met openly with him and regularly sought his advice."[234] Tom Wicker of The New York Times noted that Nixon had been equalled only by Franklin Roosevelt in being five times nominated on a major party ticket and, quoting Nixon's 1962 farewell speech, wrote, "Richard Nixon's jowly, beard-shadowed face, the ski-jump nose and the widow's peak, the arms upstretched in the V-sign, had been so often pictured and caricatured, his presence had become such a familiar one in the land, he had been so often in the heat of controversy, that it was hard to realize the nation really would not 'have Nixon to kick around anymore'."[235] Ambrose said of the reaction to Nixon's death, "To everyone's amazement, except his, he's our beloved elder statesman."[236]
Upon Nixon's death, almost all of the news coverage mentioned Watergate, but for the most part, the coverage was favorable to the former president. The Dallas Morning News stated, "History ultimately should show that despite his flaws, he was one of our most farsighted chief executives."[237] This offended some; columnist Russell Baker complained of "a group conspiracy to grant him absolution".[238] Cartoonist Jeff Koterba of the Omaha World-Herald depicted History before a blank canvas, his subject Nixon, as America looks on eagerly. The artist urges his audience to sit down; the work will take some time to complete, as "this portrait is a little more complicated than most".[239]
Legacy[link]
Historian and political scientist James MacGregor Burns observed of Nixon, "How can one evaluate such an idiosyncratic president, so brilliant and so morally lacking?"[240] Nixon's biographers disagree on how he will be perceived by history. According to Ambrose, "Nixon wanted to be judged by what he accomplished. What he will be remembered for is the nightmare he put the country through in his second term and for his resignation."[241] Irwin Gellman, who chronicled Nixon's congressional career, suggests that "he was remarkable among his congressional peers, a success story in a troubled era, one who steered a sensible anti-Communist course against the excess of McCarthy".[242] Aitken feels that "Nixon, both as a man and as a statesman, has been excessively maligned for his faults and inadequately recognised for his virtues. Yet even in a spirit of historical revisionism, no simple verdict is possible."[243]
File:Nixon grave 2011.jpg
The graves of President Richard Nixon (right) and First Lady Pat Nixon
Nixon's Southern Strategy is credited by some historians as causing the South to become a Republican stronghold, though others deem economic factors more important to the change.[173] Throughout his career, he was instrumental in moving his party away from the control of isolationists, and as a congressman was a persuasive advocate of containing Soviet communism.[244] According to his biographer, Herbert Parmet, "Nixon's role was to steer the Republican party along a middle course, somewhere between the competitive impulses of the Rockefellers, the Goldwaters, and the Reagans."[245]
Nixon is given credit for his stance on domestic affairs, which resulted in the passage and enforcement of environmental and regulatory legislation. Historian Paul Charles Milazzo in his 2011 paper on Nixon and the environment, points to Nixon's creation of the EPA and his enforcement of legislation such as the 1973 Endangered Species Act, stating that "though unsought and unacknowledged, Richard Nixon's environmental legacy is secure."[246]
Nixon saw his policies regarding Vietnam, China, and the Soviets as key to his place in history.[146] George McGovern, Nixon's onetime opponent, commented in 1983, "President Nixon probably had a more practical approach to the two superpowers, China and the Soviet Union, than any other president since World War II ... With the exception of his inexcusable continuation of the war in Vietnam, Nixon really will get high marks in history."[247] Political scientist Jussi M. Hanhimäki disagrees, saying Nixon's diplomacy was merely a continuation of the Cold War policy of containment, using diplomatic rather than military means.[146]
Historian Keith W. Olson has written that Nixon left a negative legacy: fundamental mistrust of government with its roots in Vietnam and Watergate.[248] During the impeachment of Bill Clinton in 1998, both sides tried to use Nixon and Watergate to their advantage: Republicans suggested that Clinton's misconduct had been comparable to Nixon's, while Democrats contended that Nixon's actions had been far more serious than those of the incumbent.[249] Another legacy, for a time, was a decrease in the power of the presidency as Congress passed restrictive legislation in the wake of Watergate. Olson, however suggests that grants of power to George W. Bush in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks restored the president's power.[248]
Personality and public image[link]
Nixon's career was frequently dogged by his persona and the public's perception of it. Editorial cartoonists and comedians often exaggerated his appearance and mannerisms, to the point where the line between the human and the caricature became increasingly blurred. He was often portrayed with unshaven jowls, slumped shoulders, and a furrowed, sweaty brow.[250]
Nixon had a complex personality, both very secretive and awkward, yet strikingly reflective about himself. He was inclined to distance himself from people and was formal in all aspects, wearing a coat and tie even when home alone.[251] Nixon biographer Conrad Black described him as being "driven" though also "uneasy with himself in some ways".[252] According to Black, Nixon "thought that he was doomed to be traduced, double-crossed, unjustly harassed, misunderstood, underappreciated, and subjected to the trials of Job, but that by the application of his mighty will, tenacity, and diligence, he would ultimately prevail".[253] Biographer Elizabeth Drew summarized Nixon as a "smart, talented man, but most peculiar and haunted of presidents".[254] In his account of the Nixon presidency, author Richard Reeves described Nixon as "a strange man of uncomfortable shyness who functioned best, alone with his thoughts".[255] Nixon's presidency was doomed by his personality, Reeves argues: "He assumed the worst in people and he brought out the worst in them ... He clung to the idea of being 'tough'. He thought that was what had brought him to the edge of greatness. But that was what betrayed him. He could not open himself to other men and he could not open himself to greatness."[256]
In October 1999, a volume of 1971 White House audio tapes was released that contained statements by Nixon deemed derogatory toward Jews.[257] In one conversation with H. R. Haldeman, Nixon said that Washington was "full of Jews" and that "most Jews are disloyal," making exceptions for some of his top aides.[258] He then added, "But, Bob, generally speaking, you can't trust the bastards. They turn on you. Am I wrong or right?"[258] Elsewhere in the 1971 recordings, Nixon denies being anti-Semitic, saying, "If anybody who's been in this chair ever had reason to be anti-Semitic, I did ... And I'm not, you know what I mean?"[258]
Nixon believed that putting distance between himself and other people was necessary for him as he advanced in his political career and became president. Even Bebe Rebozo, by some accounts his closest friend, did not call him by his first name. Nixon stated of this, "Even with close friends. I don't believe in letting your hair down, confiding this and that and the other thing—saying, 'Gee, I couldn't sleep' ... I believe you should keep your troubles to yourself. That's just the way I am. Some people are different. Some people think it's good therapy to sit with a close friend and, you know, just spill your guts ... [and] reveal their inner psyche—whether they were breast-fed or bottle-fed. Not me. No way."[259] When told that most Americans, even at the end of his career, did not feel they knew him, Nixon replied, "Yeah, it's true. And it's not necessary for them to know."[259]
See also[link]
- Murray Chotiner, Nixon's campaign manager and aide.
- Nixon in China, 1987 opera by John Adams.
Notes[link]
Explanatory notes
- ^ Black, pp. 583–585. In 1972, Nixon did more than double his percentage of the Jewish vote, from 17 percent to 35 percent. Merkley, p. 68.
- ^ see especially page 2 (after introductory material) in which a bar graph displays NHLBI research funding from FY 1972 through FY 2001, totaling $923 million for these thirty years, starting at $10 million for 1972, then about $15 million a year through 1976, about $20 million for 1977, etc
Citations
- ^ NPS, Nixon Birthplace.
- ^ Ferris, p. 209.
- ^ Nixon Library, Childhood.
- ^ Aitken, p. 11.
- ^ Aitken, p. 12.
- ^ Aitken, p. 21.
- ^ Ambrose 1987, p. 41.
- ^ Aitken, p. 27.
- ^ Ambrose 1987, pp. 56–57.
- ^ Black, p. 16.
- ^ Morris, p. 89.
- ^ Black, pp. 17–19.
- ^ Morris, p. 91.
- ^ Morris, p. 92.
- ^ a b Aitken, p. 28.
- ^ Black, pp. 20–23.
- ^ Black, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Gellman, p. 15.
- ^ Black, pp. 24–25.
- ^ Ambrose 1987, p. 61.
- ^ Aitken, pp. 58–63.
- ^ a b c d e Nixon Library, Student & Sailor.
- ^ a b Ambrose 1987, pp. 33–34.
- ^ Aitken, p. 67.
- ^ Parmet, p. 81.
- ^ Nixon Library, Family Collection Guide.
- ^ Blythe, p. 7.
- ^ Aitken, p. 76.
- ^ Aitken, pp. 79–82.
- ^ Morris, p. 193.
- ^ Black, p. 44.
- ^ Black, p. 43.
- ^ Nixon 1978, p. 23.
- ^ Ambrose 1987, pp. 93, 99.
- ^ Ambrose 1987, pp. 100–101.
- ^ Nixon Library, Nixon Family.
- ^ Morris, pp. 124–126.
- ^ Aitken, pp. 96–97.
- ^ Naval Historical Center, Commander Nixon.
- ^ Black, pp. 58–60.
- ^ Black, p. 60.
- ^ a b Black, p. 62.
- ^ Aitken, p. 112.
- ^ Black, pp. 62–63.
- ^ Parmet, pp. 91–96.
- ^ Gellman, pp. 27–28.
- ^ Parmet, pp. 111–113.
- ^ Gellman, p. 82.
- ^ Gellman, pp. 105–107, 125–126.
- ^ Morris, p. 365.
- ^ Black, pp. 129–135.
- ^ Gellman, pp. 239–241.
- ^ Morris, p. 381.
- ^ Nixon Library, Congressman.
- ^ Gellman, p. 282.
- ^ Morris, p. 535.
- ^ Gellman, pp. 296–297.
- ^ Gellman, p. 304.
- ^ Gellman, p. 310.
- ^ Morris, p. 581.
- ^ Gellman, p. 335.
- ^ a b Nixon Library, Senator.
- ^ Ambrose 1987, pp. 211, 311–312.
- ^ a b Black, p. 178.
- ^ Gellman, pp. 440–441.
- ^ Aitken, pp. 205–206.
- ^ a b Aitken, pp. 222–223.
- ^ a b c Aitken, pp. 210–217.
- ^ Thompson, p. 291.
- ^ Aitken, p. 218.
- ^ Morris, p. 846.
- ^ Aitken, pp. 225–227.
- ^ Ambrose 1987, p. 342.
- ^ Gellman, Irwin. "The Richard Nixon vice presidency: Research without the Nixon manuscripts" in Small, pp. 102–120.
- ^ Ambrose 1987, pp. 357–358.
- ^ Aitken, pp. 256–258.
- ^ Ambrose 1987, pp. 375–376.
- ^ Aitken, pp. 237–241.
- ^ Parmet, p. 294.
- ^ Black, pp. 349–352.
- ^ Black, p. 355.
- ^ Ambrose 1987, pp. 465–469.
- ^ Ambrose 1987, pp. 469–479.
- ^ Ambrose 1987, p. 463.
- ^ Ambrose 1987, pp. 521–525.
- ^ UPI 1960 in Review.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Nixon Library, Vice President.
- ^ Museum of Broadcast Communications, "Kennedy-Nixon Debates".
- ^ Steel 2003-05-25.
- ^ Foner, p. 843.
- ^ Carlson 2000-11-17.
- ^ Black, p. 431.
- ^ Black, pp. 432–433.
- ^ Aitken, pp. 304–305.
- ^ a b Ambrose 1987, p. 673.
- ^ Museum of Broadcast Communications, "Smith, Howard K.".
- ^ Black, p. 446.
- ^ Aitken, pp. 297, 321.
- ^ Aitken, pp. 321–322.
- ^ Aitken, pp. 323–326.
- ^ a b Parmet, p. 502.
- ^ Morris, pp. 410–411.
- ^ Parmet, pp. 503–508.
- ^ Parmet, p. 509.
- ^ a b c d e f g Nixon Library, President.
- ^ Morrow 1996-09-30.
- ^ a b Black, pp. 513–514.
- ^ Black, p. 550.
- ^ a b Schulzinger, p. 413.
- ^ Black, p. 558.
- ^ Evans & Novak, pp. 33–34.
- ^ UPI 1968 in Review.
- ^ Black, pp. 567–68.
- ^ Frick, p. 189.
- ^ UPI 1969 in Review.
- ^ a b Miller Center.
- ^ Ambrose 1989, p. 453.
- ^ Goh, Evelyn. "The China card" in Small, pp. 425–443.
- ^ Black, p. 778.
- ^ a b c d e PBS, The Nixon Visit.
- ^ a b c Black, pp. 780–782.
- ^ Ambrose 1989, p. 516.
- ^ Dallek, p. 300.
- ^ Black, p. 569.
- ^ Black, p. 591.
- ^ Kiernan & Owen.
- ^ Ambrose 1989, pp. 281–283.
- ^ a b Time 1971-04-05.
- ^ AP/St. Peterburg Independent.
- ^ Safire, pp. 205–209
- ^ UPI/Beaver County Times 1970-05-09.
- ^ Black, pp. 675–676.
- ^ Ambrose 1989, pp. 446–448.
- ^ Evans.
- ^ Ambrose 1991, pp. 53–55.
- ^ Ambrose 1991, p. 473.
- ^ Ambrose 1989, pp. 379–383.
- ^ Black, pp. 689–690.
- ^ Black, pp. 920–921.
- ^ a b c BBC 1972-05-22.
- ^ Gaddis, pp. 294, 299.
- ^ Guan, pp. 61, 69, 77–79.
- ^ Zhai, p. 136.
- ^ Nixon 1985, pp. 105–106.
- ^ a b c d Black, p. 963.
- ^ a b c Hanhimäki, Jussi M. "Foreign Policy Overview" in Small, pp. 345–361.
- ^ Black, pp. 923–928.
- ^ Ambrose 1991, p. 311.
- ^ Black, pp. 951–52, 959.
- ^ a b Ambrose 1989, pp. 225–226.
- ^ a b Ambrose 1989, pp. 431–432.
- ^ a b c Bowles, Nigel. "Economic Policy" in Small, pp. 235–251.
- ^ a b Aitken, pp. 399–400.
- ^ a b c d Hetzel, p. 92.
- ^ Aitken, p. 395.
- ^ USPS, Periodicals postage.
- ^ Aitken, pp. 397–398.
- ^ Aitken, p. 396.
- ^ Patel & Rushefsky, p. 47
- ^ Office of the Federal Register, pp. 179–182.
- ^ The American Presidency Project.
- ^ National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, p. 2.
- ^ Wailoo, pp. 165 & 170.
- ^ Parmet, p. 563.
- ^ Handlin.
- ^ NASA, The Partnership, ch. 6–11.
- ^ Boger, p. 6.
- ^ Sabia.
- ^ Parmet, pp. 595–597, 603.
- ^ Delaney 1970-07-20.
- ^ Frum, p. 246.
- ^ PBS, Nixon, Domestic Politics.
- ^ a b Mason, Robert "Political realignment" in Small, pp. 252–269.
- ^ a b Black, p. 766.
- ^ Black, p. 795.
- ^ Black, p. 617.
- ^ Black, p. 816.
- ^ Black, p. 834.
- ^ White, p. 123.
- ^ Time 1972-08-14.
- ^ Time 1970-11-20.
- ^ Parmet, p. 629.
- ^ The Washington Post, The Post Investigates.
- ^ a b c The Washington Post, The Government Acts.
- ^ Aitken, pp. 511–512.
- ^ a b c The Washington Post, Nixon Resigns.
- ^ Ambrose 1989, pp. 231–232, 239.
- ^ Frum, p. 26.
- ^ Kilpatrick 1973-11-18.
- ^ Ambrose 1991, pp. 394–395.
- ^ Ambrose 1991, pp. 414–416.
- ^ Black, p. 978.
- ^ Ambrose 1991, pp. 435–436.
- ^ PBS, Resignation Speech.
- ^ Black, p. 983.
- ^ Ambrose 1991, p. 437.
- ^ a b c d e f Nixon Library, Post Presidency.
- ^ a b Aitken, p. 529.
- ^ Aitken, pp. 529–530.
- ^ Aitken, p. 532.
- ^ Black, p. 990.
- ^ Aitken, pp. 533–534.
- ^ Black, pp. 994, 999.
- ^ Black, p. 998.
- ^ Aitken, p. 535.
- ^ Ambrose 1991, p. 481.
- ^ Aitken, pp. 537, 539.
- ^ Black, p. 1000.
- ^ Black, p. 1004.
- ^ Drew, p. 138.
- ^ Ambrose 1991, p. 512.
- ^ Aitken, pp. 539–540.
- ^ Black, p. 1005.
- ^ Aitken, p. 543.
- ^ Aitken, pp. 546–547.
- ^ Ambrose 1991, p. 525.
- ^ Ambrose 1991, pp. 524–525.
- ^ Ambrose 1991, p. 528.
- ^ Ambrose 1991, p. 533.
- ^ Ambrose 1991, p. 534.
- ^ Ambrose 1991, p. 540.
- ^ Ambrose 1991, p. 545.
- ^ Drew, p. 142.
- ^ a b Drew, p. 144.
- ^ Aitken, pp. 561–562.
- ^ Aitken, pp. 565–568.
- ^ Black, pp. 1045–1046.
- ^ a b Black, pp. 1049–1050.
- ^ a b c d Weil & Randolph 1994-04-23.
- ^ Black, pp. 1051–1053.
- ^ BBC 2004-06-11.
- ^ The Deseret News 1994-04-27.
- ^ Frick, p. 206.
- ^ Stacks 1994-05-02.
- ^ Wicker 1994-04-24.
- ^ Sawhill 2011-02.
- ^ Frick, pp. 205–206.
- ^ Frick, pp. 204–205.
- ^ Frick, p. 210.
- ^ Skidmore, p. 495.
- ^ Ambrose 1991, p. 592.
- ^ Gellman, p. 460.
- ^ Aitken, p. 577.
- ^ Black, p. 1053.
- ^ Parmet, p. viii.
- ^ Milazzo, Paul Charles. "Nixon and the Environment" in Small, pp. 270–291.
- ^ Greider 1983-10-10.
- ^ a b Olson, Keith W. "Watergate" in Small, pp. 481–496.
- ^ Frick, pp. 211–214.
- ^ Reeves, pp. 281–283.
- ^ Drew, p. 150.
- ^ Black, p. 574.
- ^ Black, p. 700.
- ^ Drew, p. 151.
- ^ Reeves, p. 12.
- ^ Reeves, p. 13.
- ^ Lardner & Dobbs.
- ^ a b c Noah 1999-10-07.
- ^ a b Greene.
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- "American President: Richard Milhous Nixon (1913–1994), Foreign Affairs". Miller Center for Public Affairs, University of Virginia. http://millercenter.org/president/nixon/essays/biography/5. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
- "Richard M. Nixon Birthplace". National Park Service. http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/travel/presidents/nixon_birthplace.html. Retrieved May 11, 2012.
- "The Partnership – ch6–11". National Aeronautics and Space Administration. http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4209/ch6-11.htm. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
- "Commander Richard M. Nixon, USNR". Naval Historical Center. United States Navy. August 7, 2006. http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq60-8.htm. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
- Nixon, Richard (August 8, 1974). "President Nixon's Resignation Speech". Character Above All. Public Broadcasting Service. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/character/links/nixon_speech.html. Retrieved July 15, 2011.
- "The Nixon Visit – (February 21–28, 1972)". American Experience. Public Broadcasting Service. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/china/sfeature/nixon.html. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
- "Richard M. Nixon, Domestic Politics". American Experience. Public Broadcasting Service. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/nixon-domestic/. Retrieved May 11, 2012.
- Sabia, Joseph J. (May 31, 2004). "Why Richard Nixon Deserves to Be Remembered Along with Brown". History News Network. http://hnn.us/articles/5331.html. Retrieved May 11, 2012.
- "Kennedy Wins 1960 Presidential Election". 1960 Year In Review. United Press International. http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1960/Kennedy-Wins-1960-Presidential-Election/12295509435928-8/. Retrieved July 17, 2011.
- "1968 Presidential Election". 1968 Year in Review. United Press International. http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1968/1968-Presidential-Election/12303153093431-2/. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
- "Nixon Becomes President". 1969 Year in Review. United Press International. http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1969/War-Protests/12303189849225-3/. Retrieved July 16, 2011.
- "Postage rates for periodicals: A narrative history". United States Postal Service. http://about.usps.com/who-we-are/postal-history/periodicals-postage-history.pdf. Retrieved August 6, 2011.
- Office of the Federal Register (1999). "New Actions To Prevent Illnesses And Accidents". Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, Richard Nixon, 1971. General Services Administration. ISBN 978-0-16-058863-1. http://books.google.com/?id=r2qRyBmB15EC&pg=PA180&lpg=PA180&dq=%22cannot+rewrite+this+record+of+neglect,+but+we+can+reverse+it%22#v=onepage&q=%22cannot%20rewrite%20this%20record%20of%20neglect%2C%20but%20we%20can%20reverse%20it%22&f=false.
- "Statement on Signing the National Sickle Cell Anemia Control Act". The American Presidency Project. University of California, Santa Barbara. May 16, 1972. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=3413.
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (September 2002) (PDF). Sickle Cell Research for Treatment and Cure. National Institutes of Health. 02-5214. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/resources/docs/scd30/scd30.pdf.
- Wailoo, Keith (2001). Dying in the City of the Blues: Sickle Cell Anemia and the Politics of Race and Health. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-4896-8. http://books.google.com/?id=mtya18oC2EMC&pg=PA165&dq=%22surprised+many+Americans+by+making+sickle+cell+anemia+part+of+his+health+message+to+Congress%22#v=onepage&q=%22surprised%20many%20Americans%20by%20making%20sickle%20cell%20anemia%20part%20of%20his%20health%20message%20to%20Congress%22&f=false.
External links[link]
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- Richard Nixon Foundation
- The Nixons Take a Bicycle Ride
- The Nixon Center, Washington, D.C.
- Richard Nixon Presidential Library
- White House biography
- Richard Nixon: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress
- The Watergate Tapes
- Nixon's will
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- Richard Nixon at the Internet Movie Database
- Richard Nixon at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
- Works by or about Richard Nixon in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Works by Richard Nixon at Project Gutenberg
- Richard Nixon collected news and commentary at The New York Times
- The Nixon–Presley Meeting at The National Security Archive
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Nixon, Richard Milhous |
| Alternative names | Richard Nixon |
| Short description | American politician, 37th President of the United States (1969–1974) |
| Date of birth | January 9, 1913 |
| Place of birth | Yorba Linda, California, United States |
| Date of death | April 22, 1994 |
| Place of death | New York City, New York, United States |
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| John Leonard Swigert, Jr. | |
|---|---|
 |
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| NASA Astronaut | |
| Nationality | American |
| Born | August 30, 1931 Denver, Colorado |
| Died | December 27, 1982(1982-12-27) (aged 51) Washington D.C. |
| Other occupation | Test Pilot |
| Time in space | 5d 22h 54m 16s |
| Selection | 1966 NASA Group |
| Missions | Apollo 13 |
| Mission insignia | |
John Leonard "Jack" Swigert, Jr., (August 30, 1931 – December 27, 1982) was a NASA astronaut, one of the 24 persons who have flown to the Moon.
Before joining NASA, Swigert was a test pilot. After leaving NASA, he was elected to the United States House of Representatives, but died before being sworn in.
Contents |
Education[link]
Swigert attended the Blessed Sacrament School, Regis Jesuit High School, and East High School. He graduated from the University of Colorado at Boulder, where he played varsity football and earned a bachelor-of-science degree in mechanical engineering. He earned a master-of-science degree in aerospace science from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, in Troy, New York, and a Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree from University of Hartford, in West Hartford, Connecticut.
Pilot[link]
He served in the United States Air Force from 1953 to 1956. After completing flight training at Nellis Air Force Base, he was assigned as a fighter pilot in Japan and Korea. After leaving active duty, Swigert was a test pilot for Pratt & Whitney (1957–1964) and North American Aviation (1964–1966). He served in the Massachusetts Air National Guard from September 1957 to March 1960 and as a member of the Connecticut Air National Guard from April 1960 to October 1965.
Astronaut[link]
After unsuccessfully applying for NASA's second and third astronaut selections,[1] Swigert was accepted into the astronaut corps as part of NASA Astronaut Group 5, in April 1966. Swigert became a specialist on the Apollo command module: he was one of the few astronauts who requested to be command-module pilots.[1]
Swigert was one of three astronauts aboard the ill-fated Apollo 13 moon mission, which was launched on April 11, 1970. Originally part of the backup crew for the mission, he was assigned to the mission three days before launch, replacing astronaut Ken Mattingly. The prime crew had been exposed to German Measles (the rubella virus) and, because Mattingly alone had no immunity to the disease, NASA did not want to risk his falling ill during any critical phases of the flight. Incidentally, this made Swigert the first American bachelor astronaut to fly in space.
The mission was the third lunar-landing attempt, but was aborted after the rupture of an oxygen tank on the spacecraft's service module. Swigert was the astronaut who made the famous dramatic announcement, "Houston, we've had a problem here".[2] Swigert, along with fellow astronauts Jim Lovell and Fred Haise, returned safely to Earth on April 17 after about 5 days and 23 hours in space, and received the Presidential Medal of Freedom later that year. Because of the free return trajectory on this mission, it is likely that Lovell, Swigert, and Haise hold the record for the greatest distance that human beings have traveled from Earth.
Swigert received the NASA Distinguished Service Medal.
Politics[link]
| Jack Swigert | |
|---|---|
| Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Colorado's 6th district |
|
| Preceded by | district created |
| Succeeded by | Daniel Schaefer |
| Personal details | |
| Born | August 30, 1931 Denver, Colorado |
| Died | December 27, 1982(1982-12-27) (aged 51) Washington D.C. |
| Political party | Republican |
He later became staff director of the Committee on Science and Technology of the U.S. House of Representatives.
Swigert was elected as a Republican to Colorado's newly created 6th congressional district in November 1982. He defeated Democrat Steve Hogan, 98,909 votes (62.2 percent) to 56,518 (35.6 percent). In the campaign, Swigert had enjoyed the strong support of a former intraparty rival, then U.S. Senator William L. Armstrong of Colorado. Armstrong had defeated Swigert for the Republican U.S. Senate nomination in 1978. The two thereafter became very close friends.
Death[link]
In 1982, during his political campaign, Swigert developed a malignant tumor in his right nasal passage. He underwent surgery, but the cancer spread to his bone marrow and lungs. He was hospitalized at Georgetown University Hospital on 19 December, and died of respiratory failure on 27 December, eight days before the beginning of his Congressional term.[1]
The position was won in a special election in 1983 by Republican Dan Schaefer (1936–2006). Schaefer also defeated Hogan, 49,816 (63.3 percent) to 27,779 (35.3 percent).
Legacy[link]
- In 1988, Jack Swigert was nominated and inducted into the Colorado Aviation Hall of Fame.[3]
- In 2004, the Space Foundation launched the John L. "Jack" Swigert, Jr., Award for Space Exploration,[4] which is presented annually to an individual, group or organization that has made a significant contribution to space exploration. Based in Colorado Springs, Colo., the Space Foundation was founded in 1983 in part to honor the memory and accomplishments of Swigert. Winners include: 2009 - NASA's Phoenix Mars Lander Team; 2008 - Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency; 2007 - The California Institute of Technology; 2006 - NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory; 2005 - NASA's Mars Exploration Team from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory; 2004 - President George W. Bush.
- The Apollo/Skylab A7L spacesuit that Swigert wore on the Apollo 13 mission is currently on display in the Powerhouse Museum in Sydney, Australia.
- In December 2008 John Swigert's statue was moved and displayed in Emancipation Hall at the United States Capitol Visitor Center[5]
- In September 2003, John L. Swigert Jr. was elected to the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Alumni Hall of Fame [6]
References[link]
- ^ a b c Chaikin, Andrew. A Man on the Moon. Penguin Books Ltd. ISBN 978-0-14-024146-4.
- ^ Jim Lovell's written account of the mission attributes the quote to Swigert.
- ^ Holmes, Charles W., Editor, Honoree Album of the Colorado Aviation Hall of Fame, The Colorado Aviation Historical Society, 1999, Audubon Media Corp., Audubon, IA.
- ^ http://www.nationalspacesymposium.org/symposium-awards
- ^ http://www.visitthecapitol.gov./For%20the%20Press/Press%20Materials/Fact%20Sheets/
- ^ http://www.rpi.edu/about/alumni/inductees/swigert.html
External links[link]
- Congressional Quarterly's Guide to U.S. Elections, U.S. House
- Jack Swigert on IMDb
- John L. "Jack" Swigert, Jr., Award for Space Exploration
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
For the American surgeon (1843-1876), see James Madison DeWolf.
| James De Wolf | |
|---|---|
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| United States Senator from Rhode Island |
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| In office March 4, 1821 – October 31, 1825 |
|
| Preceded by | William Hunter |
| Succeeded by | Asher Robbins |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1764-03-18)March 18, 1764 Bristol, Rhode Island |
| Died | December 21, 1837(1837-12-21) (aged 73) New York City, New York |
| Political party | Democratic-Republican |
| Spouse(s) | Nancy Ann Bradford DeWolf |
| Profession | Politician, Captain, Slaver |
James DeWolf (March 18, 1764 – December 21, 1837), nicknamed "Captain Jim", was a United States Senator from Rhode Island, a long-time state legislator[1] and a successful privateer during the war of 1812.
Contents |
Biography[link]
Born in Bristol, Rhode Island to a shipping family, DeWolf shipped as a sailor on a private armed vessel during the American Revolutionary War. He participated in several naval encounters and was captured twice by the British. He became captain of a ship before he was 20 and engaged in commercial ventures, including trading in slaves, with Cuba and other West Indian islands. In 1790, he married Mary Ann Bradford, the daughter of William Bradford, who would become U.S. Senator of Rhode Island before him.[2][3] In 1791, DeWolf was indicted for murder by a Newport, Rhode Island grand jury. He was alleged to have had a female slave sick with typhoid fever thrown overboard while gagged and tied to a chair, this after almost his entire crew refused to participate in the murder. DeWolf heard the indictment and immediately left for the Gold Coast of Africa. Two members of the crew, one of whom had participated in the killing, stated in a 1794 deposition taken in St. Eustatius, Leeward Islands that the action was necessary in order to save those on board from the disease. DeWolf testified in St. Thomas, West Indies in 1795 with no one present to oppose his testimony, and the judge ruled in his favor. The case was dismissed, upon petition from the district attorney, as being without merit. DeWolf went on to finance another 25 slaving voyages, usually with other members of his family. His business empire included three sugar plantations in Cuba.
During the War of 1812, DeWolf fitted out privateers under the authority of the President of the United States. One of his ships, the Yankee, became the most successful privateer of the war. DeWolf was a member of the Rhode Island House of Representatives from 1797–1801, again from 1803–1812, 1817–1821, and 1829-1837. He served as speaker of the House from 1819 to 1821. He was a pioneer in cotton manufacturing and built the Arkwright Mills in Coventry, Rhode Island in 1812. DeWolf became the wealthiest man in the state, if not the region, and by the end of his life was said to be the second richest person in the United States.
DeWolf was elected as a Democratic-Republican (later Crawford Republican) to the U.S. Senate and served from March 4, 1821, to October 31, 1825, when he resigned.
He died in New York City in 1837 at the age of 76, and was buried in the DeWolf private cemetery, Woodlawn Avenue, Bristol.
Legacy[link]
DeWolf was featured prominently in a 2008 documentary, Traces of the Trade: A Story from the Deep North, which described the DeWolf family's role in the slave trade.
References[link]
- ^ James De Wolf at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
- ^ Paul Davis (2006-03-17). "Living Off the Trade: Bristol and the DeWolfs". http://www.projo.com/extra/2006/slavery/text/day6.htm.
- ^ "McCandlish-Strand Ancestors". 2008-01-05. http://picasaweb.google.com/scatterd/McCandlishStrandAncestors#5152009196303078578.
External links[link]
- James De Wolf at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
- James De Wolf at Find A Grave
- Traces of the Trade (a documentary about Senator James D'Wolf and his family)
- Inheriting the Trade (a memoir about the legacy of James D'Wolf and his family)
| United States Senate | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by William Hunter |
United States Senator (Class 1) from Rhode Island March 4, 1821 – October 31, 1825 Served alongside: Nehemiah R. Knight |
Succeeded by Asher Robbins |
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This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Wolf, James De |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | American politician |
| Date of birth | March 18, 1764 |
| Place of birth | Bristol, Rhode Island |
| Date of death | December 21, 1837 |
| Place of death | New York City, New York |
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_De_Wolf
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
