| Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj |
| Kshatriya Kulavantas |
 |
| Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj |
 1st Chhatrapati of the Maratha Empire
|
| Reign |
1674–1680 CE |
| Coronation |
6 June 1674 |
| Successor |
Sambhaji |
|
| Spouse |
Sai bai (Nimbalkar)
Soyarabai (Mohite)
Putalabai (Palkar)
Laxmibai (Vichare)
Kashibai (Jadhav)[1][2] |
| Issue |
Sambhaji, son
Rajaram, son
Sakhubai Nimbalkar, daughter
Ranubai Jadhav, daughter
Ambikabai Mahadik, daughter
Deepabai, daughter
Rajkunvarbai Shirke, daughter
Kamlabai Palkar, daughter
. |
| Father |
Shahaji |
| Mother |
Jijabai |
| Born |
19 February 1630[3][4]
Shivneri Fort, near Pune, India |
| Died |
3 April 1680
Raigad Fort |
| Religion |
Hinduism |
Shivaji Bhosale ([ʃiʋaˑɟiˑ bʱoˑs(ə)leˑ]; 19 February 1630 – 3 April 1680), with the royal title Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, was a Maratha sovereign who founded the Maratha Empire,[5][6] which, at its peak, covered much of the Indian subcontinent, encompassing a territory of over 2.8 million km².[7] Shivaji as an aristocrat of the Bhosle clan led a resistance to free the Maratha people from the Sultanate of Bijapur and the Mughal Empire and established a Hindavi Swarajya ("self-rule of Hindu people").[5][6][8] He created an independent Maratha kingdom with Raigad as its capital.[6] He was crowned as Chhatrapati ("sovereign") of the Maratha empire in 1674.[5][6]
He established a competent and progressive civil rule with the help of a well-regulated and disciplined military and well-structured administrative organizations. He also innovated rules of military engagement, pioneering the "Shiva sutra" or ganimi kava (guerrilla tactics), which leveraged strategic factors like geography, speed, surprise and focused pinpoint attacks to defeat his larger and more powerful enemies[9] From a small contingent of 2,000 soldiers inherited from his father, he created a formidable force of 100,000 soldiers. He built and restored forts located strategically on land & sea for secure lands and coastline.[10][11][12] He revived ancient Hindu political tradition & court conventions, and promoted Marathi and Sanskrit in court and administration usage. He is well known for his strong religious and warrior code of ethics and exemplary character.[13][14] He was recognized as a great national hero during Indian Independence movement.[15]
Shivaji was born in the hill-fort of Shivneri, near the Junnar city in Pune district. On the auspicious second day of the bright half of Vaishakh, in the year 1549 of Shaka era (1627 A.D.) to the sound pipes and drums playing in the 'Nagar Khana', Jijabai gave birth to a son. On the twelfth day, with the ceremony, the child was named 'Shivaji' after goddess Shivadevi whose temple was in the fort. [16][12]
His exact date of birth has been a matter of dispute among the various historians in the past. The Maharashtra state government now accepts the 3rd day of the dark half of Phalguna, year 1551 of Shaka calendar (Friday, 19 February 1630) as the true birthdate of Shivaji.[17] Other suggested dates include 6 April 1627, or other dates near this day.[18][19]:14[20]
Shivaji's father Shahaji Bhosale was the leader of a band of mercenaries that serviced the Deccan Sultanates. His mother was Jijabai, the daughter of Lakhujirao Jadhav of Sindkhed. During the period of Shivaji's birth, the power in Deccan was shared by three Islamic sultanates – Bijapur, Ahmednagar, and Golconda. Shahaji kept changing his loyalty between the Nizamshahi of Ahmadnagar, Adil Shah of Bijapur and the Mughals, but always kept his jagir (fiefdom) at Pune and his small army with him. Following a treaty between the Mughals and the Bijapur Sultanate, Shahaji was posted to Bangalore-based jagir, while Jijabai and Shivaji remained in Pune.
Shivaji was extremely devoted to his mother Jijabai, who was deeply religious. This religious environment had a profound influence on Shivaji, and he carefully studied the two great Hindu epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata. The morality and spiritual messages of the epics made a great impression on him. Throughout his life he was deeply interested in religious teachings, and sought the company of Hindu and Sufi (an esoteric Muslim sect) saints throughout his life.[19]
Shivaji drew his earliest trusted comrades and a large number of his soldiers from the Maval region, including Yesaji Kank, Suryaji Kakade, Baji Pasalkar, Baji Prabhu Deshpande and Tanaji Malusare. In the company of his Maval comrades, a young Shivaji wandered over the hills and forests of the Sahyadri range, hardening himself and acquiring first-hand knowledge of the land. By 1639, he commanded a hardy and loyal band of officers and soldiers.[19]
At the age of 12, Shivaji was taken to Bangalore where he was further formally trained along-with elder brother Sambhaji and stepbrother Ekoji I. He married Saibai, a member of the prominent Nimbalkar family in 1640.[21] At age of 14, he returned to Pune with a rajmudra (sovereign seal) and council of minister.
In 1645, at the age of 16, Shivaji managed to pursue the Bijapuri commander of the Torna Fort, named Inayat Khan, to hand over the possession of the fort to him.[19]:26[22][23] Firangoji Narsala, who held the Chakan fort professed his loyalty to him and the fort of Kondana was acquired by bribing the Adil-Shahi governor.[19]:26 On 25 July 1648, Shahaji was imprisoned by Baji Ghorpade under the orders of Adilshah in a bid to contain Shivaji.[24]
Adilshah also sent an army led by Farradkhan against Shahji's other son Sambhaji at Bangalore, and another army led by Fattekhan against Shivaji at Purandhar. Both Bhosale brothers defeated the invading armies.
An army led by Fattekhan was defeated by Shivaji in the battle of Purandhar. Meanwhile, Shivaji had petitioned Emperor Shahjahan's son, Murad Baksh, who was governor of Deccan, pledging his loyalty to the Mughals to seek his support in securing the release of his father. The Mughals recognised Shivaji as a Mughal sardar and pressured Adilshah to release Shahaji.[25] On 16 May 1649 Shahaji was released after Shivaji and Sambhaji surrendering the forts of Kondhana, Bangalore and Kandarpi.[19]
In 1659, Adilshah sent Afzal Khan, an experienced and veteran general to destroy Shivaji in an effort to put down what he saw as a regional revolt. Afzal Khan desecrated Hindu temples at Tuljapur and Pandharpur hoping to draw Shivaji to the plains to retaliate with his limited military resources and thus lead him and his budding military power to easy destruction by the numerically bigger, better-armed and more professional Bijapur army. Afzal Khan may have expected Shivaji to meet his army in the plains, however Shivaji, upon carefully weighing his options, agreed to meet Afzal Khan on his home turf on pretext of diplomatic negotiations. Shivaji sent a letter to Afzal Khan stating that he was eager for a meeting. The meeting was arranged between Afzal Khan and Shivaji at the foothills of Pratapgad Fort on the day 10 November 1659 Pratapgad.[9]
This event is one of the most important in Shivaji's life. Shivaji got a pledge from ministers to never submit in case he fell. It is said that during this period, Shivaji had a vision of Goddess Bhavani promising full protection on the confrontation and victory.[12]:479 Afzal Khan was invited to a hut at the base of Pratapgad under the conditions that both the men would be armed only with a sword and attended by a follower. However, Shivaji is said to have learnt that Afzal Khan was planning an attack on him.[26][27] Shivaji, therefore, wore armour underneath his clothes and concealed a Bagh nakh in his left arm, in addition to a visibile dagger on his right hand.[28] Accounts vary on whether Shivaji or Afzal Khan struck the first blow:[29][30][31] the Maratha chronicles accuse Afzal Khan of treachery, while the Persian-language chronicles attribute the treachery to Shivaji.[32][33] Ultimately, Afzal Khan was disemboweled by Shivaji and later decapitated by Sambhaji Kavji.
In the ensuing Battle of Pratapgarh fought on 10 November 1659, Shivaji's forces decisively defeated the Bijapur Sultanate's forces.[34] It was their first significant military victory against a major regional power, and led to the eventual establishment of the Maratha Empire. The Maratha troops led by Kanhoji Jedhe attacked Afzal Khan's Bijapuri forces and routed them at the foothills of the fort. Then in a rapid march, a section of Adilshahi forces commanded by Musekhan was attacked. Musekhan was wounded and subsequently fled, abandoning his soldiers who were then set upon and decimated by the Marathas. Commander Moropant Pingale led the infantry in a lighting attack on to the left flank of the Adilshahi troops. Adilshah's artillery was rendered ineffective by the suddenness of this attack at close quarters. At the same time commander Ragho Atre swiftly attacked Adilshahi cavalry before it was fully prepared for battle and almost completely wiped it out. Shivaji's cavalry headed by Netaji Palkar rushed towards Wai in hot pursuit of retreating Adilshahi forces who were attempting to join reserve forces stationed there. The retreating forces of Afzal Khan were engaged in battle and were routed.[9] More than 3,000 soldiers of the Bijapur army were killed and two sons of Afzal Khan were taken as prisoners.[19]:53
This unexpected and unlikely victory made Shivaji a hero of Maratha folklore and a legendary figure among his people. The large quantities of captured weapons, horses, armour and other materials helped to strengthen the nascent and emerging Maratha army. The Mughal emperor Aurangzeb now identified Shivaji as a major threat to the mighty Mughal Empire. Soon thereafter Shivaji, Shahaji and Netaji Palkar (the chief of the Maratha cavalry) decided to attack and defeat the Adilshahi kingdom at Bijapur. But things did not go as planned as Shahaji's health deteriorated and they were forced to postpone the planned attack. However, Netoji Palkar undertook this mission mounting smaller scale attacks and military harassment of the Adilshahi kingdom.
Subsequently, the Sultan of Bijapur sent an army composed mainly of Afghan mercenaries to subdue and defeat Shivaji before he could substantially expand his army. In the ensuing battle, Bijapur's army was defeated by the Maratha troops. This intense and bloody battle ended in the unconditional surrender of the Bijapuri forces to Shivaji.
To counter the loss at Pratapgad and to defeat the newly emerging Maratha power, another army, this time numbering over 10,000, was sent against Shivaji, commanded by Bijapur's renowned Abyssinian general Rustamjaman. With a cavalry of 5,000 Marathas, Shivaji attacked them near Kolhapur on 28 December 1659. In a swift movement, Shivaji led a full frontal attack at the center of the enemy forces while other two portions of his cavalry attacked the flanks. This battle lasted for several hours and at the end Bijapuri forces were soundly defeated and Rustamjaman ignominiously fled the battlefield.[9] Adilshahi forces lost about 2,000 horses and 12 elephants to the Marathas. This victory alarmed the mighty Mughal empire who now derisively referred to Shivaji as the "Mountain Rat". Aurangzeb the Mughal emperor was now actively preparing to bring the full might and resources of the Mughal Empire to bear down on the potential Maratha threat.
Per the terms of the Mughal-Adilshahi plan, Adil Shah in 1660 sent Siddi Jauhar, an accomplished general to attack Shivaji on his southern borders, preceding the expected major Mughal attack from the north. He ordered his army of 40,000 north to Kolhapur to confront and defeat Shivaji as a part of their grand alliance with the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. He secured the support of local chieftains such as Jasvantrao Dalvi of Palavani and Suryarao Surve of Sringarpur to defeat Shivaji.[9] At that time, Shivaji was camped at the Panhala fort near present day Kolhapur with 8,000 Marathas.
Siddi Jauhar's army besieged Panhala on 2 March 1660, cutting off supply routes to the fort.[35] Helping with siege were Baji Ghorpade and Siddi Masud from the west, Sadat Khan and Bhai Khan from the north, Rustam Zaman and Bade Khan from the east, Siddi Jauhar and Fazal Khan from the south. Netaji Palkar, the Commander of the Maratha forces was on a mission away from Panhala harassing and attacking Adilshahi territory and was not able to come to the aid of Shivaji. At this point of time, Shaista Khan had moved from Baramati to Shirwal.[35]
Panhala was a formidable fort and Adilshahi army was repulsed repeatedly by effective cannon fire and heavy rock-pelting.[35] Siddi Jauhar approached Henry Revington, the British chief at the Rajapur port to seek long-range and more powerful cannons. Henry decided to help him in return for future favours, and began pounding Panhala fort. In spite of this Marathas continued defending Panhala and persevered in keeping Siddi Jauhar at bay.[35]
Marathas even raided the Adilshahi camp a few times but without much success. However, in one such raid, Tryambak Bhaskar and Kondaji Farzand presented themselves as allies of the British and Adlishahi forces. They came down to the Adilshahi camp and met Henry Revington and his associates. They managed to kill one British officer and injured Henry. Thereafter, they sabotaged the cannons and made them ineffective. Jauhar, livid at this, tightened the siege further.[35]
Jauhar did not leave any stone unturned to ensure that the siege around Panhala was unyielding, he personally took utmost care that no one in his army was complacent. He even braved the tumultuous monsoon season and continued the siege even during heaviest downpours.[35] On hearing about the ever tightening siege of Panhala, Netaji Palkar returned from Bijapur and attacked the Adilshahi forces surrounding Panhala. He tried to break the siege but his smaller forces were pushed back by a much larger Adilshahi army.[35]
Thereafter, Shivaji decided to escape to a nearby fort Vishalgad, where he could regroup his soldiers. He then sent misleading messages to Siddi Jauhar indicating that he was willing to negotiate and was looking for accommodation and mutual understanding. With this news, Adilshahi soldiers relaxed somewhat and Shivaji escaped under the cover of a stormy night on 12 July 1660.[35]
Meanwhile Jauhar's soldiers captured a small group of Marathas apparently including Shivaji only to realize he was a look-alike named Shiva Kashid dressed like Shivaji and sent out to create a diversion and facilitate the real Shivaji's escape. Siddi Johar's soldiers realized that the imposter was Shivaji's barber and that Shivaji and his army were headed to Vishalgad, immediately thereafter a massive chase was undertaken to intercept Shivaji and deal with him and his army, once and for all.[9]The end
Plaque to commemorate the entrance to Paavankhind
Observing that enemy cavalry was fast closing in on them, Shivaji sought to avoid defeat and capture. Baji Prabhu Deshpande, a Maratha sardar of Bandal Deshmukh along with 300 soldiers, volunteered to fight to the death to hold back the enemy at Ghod Khind (a mountain pass in Gajapur which is 4 miles (6.4 km) south of Vishalgad) to give Shivaji and the rest of the army a chance to reach the safety of the Vishalgad fort.[9][35]
In the ensuing Battle of Pavan Khind, Baji Prabhu Deshpande fought relentlessly. He was wounded but he held on and continued the fight until he heard the sound of cannon fire from Vishalgad, signalling Shivaji had safely reached the fort. The result of this intense and heroic battle was the death of 300 Marathas and 3,000 of Adilshah's troops who were engaged in a fierce combat. The Marathas were heroically committed to this fatal fight to ensure Shivaji's reaching the fort and they held off a larger enemy force for 7 hours using 2 Dand pattas (flexible sword) one in each hand[9] allowing Shivaji to reach the safety of the fort on 13 July 1660.[35] Thereafter a truce was made between Shivaji and Adilshah through Shahaji Raje. In addition, as the terms of this accord, Panhala Fort was awarded to Siddi Johar.[9] Ghod Khind (khind meaning "a narrow mountain pass") was renamed Paavan Khind (Sacred Pass) in honor of Bajiprabhu Deshpande, Shibosingh Jadhav, Fuloji, people from Bandal community and all other soldiers who fought in Ghod Khind. People from the Bandal community were specially selected by Shivaji while escaping from Panhala for their knowledge of the region, rock climbing skills, and martial qualities.[35]
Till 1657, Shivaji maintained peaceful relations with the Mughals. Shivaji offered his assistance to Aurangzeb in conquering Bijapur and in return, he was assured of the formal recognition of his right to the Bijapuri forts and villages under his possession[19]:37. Shivaji's confrontations with the Mughals began in March 1657, when two officers of Shivaji raided the Mughal territory near Ahmednagar.[36] This was followed by raids in Junnar, with Shivaji carrying off 300,000 huns in cash and 200 horses[19]:38. Aurangzeb responded to the raids by sending Nasiri Khan who defeated the forces of Shivaji at Ahmednagar. However, the countermeasures were interrupted by the rainy season and the battle of succession for the Mughal throne following the illness of Shah Jahan.
An Uzbek general, Kartalab Khan, was sent by Shaista Khan on a mission to attack and reduce the number of forts under Shivaji's control in the Konkan region on 3 February 1661. He left his camp near Pune with 30,000 troops. This time the Mughals did not march openly and took circuitous back country routes, as they sought to surprise Shivaji.[35] But, instead, Shivaji surprised them at a pass known as Umber Khind (in a dense forest, near present-day Pen), and attacked them from all sides. Marathas hidden in the dense forest executed a well co-ordinated ambush attack on the Mughal army.[35] Shivaji himself took the forward position with an elite cavalry unit. The other three sides were flanked by Shivaji's light infantry.
In a well co-ordinated movement of light infantry and cavalry, Shivaji prevailed over the invaders. A Maratha lady commander, Raibagan, who co-led the Mughal forces, analyzed the situation and realised that defeat was imminent and advised Kartalab Khan to accept defeat and initiate a compromise with Shivaji.[9][35] Within four hours into the attack the enemy accepted defeat and surrendered all the supplies, arms and assets. The Mughal army suffered high casualties. The defeated army was allowed a safe passage. Kartalab Khan and Raibagan were released with honour On accordance with Shivaji's terms and his long standing policy towards women and unarmed civilians.[9]
Upon the request of Badi Begum of Bijapur, Aurangzeb sent his maternal uncle (brother of late Queen Mumtaz Mahal) Shaista Khan, with an army numbering over 150,000[citation needed]along with a powerful artillery division in January 1660 to defeat Shivaji. Khan was accompanied by eminent commanders like Turktaj, Hussain, Haider, Naamdar Khan, Kartalab Khan, Uzbek Khan, Fateh Jung and Rajputs namely Bhau Singh, Shyam Singh, Rai Singh Sisodiya, Pradyuman and many more.[35] Khan was an experienced commander who had defeated Shahaji in the same region in 1636.[9] He was ordered to attack the Maratha kingdom in conjunction with Bijapur's army led by Siddi Jauhar. Aurangzeb ordered Shaista Khan to capture the Maratha kingdom to add to the empire (he intended to deceive the Adilshah), after Shivaji's expected defeat by Jauhar in Panhala fort. Shivaji now prepared to face a combined attack of Mughals and Adilshahi forces.[35]
Shaista Khan was ordered by Aurangzeb to attack Shivaji per the Mughal-Adilshahi accord. Shaista Khan, with his better equipped and provisioned army of 300,000 that was many times the size of the Maratha forces, seized Pune and the nearby fort of Chakan. At the time, Firangoji Narsala was the killedar (commander) of fort Chakan, which was defended by 300–350 Maratha soldiers. They were able to withstand the Mughal attack on the fort for one and a half months. Then, a burj (outer wall) was blown up with explosives. This created an opening to the fort allowing hordes of Mughals to breach the exterior portion of the fort. Firangoji, himself, led the Maratha counter attack against a larger Mughal army.[9][35] Eventually, the fort was lost with the capture of Firangoji, who then was brought before Shaista Khan, who, appreciating his bravery, offered him a jahagir (military commission) on the condition that he join the Mughal forces, which Firangoji declined. Admiring his loyalty, Shaista Khan pardoned Firangoji and set him free. Firangoji returned home and Shivaji awarded him a fort named Bhupalgad.[35]
Shaista Khan pressed his advantage of having a larger, better provisioned and heavily armed Mughal army and made inroads into some of the Maratha territory. Although he held Pune for almost a year, he had little further success. He had set up his residence at Lal Mahal, Shivaji's palace, in the city of Pune.[9]
Shaista Khan kept a tight security in Pune. However, Shivaji planned an attack on Shaista Khan amidst tight security. In April 1663, a wedding party had obtained special permission for a procession; Shivaji planned an attack using the wedding party as cover. The Marathas disguised themselves as the bridegroom's procession and entered Pune. Shivaji, having spent much of his youth in Pune, knew his way around the city and his own palace of Lal Mahal.[9] Chimanaji Deshpande — one of the childhood friends of Shivaji — aided him in this attack and offered his services as a personal bodyguard. According to Babasaheb Purandare, since the Mughal army also consisted of Maratha soldiers, it was difficult for someone to distinguish between Shivaji's Maratha soldiers and the Maratha soldiers of the Mughal army. Taking advantage of this situation, Shivaji, along with a few of his trusted men, infiltrated the Mughal camp.
After overpowering and slaying of the palace guards, the Marathas broke into the mansion by breaching an outer wall. Chimnaji and Netaji Palkar entered first along with Babaji Deshpande, another of Shivaji's long time loyal associates. They approached Shaista Khan's quarters. Shivaji then personally confronted Shaista Khan in a face to face attack. Meanwhile, perceiving danger, one of Shaista's wives turned off the lights. Shivaji pursued Shaista Khan and severed three of his fingers with his sword (in the darkness) as he fled through an open window. Shaista Khan narrowly escaped death and lost his son and many of his guards and soldiers in the raid.[9]
Within twenty-four hours of this attack, Shaista Khan left Pune and headed North towards Agra. An angered Aurangzeb transferred him to distant Bengal as a punishment for bringing embarrassment to the Mughals with his ignoble defeat in Pune.
In 1664 Shivaji invaded Surat, an important and wealthy Mughal trading city, and looted it to replenish his now depleted treasury and also as a revenge for the capture and looting of Maratha territory by Shaista Khan. (Surat was again sacked by Shivaji in 1670.)[9]
Raja
Jai Singh of Amber receiving Shivaji a day before concluding the Treaty of Purandar.
Aurangzeb was enraged and sent Mirza Raja Jai Singh I with an army numbering around 15,000[37] to defeat Shivaji. Jai Singh planned and executed his battle strategies so well with his vast army that the Mughal forces under him made significant gains and captured many Maratha forts. Shivaji came to terms with Aurangzeb rather than lose more forts and men.
In the ensuing treaty of Purander, signed between Shivaji and Jai Singh on 11 June 1665, Shivaji agreed to give up 23 of his forts and pay compensation of 400,000 rupees to the Mughals. He also agreed to let his son Sambhaji become a Mughal Sardar, serve the Mughal court of Aurangzeb and fight with Mughals against Bijapur. He actually fought alongside Raja Jai Singh's Mughal forces against Bijapur's forces for a few months. His commander, Netaji Palkar, joined Mughals, was rewarded very well for his bravery, converted to Islam, changed his name to Quli Mohammed Khan in 1666 and was sent to the Afghan frontier to fight the restive tribes. He returned to Shivaji's service after ten years in 1676 and was accepted back as a Hindu on Shivaji's advice.
In 1666, Aurangzeb invited Shivaji to Agra, along with his nine-year-old son Sambhaji. Aurangzeb's plan was to send Shivaji to Kandahar, modern day Afghanistan to consolidate the Mughal Empire's north-western frontier. However, in the court, on 12 May 1666, Aurangzeb made Shivaji stand behind mansabdārs (military commanders) of his court.[9] Shivaji took offense at this seeming insult and stormed out of court and was promptly placed under house arrest, under the watch of Faulad Khan, Kotwal of Agra. From his spies, Shivaji learned that Aurangzeb planned to move his residence to Raja Vitthaldas's Haveli and then to possibly kill him or send him to fight in the Afghan frontier. As a result Shivaji planned his escape.
He feigned almost fatal sickness and requested to send most of his contingent back to the Deccan, thereby ensuring the safety of his army and deceiving Aurangzeb. Thereafter, on his request, he was allowed to send daily shipments of sweets and gifts to saints, fakirs, and temples in Agra as offerings for getting well.[9] After several days and weeks of sending out boxes containing sweets, Shivaji and his nine year old son Sambhaji hid themselves in two of the boxes and managed to escape on 22 July 1666. Shivaji and his son fled to the Deccan disguised as sadhus (holy men). After the escape, rumours of Sambhaji's death were intentionally spread by Shivaji himself in order to deceive the Mughals and to protect Sambhaji.[9]
Dr. Ajit Joshi presented a different view in a Marathi book Agryahun Sutka, concluded that Shivaji most likely disguised himself as a Brahmin priest after performance of religious rites at the haveli grounds and escaped by mingling in within the departing priestly entourage of Pandit Kavindra Paramananda.[38]
After this escape, both sides maintained calm and a treaty was concluded for some time. However, it was broken at the end of the year 1670. Shivaji launched a major offensive against Mughals. In a span of four months he recovered a major portion of the territories surrendered to Mughals. During this phase, the valiant Tanaji Malusare won the prestigious fort of Sinhgad in the battle of Sinhgad on 4 Feb 1670, although he lost his life.
Subsequently, Shivaji sacked Surat for second time in 1670. When Shivaji was returning from Surat, Mughals under Daud Khan tried to intercept him, but were defeated in the Battle of Vani-dindori near present-day Nashik.
Peshwa Moropant Pingale won a number of forts in this area. Senapati Prataprao Gujar defeated Mughals in various campaigns. In order to subdue this Maratha resurgence, Dilerkhan was sent along with Bahlol khan and other generals. During this phase, the combined forces of Moropant and Prataprao defeated the Mughals in the open battle of Salher.
This was the first major battle in which Mughals were defeated by any opponent. This greatly raised the status of Marathas and Shivaji, in particular. Against this background of victories, Shivaji decided to coronate himself, thereby giving sovereignty to the Maratha people. However, a tragedy struck in that Shivaji lost his trusted cavalry general Prataprao in the following battle of Nesari.
In 1674, Prataprao Gujar, the then Commander-in chief of the Maratha forces, was sent to push back the invading force led by the Adil Shahi general, Bahlol Khan. Prataprao's forces defeated and captured the opposing general in the battle after cutting-off their water supply by encircling a strategically located lake, which prompted Bahlol Khan to sue for peace. In spite of Shivaji's specific warnings against doing so Prataprao released Bahlol Khan who started preparing for a fresh invasion.[39]
When Shivaji sent a displeasure letter to Prataprao refusing him audience until Bahlol Khan was re-captured. In the ensuing days, he learnt of Bahlol Khan having camped with 15,000 force at Nesari near Kolhapur. Given the uneven match Prataprao reasoned that there was no point in leading his 1,200 cavalrymen into a suicide charge alone. Other six sardars of distinction followed him to perish with their commander. The seven Maratha officers were Prataprao Gujar, Visaji Ballal, Dipoji Rautrao, Vithal Pilaji Atre, Krishnaji Bhaskar, Siddi Hilal and Vithoji Shinde. The loss of Prataprao Gujar was a big loss to the Marathas. Anandrao Mohite managed to the withdraw army to safer areas.[40]
Marathas then avenged the death of their general, by defeating Bahlol Khan and capturing his jagir (fiefdom) under the leadership of Anaji and Hambirao Mohite. Shivaji was deeply grieved on hearing of Prataprao's death. He arranged for the marriage of his second son, Rajaram, to the daughter of Prataprao Gujar. Anandrao Mohite became Hambirrao Mohite, the new sarnaubat (Commander-in-Chief of the Maratha forces). Shivaji started preparation for coronation. Fort Raigad was newly built by Hiroji Indulkar as a capital of rising Maratha kingdom.
The coronation of Shri Shivaji
Shivaji was crowned a king in a lavish ceremony at Raigad on 6 June 1674.[41] Gaga Bhatt officially presided over the ceremony, and had a gold vessel filled with the seven sacred waters of the rivers Yamuna, Indus, Ganges, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri. He held the vessel over Shivaji's head and chanted the coronation mantras, as the water kept dripping from the several tiny holes in the vessel. After the ablution, Shivaji bowed before Jijamata and touched her feet. Nearly fifty thousand people gathered at Raigad for the ceremonies.[9] Shivaji was bestowed with the sacred thread jaanva, with the Vedas and was bathed in an abhisheka.
Shivaji then had the title of "Shakakarta" conferred upon him, as well as assumed the title 'Kshatriya Kulavantas' meaning head of Kshatriyas. Further, he preferred Chhatrapati title than Maharaja.
His mother Jijabai died on 18 June 1674, within a few days of the coronation. This was considered a bad omen. Therefore, a second coronation was carried out 24 September 1674, this time according to the Bengal school of Tantricism and presided over by Nischal Puri.[42]
Maratha Empire in 1680.
(red)
In October 1674, the Marathas raided Khandesh. On 17 April 1675 Shivaji captured Phonda from Bijapuris. Karwar was occupied by mid 1675 and Kolhapur in July 1675. There were naval skirmishes with the Siddis of Janjira in November 1675. In early 1676, Peshwa Pingale engaged Raja of Ramnagar in battle en route to Surat. Shivaji raided Athani in March 1676. By the end of 1676, Shivaji besieged Belgaum and Vayem Rayim in current day northern Karnataka.
At the end of 1676, Shivaji launched a wave of conquests in southern India with a massive force of 50,000 (30,000 cavalry and 20,000 infantry).[9] He captured the forts at Vellore and Jinji that belonged to the sultanate of Bijapur and are in modern-day Tamil Nadu. In the run-up to this expedition Shivaji appealed to a sense of Deccani patriotism, that the "Deccan" or Southern India was a homeland that should be protected from outsiders.[43] His appeal was somewhat successful and he entered into a treaty with the Qutubshah of the Golconda sultanate that covered the eastern Deccan. Shivají's conquests in the south proved quite crucial during future wars. Jinji served as Maratha capital for nine years during the War of 27 years. The small bands of marathas were now moving like imperial forces ready for open battle.
His other intention was to reconcile with his stepbrother Vyankoji (his father Shahaji's son from his second wife, who came from the Mohite family) who ruled Thanjavur after Shahaji. They had talks, Venkoji (Ekoji I) showed signs of uniting with Shivaji but then no concrete result was obtained.[9] On return to Raigad, Shivaji seized most of Ekoji's possessions in the Mysore plateau. Ekoji's wife Deepabai a scholar of saintly bent of character brought reconciliation between the two brothers so they were not enemies and maintained the status quo of co-existing independent.
Shivaji died on 2 April 1680,[44] on the eve of Hanuman Jayanti. In a span of 50 years he started from a jagir and ended with a vast empire streching from hilly terrains to southern plain.
After Shivaji's unexpected death in April 1680, and his eldest son Sambhaji took power after being challenged by his stepmother Soyarabai. Meanwhile, emperor Aurangzeb's son had a falling out with his father and joined forces with Sambhaji, thereafter Aurangzeb personally lead his vast imperial army to attack and completely destroy the Maratha threat once and for all. He threw the full might of the Mughal empire toward this goal and for a while it seemed that he would achieve his objective.
However, after the capture, torture and the murder of Sambhaji -for his refusal to bow down before Aurangzeb and convert to Islam - turmoil and uncertainty gripped the Marathas who were now on the run and were forced to move their capital from Raigad near Pune to Gingee in the south in current day state of Tamil Nadu.
Thereafter the Maratha forces stabilized and were better organized - began to undertake fast raids on the slow moving Mughal columns. Able generals such as Dhanaji Jadhav and Santaji Ghorpade were able to take the initiative and effectively bogged down the powerful but slow moving Mughal army in to a protracted 27 year war. In the last few years of this war both the Maratha generals delivered severe body blows to the Mughals on the shifting battlefields in Maharashtra. In 1697 Aurangzeb withdrew from the Deccan for the last time in sickness and thereafter recalled his full army a few years later. After this time the Mughals never again posed a great danger to the Marathas.
And within sixty years of Auragzeb's death the Marathas under the Peshwa's leadership soundly defeated the Mughals and forced them to sign the Ahmediya treaty whereby they relinquished their vast empire in the sub-continent to the Marathas. They were allowed to keep nominal control of Delhi while the Marathas were able to collect taxes from vast swaths of present day India and Pakistan, and down all the way to the Southern tip of the subcontinent.
Shivaji was an able administrator who established a government that included modern concepts such as cabinet (Ashtapradhan mandal), foreign affairs (Dabir) and internal intelligence.[10] Shivaji established an effective civil and military administration. He also built a powerful navy. Maynak Bhandari was one of the first chiefs of the Maratha Navy under Shivaji, and helped in both building the Maratha Navy and safeguarding the coastline of the emerging Maratha Empire. He built new forts like Sindhudurg and strengthened old ones like Vijaydurg on the west coast.[9] The Maratha navy held its own against the British, Portuguese and Dutch.[45]
Shivaji is well known for his benevolent attitude towards his subjects. He believed that there was a close bond between the state and the citizens. He encouraged all accomplished and competent individuals to participate in the ongoing political/military struggle. He is remembered as a just and welfare-minded king. He brought revolutionary changes in military organisation, fort architecture, society and politics.[9]
Shivaji was the first king of the medieval world to undertake the revolutionary idea of abolishing the feudal system, 150 years before its worldwide recognition in the French revolution. For a span of about 50 years, there were no feudals in his kingdom. After the fall of Raigad in 1689, Raja Ram started giving land grants to maratha chieftans to fight against the Mughals in the War of 27 years.
The organization of Shivaji's administration was composed of eight ministers or pradhaanas:[12]:438
- Peshwa - Mukhya (main) Pradhan, next to the king, for supervising and governing under king's orders in his absence. The king's orders bore the Peshwa's seal.
- Mazumdar - An auditor to take care of income and expenditure checks, keep the king informed of finances and sign districts-level accounts.
- Navis or Waqia Mantri - to record daily activities of the royal family and to serve as master of ceremony.
- Sur Navis or Sachiv - to oversee the king's correspondence to ensure letter and style adherence to wishes of the king and check accounts of palace and Parganas.
- Sumant or Dabir - for foreign affairs and to receive ambassadors.
- Senapati or Sir-nobut - To keep troops ready and the king fully informed.
- Panditrao - to promote learning, spirituality and settle religious disputes.
- Nyayadhish - the highest judicial authority.
Statue of Chhatrapati Shivaji
Shivaji demonstrated great skill in creating his military organisation, which lasted till the demise of the Maratha empire. He was one of the pioneers of commando actions, then known as ganimi kava.[46] His Mavala army's war cry was Har Har Mahadev ("Hail Lord Our God", Har and Mahadev being common names of Shiva).[9] Shivaji was responsible for many significant changes in military organization:
- A standing army belonging to the state, called paga.
- All war horses belonged to the state; responsibility for their upkeep rested on the Sovereign.
- Creation of part time soldiers from peasants who worked for eight months in their fields and supported four months in war for which they were paid.
- Highly mobile and light infantry and cavalry excelling in commando tactics.
- The introduction of a centralized intelligence department; Bahirjee Naik was the foremost spy who provided Shivaji with enemy information in all of Shivaji's campaigns.
- A potent and effective navy.
- Introduction of field craft, such as guerrilla warfare, commando actions, and swift flanking attacks.
- Innovation of weapons and firepower, innovative use of traditional weapons like the tiger claw (vaghnakh) and vita.
- Militarisation of large swathes of society, across all classes, with the entire peasant population of settlements and villages near forts actively involved in their defence.[9]
Shivaji realized the importance of having a secure coastline and protecting the western Konkan coastline from the attacks of Siddi's fleet.[9][19][47] His strategy was to build a strong navy to protect and bolster his kingdom. He was also concerned about the growing dominance of British Indian naval forces in regional waters and actively sought to resist it. For this reason he is also referred to as the "Father of Indian Navy".[48]
Shivaji captured strategically important forts at Murumbdev (Rajgad), Torana, Kondana (Sinhagad) and Purandar and laid the foundation of swaraj or self rule. Toward the end of his career, he had a control of 360 forts to secure his growing kingdom. Shivaji himself constructed about 15-20 totally new forts (including key sea forts like Sindhudurg), but he also rebuilt or repaired many strategically placed forts to create a chain of 300 or more, stretched over a thousand kilometres across the rugged crest of the Western Ghats. Each were placed under three officers of equal status lest a single traitor be bribed or tempted to deliver it to the enemy. The officers (sabnis, havladar, sarnobhat) acted jointly and provided mutual checks and balance.
Shivaji built a strong naval presence across long coast of Konkan and Goa to protect sea trade, to protect the lands from sack of prosperity of subjects from coastal raids, plunder and destruction by Arabs, Portuguese, British, Abyssinians and pirates. Shivaji started navy in Kalyan. Shivaji built ships in towns such as Kalyan, Bhivandi, and Goa for building fighting navy as well as trade. He also built a number of sea forts and bases for repair, storage and shelter. Shivaji fought many lengthy battles with Siddis of Janjira on coastline. The fleet grew to reportedly 160 to 700 merchant, support and fighting vessels. He started trading with foreigners on his own after possession of 8 or 9 ports in the Deccan.[19][49][50]
The house of Shivaji was well acquainted with Sanskrit and promoted the language; his father Shahaji had supported scholars such as Jayram Pindye, who prepared Shivaji's seal. Shivaji continued this Sanskrit promotion, giving his forts names such as Sindhudurg, Prachandgarh, and Suvarndurg. He named the Ashta Pradhan (council of ministers) as per Sanskrit nomenclature with terms such as Nyayadhish, and Senapat, and commissioned the political treatise Rajya Vyavahar Kosh. His Rajpurohit, Keshav Pandit, was himself a Sanskrit scholar and poet.[13]
A significant aspect of Shivaji's rule was his attempt to revive ancient Hindu political tradition and court conventions. He introduced Marathi in the place of
Persian as the court language, revived Sanskrit administrative nomenclature and compiled a dictionary of official terms, 'The Rajyavyavahar Kosh', to facilitate change over.
[51]
Shivaji was a devout Hindu. He respected all religions within the region. Shivaji had great respect for other contemporary saints, most notably Samarth Ramdas for whom he had a lot of faith. Shivaji requested Ramdas swami to move his residence to a fort named Parali & establish his permanent monastery there. The fort was subsequently renamed "Sajjangad" - the fort of the sacred.Shivaji's son Sambhaji later on built a Samadhi temple of Samarth Ramdas swami on Sajjangad when Ramdas Swami left this world. The temple is very huge and totally built in Besalt stones in just 1.75 months. Samarth Ramdaas Swami also wrote a letter to Sambhaji Raje guiding him on what to do and what not to do after death of Shivaji Maharaj. This is a phenomenal historic letter and proof that describes how Shivaji Maharaj was.[52]
Shivaji allowed his subjects freedom of religion and opposed forced conversion.[9][53] The first thing Shivaji did after a conquest was to promulgate protection of mosques and Muslim tombs.[9]
He commanded the respect and fealty of the Muslims under his command by his fair treatment of his friends as well as enemies.[9] Kafi Khan, the Mughal historian and Francois Bernier, a French traveler, spoke highly of his religious policy. He also brought converts like Netaji Palkar and Bajaji back into Hinduism. Shivaji's sentiments of inclusivity and tolerance of other religions can be seen in an admonishing letter to Aurangzeb, in which he wrote:
Verily, Islam and Hinduism are terms of contrast. They are used by the true Divine Painter for blending the colours and filling in the outlines. If it is a mosque, the call to prayer is chanted in remembrance of Him. If it is a temple, the bells are rung in yearning for Him alone.
[14]
He had many Muslims in his military and ministries.[12]:438 His most trusted general in all his campaigns was Haider Ali Kohari; Darya Sarang was chief of armoury; Ibrahim Khan and Daulat Khan were prominent in the navy; and Siddi Ibrahim was chief of artillery.[14][54] Shivaji had particular respect for the Sufi tradition of Islam. Shivaji used to pray at the mausoleum of the great Sufi Muslim saint Baba Sharifuddin. He also visited the abode of another great Sufi saint, Shaikh Yacub of the Konkan, and took his blessings. He called Hazrat Baba of Ratnagiri - "bahut thorwale bhau", meaning "great elder brother".[14] Thus, policy of inclusiveness of all sections of society in running the state also known as Maharashtra Dharma was founded by Shivaji.
Shivaji also promulgated other enlightened values, prohibiting slavery in his kingdom,[9] and applying a humane and liberal policy to the women of his state.[14]
Shivaji is noted for his strong religious and warrior code of ethics and exemplary character displayed during his long military career. He offered protection to houses of worship, non-combatants, women and children. He always showed respect, defended and protected places of worship of all denominations and religions.[14]
Shivaji was once offered as a war booty an extremely beautiful young lady, by an uninformed Maratha captain. She was the daughter-in-law of a defeated Muslim Amir (local ruler) of Kalyan, Maharashtra. Shivaji was reported to have told the lady that her beauty was mesmerizing and He told her to go back to her family in peace, unmolested and under his protection. His behaviour, was noted by those around him, to be always of the highest moral caliber. He clearly and unambiguously embodied the virtues and ideals of a true nobleman.[14]
He boldly risked his life, his treasure and his personal well being and that of his family, to openly challenge his immensely larger enemies to defend and achieve freedom and independence for his country. He did not spend any resources on projects designed for self-aggrandizement or vanity, instead he was propelled by his sense of dharma (sacred duty) to his people. The later Indian nationalists have hailed him as a role model for his heroism, selflessness, freedom, and courage. Shivaji earned a high level of admiration and respect from his followers and subjects. Even today, he is venerated in India and especially in the state of Maharashtra with awe and admiration and is viewed as a hero of epic proportions.
Swami Vivekanada considered Shivaji a hero and paid glowing tributes to his wisdom.[55] When Lokmanya Tilak organized a festival to mark the birthday celebrations of Shivaji, Vivekananda agreed to preside over the festival in Bengal in 1901.[56]
Shivaji died in April 1680, and his eldest son Sambhaji took power after being challenged by his stepmother Soyarabai. After the death of Shivaji, his widow Soyarabai Shirke started making plans with various ministers of the administration to replace Sambhaji with her son Raja Ram as the heir to the kingdom. On 21 April 1680, the ten-year old Raja Ram was installed in the throne. The news reached Sambhaji who was imprisoned in Panhala. On 27 April, he took possession of the fort after killing the commander and on 18 June, he acquired control of Raigarh. Sambhaji formally ascended the throne on 20 July, putting Soyarabai and Raja Ram in prison.[57][58]
Many foreign travellers who visited India during Shivaji Maharaj's time wrote about him.
- Abbe Carre was a French traveller who visited India around 1670; his account was published as Voyage des Indes Orientales mêlé de plusieurs histories curieuses at Paris in 1699. Some quotes:[59]
Hardly had he won a battle or taken to town in one end of the kingdom than he was at the other extremity causing havoc everywhere and surprising important places. To this quickness of movement he added, like
Julius Caesar, a clemency and bounty that won him the hearts of those his arms had worsted." "In his courage and rapidity he does not ill resemble the king of Sweden,
Gustavus Adolphus.
I forgot to mention that during pillage of Sourate, Seva-ji, the Holy Seva-ji! Respected the habitation of the reverend father Ambrose, the
Capuchin missionary. 'The Frankish Padres are good men', he said 'and shall not be attacked.' He spared also the house of a deceased Delale or Gentile broker, of the Dutch, because assured that he had been very charitable while alive.
- Warriors and statesmen in India, Sir E.Sullivan:[61]
Shivaji possessed every quality requisite for success in the disturbed age in which he lived: cautious and wily in council, he was fierce and daring in action; he possessed an endurance that made him remarkable even amongst his hardy subjects, and an energy and decision that would in any age raised him to distinction.
- Cosme da Guarda says in "Life of the Celebrated Shivaji":[62]
Such was the good treatment Shivaji accorded to people and such was the honesty with which he observed the capitulations that none looked upon him without a feeling of love and confidence. By his people he was exceedingly loved. Both in matters of reward and punishment he was so impartial that while he lived he made no exception for any person; no merit was left unrewarded, no offence went unpunished; and this he did with so much care and attention that he specially charged his governors to inform him in writing of the conduct of his soldiers, mentioning in particular those who had distinguished themselves, and he would at once order their promotion, either in rank or in pay, according to their merit. He was naturally loved by all men of valor and good conduct.
Shivaji is a source of inspiration for a number of artists, directors, actors, writers, shahirs (ballad composers), poets and orators.
- Raja Shivaji (Marathi), directed by Bhalaji Pendharkar and the main role was played by Marathi actor Chandrakant Mandare.
- Maratha tituka melawawa (Marathi)
- Gad ala pan sinh gela (Marathi) was a movie mainly about the Battle of Sinhgad Fort, in which Tanaji Malusare lost his life in order to win back the fort (Gad is Marathi word for a Fort). "Gad ala pan sinh gela" means "the Fort is won, but the Lion is dead", referring to the valliant Tanaji Malusare as 'the Lion' (Sinh).
- Me Shivajiraje Bhosale Boltoy (Marathi), a film with thoughts of Shivaji with respect to current social, political and cultural situation.
- Chandrahas, a 2007 Telugu Movie directed by Siva Sakthi Dutta, Krishna played the role of Shivaji. The movie is about the investigation of the sword 'Chandrahas' which was given to Shivaji by Goddess Durga.
- Raja Shivachhatrapati [marathi movie]
- Veer Shivaji [Hindi Serial on Colors TV]
- One of the all-time great actors in the Tamil film industry had a stage name "Sivaji" Ganesan - His outstanding portrayal of the character of Chhatrapati Shivaji in the stage play Shivaji Kanda Hindu Rajyam earned him the title "Sivaji". Sivaji Ganesan went on to act in more than 300 films & was hugely popular in Tamil Nadu for about 3 decades till the 1990's.
- Shivaji, a biography authored by Setu Madhavrao Pagdi.
- Shriman yogi, a novel written on Shivaji's life by Ranjit Desai.
- Shivaji The Great: English translation of Shriman Yogi, by Dr. V. D. Katamble.
- Shivchatraptiche Charitra (also known as Sabhasadachi Bakhar), the first biography of Shivaji written by Krishnaji Anant Sabhasad as per the order of Shivaji's younger son Rajaram.
- "Shakkarte Shivray" Volume 1&2 by Vijay Deshmuk.
- "Shivaji and his times" by Jadunath Sarkar.
- "Raja Shivchhatrapati" by Babasaheb Purandare
- "Shri Raja Shiv Chhatrapati" by Gajanan Bhaskar Mehendale, vols. 1 & 2 (In Marathi).
- "Shivaji: his life and times", by Gajanan Bhaskar Mehendale (In English).
- Raigadala Jevha Jaag Yete (When Raigad Awakes), by Marathi playwright [Vasant Kanetkar] based on the complex relationship between Shivaji and Sambhaji.
- Raja Shiv Chhatrapati - TV serial on Star Pravah, a Marathi channel of STAR India Network. The serial was launched in November 2008 and ran for more than 100 one-hour episodes, in which the role of Raja Shivaji is played by Dr. Amol Kolhe.
- Veer Shivaji - a Hindi TV series on Colors TV channel, the serial was launched from 2 September 2011. in this serial, the role of childhood Shivaji is played by Paras Arora after his leap Dr. Amol Kohle is playing the role.
- ^ Bhawan Singh Rana (1 January 2005). Chhatrapati Shivaji. Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd.. p. 18. ISBN 81-288-0826-5. http://books.google.com/?id=HsBPTc3hcekC.
- ^ Raṇajita Desāī; V. D. Katamble (2003). Shivaji the Great. Balwant Printers Pvt. Ltd.. p. 193. ISBN 81-902000-0-3. http://books.google.com/?id=N5mIVt_Zd-0C.
- ^ Official date accepted by the Government of Maharashtra, "Finally, single Shiv Jayanti". The Times of India (Pune). 4 February 2003. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/Finally-single-Shiv-Jayanti/articleshow/36498512.cms. Retrieved 27 January 2010.
- ^ Previously disputed, Bhawan Singh Rana (2005). Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. A.H.W. Sameer series. Diamond Pocket Books (P) Ltd.. p. 11. ISBN 978-81-288-0826-5.
- ^ a b c Pearson, M.N. (February 1976). "Shivaji and the Decline of the Mughal Empire". The Journal of Asian Studies (Association for Asian Studies) 35 (2): 221–235. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2053980. Retrieved 1 March 2012.
- ^ a b c d Vartak, Malavika (May 1999). "Shivaji Maharaj: Growth of a Symbol". Economic and Political Weekly (Economic and Political Weekly) 34 (19): 1126–1134. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4407933. Retrieved 1 March 2012.
- ^ http://empires.findthedata.org/q/64/2513/How-large-was-the-Maratha-Empire-at-its-greatest-extent
- ^ Jackson, William Joseph (2005). Vijayanagara voices: exploring South Indian history and Hindu literature. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.. pp. 38. ISBN 0-7546-3950-9, 9780754639503. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=PxvDNBc4qwUC&pg=PA38&dq=%22Hindavi+Swarajya%22#v=onepage&q=%22Hindavi%20Swarajya%22&f=false.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af Purandare, Babasaheb (August 2003). Raja Shivachhatrapati (Marathi: राजा शिवछत्रपती) (15 ed.). Pune: Purandare Prakashan.
- ^ a b Kamat, K. L.. "Short Bio: Maratha King Shivaji". Kamat's Potpourri. http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/maharashtra/shivaji.htm. Retrieved 19 November 2006.
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- ^ a b c d e H. S. Sardesai (2002). Shivaji, the great Maratha. Cosmo Publ.. p. 47. ISBN 978-81-7755-285-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=0QjwENC2V_IC&pg=PA47. Retrieved 6 March 2012.
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- ^ http://shivajitemple.blogspot.in/
- ^ "Finally, single Shiv Jayanti". The Times of India (Pune). 4 February 2003. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/pune/Finally-single-Shiv-Jayanti/articleshow/36498512.cms. Retrieved 27 January 2010.
- ^ Sen, Siba Pada (1973). Historians and historiography in modern India. Institute of Historical Studies. p. 106. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=sXJ02csFd5kC&lpg=PA110&vq=shivaji&pg=PA106#v=snippet&q=shivaji%20jodhpur&f=false. Retrieved 6 March 2012.
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- ^ Jayasree Mukherjee (1997). The Ramakrishna-Vivekananda movement impact on Indian society and politics (1893-1922): with special reference to Bengal. Firma KLM. ISBN 978-81-7102-057-7.
- ^ Mehta, Jashwant Lal. Advanced study in the history of modern India 1707-1813. p. 48.
- ^ "History-Adil Shahis, 1489-1686.". Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency. http://maharashtra.gov.in/pdf/gazeetter_reprint/Satara/histroy_musalmans.html#3. Retrieved 27 February 2012.
- ^ Shivaji, The great Maratha, Volume 2, H. S. Sardesai, Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd, 2002, ISBN 81-7755-286-4, ISBN 978-81-7755-286-7
- ^ The great Maratha, Volume 2, H. S. Sardesai, Genesis Publishing Pvt Ltd, 2002, ISBN 81-7755-286-4, ISBN 978-81-7755-286-7
- ^ The conquerors, warriors, and statesmen of India: an historical narrative of the principal events from the invasion Mahmoud of Ghizni to that of Nader Shah, Sir Edward Robert Sullivan, John Murray, 1866, the New York Public Library
- ^ Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bhāratīya Itihāsa Samiti, Ramesh Chandra Majumdar. The History and Culture of the Indian People: The Maratha supremacy. G. Allen & Unwin, 1951
- Shivaji at the Open Directory Project
- Shivaji and the Decline of the Mughal Empire by M. N. Pearson, The Journal of Asian Studies, February 1976.
- Shivaji -- Portrait of the King as Barbarian by Kedar Joshi, Chowk.com, January 5, 2006.
- Shivaji: Looking Beyond Prejudices by Saurav Basu, Boloji.com, May 3, 2009.
- The hijacking of Shivaji Maharaj by vested interests by François Gautier, Daily News and Analysis, November 23, 2011.
- The Complexities of Shivaji by Vijay Prashad
- Shivaji, 'The' Personality (Marathi PDF, 'shiva vyaktimatva' by Atul Nene
- Dasbodh
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