The Kolleg St. Blasien in a former Benedictine monastery

The Aloisiuskolleg

These Gymnasiasts enjoy rowing on the Unterelbe in 1959

Berlinisches Gymnasium zum Grauen Kloster (1910)

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The gymnasium (German pronunciation: [ɡʏmˈnaːzi̯ʊm]; German plural: Gymnasien), in the German education system, is a type of secondary school with a strong emphasis on academic learning, comparable with the British grammar school system or with prep schools in the United States. The student attending a gymnasium is called "Gymnasiast" (German plural: "Gymnasiasten"). In 2009/10 there were 3094 gymnasien in Germany, with ca. 2,475,000 students (about 28 percent of all precollegiate students during that period), resulting in an average student number of 800 students per school.^[1] gymnasien are generally public, state-funded schools, but a number of parochial and private gymnasien also exists. In 2009/10, 11.1 percent of gymnasium students attended a private gymnasium.^[1] These often charge tuition fees, though many also offer scholarships. Tuition fees are lower than in comparable European countries.

Some gymnasien are boarding schools, while others run as day schools; they are now predominantly co-educational, and few single-sex schools remain. Students are admitted at 10 or 13 years of age and are required to have completed four to six years of Grundschule (primary education). In some States of Germany, permission to apply for Gymnasium is nominally dependent on a letter of recommendation written by a teacher or a certain GPA, although when parents petition, an examination can be used to decide the outcome.

Traditionally, a pupil would attend a gymnasium for nine years in western Germany, or eight in eastern Germany. Since 2004, there has been a strong political movement to reduce the time spent at the gymnasium to eight years throughout Germany, dispensing with the traditional ninth year or Oberprima, which is roughly equivalent to the first year of higher education. Final year students sit the Abitur final exam. Most gymnasien hold an alumni meeting at least once a year.

People unfamiliar with the German system sometimes wrongly assume that only those graduating from a gymnasium are admitted to university in Germany. Although this is normally the case, it is not always true. There are several other ways to earn the Abitur, and there are 50 ways to enter higher education in Germany.^[2] In 2008 in some states, less than half of university freshmen had graduated from a gymnasium. Even in Bavaria (a state that has a policy of strengthening the gymnasium) only 56 percent of freshmen had graduated from a gymnasium.^[3] However, in many cases, it is easier to be accepted by an institution of higher education if one has graduated from a gymnasium. For example, many universities require students who want to study certain subjects, such as medicine, to hold the Latinum, a certificate of Latin comprehension. gymnasium students can be awarded the Latinum by their school. Students attending other schools often don't have that chance; however, they can take a Latin exam, which if passed, allows the student to be awarded a Latinum. This requires extra initiative, however, because many non-gymnasium schools do not offer Latin.

The gymnasium is backed by a strong lobby in western Germany, and conservative politicians, particularly in the southern Laender, claim that the gymnasium is the best school form in the world.^[4] Indeed, it is by far the number one in the PISA league table.^[5] However some hold the opinion that "that this success comes at the cost of a catastrophe in the Hauptschulen"^[6]

History[link]

The rowers of a German gymnasium stand attention in front of Wilhelm II, German Emperor in 1910

The gymnasium arose out of the humanistic movement of the sixteenth century. The first general school system to incorporate the gymnasium emerged in Saxony in 1528, with the study of Greek and Latin added to the curriculum later; these languages became the foundation of teaching and study in the gymnasium, which then offered a nine-year course. Hebrew was also taught in some gymnasien.

Other methods[link]

In Prussia, the Realgymnasium offered instead a nine-year course including Latin, but not Greek. Prussian Progymnasien and Realprogymnasien provided six- or seven-year courses, and the Oberschulen later offered nine-year courses with neither Greek nor Latin.

Gymnasien for girls[link]

students of the Gymnasium Nonnenwerth, an all-girls school in 1960

The early twentieth century saw an increase in the number of Lyzeum schools for girls, which offered a six-year course. The rising prominence of girls' gymnasien was mainly due to the ascendancy of the German feminist movement in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, corresponding to the rising demand for women's university education.

Co-educational gymnasien have become widespread since the 1970s, and today, single-sex gymnasien are rare in Germany.

Historical names given to yeargroups in the German gymnasium[link]

Evangelical Seminaries of Maulbronn and Blaubeuren - church and courtyard

When primary school ended with the fourth grade and pupils left German basic secondary schools (Volksschule/Hauptschule or Realschule) at the end of the ninth or tenth grade, the gymnasium used special terms for its grade levels:

Modern languages[link]

The introduction of French and English as elective languages in the early twentieth century brought about the greatest change to German secondary education since the introduction of the Realschulen in the eighteenth century. Today, German gymnasien teach English or Latin as a compulsory primary foreign language, while the compulsory second foreign language may be English, French, Latin, Ancient Greek, Spanish or Russian. The German State of Berlin, where secondary education normally begins in the seventh year of schooling, has some specialised gymnasien beginning with the fifth year which teach Latin or French as a primary foreign language.

Languages of instruction[link]

Although some specialist gymnasien have English or French as the language of instruction, most lessons in a typical gymnasium (apart from foreign language courses) are conducted in High (Standard) German. This is true even in regions where High German is not the prevailing dialect.

Subjects taught[link]

Gymnasium student in crafts class, Bonn, 1988

This vignette of the Arndt-Gymnasium Dahlem shows a young man studying at the left and a young man doing sports at the right; it was printed on the 2008 school programme

Curricula differ from school to school, but generally include German, mathematics, informatics, physics, chemistry, biology, geography, art (as well as crafts and design), music, history, philosophy, civics / citizenship,^[7] social sciences, and several foreign languages.

For younger students nearly the entire curriculum of a gymnasium is compulsory; in upper years more elective subjects are available, but the choice is not as wide as in a U.S. high school. Generally academic standards are high as the gymnasium typically caters for the upper 25-35% of the ability range.

Schools concentrate not only on academic subjects, but on producing well-rounded individuals, so physical education and religion or ethics are compulsory, even in non-denominational schools which are prevalent. The German constitution guarantees the separation of church and state, so although religion or ethics classes are compulsory, students may choose to study a specific religion or none at all.

A school for the gifted?[link]

A common misconception has portrayed gymnasien as schools for the gifted.^{[citation needed]} While certain specialist schools, like the Federal School of Saxony - Saint Afra, do accept only gifted students, most have no specific provision for the gifted and see their mission as broader. Though gymnasien traditionally impose strict grading that causes students of average academic ability to struggle, many schools share the motto of the Skigymnasium CJD Christophorusschule: "Nobody shall be lost" ("Keiner darf verloren gehen").^[8] An attitude prevails that gifted students can flourish in any school, and that the gymnasien best serve the average student, whose performance they improve. Many gymnasien offer remedial programmes to help lower-performing students catch up with their classmates.

Common types of gymnasium[link]

Humanistisches Gymnasium (humanities-oriented)[link]

Representation of Aristoteles at the Joachimsthalsches Gymnasium, a humanities-oriented gymnasium

Memorial for 128 students killed in action in WWI. "To you the laurel in deep gratitude; for us, the shattered sword as a holy reminder."

Humanities-oriented gymnasien usually have a long tradition. They teach Latin and Ancient Greek (sometimes also Old Hebrew) and additionally teach English or French or both. The focus is on the classical antiquity and the civilizations of ancient Greece and ancient Rome.^{[citation needed]}

For certain subjects, such as History, many universities still require the Latinum or the Graecum, proof of study or comprehension of Latin or Ancient Greek, respectively, if not both.^{[citation needed]}

Neusprachliches Gymnasium (focus on modern languages)[link]

This type of school is less traditional. It teaches at least two modern languages. In most cases the students have the chance to learn Latin as well.^[9]

Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliches Gymnasium (focus on math and science)[link]

Often combined with the Neusprachliches Gymnasium this type of schools have a greater focus on Maths and Science. Most schools offer Latin or French as second foreign language.

Special types of gymnasium[link]

The Sportgymnasium and the Skigymnasium[link]

The Sportgymnasium is a school of the gymnasium-type, usually a boarding school, that has its main focus on sport. The Skigymnasium has a focus on skiing.^[10]

Musikgymnasium[link]

The Musikgymnasium has its focus on music.^[11] (In Bavaria) It requires to learn to play an instrument (mostly the piano or the violin) as one of their major subjects.

Europäisches Gymnasium[link]

The Europäisches Gymnasium has its focus on languages. It exists in Bavaria and Baden-Württemberg. In Bavaria, students are required to learn three different foreign languages. They start learning their first foreign language in 5th grade, the second in 6th grade and the third by grade 10 or 11.^[12] In Baden-Württemberg students attending the Europäisches gymnasium start learning Latin and English while in 5th grade. They pick up their third language by 7th or 8th grade and their fourth foreign language by 10th grade. By 10th grade, students also choose if they want to drop one of the languages they started in 5th grade. Later, they may drop another language. Students are required to take at least two foreign languages and fluency is a requirement for graduation. If they wish, students may also graduate with four foreign languages.^[13]

Discontinued gymnasium[link]

A previous type of school called a Realgymnasium had a focus on mathematics and the natural sciences, but this type of school was abolished by educational reformers in the 1960s.^[14]

Gymnasium for mature students[link]

There are a number of gymnasien for mature students, people who graduated from school, but did not receive an Abitur. Most of these schools have the only the top three or four yeargroups, rather than the traditional 5th to 13th years. Examples are the Abendgymnasium, the Aufbaugymnasium and the Wirtschaftsgymnasium.

Culture of Teaching and Testing[link]

Students raising their hands to indicate they know the answer, Bonn, 1988

This 1961 picture shows a student standing up, to answer the teacher's question. On the wall is a Christian cross, then commonly found in a gymnasium classroom, but now less common. In 1995, a court ruled it violates the rights of non-Christian students and must be removed if any student objects.

German gymnasien follow different pedagogical philosophies and teaching methods may vary. In the most traditional schools, students rise when the teacher enters the classroom. The teacher says "Good morning, class" and the class answers "Good morning, Mr./Ms. ...". The teacher then asks them to sit down. Ex cathedra teaching is the norm in German gymnasien.^[15] The teacher stands in front of the class and talks about a subject. The students write down what he says. Students are not to talk during that time, except when called on to answer a question. Students are not allowed to shout out the answers, but must raise their hands and wait until called upon. In the most traditional Gymnasia, students are supposed to rise and stand beside their chairs to answer. Senior students are sometimes allowed to hold debates. This manner of teaching is used in both German lessons and foreign language lessons.

Students are supposed to call their teachers by the appropriate title, followed by the last name, such as "Mr..." or "Dr...". Until 1970, students called their teachers "Professor" ("Klassprofessor"). Teachers might call their young students by their first name or their last name and appropriate title "Mr./Ms. ...". Teachers are sometimes required to call their older students by the last name and appropriate title. A German court ordered that older students atteding a gymnasium may not be called by their first name unless they give permission. A student called by his first name without permission may sue his teacher.

Corporal punishment was banned in 1973. Teachers who want to punish students put them in detention or assign them boring tasks. Some have them write essays like "Why a student should not interrupt his teachers". Students who behave especially badly may be expelled from school and have to go to another school. Should the same happen again, the pupil may be required to attend a private school and the family to bear the costs. This is very rare though.

While this sounds like discipline is strict in German Gymnasia, in many cases, the official rules are watered down and ignored, except when school officials are watching. For example, while teachers and upper class students are not allowed to call one another by their first names, in many cases they do. Relationships can be very informal and notoriously some teachers have even become drunk with their students after school. A 'Klassenabend' or 'Kurstreffen' are features of German schools, whereby teachers meet their form in the evening for a social occasion.

There are written, as well as oral, exams. Written exams are essay-based and called Klausur and typically take one and a half hours. Many German students never take a multiple choice test.

Gymnasium and academic grading[link]

See also: Academic grading in Germany

Gymnasium is a school where most of the students are college-bound and stringent grading is traditional. Pupils of average ability find themselves at the bottom of their class and might have done better at another type of school.

A study revealed that upper class gymnasium students of average mathematical ability^[16] found themselves at the very bottom of their class and had an average grade of "5" (fail). Comprehensive school upper class students of average ability in mathematics found themselves in the upper half of their class and had an average grade of "3+".^[17]

Students who graduated from a gymnasium often do better in college than their grades or ranking in class would predict.

A "gymnasium in the south"[link]

To many traditionally-minded Germans, a "gymnasium in the south", is the epitome of a good education^{[citation needed]}, while to other Germans, it is the epitome of outmoded traditions and elitism^{[citation needed]}.

A study revealed that gymnasien in the south did have higher standards than those in other parts of Germany. On a standardised mathematics test provided by scientists, the study showed that students attending a southern gymnasium outperformed those attending one elsewhere in Germany.^[18]

A 2007 study revealed that those attending a gymnasium in the north had similar IQs to those attending one in the south. Yet those attending a gymnasium in the north under-performed on standardised tests. The students who did worst came from Hamburg and the students who did best came from Baden-Württemberg. According to the study, the final year students in Hamburg lagged two years behind those attending a gymnasium in Baden-Württemberg. Because students had the same IQ, the difference in knowledge can only be explained by a difference in the teaching methods.^[19] On the other hand, gymnasien in the south have the reputation of valuing knowledge over creativity, while those in the north have the reputation of valuing creativity over knowledge. Comparing students on a creativity test could produce different results.

Athletics[link]

Rowing has a long tradition for many German Gymnasia: Students participating in a Regatta in Neumünster, 1959

Students of the Arndt-Gymnasium, standing in front of their "rowing house", christening their new boat in 2007

Students from all grades are required to take compulsory physical education classes. Most gymnasien have sports teams. Sports often include soccer, badminton, table tennis, rowing and hockey.

Most gymnasien offer students the opportunity to participate in sport-related outings. In the summer months, they have the opportunity to enjoy rowing trips or sailing and in winter months, they may go skiing. Students are not required to participate, but teachers see the trips as a good for building character and leadership skills and encourage students to participate. As a rule, most of these trips come with fees. A school "Förderverein" (booster club) pays for those wishing to attend, but unable to afford the fee.

Social clubs[link]

Brass-band of the gymnasium in Gütersloh, 2006, the students are wearing traditional uniforms and caps

Most gymnasien offer social and academic clubs, such as chess, photography, improv, debating, yearbook, environmentalism, and choir. Some gymnasien require students to participate in at least one club (of the student's choosing), but in most cases, participation is voluntary.

A year abroad[link]

It has become increasingly common for gymnasium students to spend some time attending school in another country. Common destinations are English speaking countries such as the US, Canada and Ireland. While this is not required, it is encouraged.

Dress code[link]

gymnasium students wearing traditional caps in 1904. Wearing them was seen not as a liability, but a privilege

Students at the Heinrich-Böll-Gymnasium (Ludwigshafen) have a shirt that says "Reading endangers stupidity" (it resembles the German warning label on cigarettes)

Generally, gymnasien have no school uniforms or official dress codes. However, students may be expected to dress modestly and tastefully. Some gymnasien offer branded shirts, but students are allowed to choose whether or not to wear them. For specific school events (like the Abitur ball) students may be expected to wear formal dress, usually consisting of dresses for women and blazer and tie for men, but even this is no longer the case for every gymnasium.

In the past, Gymnasiasten wore a traditional cap, marking them as a gymnasium student. The colour of the cap differed by gymnasium and grade. In case of the Ludwig Meyn Gymnasium in Uetersen, for example, in 1920:

• Untertertia-students wore green cap with a blue, red and white cord
• Obertertia-students wore a green cap, with a black-and-white cord
• Untersekunda-students wore a violet cap with a blue, white and red cord
• Obersekunda-students wore a violet cap with a black-and-white cord
• Unterprima-students wore a red cap with, a blue white and red cord
• Oberprima-students wwore a red cap with a black and white cord

After the Machtergreifung of the Nazis, the gymnasium cap was banned for political reasons. Literature describing student caps was burned. Students received new clothing from the League of German Girls and the Hitler Youth. gymnasium students were forbidden to wear clothing that identified them as members of their school. Now, it is no longer illegal and these caps are again being sold^[20] however, few ever wear one.

At some schools, when graduating, students receive an Abitur t-shirt, which is printed with the name of the school, the year of graduation and a slogan.

Mentoring[link]

As the new crop of students arrive at gymnasium, there is often a period of adjustment. Some gymnasien have mentors that help the new, younger students get settled in. They show them around the school and introduce them to older students. In the case of boarding schools, they also show them the city. The mentoring does not mean a student is seen as being "at risk". On the contrary, if there is a mentoring programme, all new students are likely to have a mentor.

Some schools have mentors (mostly alumni or parents) who help graduates choose a college and who arrange practical training for them.

In 2008, a mentoring programme called "Arbeiterkind" ("working class child") was founded to assist students from working class families make the transition. A year later, this organization had 1000 mentors and 70 local chapters.^[21]

Booster clubs[link]

Gymnasiasten on a skiing-trip. In many cases, the booster club covers the costs of poorer students

The Schulverein or Förderverein is an organization formed for financial support of the school. Members may be parents and alumni, or philanthropists. They pay for books for the school library and offer a hand to students from less affluent families, affording them the opportunity to participate in field trips and school outings.

Teacher education[link]

In general, to obtain a teaching degree for Gymnasia, prospective teachers have to study at least two subjects which are part of the curriculum of the gymnasien. Some decide to study three subjects or more. In addition, the university programmes for teachers always include lectures on educational sciences and didactics. After nine semesters (4,5 years) or more, students have to pass the Erstes Staatsexamen (first state examination), roughly equivalent to a Master's degree, and which marks the end of their academic training. However, having passed this test does not qualify someone at once to become a gymnasium teacher. This test is followed by the Referendariat (internship), which normally lasts two years. During this time, the student teacher gains practical teaching experience under the supervision of experienced colleagues. This phase is completed by a second state examination, which assesses the trainees' practical teaching ability. Those having successfully completed both the first and second state examinations may then apply for employment at a gymnasium.

However, the systems of teacher education differ among the Bundesländer, include exceptions and are not seldom modified. One trend is the abolishment of the first state examination in favour of Master of Education programmes. The second state examination is not affected by this development.^[22]

Admission to a gymnasium[link]

The first class of students admitted at the Gymnasium Kirchseeon (founded in 2008) gather in the assembly hall to celebrate their first day of school

Admission procedures vary by state and gymnasium. Most gymnasien do not have written entrance exams. In some cases, students need a certain grade point average in order to apply to gymnasium. In most cases, students applying to a gymnasium nominally need a letter of recommendation written by the primary school teacher. The letter covers the child's academic performance, classroom behaviour, personal attributes, leadership abilities and extracurricular activities.

Based on that letter, the gymnasium determines the applicant's suitability for the school. Some gymnasien have informal interviews during which they present their school to the applicant and in turn, learn about him as the school representative works with the applicant and his parents to find out if that gymnasium is a good fit for the child.

The state of Berlin allows its gymnasien to pick 70% to 65% of their students, the rest being selected by lottery. Any qualified child can enter the lottery, regardless of previous school performance (see: Education in Berlin).

Some gymnasien are inundated with applications and some children have to resort to second or third choices.

Tuition[link]

The vast majority of gymnasien are public and tuition-free. Article 7, Paragraph 4 of the German constitution forbids segregation of students by income (Sondierungsverbot). As a result, most private gymnasien have low tuition fees or offer scholarships and are supplemented with public funds.^{[citation needed]}

In 2005, the German government spent €5,400 per student for those attending public gymnasium. This is less than what was spent on a student attending Hauptschule, but more than was spent on those attending Realschule.^[23] It should be noted that some Hauptschule and Gesamtschule students have special needs requiring extra help, so those schools cannot operate as cost-effectively as gymnasien.

On cultural and ethnic diversity[link]

While one third of all German youngsters have at least one foreign-born parent^[24] and other German schools are becoming more multicultural, gymnasien have remained more or less socially and ethnically exclusive. However, that is only half the truth. Children belonging to Russian-Jewish, Chinese, Greek, Korean or Vietnamese minorities^[25][26][27] are more likely to attend a gymnasium than ethnic Germans. Yet, most minorities are less likely to attend a gymnasium than ethnic Germans. A study done in Baden-Württemberg revealed that 85.9% of students attending a gymnasium were ethnic Germans.^[28] Thus the gymnasium is the German school with the most homogenous student body. According to Der Spiegel magazine, some minority students were denied a letter of recommendation for entrance to a gymnasium by their teachers simply because they were immigrants. According to Der Spiegel, teachers think minority students would not feel at home at a school having such a homogenous student body.^[29]

Opponents of gymnasium complain that lessons do not deal enough with issues related to diversity or "white privileges". Most gymnasium teachers are ethnic Germans, making it hard for minority students to find role models amongst their teachers. However, this is also true of other schools. A study revealed that only 1 percent of German teachers come from immigrant families.^[30] Nowadays, the boards of many German secondary schools feel pressured to diversify their student body. Some have started campaigns designed to encourage students of ethnic minorities to apply for enrollment. Many schools now offer a support system for students from non-German ethnic groups, addressing diversity in their teachings and/or scheduling "Celebrate Diversity Weeks".

"Great Equaliser" or "Breeding Ground of Privilege"?[link]

Stella Matutina in Feldkirch

The Georg-Cantor-Gymnasium is an all-day school founded in 1989

A study revealed that 50% of the students visiting a gymnasium come from families of the top levels of German society.^[31] Some people have voiced concerns that gymnasien are designed to accommodate a minority of privileged children and that talented working class children are impeded in gaining access to gymnasium. There have been calls for the abolition of the gymnasium and a switch-over to comprehensive schools.^[32] Others want the gymnasien to target more children from poor backgrounds.^[33]

Some believe that gymnasien are "the great equaliser" and have pointed out that state-funded and parochial gymnasien have helped many students rise above humble backgrounds. Some also point to the fact that gymnasien are the only schools where working class students nearly catch up with their middle class peers, while in the case of comprehensive schools, the effects of social class on student academic performance are more pronounced than in any other type of school.^[34]

Progress in International Reading Literacy Study[link]

The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study revealed that working class children needed to achieve higher reading scores than middle class children in order to get letters of recommendation for entrance into the gymnasium. After testing their reading abilities, the odds for upper middle class children to be nominated for a gymnasium were 2.63 times higher than for working-class children.

According to the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study, students from ethnic German families were 4.96 times more likely than children from immigrant families to have their teacher write a letter of recommendation. Even when comparing children with the same reading scores, ethnic Germans were still 2.11 times as likely to receive the letter.^[36]

PISA study[link]

According to the PISA study, competency was linked to social class. After allowing for cognitive competency, middle class children were still attending gymnasium at three times the rate of working class children. After allowing for reading competency and cognitive competency, children from the highest social class still attended gymnasium at four to six times the rate of working class children. According to the study, immigrant children were not discriminated against. The reason so few immigrant children attended gymnasium was poor reading skills. After allowing for reading competency, children from immigrant families were as likely as children from native German families to attend gymnasium.^[37]

ELEMENT-study[link]

The German scientist Lehmann did a longitudinal study on the performance of pupils in Berlin in standardised tests. Such pupils used to be admitted to a gymnasium after the fourth grade and after the sixth grade. Pupils in German schools do not undergo standardised testing, but rather write essays. However, Lehmann wanted to know if those test results would predict the likelihood of admission to a gymnasium after the sixth grade and if admission to a gymnasium after the fourth grade would boost their performance in standardised tests.^{[clarification needed]}

Lehmann's findings were as follows:

• Performance in standardised tests was a key indicator of admission to a gymnasium; after evaluating the performance in those tests, it was clear that social class did not play a major role in determining whether or not a pupil would be admitted to a gymnasium.
• Working class children were not discriminated against; in fact, there seemed to be some evidence that after evaluating performances in standardised tests, gymnasium admission after the sixth grade seemed to be slightly biased against middle class children and favoured working class children as well as those from the higher social classes.
• After evaluating the test scores, it was shown that girls were somewhat more likely to be admitted to the gymnasium than boys.
• Very few pupils who did poorly in standardised tests in the fourth grade were admitted to gymnasium. However, those who were, were able to improve their performance in those tests in subsequent years.
• Even after testing performance in grade four, those who were admitted to gymnasium outperformed their peers who were not at grade six^[38]

Study by the University of Mainz[link]

A study by the University of Mainz revealed that of all children living in the city of Wiesebaden, 81% of children from the upper social classes and only 14% percent of working class children received a letter of recommendation from their teachers. It also showed that only 76% of working class children whose grades placed them at the top of the class, as well as 91% of children from the upper social classes in the same situation received a recommendation.^[39]

The big-fish-little-pond effect[link]

According to scientists Joachim Tiedemann and Elfriede Billmann-Mahecha, there was a big-fish-little-pond effect. Children were more likely to have their teacher write a letter of recommendation if the remainder of their primary school class was not too bright. They stated,

A high share of students with above-average academic achievement, cognitive abilities and achievement-oriented parents actually decreases students’ chances of getting into higher educational tracks (Realschule and gymnasium instead of Hauptschule).^[40]

Are children with immigration backgrounds discriminated against?[link]

According to the same study, they are not. The researchers stated,

After controlling for individual students’ competencies, e.g. their cognitive abilities, the common assumption that children with immigration backgrounds are disadvantaged could not be confirmed. Even a high proportion of children in a class who do not speak German as a family language does not induce adverse results in recommendations..^[40]

Do gymnasien help working-class students catch up with their middle class peers?[link]

In 2003, a study revealed that lower class and working class children attending a comprehensive school lagged behind their less disadvantaged peers in terms of mathematical abilities. The same study revealed that working and lower class children attending gymnasium nearly caught up to their peers attending the same school.^[41] However, special care must be taken in interpreting the data, since lower and working class children admitted to gymnasium may be different from other pupils in their class ab initio.

Does gymnasium matter after all?[link]

A study done by Helmut Fend revealed that gymnasium may not matter as much as is generally perceived. According to the study, parents' social class, not schooling, determined children's life trajectories. The study revealed that upper middle class children graduating from gymnasium (and upper middle class children graduating from comprehensive schools) later graduated from college and followed the footsteps of their parents into higher professional jobs. It also revealed that for every working class child who graduated from college, there were 12 upper middle class children who did.^[42][43]

[edit] Performance of Gymnasiasten on various tests

Gymnasium and IQ[link]

Only a few specialised gymnasien admit their students on the basis of IQ tests. A 1999 study revealed 10th graders attending a normal gymnasium and 10th graders attending a Realschule had higher IQs than 10th graders attending a comprehensive. It also revealed that the difference was greater in 10th grade than it had been in 7th grade.^[44][45] The media reacted to the charge that comprehensive schools are "the place where intelligence atrophies".^[45] The Max Planck Institute for Human Development stated that nobody was "dumbed down" at the comprehensive school and that those attending a comprehensive in 10th grade did no worse on IQ tests than in 7th grade. The institute also stated that the IQ difference between comprehensives on the one hand and gymnasien and Realschulen on the other was greater by 10th grade than in 7th grade because the mean IQ of those at gymnasium and Realschule had risen. The institute did not believe, however, that attending Realschule or gymnasium boosts students' IQ. Instead, they stated that students with lower IQs who attend gymnasium or Realschule might find themselves increasingly unable to keep up and thus may drop out by 10th grade.^[46]

Gymnasium and performance on standardised tests[link]

As has been mentioned before, gymnasien and Gesamtschulen in Germany do not administer standardised tests to their students and few students are familiar with those kinds of tests. Yet, scientists sometimes use standardised tests to evaluate schools. 10th graders attending a gymnasium have been shown to outperform 10th graders attending a comprehensive school by one standard deviation on a standardised mathematics test. That equals 2 to 3 years of schooling.^[47] Proponents of comprehensive schools have criticised such studies, stating they believe standardised tests to be biased against those attending comprehensive school. They have said comprehensives taught their students "Independence, capacity for team work, creativity, conflict management and broad mindedness" and that those qualities cannot be measured on standardised tests.^[48]

Gymnasium and selflessness[link]

According to a disputed study evaluating students' character, based on a standardised test, those attending a Realschule or gymnasium were more likely to be respectful and considerate of other peoples' feelings than those attending a comprehensive school.^[49] According to this study, gymnasium students were more likely to be classified as "selfless" than students attending any other kind of school and those attending a comprehensive were more likely to be classified "self-serving" than those attending any other type of school. This study has been widely criticised.^{[citation needed]} It has been claimed that character cannot be measured on standardised tests and that students' answers might not reflect their real behaviour. Charges were raised that questions were worded in academic language^[50] thus, students attending a comprehensive may not have understood them properly. It has also been suggested that the answers the students gave may have been influenced by social class, that gymnasium students may have been brought up to think they were selfless, while really they were not. Proponents of comprehensive schools stated gymnasium students were phony and elitist while pretending to be selfless.^[48]

Gymnasium and performance on the TOEFL[link]

A study revealed that college-bound students attending a traditional gymnasium did better on the TOEFL than college-bound students attending a comprehensive, but those did better than college-bound students attending a "Aufbaugymnasium", "Technisches Gymnasium" or "Wirtschaftsgymnasium" (the last three schools serve students, who graduated from another school receiving no Abitur and give them the opportunity to earn the Abitur).

Defending comprehensive schools[link]

Proponents of comprehensive schools often hold the opinion that it is unfair to compare gymnasien and Realschulen with comprehensive schools. While gymnasien and Realschulen often handpick their students, comprehensives are open to all.

Proponents of comprehensives also think they lack the most academically promising young people, who have been skimmed off by other schools. They also point out that some comprehensives (such as the "Laborschule Bielefeld" and the "Helene Lange School") in Wiesbaden ranked among Germany's best schools.

Quotas[link]

Germany's Left Party introduced a discussion concerning affirmative action. According to Stefan Zillich, quotas should be "a possibility" to help working class children who do not do well in school gain access to gymnasium.^[33] Headmasters have objected, saying this type of policy would be "a disservice" to poor children, that they would not be able to keep up academically. The headmasters have also expressed concerns that children of working class families would not feel welcome at gymnasien. Wolfgang Harnischfeger, headmaster of a well-known Berlin gymnasium, has stated,

It can be noticed in children as young as kindergarten students, that children take after their parents. They emulate their language, their way of dressing, their way of spending their free time. Kids from Neukölln [a poor neighbourhood] would not feel good about themselves if they had to attend a type of school that mainly serves students from social classes different from their own. They will not be able to integrate. Every field day, every school party will show that".^[52]

He also said "this kind of policy would weaken the gymnasium" and that this would be dangerous because "German society could not afford to do without the excellence the gymnasium produces".^[52] Stefan Zillich answered this, saying that "German society [cannot] afford to have so few adults with a world-class education".^[52]

The Berlin Gymnasium lottery[link]

In 2009, the Senate of Berlin decided that Berlin's gymnasium should no longer be allowed to handpick all of their students. It was ruled that while gymnasien should be able to pick 70% to 65% of their students, the other places are to be allocated by lottery. Every child will be able to enter the lottery, no matter how he or she performed in primary school. It is hoped that this policy will increase the number of working class students attending gymnasium.^[53] The Left Party proposed that Berlin gymnasien should no longer be allowed to expel students who perform poorly, so that the students who won a gymnasium place in the lottery have a fair chance of graduating from that school.^[53] It is not clear yet whether the Berlin Senate will decide in favour of The Left Party's proposal.

Opinions about gymnasium[link]

The Schule Schloss Salem is considered one of the elite schools in Europe and is attended by German and European nobility

This article is in a list format that may be better presented using prose. You can help by converting this article to prose, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (November 2009)

• The Education and Science Workers’ Union advocates the abolition of gymnasium schools in favour of comprehensive schools, arguing that, while gymnasium schools admit middle class students of average ability, working class students are admitted only if they are unusually academically able. The Union believes that gymnasium schools select not only for academic merit, but for manners, background and social class.^[54]
• The Deutscher Lehrerverband (German Teachers' Union) supports Gymnasia; their chairman, Josef Kraus, has claimed that German gymnasien "ranked among the finest institutions in the world" and should not be abolished. Kraus also rejected claims that the German system was biased against working-class children, arguing that the German system should not be seen as inferior simply because its qualification system is structured differently from that of other countries: "in Finland or the USA nurses are college educated, yet in Germany they do not have to attend a gymnasium or a college. The Finnish worker's daughter who becomes a nurse is seen as upwardly mobile. The German nurse is just as qualified, but yet she is not seen as upwardly mobile".^[55]
• The Left Party called the gymnasien "an outdated institution"^[56] and wants them to be abolished. According to "The Left Party" working class children are as talented as middle class children, yet not admitted for gymnasium. The party furthermore holds the opinion that the majority of Germans is opposed to gymnasien and wants them to be abolished.^[57] If gymnasien will not be abolished "The Left Party" is in favour of affirmative action.^[33]
• The Social Democratic Party of Germany wants to abolish gymnasien in favour of comprehensive schools, but they have been criticised by the media after it turned out that SPD politicians such as Andrea Ypsilanti send their children to a fancy private gymnasium.^[58]
• The Alliance '90/The Greens Party is in favour of abolishing gymnasien. Renate Künast has said that every child should have the possibility to realise his or her potential, but that the German class system was keeping them from doing so. "Students from poor backgrounds attend the Hauptschule, students from middle class backgrounds the Realschule and students who come from a background of privilege the gymnasium. That's a caste-system"^[59]
• According to The Christian Democratic Union parents should be able to choose from a variety of schools and gymnasien should be one of those. Roland Pofalla said wanting to abolish gymnasien smacks of "egalitarism" and that those who want to do this overlook the fact that children have different talents and thus different needs.^[60] According to Anette Schavan a majority of Germans did not want gymnasien to be abolished.^[61]
• The Free Democratic Party is in favour of the gymnasium. They said that parents should be able to choose from a number of schools and decide which one was right for their individual child. They also said it should be made easier for students from poor families to attend a private school, the state should pay for that.^[62][63]

See also[link]

• List of schools in Germany
• Grammar schools debate

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Matthew Arnold, Higher Schools and Universities in Germany, (second edition, London, 1882)
• Schrader, Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre für Gymnasien und Realschulen, (5th edition, Berlin, 1893)
• Paulsen, German Education, Past and Present, (translated by Lorenz, New York, 1908)
• A. Beier, Die höheren Schulen in Preußen und ihre Lehrer, (Halle, 1909)
• J. F. Brown, The Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools in Germany and the United States, (New York, 1911)

Federal Republic of Germany Bundesrepublik Deutschland
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem:  The third stanza of Das Lied der Deutschen   The Song of the Germans
Location of  Germany  (dark green) – in Europe  (green & dark grey) – in the European Union  (green)  —  [Legend]
Capital (and largest city)		Berlin 52°31′N 13°23′E / 52.517°N 13.383°E / 52.517; 13.383
Official language(s)		German[1]
Ethnic groups		Germans 91.5%, Turks 2.4%, other 6.1% (made up largely of Greek, Italian, Polish, Russian, Serbo-Croatian, Spanish)[1]
Demonym		German
Government		Federal parliamentary constitutional republic
-	President	Joachim Gauck
-	Chancellor	Angela Merkel
-	President of the Bundestag	Norbert Lammert
-	President of the Bundesrat	Horst Seehofer
Legislature
-	Upper house	Bundesrat
-	Lower house	Bundestag
Formation
-	Holy Roman Empire	2 February 962
-	Unification	18 January 1871
-	Federal Republic	23 May 1949
-	Reunification	3 October 1990
Area
-	Total	357,021 km2 (63rd) 137,847 sq mi
-	Water (%)	2.416
Population
-	2010 estimate	81,799,600[2] (16th)
-	Density	229/km2 (55th) 593/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$3.099 trillion[3] (5th)
-	Per capita	$37,896[3] (18th)
GDP (nominal)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$3.577 trillion[3] (4th)
-	Per capita	$43,741[3]
Gini (2006)		27 (low)
HDI (2011)		0.905[4] (very high) (9th)
Currency		Euro (€)[2](2002 – present) Swiss franc (de facto in Büsingen) (EUR, CHF)
Time zone		CET (UTC+1)
-	Summer (DST)	CEST (UTC+2)
Drives on the		right
ISO 3166 code		DE
Internet TLD		.de [3]
Calling code		49
1	^ Danish, Low German, Sorbian, Romany and Frisian are officially recognised by the ECRML.
2	^ Before 2002: Deutsche Mark (DEM).
3	^ Also .eu, shared with European Union member states.

Germany (ⁱ/ˈdʒɜrməni/), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, pronounced [ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant] ( listen)),^[5] is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km² and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state and the largest economy in the European Union. It is one of the major political powers of the European continent and a technological leader in many fields.

A region named Germania, inhabited by several Germanic peoples, was documented before AD 100. During the Migration Period, the Germanic tribes expanded southward, and established successor kingdoms throughout much of Europe. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire.^[6] During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation while southern and western parts remained dominated by Roman Catholic denominations, with the two factions clashing in the Thirty Years' War, marking the beginning of the Catholic–Protestant divide that has characterized German society ever since.^[7] Occupied during the Napoleonic Wars, the rise of Pan-Germanism inside the German Confederation resulted in the unification of most of the German states into the German Empire in 1871 which was Prussian dominated. After the German Revolution of 1918–1919 and the subsequent military surrender in World War I, the Empire was replaced by the Weimar Republic in 1918, and partitioned in the Treaty of Versailles. Amidst the Great Depression, the Third Reich was proclaimed in 1933. The latter period was marked by Fascism and World War II. After 1945, Germany was divided by allied occupation, and evolved into two states, East Germany and West Germany. In 1990 Germany was reunified.

Germany was a founding member of the European Community in 1957, which became the EU in 1993. It is part of the Schengen Area and since 1999 a member of the eurozone. Germany is a Great Power and member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, the OECD and the Council of Europe, and took a non-permanent seat on the UN Security Council for the 2011–2012 term.

It has the world's fourth largest economy by nominal GDP and the fifth largest by purchasing power parity. It is the second largest exporter and third largest importer of goods. The country has developed a very high standard of living and a comprehensive system of social security. Germany has been the home of many influential scientists and inventors, and is known for its cultural and political history.

Etymology[link]

The English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine.^[8] The German term Deutschland (originally diutisciu land, "the German lands") is derived from deutsch, descended from Old High German diutisc "popular" (i. e., belonging to the diot or diota "people"; originally used to distinguish the language of the common people from Latin and its Romance descendants). This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz "popular" (see also the Latinised form Theodiscus), derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- "people".^[9]

History[link]

Germanic tribes and Frankish Empire[link]

Map of the Germania and the Roman Empire

The Germanic tribes are thought to date from the Nordic Bronze Age or the Pre-Roman Iron Age. From southern Scandinavia and north Germany, they expanded south, east and west from the 1st century BC, coming into contact with the Celtic tribes of Gaul as well as Iranian, Baltic, and Slavic tribes in Eastern Europe.^[10] Under Augustus, the Roman General Publius Quinctilius Varus began to invade Germania (an area extending roughly from the Rhine to the Ural Mountains). In AD 9, three Roman legions led by Varus were defeated by the Cheruscan leader Arminius. By AD 100, when Tacitus wrote Germania, Germanic tribes had settled along the Rhine and the Danube (the Limes Germanicus), occupying most of the area of modern Germany; Austria, southern Bavaria and the western Rhineland, however, were Roman provinces.^[11]

In the 3rd century a number of large West Germanic tribes emerged: Alemanni, Franks, Chatti, Saxons, Frisii, Sicambri, and Thuringii. Around 260, the Germanic peoples broke into Roman-controlled lands.^[12] After the invasion of the Huns in 375, and with the decline of Rome from 395, Germanic tribes moved further south-west. Simultaneously several large tribes formed in what is now Germany and displaced the smaller Germanic tribes. Large areas (known since the Merovingian period as Austrasia) were occupied by the Franks, and Northern Germany was ruled by the Saxons and Slavs.^[11]

Holy Roman Empire[link]

Martin Luther initiated the Protestant Reformation.

On 25 December 800, Charlemagne founded the Carolingian Empire, which was divided in 843.^[13] The Holy Roman Empire resulted from the eastern portion of this division. Its territory stretched from the Eider River in the north to the Mediterranean coast in the south.^[13] Under the reign of the Ottonian emperors (919–1024), several major duchies were consolidated, and the German king was crowned Holy Roman Emperor of these regions in 962. The Holy Roman Empire absorbed northern Italy and Burgundy under the reign of the Salian emperors (1024–1125), although the emperors lost power through the Investiture Controversy.

Under the Hohenstaufen emperors (1138–1254), the German princes increased their influence further south and east into territories inhabited by Slavs, preceding German settlement in these areas and further east (Ostsiedlung). Northern German towns grew prosperous as members of the Hanseatic League.^[14] Starting with the Great Famine in 1315, then the Black Death of 1348–50, the population of Germany plummeted.^[15] The edict of the Golden Bull in 1356 provided the basic constitution of the empire and codified the election of the emperor by seven prince-electors who ruled some of the most powerful principalities and archbishoprics.^[16]

Martin Luther publicised The Ninety-Five Theses in 1517, challenging the Roman Catholic Church and initiating the Protestant Reformation. A separate Lutheran church became the official religion in many German states after 1530. Religious conflict led to the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), which devastated German lands.^[17] The population of the German states was reduced by about 30%.^[18] The Peace of Westphalia (1648) ended religious warfare among the German states, but the empire was de facto divided into numerous independent principalities. From 1740 onwards, dualism between the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy and the Kingdom of Prussia dominated German history. In 1806, the Imperium was overrun and dissolved as a result of the Napoleonic Wars.^[19]

German Confederation and Empire[link]

Following the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna convened in 1814 and founded the German Confederation (Deutscher Bund), a loose league of 39 sovereign states. Disagreement with restoration politics partly led to the rise of liberal movements, followed by new measures of repression by Austrian statesman Metternich. The Zollverein, a tariff union, furthered economic unity in the German states.^[20] National and liberal ideals of the French Revolution gained increasing support among many, especially young, Germans. In the light of a series of revolutionary movements in Europe, which established a republic in France, intellectuals and commoners started the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states. King Frederick William IV of Prussia was offered the title of Emperor, but with a loss of power; he rejected the crown and the proposed constitution, leading to a temporary setback for the movement.^[21]

Foundation of the German Empire in Versailles, 1871. Bismarck is at the centre in a white uniform.

Conflict between King William I of Prussia and the increasingly liberal parliament erupted over military reforms in 1862, and the king appointed Otto von Bismarck the new Minister President of Prussia. Bismarck successfully waged war on Denmark in 1864. Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 enabled him to create the North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund) and to exclude Austria, formerly the leading German state, from the federation's affairs. After the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the German Empire was proclaimed 1871 in Versailles, uniting all scattered parts of Germany except Austria (Kleindeutschland, or "Lesser Germany"). With almost two thirds of its territory and population, Prussia was the dominating constituent of the new state; the Hohenzollern King of Prussia ruled as its concurrent Emperor, and Berlin became its capital.^[21] In the Gründerzeit period following the unification of Germany, Bismarck's foreign policy as Chancellor of Germany under Emperor William I secured Germany's position as a great nation by forging alliances, isolating France by diplomatic means, and avoiding war. Under Wilhelm II, however, Germany, like other European powers, took an imperialistic course leading to friction with neighbouring countries. As a result of the Berlin Conference in 1884 Germany claimed several colonies including German East Africa, German South-West Africa, Togo, and Cameroon.^[22] Most alliances in which Germany had previously been involved were not renewed, and new alliances excluded the country.^[23]

The assassination of Austria's crown prince on 28 June 1914 triggered World War I. Germany, as part of the Central Powers, suffered defeat against the Allies in one of the bloodiest conflicts of all time. An estimated two million German soldiers died in World War I.^[24] The German Revolution broke out in November 1918, and Emperor Wilhelm II and all German ruling princes abdicated. An armistice ended the war on 11 November, and Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919. The treaty was perceived in Germany as a humiliating continuation of the war, and is often cited as an influence in the rise of Nazism.^[25]

Weimar Republic and Nazi Regime[link]

Adolf Hitler, chancellor and president¹ 1933–1945
1: office formally vacant from August 1934; Hitler styled himself "Führer und Reichskanzler"^[26]

At the beginning of the German Revolution in November 1918, Germany was declared a republic. However, the struggle for power continued, with radical-left communists seizing power in Bavaria. The revolution came to an end on 11 August 1919, when the democratic Weimar Constitution was signed by President Friedrich Ebert.^[27] Suffering from the Great Depression of 1929, the harsh peace conditions dictated by the Treaty of Versailles, and a long succession of unstable governments, Germans increasingly lacked identification with the government. This was exacerbated by a widespread right-wing Dolchstoßlegende, or stab-in-the-back legend, which argued that Germany had lost World War I because of those who wanted to overthrow the government. The Weimar government was accused of betraying Germany by signing the Versailles Treaty. By 1932, the German Communist Party and the Nazi Party controlled the majority of parliament, fuelled by discontent with the Weimar government. After a series of unsuccessful cabinets, President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as Chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933.^[28] On 27 February 1933 the Reichstag building went up in flames, and a consequent emergency decree abrogated basic citizens' rights. An enabling act passed in parliament gave Hitler unrestricted legislative power. Only the Social Democratic Party voted against it, while Communist MPs had already been imprisoned.^[29][30] Using his powers to crush any actual or potential resistance, Hitler established a centralised totalitarian state within months. Industry was revitalised with a focus on military rearmament.^[31]

In 1935, Germany reacquired control of the Saar and in 1936 military control of the Rhineland, both of which had been lost in the Treaty of Versailles.^[32] In 1938, Austria was annexed, and in 1939, Czechoslovakia was brought under German control. The invasion of Poland was prepared through the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact and Operation Himmler. On 1 September 1939 the German Wehrmacht launched a blitzkrieg on Poland, which was swiftly occupied by Germany and by the Soviet Red Army. The UK and France declared war on Germany, marking the beginning of World War II.^[33] As the war progressed, Germany and its allies quickly gained control of most of continental Europe and North Africa, though plans to force the United Kingdom to an armistice or surrender failed. On 22 June 1941, Germany broke the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact and invaded the Soviet Union. Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor led Germany to declare war on the United States. The Battle of Stalingrad forced the German army to retreat on the Eastern front.^[33] In September 1943, Germany's ally Italy surrendered, and German troops were forced to defend an additional front in Italy. D-Day opened a Western front, as Allied forces advanced towards German territory. On 8 May 1945, the German armed forces surrendered after the Red Army occupied Berlin.^[34]

Berlin in ruins after World War II

In what later became known as The Holocaust, the Third Reich regime had enacted policies directly subjugating many dissidents and minorities. Millions of people were murdered by the Nazis during the Holocaust, including approximately six million Jews, and a sizeable number of Romani people, Jehovah's Witnesses, Poles and other Slavs, Soviet POWs, people with mental and/or physical disabilities, homosexuals, and members of the political and religious opposition.^[35] World War II was responsible for more than 40 million dead in Europe.^[36] The Nuremberg trials of Nazi war criminals were held after World War II.^[37] The war casualties for Germany are estimated at 5.3 million German soldiers^[38] millions of German civilians;^{[39][40][41][42][43]} and losing the war resulted in large territorial losses; the expulsion of about 15 million Germans from the eastern areas of Germany and other countries; mass rape of German women;^[44] and the destruction of multiple major cities.

East and West Germany[link]

Occupation zones in Germany, 1947. The territories east of the Oder-Neisse line, under Polish and Soviet de jure administration and de facto annexation, are shown as white as is the detached Saar protectorate.

After the surrender of Germany, the remaining German territory and Berlin were partitioned by the Allies into four military occupation zones. The western sectors, controlled by France, the United Kingdom, and the United States, were merged on 23 May 1949 to form the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland); on 7 October 1949, the Soviet Zone became the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik, or DDR). They were informally known as "West Germany" and "East Germany". East Germany selected East Berlin as its capital, while West Germany chose Bonn as a provisional capital, to emphasise its stance that the two-state solution was an artificial and temporary status quo.^[45]

West Germany, established as a federal parliamentary republic with a "social market economy", was allied with the United States, the UK and France. The country enjoyed prolonged economic growth beginning in the early 1950s (Wirtschaftswunder). West Germany joined NATO in 1955 and was a founding member of the European Economic Community in 1957. East Germany was an Eastern bloc state under political and military control by the USSR via the latter's occupation forces and the Warsaw Pact. Though East Germany claimed to be a democracy, political power was exercised solely by leading members (Politbüro) of the communist-controlled Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), supported by the Stasi, an immense secret service,^[46] and a variety of sub-organisations controlling every aspect of society. A Soviet-style command economy was set up; the GDR later became a Comecon state.^[47] While East German propaganda was based on the benefits of the GDR's social programmes and the alleged constant threat of a West German invasion, many of her citizens looked to the West for freedom and prosperity.^[48] The Berlin Wall, built in 1961 to stop East Germans from escaping to West Germany, became a symbol of the Cold War.^[21]

The Berlin Wall in front of the Brandenburg Gate shortly before its fall in 1989

Tensions between East and West Germany were reduced in the early 1970s by Chancellor Willy Brandt's Ostpolitik. In summer 1989, Hungary decided to dismantle the Iron Curtain and open the borders, causing the emigration of thousands of East Germans to West Germany via Hungary. This had devastating effects on the GDR, where regular mass demonstrations received increasing support. The East German authorities unexpectedly eased the border restrictions, allowing East German citizens to travel to the West; originally intended to help retain East Germany as a state, the opening of the border actually led to an acceleration of the Wende reform process. This culminated in the Two Plus Four Treaty a year later on 12 September 1990, under which the four occupying powers renounced their rights under the Instrument of Surrender, and Germany regained full sovereignty. This permitted German reunification on 3 October 1990, with the accession of the five re-established states of the former GDR (new states or "neue Länder").^[21]

Berlin Republic and the EU[link]

Based on the Berlin/Bonn Act, adopted on 10 March 1994, Berlin once again became the capital of the reunified Germany, while Bonn obtained the unique status of a Bundesstadt (federal city) retaining some federal ministries.^[49] The relocation of the government was completed in 1999.^[50] Since reunification, Germany has taken a more active role in the European Union and NATO. Germany sent a peacekeeping force to secure stability in the Balkans and sent a force of German troops to Afghanistan as part of a NATO effort to provide security in that country after the ousting of the Taliban.^[51] These deployments were controversial since, after the war, Germany was bound by domestic law only to deploy troops for defence roles.^[52] In 2005, Angela Merkel became the first female Chancellor of Germany as the leader of a grand coalition.^[21]

Geography[link]

Topographic map

Germany is in Western and Central Europe, bordering Denmark in the north, Poland and the Czech Republic in the east, Austria and Switzerland in the south, France and Luxembourg in the south-west, and Belgium and the Netherlands in the north-west. It lies mostly between latitudes 47° and 55° N (the tip of Sylt is just north of 55°), and longitudes 5° and 16° E. The territory covers 357,021 km² (137,847 sq mi), consisting of 349,223 km² (134,836 sq mi) of land and 7,798 km² (3,011 sq mi) of water. It is the seventh largest country by area in Europe and the 62nd largest in the world.^[1]

Elevation ranges from the mountains of the Alps (highest point: the Zugspitze at 2,962 metres / 9,718 feet) in the south to the shores of the North Sea (Nordsee) in the north-west and the Baltic Sea (Ostsee) in the north-east. The forested uplands of central Germany and the lowlands of northern Germany (lowest point: Wilstermarsch at 3.54 metres / 11.6 feet below sea level) are traversed by such major rivers as the Rhine, Danube and Elbe. Glaciers are found in the Alpine region, but are experiencing deglaciation. Significant natural resources are iron ore, coal, potash, timber, lignite, uranium, copper, natural gas, salt, nickel, arable land and water.^[1]

Climate[link]

Most of Germany has a temperate seasonal climate in which humid westerly winds predominate. The climate is moderated by the North Atlantic Drift, the northern extension of the Gulf Stream. This warmer water affects the areas bordering the North Sea; consequently in the north-west and the north the climate is oceanic. Rainfall occurs year-round, especially in the summer. Winters are mild and summers tend to be cool, though temperatures can exceed 30 °C (86 °F).^[53]

The east has a more continental climate; winters can be very cold and summers very warm, and long dry periods are frequent. Central and southern Germany are transition regions which vary from moderately oceanic to continental. In addition to the maritime and continental climates that predominate over most of the country, the Alpine regions in the extreme south and, to a lesser degree, some areas of the Central German Uplands have a mountain climate, characterised by lower temperatures and greater precipitation.^[53]

The eagle is a protected bird of prey and the national heraldic animal.

Biodiversity[link]

The territory of Germany can be subdivided into two ecoregions: European-Mediterranean montane mixed forests and Northeast-Atlantic shelf marine.^[54] As of 2008^[update] the majority of Germany is covered by either arable land (34%) or forest and woodland (30.1%); only 13.4% of the area consists of permanent pastures, 11.8% is covered by settlements and streets.^[55]

Plants and animals are those generally common to middle Europe. Beeches, oaks, and other deciduous trees constitute one third of the forests; conifers are increasing as a result of reforestation. Spruce and fir trees predominate in the upper mountains, while pine and larch are found in sandy soil. There are many species of ferns, flowers, fungi, and mosses. Wild animals include deer, wild boar, mouflon, fox, badger, hare, and small numbers of beavers.^[56]

The national parks in Germany include the Wadden Sea National Parks, the Jasmund National Park, the Vorpommern Lagoon Area National Park, the Müritz National Park, the Lower Oder Valley National Park, the Harz National Park, the Saxon Switzerland National Park and the Bavarian Forest National Park. More than 400 registered zoos and animal parks operate in Germany, which is believed to be the largest number in any country.^[57] The Zoologische Garten Berlin is the oldest zoo in Germany and presents the most comprehensive collection of species in the world.^[58]

Politics[link]

The Reichstag building in Berlin is the site of the German parliament (Bundestag).

Germany is a federal, parliamentary, representative democratic republic. The German political system operates under a framework laid out in the 1949 constitutional document known as the Grundgesetz (Basic Law). Amendments generally require a two-thirds majority of both chambers of parliament; the fundamental principles of the constitution, as expressed in the articles guaranteeing human dignity, the separation of powers, the federal structure, and the rule of law are valid in perpetuity.^[59]

The president is the head of state and invested primarily with representative responsibilities and powers. He is elected by the Bundesversammlung (federal convention), an institution consisting of the members of the Bundestag and an equal number of state delegates. The second-highest official in the German order of precedence is the Bundestagspräsident (President of the Bundestag), who is elected by the Bundestag and responsible for overseeing the daily sessions of the body. The third-highest official and the head of government is the Chancellor, who is appointed by the Bundespräsident after being elected by the Bundestag.^[21]

Joachim Gauck, President of Germany

The chancellor, currently Angela Merkel, is the head of government and exercises executive power, similar to the role of a Prime Minister in other parliamentary democracies. Federal legislative power is vested in the parliament consisting of the Bundestag (Federal Diet) and Bundesrat (Federal Council), which together form the legislative body. The Bundestag is elected through direct elections, by proportional representation (mixed-member).^[1] The members of the Bundesrat represent the governments of the sixteen federated states and are members of the state cabinets.^[21]

Since 1949, the party system has been dominated by the Christian Democratic Union and the Social Democratic Party of Germany with all chancellors hitherto being member of either party. However, the smaller liberal Free Democratic Party (which has had members in the Bundestag since 1949) and the Alliance '90/The Greens (which has controlled seats in parliament since 1983) have also played important roles.^[60]

Germany has a civil law system based on Roman law with some references to Germanic law. The Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court) is the German Supreme Court responsible for constitutional matters, with power of judicial review.^[21][61] Germany's supreme court system, called Oberste Gerichtshöfe des Bundes, is specialised: for civil and criminal cases, the highest court of appeal is the inquisitorial Federal Court of Justice, and for other affairs the courts are the Federal Labour Court, the Federal Social Court, the Federal Finance Court and the Federal Administrative Court. The Völkerstrafgesetzbuch regulates the consequences of crimes against humanity, genocide and war crimes, and gives German courts universal jurisdiction in some circumstances.^[62] Criminal and private laws are codified on the national level in the Strafgesetzbuch and the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch respectively. The German penal system is aimed towards rehabilitation of the criminal and the protection of the general public.^[63] Except for petty crimes, which are tried before a single professional judge, and serious political crimes, all charges are tried before mixed tribunals on which lay judges (Schöffen) sit side by side with professional judges.^[64][65]

Constituent states[link]

Germany comprises sixteen states that are collectively referred to as Länder.^[66] Each state has its own state constitution^[67] and is largely autonomous in regard to its internal organisation. Due to differences in size and population the subdivision of these states varies, especially between city states (Stadtstaaten) and states with larger territories (Flächenländer). For regional administrative purposes five states, namely Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Hesse, North Rhine-Westphalia and Saxony, consist of a total of 22 Government Districts (Regierungsbezirke). As of 2009^[update] Germany is divided into 403 districts (Kreise) on municipal level, these consist of 301 rural districts and 102 urban districts.^[68]

 Lower Saxony

 Bremen

 Hamburg

 Mecklenburg-
Vorpommern

 Saxony-
Anhalt

 Saxony

 Brandenburg

Berlin

 Thuringia

 Hesse

 North Rhine-
Westphalia

 Rhineland-
Palatinate

 Bavaria

 Baden-
Württemberg

 Saarland

 Schleswig-
Holstein

Foreign relations[link]

Chancellor Angela Merkel hosting the G8 summit in Heiligendamm

Germany has a network of 229 diplomatic missions abroad and maintains relations with more than 190 countries.^[69] As of 2011^[update] it is the largest contributor to the budget of the European Union (providing 20%)^[70] and the third largest contributor to the UN (providing 8%).^[71] Germany is a member of NATO, the Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the G8, the G20, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). It has played a leading role in the European Union since its inception and has maintained a strong alliance with France since the end of World War II. Germany seeks to advance the creation of a more unified European political, defence, and security apparatus.^[72][73]

The development policy of the Federal Republic of Germany is an independent area of German foreign policy. It is formulated by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and carried out by the implementing organisations. The German government sees development policy as a joint responsibility of the international community.^[74] It is the world's third biggest aid donor after the United States and France.^[75][76]

During the Cold War, Germany's partition by the Iron Curtain made it a symbol of East-West tensions and a political battleground in Europe. However, Willy Brandt's Ostpolitik was a key factor in the détente of the 1970s.^[77] In 1999, Chancellor Gerhard Schröder's government defined a new basis for German foreign policy by taking part in the NATO decisions surrounding the Kosovo War and by sending German troops into combat for the first time since World War II.^[78] The governments of Germany and the United States are close political allies.^[21] The 1948 Marshall Plan and strong cultural ties have crafted a strong bond between the two countries, although Schröder's vocal opposition to the Iraq War suggested the end of Atlanticism and a relative cooling of German-American relations.^[79] The two countries are also economically interdependent: 8.8% of German exports are U.S.-bound and 6.6% of German imports originate from the U.S.^[80]

Military[link]

The Eurofighter Typhoon is part of the Luftwaffe.

Germany's military, the Bundeswehr, is organized in Heer (Army), Marine (Navy), Luftwaffe (Air Force), Bundeswehr Joint Medical Service and Streitkräftebasis (Joint Support Service) branches. As of 2011^[update], military spending was an estimated 1.3% of the country's GDP, that is low in a ranking of all countries; in absolute terms, German military expenditure is the ninth-highest in the world.^[81] In peacetime, the Bundeswehr is commanded by the Minister of Defence. If Germany went to war, which according to the constitution is allowed only for defensive purposes, the Chancellor would become commander in chief of the Bundeswehr.^[82]

As of March 2012^[update] the Bundeswehr employs 183,000 professional soldiers and 17,000 volunteers.^[83] The German government plans to reduce the number of soldiers to 170,000 professionals and up to 15,000 short-time volunteers (voluntary military service).^[84] Reservists are available to the Armed Forces and participate in defence exercises and deployments abroad, a new reserve concept of their future strength and functions was announced 2011.^[84] As of April 2011^[update], the German military had about 6,900 troops stationed in foreign countries as part of international peacekeeping forces, including about 4,900 Bundeswehr troops in the NATO-led ISAF force in Afghanistan and Uzbekistan, 1,150 German soldiers in Kosovo, and 300 troops with UNIFIL in Lebanon.^[85]

Until 2011, military service was compulsory for men at age 18, and conscripts served six-month tours of duty; conscientious objectors could instead opt for an equal length of Zivildienst (civilian service), or a six-year commitment to (voluntary) emergency services like a fire department or the Red Cross. On 1 July 2011 conscription was officially suspended and replaced with a voluntary service.^[86][87] Since 2001 women may serve in all functions of service without restriction, but they are not subject to conscription. There are presently some 17,500 women on active duty and a number of female reservists.^[88]

Economy[link]

A Mercedes-Benz car. Germany was the world's leading exporter of goods from 2003 to 2008.^[89]

Frankfurt am Main is one of Germany's "economic powerhouses" and the main financial cluster in Central Europe.

Germany has a social market economy with a highly qualified labour force, a large capital stock, a low level of corruption,^[90] and a high level of innovation.^[91] It has the largest national economy in Europe, the fourth largest by nominal GDP in the world,^[92] and the fifth largest by PPP^[92] in 2009. The service sector contributes approximately 71% of the total GDP, industry 28%, and agriculture 0.9%.^[1] The official average national unemployment rate in March 2012 was 7.2%.^[93] However, the official average national unemployment rate also includes people with a part-time job that are looking for a full-time job.^[94] The unofficial average national unemployment rate in 2011 was 5.7%.^[1]

Germany is an advocate of closer European economic and political integration. Its commercial policies are increasingly determined by agreements among European Union (EU) members and by EU legislation. Germany introduced the common European currency, the euro, on 1 January 2002.^[95][96] Its monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank. Two decades after German reunification, standards of living and per capita incomes remain significantly higher in the states of the former West Germany than in the former East.^[97] The modernisation and integration of the eastern German economy is a long-term process scheduled to last until the year 2019, with annual transfers from west to east amounting to roughly $80 billion.^[98] In January 2009 the German government approved a €50 billion economic stimulus plan to protect several sectors from a downturn and a subsequent rise in unemployment rates.^[99]

Germany is part of a monetary union, the Eurozone (dark blue), and of the EU single market.

Of the world's 500 largest stock-market-listed companies measured by revenue in 2010, the Fortune Global 500, 37 are headquartered in Germany. 30 Germany-based companies are included in the DAX, the German stock market index. Well-known global brands are Mercedes-Benz, BMW, SAP, Siemens, Volkswagen, Adidas, Audi, Allianz, Porsche, Bayer, Bosch, and Nivea.^[100] Germany is recognised for its specialised small and medium enterprises. Around 1,000 of these companies are global market leaders in their segment and are labelled hidden champions.^[101]

The list includes the largest companies by turnover in 2009. Unranked are the largest bank and the largest insurance company in 2007:

Infrastructure[link]

The ICE 3 train at Frankfurt Hauptbahnhof

With its central position in Europe, Germany is a transport hub. This is reflected in its dense and modern transport networks. The motorway (Autobahn) network ranks as the third largest worldwide in length.^[103] Germany has established a polycentric network of high-speed trains. The InterCityExpress or ICE network of the Deutsche Bahn serves major German cities as well as destinations in neighbouring countries with speeds up to 300 kph (186 mph).^[104] The largest German airports are Frankfurt Airport and Munich Airport, both hubs of Lufthansa, while Air Berlin has hubs at Berlin Tegel and Düsseldorf. Other major airports include Berlin Schönefeld, Hamburg, Cologne/Bonn and Leipzig/Halle. Both airports in Berlin will be consolidated at a site adjacent to Berlin Schönefeld, which will become Berlin Brandenburg Airport in 2013.^[105][106]

As of 2008^[update], Germany was the world's sixth largest consumer of energy,^[107] and 60% of its primary energy was imported.^[108] Government policy promotes energy conservation and renewable energy. Energy efficiency has been improving since the early 1970s; the government aims to meet the country's electricity demands using only renewable sources by 2050.^[109] In 2010, energy sources were: oil (33.7%); coal, including lignite (22.9%); natural gas (21.8%); nuclear (10.8%); hydro-electric and wind power (1.5%); and other renewable sources (7.9%).^[110] In 2000, the government and the nuclear power industry agreed to phase out all nuclear power plants by 2021.^[111] Germany is committed to the Kyoto protocol and several other treaties promoting biodiversity, low emission standards, recycling, and the use of renewable energy, and supports sustainable development at a global level.^[112] The German government has initiated wide-ranging emission reduction activities and the country's overall emissions are falling.^[113] Nevertheless the country's greenhouse gas emissions were the highest in the EU as of 2010^[update].^[114]

Science and technology[link]

Albert Einstein

Germany's achievements in the sciences have been significant, and research and development efforts form an integral part of the economy.^[115] The Nobel Prize has been awarded to 103 German laureates.^[116] For most of the 20th century, German laureates had more awards than those of any other nation, especially in the sciences (physics, chemistry, and physiology or medicine).^[117][118]

The work of Albert Einstein and Max Planck was crucial to the foundation of modern physics, which Werner Heisenberg and Max Born developed further.^[119] They were preceded by such key physicists as Hermann von Helmholtz, Joseph von Fraunhofer and Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit, among others. Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays and was the first winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901.^[120] Otto Hahn was a pioneer in the fields of radioactivity and radiochemistry^[121], while Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch were founders of microbiology. Numerous mathematicians were born in Germany, including Carl Friedrich Gauss, David Hilbert, Bernhard Riemann, Gottfried Leibniz, Karl Weierstrass, Hermann Weyl and Felix Klein. Research institutions in Germany include the Max Planck Society, the Helmholtz Association and the Fraunhofer Society. The Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize is granted to ten scientists and academics every year. With a maximum of €2.5 million per award it is one of highest endowed research prizes in the world.^[122]

Germany has been the home of many famous inventors and engineers, such as Johannes Gutenberg, credited with the invention of movable type printing in Europe; Hans Geiger, the creator of the Geiger counter; and Konrad Zuse, who built the first fully automatic digital computer.^[123] German inventors, engineers and industrialists such as Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, Otto Lilienthal, Gottlieb Daimler, Rudolf Diesel, Hugo Junkers and Karl Benz helped shape modern automotive and air transportation technology.^[124] Aerospace engineer Wernher von Braun developed the first space rocket and later on was a prominent member of NASA and developed the Saturn V Moon rocket, which paved the way for the success of the US Apollo program. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz's work in the domain of electromagnetic radiation was pivotal to the development of modern telecommunication.^[125]

Germany is also one of the leading countries in developing and using green technologies. Companies specializing in green technology have an estimated turnover of 200€ billion. Especially the expertise in engineering, science and research of Germany is eminently respectable. The lead markets of Germany's green technology industry are power generation, sustainable mobility, material efficiency, energy efficiency, waste management and recycling, sustainable water management.^[126]

Demographics[link]

A German Kindergarten in Frankfurt

With its estimated population of 81.8 million in January 2010,^[2] Germany is the most populous country in the European Union and ranks as the 16th most populous country in the world.^[127] Its population density stands at 229.4 inhabitants per square kilometre. The overall life expectancy in Germany at birth is 79.9 years. The fertility rate of 1.4 children per mother, or 7.9 births per 1000 inhabitants in 2009, is one of the lowest in the world.^[128] Since the 1970s, Germany's death rate has continuously exceeded its birth rate.^[129] The Federal Statistical Office of Germany forecast that the population will shrink to between 65 and 70 million by 2060 (depending on the level of net migration).^[130]

German nationals make up 91% of the population of Germany. As of 2010^[update], about seven million foreign citizens were registered in Germany, and 19% of the country's residents were of foreign or partially foreign descent (including persons descending or partially descending from ethnic German repatriates), 96% of whom lived in West Germany or Berlin.^[131] The United Nations Population Fund lists Germany as host to the third-highest number of international migrants worldwide, about 5% or 10 million of all 191 million migrants.^[132] As a consequence of restrictions to Germany's formerly rather unrestricted laws on asylum and immigration, the number of immigrants seeking asylum or claiming German ethnicity (mostly from the former Soviet Union) has been declining steadily since 2000.^[133] In 2009, 20% of the population had immigrant roots, the highest since 1945.^[134] As of 2008^[update], the largest national group was from Turkey (2.5 million), followed by Italy (776,000) and Poland (687,000).^[135] About 3 million "Aussiedler"—ethnic Germans, mainly from Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union—have resettled in Germany since 1987.^[136]

Germany has a number of large cities. The largest conurbation is the Rhine-Ruhr region (11.7 million as of 2008^[update]), including Düsseldorf (the capital of North Rhine-Westphalia), Cologne, Dortmund, Essen, Duisburg, and Bochum.^[137]

v t e Largest cities or towns of Germany List of statistical offices in Germany 24 December 2010
	Rank	City name	State	Pop.	Rank	City name	State	Pop.
Berlin Hamburg	1	Berlin	Berlin	3,471,756	11	Dresden	Saxony	523,058	Munich Cologne
	2	Hamburg	Hamburg	1,786,448	12	Leipzig	Saxony	522,883
	3	Munich	Bavaria	1,353,186	13	Hannover	Lower Saxony	522,686
	4	Cologne	North Rhine-Westphalia	1,007,119	14	Nuremberg	Bavaria	505,664
	5	Frankfurt	Hesse	688,664	15	Duisburg	North Rhine-Westphalia	489,599
	6	Stuttgart	Baden-Württemberg	606,588	16	Bochum	North Rhine-Westphalia	374,737
	7	Düsseldorf	North Rhine-Westphalia	598,786	17	Wuppertal	North Rhine-Westphalia	349,721
	8	Dortmund	North Rhine-Westphalia	580,444	18	Bonn	North Rhine-Westphalia	324,899
	9	Essen	North Rhine-Westphalia	574,635	19	Bielefeld	North Rhine-Westphalia	323,270
	10	Bremen	Bremen (state)	547,340	20	Mannheim	Baden-Württemberg	313,174