- published: 13 Aug 2009
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- author: HellwrathUK
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Bangladesh
Coordinates: 23°N 90°E / 23°N 90°E / 23; 90
Bangladesh (
i/ˈbɑːŋɡlədɛʃ/ or i/bæŋɡləˈdɛʃ/ (Anglicized pronunciation); Bengali: বাংলাদেশ), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh (Bengali: গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ Gônoprojatontri Bangladesh) is a sovereign state located in South Asia. It is bordered by India and Burma and by the Bay of Bengal to the south. The capital (and largest city) is Dhaka, located in central Bangladesh. The official state language is Bengali. The name Bangladesh means "Land of Bengal" or "Country of Bengal" the in the Bengali language, from Bangla "Bengal" and desh holding a dual meaning of "land" and "country" as English "country," German land, French pays, etc.
The borders of present-day Bangladesh were established with the partition of Bengal during the reign and demise of the British India. Its map was chartered by Sir Cyril Radcliffe during the creation of Pakistan and India in 1947, when the region became East Pakistan, part of the newly formed nation of Pakistan. Due to political exclusion and economic exploitation by the politically dominant West Pakistan, popular agitation grew against West Pakistan and led to the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, after the Bangladeshi Declaration of Independence on 26 March 1971. With the intervention of the Indian Army, the war came to an end on 16 December 1971 with the surrender of the Pakistan Army at Ramna Race Course.
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Berlin Wall
The Berlin Wall (German: Berliner Mauer) was a barrier constructed by the German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany) starting on 13 August 1961, that completely cut off West Berlin from surrounding East Germany and from East Berlin. The barrier included guard towers placed along large concrete walls, which circumscribed a wide area (later known as the "death strip") that contained anti-vehicle trenches, "fakir beds" and other defenses. The Eastern Bloc claimed that the wall was erected to protect its population from fascist elements conspiring to prevent the "will of the people" in building a socialist state in East Germany. In practice, the Wall served to prevent the massive emigration and defection that marked Germany and the communist Eastern Bloc during the post-World War II period.
The Berlin Wall was officially referred to as the "Anti-Fascist Protection Rampart" (German: Antifaschistischer Schutzwall) by GDR authorities, implying that neighbouring West Germany had not been fully de-Nazified. The West Berlin city government sometimes referred to it as the "Wall of Shame"—a term coined by mayor Willy Brandt—while condemning the Wall's restriction on freedom of movement. Along with the separate and much longer Inner German border (IGB) that demarcated the border between East and West Germany, both borders came to symbolize the "Iron Curtain" that separated Western Europe and the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War.
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British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1922 the British Empire held sway over about 458 million people, one-fifth of the world's population at the time, and covered more than 33,700,000 km2 (13,012,000 sq mi), almost a quarter of the Earth's total land area. As a result, its political, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was often said that "the sun never sets on the British Empire" because its span across the globe ensured that the sun was always shining on at least one of its numerous territories.
During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia. A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England (and then, following union between England and Scotland in 1707, Great Britain) the dominant colonial power in North America and India. The loss of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after a war of independence deprived Britain of some of its oldest and most populous colonies.
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Buckingham Palace
Buckingham Palace is the official London residence and office of the British monarch. Located in the City of Westminster, the palace is a setting for state occasions and royal hospitality. It has been a focus for the British people at times of national rejoicing and crisis.
Originally known as Buckingham House, the building which forms the core of today's palace was a large townhouse built for the Duke of Buckingham in 1705 on a site which had been in private ownership for at least 150 years. It was subsequently acquired by George III in 1761 as a private residence for Queen Charlotte, and known as "The Queen's House". During the 19th century it was enlarged, principally by architects John Nash and Edward Blore, forming three wings around a central courtyard. Buckingham Palace finally became the official royal palace of the British monarch on the accession of Queen Victoria in 1837. The last major structural additions were made in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including the East front which contains the well-known balcony on which the Royal Family traditionally congregate to greet crowds outside. However, the palace chapel was destroyed by a German bomb in World War II; the Queen's Gallery was built on the site and opened to the public in 1962 to exhibit works of art from the Royal Collection.
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Burma
Burma
i/ˈbɜrmə/ BUR-mə, also known as Myanmar i/ˌmjɑːnˈmɑr/ MYAHN--MAR, is a country in South Asia and Southeast Asia. It is bordered by India, Bangladesh, China, Laos and Thailand. One-third of Burma's total perimeter of 1,930 kilometres (1,200 mi) forms an uninterrupted coastline along the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. At 676,578 km2 (261,227 sq mi), it is the 40th largest country in the world and the second largest country in Southeast Asia. Burma is also the 24th most populous country in the world with over 60.28 million people.
Burma is home to some of the early civilizations of Southeast Asia including the Pyu and the Mon. In the 9th century, the Burmans of the Kingdom of Nanzhao, entered the upper Irrawaddy valley and, following the establishment of the Pagan Empire in the 1050s, the Burmese language and culture slowly became dominant in the country. During this period, Theravada Buddhism gradually became the predominant religion of the country. The Pagan Empire fell due to the Mongol invasions (1277–1301), and several warring states emerged. In the second half of the 16th century, the country was reunified by the Taungoo Dynasty which for a brief period was the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia. The early 19th century Konbaung Dynasty ruled over an area that included modern Burma as well as Manipur and Assam. The country was colonized by Britain following three Anglo-Burmese Wars (1824–1885).
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Ceylon
Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (i/ʃriː ˈlɑːŋkə/, /sriːˈlɑːŋkə/, or /sriːˈlæŋkə/;Sinhala: ශ්රී ලංකාව, Tamil: இலங்கை), is a country off the southern coast of the Indian subcontinent in South Asia. Known until 1972 as Ceylon (
/sɨˈlɒn/, /seɪˈlɒn/, or /siːˈlɒn/), Sri Lanka is an island surrounded by the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Mannar, the Palk Strait, and lies in the vicinity of India and the Maldives.
As a result of its location in the path of major sea routes, Sri Lanka is a strategic naval link between West Asia and South East Asia. It was an important stop on the ancient Silk Road. Sri Lanka has also been a center of the Buddhist religion and culture from ancient times, being the nation where the Buddhist teachings were first written down as well as the oldest continually Buddhist country. Sri Lanka boasts a diverse range of cultures, languages and religions. The Sinhalese people form the majority of the population; Tamils, who are concentrated in the north and east of the island, form the largest ethnic minority. Other communities include Moors, Burghers, Kaffirs, Malays and the aboriginal Vedda people.
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Downing Street
Downing Street in London, England has for over two hundred years housed the official residences of two of the most senior British cabinet ministers: the First Lord of the Treasury, an office now synonymous with that of Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, and the Second Lord of the Treasury, an office held by the Chancellor of the Exchequer. The Prime Minister's official residence is 10 Downing Street; the Chancellor's official residence is next door at Number 11. The Government's Chief Whip has an official residence at Number 9.
Downing Street is located in Whitehall in central London, a few minutes' walk from the Houses of Parliament and a little farther from Buckingham Palace. The street was built in the 1680s by Sir George Downing (1632–1689) on the site of a mansion called Hampden House. The houses on the west side of the street were demolished in the nineteenth century to make way for government offices, now occupied by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office.
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England
Englandi/ˈɪŋɡlənd/ is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, while the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separate it from continental Europe. Most of England comprises the central and southern part of the island of Great Britain in the North Atlantic. The country also includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly and the Isle of Wight.
The area now called England was first inhabited by modern humans during the Upper Palaeolithic period, but it takes its name from the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes who settled during the 5th and 6th centuries. England became a unified state in AD 927, and since the Age of Discovery, which began during the 15th century, has had a significant cultural and legal impact on the wider world. The English language, the Anglican Church, and English law—the basis for the common law legal systems of many other countries around the world—developed in England, and the country's parliamentary system of government has been widely adopted by other nations. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the world's first industrialised nation. England's Royal Society laid the foundations of modern experimental science.
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France
France (Englishi/ˈfræns/ FRANSS or /ˈfrɑːns/ FRAHNSS; French: [fʁɑ̃s] (
listen)), officially the French Republic (French: République française [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is often referred to as l’Hexagone ("The Hexagon") because of the geometric shape of its territory. It is the largest western European country and it possesses the second-largest exclusive economic zone in the world, covering 11,035,000 km2 (4,260,000 sq mi), just behind that of the United States (11,351,000 km2 / 4,383,000 sq mi).
Over the past 500 years, France has been a major power with strong cultural, economic, military and political influence in Europe and around the world. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonised great parts of North America and Southeast Asia; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built the second largest colonial empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Caribbean and Pacific Islands.
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Gestapo
The Gestapo (German pronunciation: [ɡeˈstaːpo, ɡəˈʃtaːpo] ( listen); abbreviation of Geheime Staatspolizei, "Secret State Police") was the official secret police of Nazi Germany. Beginning on 20 April 1934, it was under the administration of the SS leader Heinrich Himmler in his position as Chief of German Police (Chef der Deutschen Polizei). From September 1939 forward it was administered by the Reichssicherheitshauptamt (RSHA) ("Reich Main Security Office") and was considered a sister organization of the Sicherheitsdienst (SD) ("Security Service") and also a suboffice of the Sicherheitspolizei (SiPo) ("Security Police").
As part of the deal in which Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany, Hermann Göring—future commander of the Luftwaffe and an influential Nazi Party official—was named Interior Minister of Prussia. This gave him command of the largest police force in Germany. Soon afterward, Göring detached the political and intelligence sections from the police and filled their ranks with Nazis. On 26 April 1933, Göring merged the two units as the Gestapo. He originally wanted to name it the Secret Police Office (German: Geheimes Polizeiamt), but discovered the German initials "GPA" would be too similar to the Soviet GPU.
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Grantham
Coordinates: 52°55′05″N 0°38′17″W / 52.918°N 0.638°W / 52.918; -0.638
Grantham is a market town within the South Kesteven district of Lincolnshire, England. It bestrides the London to Edinburgh East Coast Main Line railway and the River Witham, and lies close to the A1 main north-south road.
Grantham is located approximately 26 miles (42 km) south of the city of Lincoln, and approximately 24 miles (39 km) east of the city of Nottingham. The resident population at the 2001 census was 34,592 in around 18,000 households, excluding the adjacent village of Great Gonerby. With the housing estates in Londonthorpe and Harrowby Without (around a population of 4,500), this figure would be around 42,000.[says who?]
The town is best known as the birthplace of former prime minister Margaret Thatcher, and the place where Isaac Newton went to school. It is close to an ancient Roman road, and was the scene of Oliver Cromwell's first advantage over Royalists during the English Civil War at Gonerby Moor.[citation needed] Grantham is also notable for having the first female police officers in the United Kingdom, in 1914, and producing the first running diesel engine in 1892, and the UK's first tractor in 1896.
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Hall
In architecture, a hall is fundamentally a relatively large space enclosed by a roof and walls. In the Iron Age, a mead hall was such a simple building and was the residence of a lord and his retainers. Later, rooms were partitioned from it, so that today the hall of a house is the space inside the front door through which the rooms are reached....
This:
On the same principle:
Similarly:
Following a line of similar development:
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House of Lords
The House of Lords is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster.
The House of Lords is independent from, and complements the work of, the House of Commons – they share responsibility for making laws and checking government action. Bills can be introduced into either the House of Lords or the House of Commons and members of the Lords may also take on roles as Government Ministers.
Unlike the House of Commons, most new members of the House of Lords are appointed. Membership of the House of Lords is made up of Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal. There are currently 26 Lords Spiritual, who sit in the Lords by virtue of their ecclesiastical role in the established Church of England. The Lords Temporal make up the rest of the membership; of these, the majority are life peers who are appointed by the Monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, or on the advice of the House of Lords Appointments Commission.
Membership was once a right of birth to hereditary peers but, following a series of reforms, only 92 members (as of 1 July 2011 (2011 -07-01)[update]) sitting by virtue of a hereditary peerage remain. The number of members is not fixed; as of 1 April 2012 (2012 -04-01)[update] the House of Lords has 786 members (plus 21 who are on leave of absence or otherwise disqualified from sitting), as against the fixed 650-seat membership of the House of Commons.
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India
India (i/ˈɪndiə/), officially the Republic of India (Bhārat Gaṇarājya), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the south-west, and the Bay of Bengal on the south-east, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west;China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Burma and Bangladesh to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; in addition, India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia.
Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history. Four of the world's major religions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism—originated here, whereas Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived in the 1st millennium CE and also helped shape the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by and brought under the administration of the British East India Company from the early 18th century and administered directly by the United Kingdom from the mid-19th century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by non-violent resistance led by Mahatma Gandhi.
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Iraq
Iraq (/ɪˈræk/ ori/ɪˈrɑːk/; Arabic: العراق al-‘Irāq); officially the Republic of Iraq (Arabic: 
جمهورية العراق (help·info) Jumhūriyyat al-‘Irāq), is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert.
Iraq borders Syria to the northwest, Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, Jordan to the southwest and Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to the south. Iraq has a narrow section of coastline measuring 58 km (36 mi) on the northern Persian Gulf. The capital city, Baghdad is in the center-east of the country.
Two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run through the center of Iraq, flowing from northwest to southeast. These provide Iraq with agriculturally capable land and contrast with the steppe and desert landscape that covers most of Western Asia.
Historically, Iraq was the center of the Abbasid Arabic Islamic Empire. Iraq has been known to the west by the Greek toponym 'Mesopotamia' (Land between the rivers) and has been home to continuous successive civilizations since the 6th millennium BC. The region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is often referred to as the cradle of civilization and the birthplace of writing, law and the wheel. At different periods in its history, Iraq was the center of the indigenous Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Abbasid empires. It was also part of the Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires, and under British control as a League of Nations mandate.
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Israel
Coordinates: 31°N 35°E / 31°N 35°E / 31; 35
Israel, officially the State of Israel ( /ˈɪzriːəl/ or /ˈɪzreɪəl/; Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, Medīnat Yisrā'el, IPA: [me̞diˈnät jisʁäˈʔe̞l] ( listen); Arabic: دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل, Dawlat Isrāʼīl, IPA: [dawlat ʔisraːˈʔiːl]), is a parliamentary republic in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank in the east, Egypt and the Gaza Strip on the southwest, and the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea to the south, and it contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area. Israel is defined as a Jewish and Democratic State in its Basic Laws and is the world's only Jewish-majority state.
Following the adoption of a resolution by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 29 November 1947 recommending the adoption and implementation of the United Nations plan to partition Palestine, on 14 May 1948 David Ben-Gurion, the Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization and president of the Jewish Agency for Palestine, declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel, a state independent from the British Mandate for Palestine. Neighboring Arab states invaded the next day in support of the Palestinian Arabs. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied the West Bank, Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights. Portions of these territories, including east Jerusalem, have been annexed by Israel, but the border with the neighboring West Bank has not yet been permanently defined.[neutrality is disputed] Israel has signed peace treaties with Egypt and Jordan, but efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have so far not resulted in peace.
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Jordan
Jordan ( /ˈdʒɔr.dən/;Arabic: اَلأُرْدُنّ, Al-'Urdunn), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (Arabic: اَلمَمْلَكَة اَلأُرْدُنِيَّة اَلهَاشِمِيَّة), Al-Mamlakah Al-Urdaniyyah Al-Hashimiyyah) is a kingdom on the East Bank of the River Jordan. The country borders Saudi Arabia to the east and south-east, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north and the West Bank and Israel to the west, sharing control of the Dead Sea with the latter. Jordan's only port is at its south-western tip, at the Gulf of Aqaba, which is shared with Israel, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia. Over half of Jordan is covered by the Arabian Desert. However, the western part of Jordan is arable land and forests. Jordan is part of the Fertile Crescent. The capital city is Amman. According to the CIA World Factbook, Jordan has the second highest life expectancy in the Middle East, after Israel. The average life expectancy is one position behind the United Kingdom, although the age remains exactly the same (80.05 years).
The precursor to modern Jordan was founded in 1921 as the Hashemite Emirate, and it was recognized by the League of Nations as a state under the British mandate in 1922 known as The Emirate of Transjordan. In 1946, Jordan became an independent sovereign state officially known as the Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan. After capturing the West Bank area of Cisjordan during the 1948–49 war with Israel, Abdullah I took the title King of Jordan and Palestine, and he officially changed the country's name to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in April 1949.
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Kent
Kent /ˈkɛnt/ is a county in South East England, and one of the home counties. It borders East Sussex, Surrey and Greater London and has a defined boundary with Essex in the middle of the Thames Estuary. The ceremonial county boundaries of Kent include the shire county of Kent and the unitary borough of Medway. Kent has a nominal border with France halfway through the Channel Tunnel. Maidstone is its county town and historically Rochester and Canterbury have been accorded city status, though only the latter still holds it.
Kent's location between London and the continental Europe has led to its being in the front line of several conflicts, including the Battle of Britain during World War II. East Kent was known as Hell Fire Corner during the conflict. England has relied on the county's ports to provide warships through much of the past 800 years; the Cinque Ports in the 12th–14th centuries and Chatham Dockyard in the 16th–20th centuries were of particular importance to the country's security. France can be seen clearly in fine weather from Folkestone, and the iconic White Cliffs of Dover.
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Kenya
Kenya ( /ˈkɛnjə/ or /ˈkiːnjə/), officially the Republic of Kenya, is a country in East Africa that lies on the equator. With the Indian Ocean to its south-east, it is bordered by Tanzania to the south, Uganda to the west, South Sudan to the north-west, Ethiopia to the north and Somalia to the north-east. Kenya has a land area of 580,000 km2 and a population of nearly 41 million, representing 42 different peoples and cultures. The country is named after Mount Kenya, a significant landmark and second among Africa's highest mountain peaks. Kenya's capital and largest city is Nairobi.
Kenya has a warm and humid climate along its coastline on the Indian Ocean which changes to wildlife-rich savannah grasslands moving inland towards the capital Nairobi. Nairobi has a cool climate that gets colder approaching Mount Kenya, which has three permanently snow-capped peaks. The warm and humid tropical climate reappears further inland towards lake Victoria, before giving way to temperate forested and hilly areas in the western region. The North Eastern regions along the border with Somalia and Ethiopia are arid and semi-arid areas with near-desert landscapes. Lake Victoria, the world's second largest fresh-water lake (after Lake Superior in the US and Canada) and the world's largest tropical lake, is situated to the southwest and is shared with Uganda and Tanzania. Kenya is famous for its safaris and diverse world-famous wildlife reserves such as Tsavo National Park, the Maasai Mara, Nakuru National Park, and Aberdares National Park.
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Limehouse
Coordinates: 51°30′57″N 0°01′54″W / 51.5158°N 0.0318°W / 51.5158; -0.0318
Limehouse is a place in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. It is on the northern bank of the River Thames opposite Rotherhithe and between Ratcliff to the west and Millwall to the east.
Limehouse stretches from Limehouse Basin in the west to the edge of the former Chinatown in Pennyfields in the east; and from the Thames in the south to the Victory Bridge at the junction of Ben Jonson Road and Rhodeswell Road in the north.
The area gives its name to Limehouse Reach, a section of the Thames which runs from Shadwell, through Ratcliff and then Limehouse and on to Millwall.
The name relates to the local lime kilns or, more precisely, lime oast located by the river and operated by the large potteries that served shipping in the London Docks. The name is from Old English lim-ast "lime-oast". The earliest reference to Les Lymhostes occurs in 1356.
From its foundation, Limehouse, like neighbouring Wapping, has enjoyed better links with the river than the land, the land route being across a marsh. Limehouse became a significant port in late medieval times, with extensive docks and wharves. Although most cargoes were discharged in the Pool of London before the establishment of the docks, industries such as shipbuilding, ship chandlering and rope making were established in Limehouse.
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Limehouse Library
Limehouse Public Library in Limehouse, London was first proposed for construction in 1888, but the required finances could not be raised until 1900 when J Passmore Edwards was approached for assistance. He subscribed a sum of £5000, and he subsequently laid the foundation stone on October 19 of that year. The library was opened to the public in November 1901 by The Mayor of Stepney.
More recently usage of the Grade II listed building fell, and it eventually closed in 2003. As of December 2006 the local council were in the process of selling the building. It is currently boarded up to prevent vandalism.
Outside formerly stood a statue, erected in 1988, of Clement Attlee, who was Labour Member of Parliament for Limehouse from 1922 to 1950, and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951. In April 2011 the statue was unveiled in its new position less than a mile away at Queen Mary University of London, in Mile End.
Coordinates: 51°30′44.13″N 0°2′00.74″W / 51.5122583°N 0.0335389°W / 51.5122583; -0.0335389
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London
Londoni/ˈlʌndən/ is the capital city of England and the United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its founding by the Romans, who named it Londinium. London's ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its square-mile mediaeval boundaries. Since at least the 19th century, the name London has also referred to the metropolis developed around this core. The bulk of this conurbation forms the London region and the Greater London administrative area, governed by the elected Mayor of London and the London Assembly.
London is a leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism and transport all contributing to its prominence. It is the world's leading financial centre alongside New York City and has the fifth-largest city GDP in the world (and the largest in Europe). London has been described as a world cultural capital. It was the world's most visited city during 2011 and London Heathrow is the world's busiest airport by number of international passengers. London's 43 universities form the largest concentration of higher education in Europe. In 2012 London will become the first city to host the modern Summer Olympic Games three times.
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Malta
Maltai/ˈmɒltə/, officially known as the Republic of Malta (Maltese: Repubblika ta' Malta), is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, 80 km (50 mi) south of Sicily, 284 km (176 mi) east of Tunisia and 333 km (207 mi) north of Libya, with Gibraltar 1,755 km (1,091 mi) to the west and Alexandria 1,508 km (937 mi) to the east. Malta covers just over 316 km2 (122 sq mi) in land area, making it one of the world's smallest states. It is also one of the most densely populated countries worldwide. The de facto capital city of Malta is Valletta; the largest town, Birkirkara. The main island comprises many towns, which together form one Larger Urban Zone (LUZ) with a population of 368,250 according to Eurostat. The country has two official languages, Maltese (constitutionally the national language) and English.
Throughout history, Malta's location has given it great strategic importance, and a succession of powers including the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Normans, Aragonese, Habsburg Spain, Knights of St John, French and the British ruled the islands. Malta gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1964 and became a republic in 1974, whilst retaining membership in the Commonwealth of Nations. Malta was admitted to the United Nations in 1964 and to the European Union in 2004. Malta is also party to the Schengen Agreement and in 2008 it became part of the eurozone.
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NATO
Coordinates: 50°52′34.16″N 4°25′19.24″E / 50.8761556°N 4.4220111°E / 50.8761556; 4.4220111
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization or NATO ( /ˈneɪtoʊ/ NAY-toh; French: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique Nord (OTAN)), also called the (North) Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. NATO's headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium, one of the 28 member states across North America and Europe, the newest of which, Albania and Croatia, joined in April 2009. An additional 22 countries participate in NATO's Partnership for Peace, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programs. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the world's defence spending.
For its first few years, NATO was not much more than a political association. However, the Korean War galvanized the member states, and an integrated military structure was built up under the direction of two U.S. supreme commanders. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, which formed in 1955. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the organization's goal was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down." Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defence against a prospective Soviet invasion—doubts that led to the development of the independent French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of the French from NATO's military structure in 1966.
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Nazi Germany
The Third Reich, also Nazi Germany, is the common name for Germany when it was a totalitarian state ruled by Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP). On 30 January 1933 Hitler became chancellor of Germany, quickly eliminating all opposition to rule as sole leader. The state idolized Hitler as its Führer ("leader"), centralizing all power in his hands. Historians have emphasized the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. Kessel writes, "Overwhelmingly...Germans speak with mystification of Hitler's 'hypnotic' appeal..." Under the "leader principle", the Führer's word was above all other laws. Top officials reported to Hitler and followed his policies, but they had considerable autonomy. The government was not a coordinated, cooperating body, but rather a collection of factions struggling to amass power and curry favor with the Führer. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazi government restored prosperity and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending and a mixed economy of free-market and central-planning practices. Extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of the Autobahns. The return to prosperity gave the regime enormous popularity; the suppression of all opposition made Hitler's rule mostly unchallenged.
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Operation Hurricane
Operation Hurricane was the test of the first British atomic device on 3 October 1952. A plutonium implosion device was detonated in the lagoon between the Montebello Islands, Western Australia.
The weapon was a close copy of the Fat Man (Nagasaki) weapon, although the design was modified to use a levitated pit. This increased the power of the bomb, but was actually done as a safety measure. There were concerns that without the gap between the tamper and the pit, a criticality accident could occur. The bomb used plutonium produced mainly at Windscale (now Sellafield) in Cumbria with a low Pu-240 content since hurried production led to short irradiation times. However, Windscale could not quite meet the 1 August 1952 deadline for manufacturing the inner core and the device also used some Canadian-supplied plutonium.
To test the effects of a ship-smuggled bomb (a threat of great concern to the British at the time), Hurricane was exploded inside the hull of HMS Plym (a 1,370-ton River class frigate) which was anchored in 12 m of water 350 m off Trimouille Island. The explosion occurred 2.7 m below the water line, and left a saucer-shaped crater on the seabed 6 m deep and 300 m across.
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Pakistan
Pakistan (i/ˈpækɨstæn/ or i/pɑːkiˈstɑːn/; Urdu: پاکستان) (Urdu pronunciation: [paːkɪˈst̪aːn] (
listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (Urdu: اسلامی جمہوریۂ پاکستان), is a sovereign country in South Asia. It sits at the crossroads of the strategically important regions of South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East. It has a 1,046-kilometre (650 mi) coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by India to the east, Afghanistan to the west and north, Iran to the southwest and China in the far northeast. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistan's narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, and it shares a marine border with Oman.
The territory of modern Pakistan was the site of several ancient cultures, including the Neolithic Mehrgarh and the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation, and has undergone invasions or settlements by Hindu, Persian, Indo-Greek, Islamic, Turco-Mongol, Afghan and Sikh cultures. Thus the area has been ruled by numerous empires and dynasties, including the Indian Mauryan Empire, the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the Arab Umayyad Caliphate, the Mongol Empire, the Mughal Empire, the Durrani Empire, the Sikh Empire and the British Empire. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and India's struggle for independence, Pakistan was created in 1947 as an independent nation for Muslims from the regions in the east and west of India where there was a Muslim majority. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a new constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic. A civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh.
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Poznań 1956 protests
The Poznań 1956 protests, also known as Poznań 1956 uprising or Poznań June (Polish: Poznański Czerwiec), were the first of several massive protests of the Polish people against the communist government of the People's Republic of Poland. Demonstrations by workers demanding better conditions began on June 28, 1956, at Poznań's Cegielski Factories and were met with violent repression.
A crowd of approximately 100,000 gathered in the city center near the UB secret police building. About 400 tanks and 10,000 soldiers of Ludowe Wojsko Polskie and the Internal Security Corps under Polish-Soviet general Stanislav Poplavsky were ordered to suppress the demonstration and during the pacification fired at the protesting civilians.
The death toll was placed between 57 and over a hundred people, including a 13-year-old boy, Romek Strzałkowski. Hundreds of people sustained injuries. Nonetheless the Poznań protests were an important milestone on the way to the installation of a less Soviet-controlled government in Poland in October.
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Putney
Coordinates: 51°27′54″N 0°13′16″W / 51.4649°N 0.2211°W / 51.4649; -0.2211
Putney is a district in south-west London, England, located in the London Borough of Wandsworth. It is situated 5.1 miles (8.2 km) south-west of Charing Cross. The area is identified in the London Plan as one of 35 major centres in Greater London.
Putney was an ancient parish in the Brixton hundred of the county of Surrey. In 1855 the parish was included in the area of responsibility of the Metropolitan Board of Works and was grouped into the Wandsworth District. In 1889 the area was removed from Surrey and became part of the County of London. The Wandsworth District became the Metropolitan Borough of Wandsworth in 1900. Since 1965 Putney has formed part of the London Borough of Wandsworth in Greater London.
Putney appears in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Putelei. It was noted that it was not a manor, but obtained 20 shillings from the ferry or market toll at Putney belonging to Mortlake.
The ferry was mentioned in the household accounts of Edward I (1272–1307): Robert the Ferryman of Putney and other sailors received 3/6d for carrying a great part of the royal family across the Thames and also for taking the king and his family to Westminster.
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Somerset
The ceremonial and non-metropolitan county of Somerset (i/ˈsʌmərsɛt/ or /ˈsʌmərsɨt/) in South West England borders Bristol and Gloucestershire to the north, Wiltshire to the east, Dorset to the south-east, and Devon to the south-west. It is partly bounded to the north and west by the Bristol Channel and the estuary of the River Severn. Its traditional northern border is the River Avon, but the administrative boundary has crept southwards with the creation and expansion of the City of Bristol, and latterly the county of Avon and its successor unitary authorities to the north. Somerset's county town, Taunton, is in the south.
Somerset is a rural county of rolling hills such as the Blackdown Hills, Mendip Hills, Quantock Hills and Exmoor National Park, and large flat expanses of land including the Somerset Levels. There is evidence of human occupation from Palaeolithic times, and of subsequent settlement in the Roman and Anglo-Saxon periods. The county played a significant part in the consolidation of power and rise of King Alfred the Great, and later in the English Civil War and the Monmouth Rebellion.
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Southport
Coordinates: 53°38′43″N 3°00′30″W / 53.6454°N 3.0083°W / 53.6454; -3.0083
Southport ( /ˈsaʊθpɔrt/) is a seaside town in the Metropolitan Borough of Sefton in Merseyside, England. During the 2001 census Southport was recorded as having a population of 90,336, making it the eleventh most populous settlement in North West England. The endonym for people from Southport is "Sandgrounder".
Southport lies on the Irish Sea coast of North West England and is fringed to the north by the Ribble estuary. The town is situated 16.5 miles (26.6 km) to the north of the city of Liverpool and 14.8 miles (23.8 km) southwest of the city of Preston.
Historically a part of Lancashire, the town in its present form was founded in 1792 when a hotel was built at what now is the south end of Lord Street. At that time the area was sparsely populated and was dominated by sand dunes. During the turn of the 19th century the area became popular with tourists due to the easy access from the nearby Leeds and Liverpool Canal and the town quickly grew. The rapid growth of Southport largely coincided with the Industrial Revolution and the Victorian era. Town attractions include Southport Pier with its Southport Pier Tramway, the second longest seaside pleasure pier in the British Isles, and Lord Street, an elegant tree-lined shopping street once home of Napoleon III of France.
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Soviet Union
The Soviet Union (Russian: Советский Союз, tr. Sovetsky Soyuz), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR; Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik; IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲetskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪˈstʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪsˈpublʲɪk] ( listen); abbreviated СССР, SSSR), was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991.
The Soviet Union was a single-party state ruled by the Communist Party from its foundation until 1990. A union of 15 subnational Soviet republics, the Soviet state was structured under a highly centralized government and economy.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 caused the downfall of the Russian Empire. Following the Russian Revolution, there was a struggle for power between the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin, and the anti-communist White movement. In December 1922, the Bolsheviks won the civil war, and the Soviet Union was formed with the merger of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.
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Spain
Spain (i/ˈspeɪn/ SPAYN; Spanish: España, pronounced: [esˈpaɲa] ( listen)), officially the Kingdom of Spain (Spanish: Reino de España), is a sovereign state and a member of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar; to the north and north east by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the northwest and west by the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal.
Spanish territory also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean off the African coast, and two autonomous cities in North Africa, Ceuta and Melilla, that border Morocco. Furthermore, the town of Llívia is a Spanish exclave situated inside French territory. With an area of 504,030 square kilometres (194,610 sq mi), it is the second largest country in Western Europe and the European Union after France, and the fourth largest country in Europe after Russia, Ukraine and France.
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Stepney
Coordinates: 51°30′55″N 0°02′46″W / 51.5152°N 0.0462°W / 51.5152; -0.0462
Stepney is a district of the London Borough of Tower Hamlets in London's East End that grew out of a medieval village around St Dunstan's church and the 15th century ribbon development of Mile End Road. The area built up rapidly in the 19th century, mainly to accommodate immigrant workers and displaced London poor, and developed a reputation for poverty, overcrowding, violence and political dissent. It was severely damaged during the Blitz, with over a third of housing totally destroyed; and then, in the 1960s, slum clearance and development replaced most residential streets with tower blocks and modern housing estates. Some Georgian architecture and Victorian era terraced housing survive in patches: for example Arbour Square, the eastern side of Stepney Green, and the streets around Matlock Street.
The area has not yet experienced the levels of gentrification seen in nearby Bow, Wapping and Limehouse but some redevelopment has taken place. The former Arbour Square Police Station and the East End Mission building are also being redeveloped.
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Suvla Bay
Suvla is a bay on the Aegean coast of the Gallipoli peninsula in European Turkey, south of the Gulf of Saros.
On August 6, 1915, it was the site for the Landing at Suvla Bay by the British IX Corps as part of the August Offensive during the Battle of Gallipoli. The landing and others at various points along the peninsula were designed to capture the peninsula from Turkish troops defending it under German direction, and to open the Dardanelles Straits to British warships — thus facilitating a planned naval attack on Constantinople (Istanbul). The Gallipoli campaign ended in failure and high casualties for the British side, which included numbers of Australians, New Zealanders and Newfoundlanders.
Suvla is mentioned in the classic Irish song "The Foggy Dew", second verse: "It was better to die 'neath an Irish sky than at Suvla or Sedd el Bahr."
Suvla Bay also features in "And the Band Played Waltzing Matilda", the oft-covered song by Eric Bogle.
Suvla is also mentioned in the song "The Connaught Rangers": "At Suvla and at Sud el Bar, we fought your every bloody war..."
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Tividale
Coordinates: 52°30′45″N 2°03′11″W / 52.51238°N 2.05300°W / 52.51238; -2.05300
Tividale is a village in Sandwell, West Midlands.
The village was in the parish of St Michael named after the church built there. It was created in 1878 as an extension of the town of Tipton in the county of Staffordshire, England. It was originally set around the main Dudley to Oldbury road, with several hundred terraced houses with shop fronts on the main road, as well as many more on the side streets running off.
Tividale began to expand during the 1930s and was developed beyond Tipton's borders into Dudley, namely with the Tividale Hall Estate (private) and the Grace Mary Estate (council). After the Second World War, further housing developments, mostly by the local authority, saw these two housing estates effectively merged.
Tividale Tram workshops opened along the main Tividale Road (a tram route) in 1907, and operated until 1930. The tramway closed in 1939, as trams were phased out in favour of motor buses.
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Turkey
Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye), known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( Türkiye Cumhuriyeti (help·info)), is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia (mostly in the Anatolian peninsula) and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe. Turkey is bordered by eight countries: Bulgaria to the northwest; Greece to the west; Georgia to the northeast; Armenia, Azerbaijan (the exclave of Nakhchivan) and Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria to the southeast. The Mediterranean Sea and Cyprus are to the south; the Aegean Sea is to the west; and the Black Sea is to the north. The Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles (which together form the Turkish Straits) demarcate the boundary between East Thrace and Anatolia; they also separate Europe and Asia.
Turkey is one of the six independent Turkic states. The vast majority of the population are Muslims. The country's official language is Turkish, whereas Kurdish and Zazaki languages are spoken by Kurds and Zazas, who constitute 18% of the population.
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UK
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a sovereign state located off the north-western coast of continental Europe. The country includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea.
The United Kingdom is a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system, with its seat of government in the capital city of London. It is a country in its own right and consists of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There are three devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in Belfast, Edinburgh and Cardiff, the capitals of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Associated with the UK, but not constitutionally part of it, are three Crown Dependencies. The United Kingdom has fourteen overseas territories. These are remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in 1922, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's land surface and was the largest empire in history. British influence can still be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former territories.
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United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a sovereign state located off the north-western coast of continental Europe. The country includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea.
The United Kingdom is a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system, with its seat of government in the capital city of London. It is a country in its own right and consists of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There are three devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in Belfast, Edinburgh and Cardiff, the capitals of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Associated with the UK, but not constitutionally part of it, are three Crown Dependencies. The United Kingdom has fourteen overseas territories. These are remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in 1922, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's land surface and was the largest empire in history. British influence can still be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former territories.
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University of Oxford
Coordinates: 51°45′40″N 1°15′12″W / 51.7611°N 1.2534°W / 51.7611; -1.2534
The University of Oxford (informally Oxford University or Oxford) is a university located in Oxford, United Kingdom. It is the second-oldest surviving university in the world and the oldest in the English-speaking world. Although its exact date of foundation is unclear, there is evidence of teaching as far back as 1096. The University grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris. In post-nominals, the University of Oxford was historically abbreviated as Oxon. (from the Latin Oxoniensis), although Oxf is now used in official university publications.
After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge, where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient English universities have many common features and are often jointly referred to as Oxbridge. In addition to their cultural and practical associations, as a historic part of British society, they have a long history of rivalry with each other.
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USS Pueblo (AGER-2)
USS Pueblo (AGER-2) is an American ELINT and SIGINTBanner-class technical research ship (Navy intelligence) which was boarded and captured by North Korean forces on 23 January 1968, in what is known as the Pueblo incident or alternatively as the Pueblo crisis or the Pueblo affair. Occurring less than a week after President Lyndon B. Johnson's State of the Union Address and only weeks before the Tet Offensive, it was a major incident in the Cold War.
North Korea stated that it strayed into their territorial waters, but the United States maintains that the vessel was in international waters at the time of the incident.
Pueblo, still held by North Korea today, officially remains a commissioned vessel of the United States Navy. It is currently moored along the Taedong River in Pyongyang, where it is used as a museum ship. It is the only ship of the U.S. Navy currently being held captive.
The ship was launched at the Kewaunee Shipbuilding and Engineering Company in Kewaunee, Wisconsin, on 16 April 1944, as United States Army Freight and Passenger (FP) FP-344. The Army later redesignated the FP vessels as Freight and Supply changing the designation to FS-344. The ship, commissioned at New Orleans on 7 April 1945, served as a Coast Guard manned Army vessel used for training civilians for the Army. Her first commanding officer was LT J. R. Choate, USCGR, succeeded by LTJG Marvin B. Barker, USCGR, on 12 September 1945.
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Westminster Abbey
The Collegiate Church of St Peter at Westminster, popularly known as Westminster Abbey, is a large, mainly Gothic church, in the City of Westminster, London, United Kingdom, located just to the west of the Palace of Westminster. It is the traditional place of coronation and burial site for English, later British and later still (and currently) monarchs of the Commonwealth realms. The abbey is a Royal Peculiar and briefly held the status of a cathedral from 1540 to 1550.
Westminster Abbey is a collegiate church governed by the Dean and Chapter of Westminster, as established by Royal charter of Queen Elizabeth I in 1560, which created it as the Collegiate Church of St Peter Westminster and a Royal Peculiar under the personal jurisdiction of the Sovereign. The members of the Chapter are the Dean and four residentiary canons, assisted by the Receiver General and Chapter Clerk. One of the canons is also Rector of St Margaret's Church, Westminster, and often holds also the post of Chaplain to the Speaker of the House of Commons. In addition to the Dean and canons, there are at present two full-time minor canons, one precentor, the other succentor. The office of Priest Vicar was created in the 1970s for those who assist the minor canons. Together with the clergy and Receiver General and Chapter Clerk, various lay officers constitute the college, including the Organist and Master of the Choristers, the Registrar, the Auditor, the Legal Secretary, the Surveyor of the Fabric, the Head Master of the Choir School, the Keeper of the Muniments and the Clerk of the Works, as well as 12 lay vicars, 10 choristers and the High Steward and High Bailiff. There are also 40 Queen's Scholars who are pupils at Westminster School (the School has its own Governing Body). Those who are most directly concerned with liturgical and ceremonial matters are the two minor canons and the organist and Master of the Choristers.
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Westminster Hospital
Westminster Hospital was a hospital in London, England, founded in 1719. In 1834 a medical school attached to the hospital was formally founded.
Westminster Hospital moved from Marsham Street to become Chelsea and Westminster Hospital at the old St Stephen's Hospital site in 1994.
The Westminster Hospital was established in 1719 as a charitable society "for relieving the sick and needy at the Public Infirmary in Westminster", and promoted by Mr Henry Hoare (aka Good Henry (1718-1725), son of Sir Richard Hoare and Partner in C. Hoare & Co) and associates. The hospital was rebuilt in 1832 with help from Charles Hoare (great-grandson of 'Good' Henry Hoare). It was the first subscription hospital erected in London, and was incorporated in 1836.
In 1720, a house was taken for the purpose of an infirmary in Petty France; from which, in 1724, the institution was removed to Chapel Street, and some time after to James Street. A new and spacious hospital building was completed and opened in 1834, of an embattled quasi-Gothic character, erected by Messrs. Inwood. The hospital was situated by the Broad Sanctuary and the northern side of the nave of Westminster Abbey, between the Sessions House and Victoria Street, and accommodated about 200 in-patients, and the total number of patients relieved annually, in an 1878 account, is about 20,000. According to the same 1878 description, "Patients are admitted by order from a governor, except in cases of accident, which are received, without recommendation, at all hours of the day or night".
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Yalta Conference
The Yalta Conference, sometimes called the Crimea Conference and codenamed the Argonaut Conference, held February 4–11, 1945 , was the wartime meeting of the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union, represented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and General Secretary Joseph Stalin, respectively, for the purpose of discussing Europe's post-war reorganization. The conference convened in the Livadia Palace near Yalta, in the Crimea.
The meeting was intended mainly to discuss the re-establishment of the nations of war-torn Europe. Within a few years, with the Cold War dividing the continent, Yalta became a subject of intense controversy. To some extent, it has remained controversial.
Yalta was the second of three wartime conferences among the Big Three (Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin). It had been preceded by the Tehran Conference in 1943, and it was followed by the Potsdam Conference in July 1945, which was attended by Harry S Truman, who replaced the late Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill, who was replaced mid-point by the newly elected British Prime Minister Clement Attlee.
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A. V. Alexander
Albert Victor Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Hillsborough KG, CH, PC (1 May 1885 – 11 January 1965) was a British Labour Co-operative politician. He was three times First Lord of the Admiralty, including during the Second World War, and then Minister of Defence under Clement Attlee.
Born in Weston-super-Mare and one of four children, A. V. Alexander was the son of Albert Alexander, a blacksmith and later engineer who had moved from his native Wiltshire to Bristol during the agricultural depression of the 1860s and 1870s, and Eliza Jane Thatcher, daughter of a policeman. He was named after both his father and Prince Albert Victor, Queen Victoria's eldest grandson, but he was known as "A. V." from a young age. His parents had settled in Weston when they married, but the family moved to Bristol after Albert Alexander's death in August 1886. Alexander's mother worked as a corset-maker to provide for her children.
Alexander attended Barton Hill School from the age of three, at a cost of two pence per week. Against his mother's wishes, he chose not to continue to St. George's Higher Grade School in 1898, feeling the increased weekly charge of six pence was too expensive and that he would get nothing more from school. He began work aged thirteen, first for a leather merchant, and five months later as a junior clerk with the Bristol School Board. In 1903 he transferred to Somerset County Council's newly formed local education authority, where he worked in the School Management Department as a committee clerk. He was by this time a keen chorister and footballer, and a self-taught pianist. In later years, and until his death, Alexander was a vice-president of Chelsea F.C. – his role at the club was taken on by Richard Attenborough.
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Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler (German: [ˈadɔlf ˈhɪtlɐ] ( listen); 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP), commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 and dictator of Nazi Germany (as Führer und Reichskanzler) from 1934 to 1945. Hitler is commonly associated with the rise of fascism in Europe, World War II, and the Holocaust.
A decorated veteran of World War I, Hitler joined the German Workers' Party, precursor of the Nazi Party, in 1919, and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923, he attempted a coup d'état, known as the Beer Hall Putsch, in Munich. The failed coup resulted in Hitler's imprisonment, during which time he wrote his memoir, Mein Kampf (My Struggle). After his release in 1924, Hitler gained popular support by attacking the Treaty of Versailles and promoting Pan-Germanism, antisemitism, and anticommunism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda. After his appointment as chancellor in 1933, he transformed the Weimar Republic into the Third Reich, a single-party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideology of Nazism. His aim was to establish a New Order of absolute Nazi German hegemony in continental Europe.
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Alan David
Alan David (born 29 December 1941 as Alan Davies) is a Welsh television actor. Living in London, he is married with two sons.
David was born in Merthyr Tydfil, Glamorgan. He has had many television credits ranging from Coronation Street in 1973 to Virtual Murder (1992), Honey for Tea and "The Unquiet Dead", an episode of Doctor Who in 2005. He also appeared as the 'rival' of Boycie as Llewellyn in The Green Green Grass. In 2007 he played Griff in the BBC series Gavin & Stacey.
After working in repertory at the Belgrade Theatre, Coventry and the Victoria Theatre, Stoke, David was a regular performer with the Royal Shakespeare Company between 1970 and 2003, most notably as Touchstone in As You Like It (1977), various rôles in the 1986 revival of Nicholas Nickleby and Polonius in Hamlet (2001). His regular London appearances include parts at the National Theatre, Almeida Theatre and Royal Court Theatre.
Also starred alongside John Thaw (late) in an episode of MORSE. The episode was TWILIGHT OF THE GODS Series 7, Episode 3 and was first aired on 20 January 1993
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Albert Booth
Albert Edward Booth (28 May 1928 – 6 February 2010) was a British Labour Party politician.
Booth was educated at Marine School, South Shields and Rutherford College of Technology (Northumbria University). He was a design draughtsman. He served as a councillor on Tynemouth Council 1962-65.
Booth contested Tynemouth in 1964. He was Member of Parliament for Barrow-in-Furness from 1966 to 1983. After boundary changes, his seat was renamed Barrow and Furness, but he lost it to the Conservative Cecil Franks. Booth was Secretary of State for Employment from 1976 to 1979 serving under James Callaghan.
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Alec McCowen
Alexander Duncan "Alec" McCowen CBE (born 26 May 1925) is an English actor. He is known for his work in numerous film and stage productions. He was awarded the OBE in the 1972 New Year Honours and the CBE in the 1985 New Year Honours.
McCowen was born in Tunbridge Wells, Kent, the son of Mary (née Walkden), a dancer, and Duncan McCowen, a shopkeeper. He attended the Skinners' School in Tunbridge Wells and the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art.
His partner, the actor Geoffrey Burridge, died in 1987 from AIDS complications.
McCowen first appeared on stage at the Repertory Theatre, Macclesfield, in August 1942 as Micky in Paddy The Next Best Thing. He appeared in repertory in York and Birmingham 1943-45, and toured India and Burma in a production of Kenneth Horne's West End comedy Love in a Mist during 1945 with the Entertainments National Service Association (ENSA). He continued in repertory 1946-49, during which time he played a season at St John's, Newfoundland.
He made his London debut on 20 April 1950 at the Arts Theatre as Maxim in Ivanov, and made his first appearances on the New York stage at the Ziegfeld Theatre on 19 December 1951 as an Egyptian Guard in Caesar and Cleopatra, and on 20 December 1951 as the Messenger in Antony and Cleopatra. Following a series of roles at the Arts and with the Repertory Players, he had rising success as Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec in Moulin Rouge at the then New Theatre, Bromley, and appeared as Barnaby Tucker in The Matchmaker at the Theatre Royal Haymarket, both 1954.
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Aneurin Bevan
Aneurin "Nye" Bevan (pronounced /əˈnaɪrɪn/; Welsh: [aˈnəɨ.rin]; 15 November 1897 – 6 July 1960) was a Welsh Labour Party politician who was the Deputy Leader of the Labour Party from 1959 until his death in 1960. The son of a coal miner, Bevan was a lifelong champion of social justice and the rights of working people. He was a long-time Member of Parliament (MP), representing Ebbw Vale for 31 years, and became recognised as one of the leaders of the party’s left wing, and of left-wing British thought generally. His most famous accomplishment came when, as Minister of Health in the post-war Attlee government, he spearheaded the establishment of the National Health Service, which provides medical care free at point-of-need to all Britons.
Bevan was born in Tredegar, Monmouthshire, in the South Wales Valleys and on the northern edge of the South Wales coalfield, the son of miner David Bevan and Phoebe née Prothero, a seamstress. Both Bevan's parents were Nonconformists; his father was a Baptist and his mother a Methodist. One of ten children, Bevan did poorly at school and his academic performance was so bad that his headmaster made him repeat a year. At age 13, Bevan left school and began working in the local Tytryst Colliery. David Bevan had been a supporter of the Liberal Party in his youth, but was converted to socialism by the writings of Robert Blatchford in the Clarion and joined the Independent Labour Party.
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Ann Clwyd
Ann Clwyd Roberts (born 21 March 1937) is a Welsh Labour Party politician who has been the Member of Parliament (MP) for Cynon Valley since 1984.
Ann Clwyd is the daughter of Gwilym Henri Lewis and Elizabeth Ann Lewis. She lived in Pentre Halkyn in Flintshire and attended Holywell Grammar School (now Holywell High School), the independent Queen's School in Chester and the University College of Wales in Bangor. She was a student teacher at Hope School in Flintshire. She worked as a journalist, working for the BBC as a studio manager and then became Welsh correspondent for the Guardian and Observer newspapers during 1964-79. She was Vice-Chair of the Arts Council of Wales from 1975-79. She is a member of the NUJ and TGWU.
She was persuaded to stand for Parliament by Huw T. Edwards, who felt that there should be more women in parliament. She was the unsuccessful Labour candidate in Denbigh in 1970 and Gloucester in October 1974. From 1979 to 1984, Ann Clwyd was MEP for Mid and West Wales. She was elected to Parliament in a by-election in May 1984 following the death of Ioan Evans and became the first woman to sit for a Welsh valleys constituency. She served as Shadow Minister of Education and Women's Rights from 1987 but was sacked in 1988 for rebelling against the party whip on further spending on nuclear weapons. She returned as Shadow Secretary of State for Overseas Development from 1989 to 1992 and then served as Shadow Secretary of State for Wales in 1992 and for National Heritage from 1992 to 1993.
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Anthony Eden
Robert Anthony Eden, 1st Earl of Avon, KG, MC, PC (12 June 1897 – 14 January 1977) was a British Conservative politician, who was Prime Minister from 1955 to 1957. He was also Foreign Secretary for three periods between 1935 and 1955, including during the Second World War. He is best known for his outspoken opposition to appeasement in the 1930s, his diplomatic leadership in the 1940s and 1950s, and the failure of his Middle East policy in 1956 that ended his premiership.
Eden's worldwide reputation as an opponent of appeasement, a "Man of Peace", and a skilled diplomat was overshadowed in the second year of his premiership when the United States refused to support the Anglo-French military response to the Suez Crisis, which critics across party lines regarded as an historic setback for British foreign policy, signalling the end of British predominance in the Middle East. Most historians argue that he made a series of blunders, especially not realizing the depth of opposition to military action by the US. Most historians say that Eden completely dominated the British decision-making process in the Suez crisis. However, Jonathan Pearson argues in Sir Anthony Eden and the Suez Crisis: Reluctant Gamble (2002) that Eden was more reluctant and less bellicose than most historians say.
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Arthur Balfour
Arthur James Balfour, 1st Earl of Balfour, KG, OM, PC, DL (/ˈbælfʊər/; 25 July 1848 – 19 March 1930) was a British Conservative politician and statesman. He served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from July 1902 to December 1905, and was later Foreign Secretary in 1916–1919.
Born in Scotland and educated as a philosopher, Balfour first entered parliament in the 1874 general election. At first seen as something of a dilettante, he attained prominence as Chief Secretary for Ireland from 1887–1891. In this post, he authored the Perpetual Crimes Act (1887) (or Coercion Act) aimed at the prevention of boycotting, intimidation and unlawful assembly in Ireland during the Irish Land War.
Balfour succeeded his uncle Lord Salisbury as Prime Minister and Conservative Party leader in July 1902 (Balfour had been Conservative leader in the House of Commons since 1891). As Prime Minister, Balfour oversaw such events as the Entente Cordiale, but his party was split over tariff reform and in December 1905 he relinquished power to the Liberals. The general election the following January was a disaster for the Conservatives and their Liberal Unionist allies, left with a mere 157 seats in Parliament. Balfour himself lost his Manchester East seat and was rushed back to parliament in a by-election for the City of London constituency. He continued as Leader of the Opposition throughout the crisis over the Lloyd George People's Budget and the Parliament Act, but after failing to win either of the two General Elections in 1910 he resigned as leader in November 1911.
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Arthur Creech Jones
Arthur Creech Jones (15 May 1891 – 23 October 1964) was a British trade union official and politician. Originally a civil servant, his imprisonment as a conscientious objector during the First World War forced him to change careers. A protégé of Ernest Bevin, he was elected to Parliament in 1935 and served in the Colonial Office in the Labour government of 1945-1950. Losing his seat in the 1950 general election, he was involved in writing and lecturing about British colonies before returning to Parliament in 1954. Initially he was known as Arthur Jones, but throughout his time in politics he invariably used his middle name.
Jones was the son of a lithographic printer from Bristol. He went to Whitehall Boys' School and won a scholarship to study French, Mathematics and commerce for an extra year when he was 13. On leaving school in 1905 he worked in a solicitor's office and prepared for the Civil Service Junior Clerks' Examination. Having passed the exam, Jones joined the War Office and later worked for the Crown Agents, who acted as the London representatives of British dominions and colonies. Jones also attended evening classes to improve his education.
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Arthur Greenwood
Arthur Greenwood CH (8 February 1880 – 9 June 1954) was a prominent member of the Labour Party from the 1920s until the late 1940s. He rose to prominence within the party as secretary of its research department from 1920 and served as Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Health in the short-lived Labour government of 1924. In 1940, he was instrumental in resolving that Britain would continue fighting Nazi Germany in World War II. He was also noted for problems with alcoholism.
Greenwood became deputy leader of the Labour Party under Clement Attlee. Arguably his most famous moment came on 2 September 1939 when, acting for an absent Attlee, he was called to respond to Neville Chamberlain's ambivalent speech on whether Britain would aid Poland. Preparing to respond, he was interrupted by an angry Conservative backbencher, Leo Amery, who exclaimed "Speak for England, Arthur!" A flustered Greenwood proceeded to denounce Chamberlain's remarks, to the applause of his colleagues. When the wartime coalition government was formed, Winston Churchill appointed him to the British War Cabinet as Minister without Portfolio in 1940. He was generally seen as ineffectual, but in May 1940 he emerged as Churchill's strongest and most vocal supporter in the lengthy War Cabinet debates on whether to accept or reject a peace offer from Germany. Without the vote in favour of fighting on by Greenwood and Clement Attlee, Churchill would not have had the slim majority he needed to do so.
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Arthur Henderson
Arthur Henderson (20 September 1863 – 20 October 1935) was a British iron moulder and Labour politician. He was the first Labour cabinet minister, the 1934 Nobel Peace Prize Laureate and served three terms as the Leader of the Labour Party.
Arthur Henderson was born at 10 Paterson Street, Anderston, Glasgow, Scotland in 1863, the illegitimate son of Agnes Henderson, a domestic servant. Agnes later married and she and her young son moved to Newcastle upon Tyne in the North East of England.
Henderson worked in a locomotive factory from the age of 12. After finishing his apprenticeship at seventeen, Arthur Henderson moved to Southampton for a year and then returned to work as an iron moulder (a type of foundryman) in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. He converted to Methodism (having previously been a Congregationalist) in 1879. This had a major impact on Henderson and he became a lay preacher. In 1884, Henderson lost his job, and concentrated on his education, and preaching commitments.
However by 1892, Henderson had entered the complex world of Trade Union politics, when he was elected as a paid organiser for the Iron Founders Union, and was also a representative on the North East Conciliation Board.
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Benjamin Disraeli
Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield, KG, PC, FRS, (21 December 1804 – 19 April 1881) was a British Prime Minister, parliamentarian, Conservative statesman and literary figure. He served in government for three decades, twice as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. Although his father had him baptised to Anglicanism at age 12, he was nonetheless Britain's first and thus far only Prime Minister who was born into a Jewish family—originally from Portugal. He played an instrumental role in the creation of the modern Conservative Party after the Corn Laws schism of 1846.
Although he was a major figure in the protectionist wing of the Conservative Party after 1844, Disraeli's relations with the other leading figures in the party, particularly Lord Derby, the overall leader, were often strained. Not until the 1860s would Derby and Disraeli be on easy terms, and the latter's succession of the former assured. From 1852 onwards, Disraeli's career would also be marked by his often intense rivalry with William Ewart Gladstone, who eventually rose to become leader of the Liberal Party. In this feud, Disraeli was aided by his warm friendship with Queen Victoria, who came to detest Gladstone during the latter's first premiership in the 1870s. In 1876 Disraeli was raised to the peerage as the Earl of Beaconsfield, capping nearly four decades in the House of Commons.
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Bertrand Russell
Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970) was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, and social critic. At various points in his life he considered himself a liberal, a socialist, and a pacifist, but he also admitted that he had never been any of these in any profound sense. He was born in Monmouthshire, into one of the most prominent aristocratic families in Britain.
Russell led the British "revolt against idealism" in the early 20th century. He is considered one of the founders of analytic philosophy along with his predecessor Gottlob Frege and his friend Ludwig Wittgenstein, and is widely held to be one of the 20th century's premier logicians. He co-authored, with A. N. Whitehead, Principia Mathematica, an attempt to ground mathematics on logic. His philosophical essay "On Denoting" has been considered a "paradigm of philosophy." His work has had a considerable influence on logic, mathematics, set theory, linguistics, computer science (see type theory and type system), and philosophy, especially philosophy of language, epistemology, and metaphysics.
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Bill Wallis
Bill Wallis (born 1936 in Farnham, Surrey, England) is a British character actor and comedian who has appeared in numerous radio and television roles, as well as in the theatre.
He attended Farnham Grammar School from 1948 to 1955. He gained a State Scholarship and went to Cambridge University where he met Peter Cook. When Cook and the team took Beyond the Fringe to Broadway, Wallis took over the roles played by Alan Bennett.
Some of his most frequent appearances have been on BBC Radio 4 for The Afternoon Play and the Classic Serial, but he was also in the cast of the long-running sketch show Week Ending, and in the first episode of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, originating the roles of Mr. Prosser and Prostetnic Vogon Jeltz. He reprised the latter in the second episode and in one episode of the second series.
Wallis has appeared in a number of television programmes including Chelmsford 123, Doctor at Large (1971), ITV's production of The Secret Diary of Adrian Mole, Aged 13¾, the first series of Blackadder (drunken knight), Blackadder II (Ploppy the Jailer), Blackadder Goes Forth (Agent Brigadier Smith), Just Good Friends (A J Styles) and Yes, Prime Minister. He also appeared briefly in the first episode of ITV's Midsomer Murders, apparently driving a Morgan sports car. In fact this was pushed by other cast members, as he does not hold a driving licence. He appeared in Not Only... But Also with Peter Cook and Dudley Moore, alongside comedy stalwarts John Wells and Joe Melia, singing the comic song "Alan a' Dale," which students of the absurdist strand of British humour such as Monty Python will recognise. He appeared in the original London cast of the unsuccessful Andrew Lloyd Webber/Alan Ayckbourn musical Jeeves in 1975.
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Bob Ainsworth
Robert William Ainsworth (born 19 June 1952) is a British Labour Party politician who has been the Member of Parliament (MP) for Coventry North East since 1992, and was the Secretary of State for Defence from 2009 to 2010. Following the general election in 2010 he was the Shadow Defence Secretary, but was replaced by Jim Murphy following the election of new Labour leader Ed Miliband.
Ainsworth was born in Coventry and attended the local Foxford Comprehensive School. He first became active in politics as a trade unionist at the Jaguar Cars plant in Coventry where he worked and served in many union capacities, including as Branch President (in what was later to become part of the Manufacturing, Science and Finance union). At this time he attended "a couple" of International Marxist Group meetings but did not pursue an interest in the group. In 1984, he was elected to Coventry City Council, became Chair of the Finance Committee, and was deputy leader of the ruling Labour group. He was also Constituency Labour Party Chairman.
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Bob Hawke
Robert James Lee "Bob" Hawke AC GCL (born 9 December 1929) is a former Australian politician who served as the 23rd Prime Minister of Australia from 1983 to 1991.
After a decade as president of the Australian Council of Trade Unions, he entered parliament as a Labor MP at the 1980 federal election and became Prime Minister within three years, leading Labor to victory at four consecutive federal elections: 1983, 1984, 1987 and 1990. Hawke was defeated as Labor leader in a 1991 spill against Paul Keating. He is Labor's longest-serving Prime Minister and Australia's third-longest-serving Prime Minister.
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Bonar Law
Andrew Bonar Law (known as Bonar; 16 September 1858 – 30 October 1923) was a British Conservative Party statesman and Prime Minister. Born in the colony of New Brunswick, he is the only British Prime Minister to have been born outside the British Isles. He was also the shortest-serving Prime Minister of the 20th century, spending 211 days in office.
Law was born to a rural preacher and his wife in New Brunswick, where he spent his early life. A few years after his mother's death in 1861, his father remarried, and in 1870 Law moved to Helensburgh, Scotland, to live with his mother's sister Janet and her family, who ran a successful merchant bank. After an education at a preparatory school in Hamilton and the High School of Glasgow, Law left school aged sixteen to gain a "commercial education" at the family firm. A few years later the firm was sold to the Clydesdale Bank, putting Law's career in jeopardy until his uncles loaned him the money to buy a partnership in an iron merchants firm. Through hard work and his business acumen the firm flourished under Law, and by the time he was thirty he was a comparatively rich man.
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British people
British people (also referred to as the British, Britons, or informally as Brits or Britishers) are citizens or natives of the United Kingdom, of the Isle of Man, of any of the Channel Islands, or of any of the British overseas territories, and their descendants.British nationality law governs modern British citizenship and nationality, which can be acquired, for instance, by birth in the UK or by descent from British nationals. When used in a historical context, the term British people refers to the ancient Britons, the indigenous inhabitants of Great Britain south of the Forth.
Although early assertions of being British date from the Late Middle Ages, the creation of the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 triggered a sense of British national identity. The notion of Britishness was forged during the Napoleonic Wars between Britain and the First French Empire, and developed further during the Victorian era. The complex history of the formation of the United Kingdom created a "particular sense of nationhood and belonging" in Great Britain; Britishness became "superimposed on much older identities", of English, Scots and Welsh cultures, whose distinctiveness still resist notions of a homogenised British identity. Because of longstanding ethno-sectarian divisions, British identity in Northern Ireland is controversial, but it is held with strong conviction by unionists.
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Cambodian Civil War
The Cambodian Civil War was a conflict that pitted the forces of the Communist Party of Kampuchea (known as the Khmer Rouge) and their allies the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) and the Viet Cong against the government forces of Cambodia (after October 1970, the Khmer Republic), which were supported by the United States (U.S.) and the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam).
The struggle was exacerbated by the influence and actions of the allies of the two warring sides. People's Army of Vietnam (North Vietnamese Army) involvement was designed to protect its Base Areas and sanctuaries in eastern Cambodia, without which the prosecution of its military effort in South Vietnam would have been more difficult. Then following the Cambodian coup of 1970, the North Vietnamese Army's attempt to overrun the entire country in March–April 1970 plunged Cambodia into civil war. The U.S. was motivated by the need to buy time for its withdrawal from Southeast Asia and to protect its ally, the South Vietnamese regime. American and both South and North Vietnamese forces directly participated (at one time or another) in the fighting. The central government was mainly assisted by the application of massive U.S. aerial bombing campaigns and direct material and financial aid.
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Catherine Ashton
Catherine Ashton, Baroness Ashton of Upholland, PC (born 20 March 1956) is a British Labour politician who in 2009 became the European Union's High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. Under the Treaty of Lisbon this post is combined with the post of Vice-President of the European Commission.
Her political career began in 1999 when she was created a Life Peer (Baroness Ashton of Upholland) by the Labour Government under which she took on a ministerial position (Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State) in the Department for Education and Skills in 2001, and subsequently in the Department for Constitutional Affairs and Ministry of Justice. She became a Privy Councillor PC in May 2006.
Catherine Ashton was appointed Leader of the House of Lords and Lord President of the Queen's Privy Council in Gordon Brown’s first Cabinet in June 2007. As well as Leader of the Lords, she held responsibility in the House of Lords for equalities issues, and she was instrumental in steering the EU's Treaty of Lisbon through the UK's upper chamber. In 2008, she succeeded Peter Mandelson as Commissioner for Trade in the European Commission.
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Christopher Addison
Christopher Addison, 1st Viscount Addison KG, PC FRCS (19 June 1869 – 11 December 1951) was a British medical doctor and politician. By turns a liberal and a socialist, he served as Minister of Munitions during the first World War, and was later Minister of Health under David Lloyd George and Leader of the House of Lords under Clement Attlee.
Addison was born in the rural parish of Hogsthorpe in Lincolnshire, the son of Robert Addison and Susan, daughter of Charles Fanthorpe. His family had owned and run a farm for several generations and he maintained a strong interest in agriculture and rural matters throughout his life. He attended Trinity College, Harrogate, from the age of thirteen. He trained in medicine at Sheffield School of Medicine and St Bartholomew's Hospital in London. His education was expensive for his family, and he insisted on re-paying his parents once he had begun his career.
In 1892, Addison graduated from the University of London as a Bachelor of Medicine and Science with honours in forensic medicine. A year later he qualified as a Medical Doctor and two years after that he was elected a Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons. He combined private practice with academic research, and taught anatomy at Sheffield School of Medicine. In 1896 he became professor of anatomy at the newly-formed University College of Sheffield, and edited the Quarterly Medical Journal from 1898 to 1901. In 1901, he moved to London again, teaching at Charing Cross Hospital. He published his research on anatomy and became Hunterian professor with the Royal College of Surgeons.
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Christopher Soames
Arthur Christopher John Soames, Baron Soames, GCMG, GCVO, CH, CBE, PC (12 October 1920 – 16 September 1987) was a British politician belonging to the Conservative Party and the son-in-law of Winston Churchill. A European Commissioner and the last Governor of Southern Rhodesia, he had previously been the longtime Member of Parliament for Bedford from 1950 to 1966. He held several government posts and attained Cabinet rank.
Soames was born in Penn, England, the son of Captain Arthur Granville Soames, a descendant of a brewing family which had joined the landed gentry, by his marriage to Hope Mary Woodbine Parish. His parents divorced while he was a boy, and his mother married as her second husband the 8th Baron Dynevor (a descendant of the 1st and last Earl Talbot), by whom she had further children including Richard Rhys, 9th Baron Dynevor.
After military service in the Second World War, Soames served as the Assistant Military Attaché in Paris. He was the Conservative Member of Parliament for Bedford from 1950 to 1966 and served under Sir Anthony Eden as Under-Secretary of State for Air from 1955 to 1957 and under Harold Macmillan as Parliamentary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty from 1957 to 1958. In 1955 he was invested as Commander of the Order of the British Empire.
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Clement Attlee
Clement Richard Attlee, 1st Earl Attlee, KG, OM, CH, PC, FRS (3 January 1883 – 8 October 1967) was a British Labour politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951, and as the Leader of the Labour Party from 1935 to 1955. He was also the first person to hold the office of Deputy Prime Minister, under Winston Churchill in the wartime coalition government, before leading the Labour Party to a landslide election victory over Churchill's Conservative Party in 1945. He was the first Labour Prime Minister to serve a full Parliamentary term, and the first to command a Labour majority in Parliament.
The government he led put in place the post-war settlement, based upon the assumption that full employment would be maintained by Keynesian policies, and that a greatly enlarged system of social services would be created – aspirations that had been outlined in the wartime Beveridge Report. Within this context, his government undertook the nationalisation of major industries and public utilities as well as the creation of the National Health Service. After initial Conservative opposition to Keynesian fiscal policy, this settlement was broadly accepted by all parties until Margaret Thatcher became Prime Minister in 1979.
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Congo Crisis
The Congo Crisis (1960–1966) was a period of turmoil in the First Republic of the Congo that began with national independence from Belgium and ended with the seizing of power by Joseph Mobutu. At various points, it had the characteristics of anti-colonial struggle, a secessionist war with the province of Katanga, a United Nations peacekeeping operation, and a Cold War proxy battle between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Crisis resulted in the deaths of some 100,000 people (King Léopold II’s rule had resulted in the deaths of around 10,000,000 Congolese people). It led to the assassination of Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba, as well as a traumatic setback to the United Nations following the death of UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld in a plane crash as he sought to mediate.
Prior to the establishment of the First Republic in 1960, the native Congolese elites had formed semi-political organizations which gradually evolved into the main parties striving for independence. These organizations were formed on one of three foundations: ethnic kinship, connections formed in schools, and urban intellectualism[citation needed].
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Cultural Revolution
The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, commonly known as the Cultural Revolution (Chinese: 文化大革命; pinyin: Wénhuà Dàgémìng), was a social-political movement that took place in the People's Republic of China from 1966 through 1976. Set into motion by Mao Zedong, then Chairman of the Communist Party of China, its stated goal was to enforce socialism in the country by removing capitalist, traditional and cultural elements from Chinese society, and to impose Maoist orthodoxy within the Party. The revolution marked the return of Mao Zedong to a position of absolute power after the failed Great Leap Forward. The movement politically paralyzed the country and significantly affected the country economically and socially.
The Revolution was launched in May 1966. Mao alleged that bourgeois elements were infiltrating the government and society at large, aiming to restore capitalism. He insisted that these "revisionists" be removed through violent class struggle. China's youth responded to Mao's appeal by forming Red Guard groups around the country. The movement spread into the military, urban workers, and the Communist Party leadership itself. It resulted in widespread factional struggles in all walks of life. In the top leadership, it led to a mass purge of senior officials who were accused of taking a "capitalist road", most notably Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping. During the same period Mao's personality cult grew to immense proportions.
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David Cameron
David William Donald Cameron (pronunciation: /ˈkæmərən/; born 9 October 1966) is the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, First Lord of the Treasury, Minister for the Civil Service and Leader of the Conservative Party. He represents Witney as its Member of Parliament (MP).
Cameron studied Philosophy, Politics and Economics (PPE) at Oxford, gaining a first class honours degree. He then joined the Conservative Research Department and became Special Adviser to Norman Lamont, and then to Michael Howard. He was Director of Corporate Affairs at Carlton Communications for seven years.
He was defeated in his first candidacy for Parliament at Stafford in 1997, but was elected in 2001 as the Member of Parliament for the Oxfordshire constituency of Witney. He was promoted to the Opposition front bench two years later, and rose rapidly to become head of policy co-ordination during the 2005 general election campaign. With a public image of a youthful, moderate candidate who would appeal to young voters, he won the Conservative leadership election in 2005.
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David Lloyd George
David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor OM, PC (17 January 1863 – 26 March 1945) was a British Liberal politician and statesman. He was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom at the head of a wartime coalition government between the years 1916–22 and was the Leader of the Liberal Party from 1926–31.
During a long tenure of office, mainly as Chancellor of the Exchequer, he was a key figure in the introduction of many reforms which laid the foundations of the modern welfare state. He was the last Liberal to be Prime Minister, as his coalition premiership was supported more by Conservatives than by his own Liberals, and the subsequent split was a key factor in the decline of the Liberal Party as a serious political force. When he eventually became leader of the Liberal Party a decade later he was unable to lead it back to power.
He is best known as the highly energetic Prime Minister (1916–22) who guided the Empire through the First World War to victory over Germany and her allies. He was a major player at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 that reordered the world after the Great War. Lloyd George was a devout evangelical and an icon of 20th century liberalism as the founder of the welfare state. He is regarded as having made a greater impact on British public life than any other 20th century leader, thanks to his leadership of the war drive, his postwar role in reshaping Europe, and his introduction of Britain's social welfare system before the war.
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Des Browne
Desmond Henry Browne, Baron Browne of Ladyton (born 22 March 1952) is a British Labour Party politician who was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Kilmarnock and Loudoun from 1997 to 2010. He was a member of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom under Tony Blair and Gordon Brown, until the latter moved him from both Defence and Scottish Secretary in 2008.
Browne was born in Kilwinning, North Ayrshire, lived in Stevenston for the early part of his life, and was educated at the Catholic St Michael's Academy in Kilwinning and later at the University of Glasgow, where he received a degree in law.
He started his legal career in 1974 as an apprentice solicitor with the firm James Campbell & Co. On qualifying in 1976 he became an assistant solicitor with Ross, Harper and Murphy, and was promoted to partner in 1980. He became a partner in McCluskey Browne in 1985 and a council member of the Law Society of Scotland 1988-1992. He was admitted as an advocate in 1993, practising at the Scottish bar until 1997. He worked mainly in child law.
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Duncan Sandys
Duncan Edwin Sandys, Baron Duncan-SandysCH PC (24 January 1908 – 26 November 1987) was a British politician and a minister in successive Conservative governments in the 1950s and 1960s. He was for some years the son-in-law of Sir Winston Churchill.
Sandys was the son of George John Sandys, a Conservative member of parliament (1910–1918) and was educated at Eton College and Magdalen College, Oxford. He entered the diplomatic service in 1930, serving at the Foreign Office in London as well as at the embassy in Berlin.
He became Conservative Party Member of Parliament (MP) for Norwood in South London in a by-election in March 1935. In the same year, he married Diana Churchill, daughter of the future prime minister (after being opposed at Norwood by a candidate put up by Randolph Churchill).
In May 1935 he was in effect saying that Germany should have a predominant place in central Europe, so as to avoid clashing with Britain as an Imperial Power.
In 1938 Sandys asked questions in the House of Commons on matters of national security. He was subsequently approached by two unidentified men, presumably representing the secret services, and threatened with prosecution under section 6 of the Official Secrets Act 1920. Sandys reported the matter to the Committee of Privileges who held that the disclosures of Parliament were not subject to the legislation though an MP could be disciplined by the House. The Official Secrets Act 1939 was enacted in reaction to this incident.
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Ed Miliband
Edward Samuel Miliband (born 24 December 1969) is a British Labour Party politician, currently the Leader of the Labour Party and Leader of the Opposition. He has been the Member of Parliament (MP) for the South Yorkshire constituency of Doncaster North since 2005 and served in the Cabinet from 2007 to 2010 under Prime Minister Gordon Brown. He and his brother, David Miliband, were the first siblings to sit in the Cabinet simultaneously since Edward, Lord Stanley, and Oliver Stanley in 1938.
Born in London, Miliband graduated from Corpus Christi College, Oxford and the London School of Economics, becoming first a television journalist and then a Labour Party researcher, before rising to become one of Chancellor Gordon Brown's confidants and Chairman of HM Treasury's Council of Economic Advisers.
As Prime Minister, Gordon Brown appointed Miliband as Minister for the Cabinet Office and Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster on 28 June 2007. He was subsequently promoted to the new post of Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change, a position he held from 3 October 2008 to 11 May 2010. On 25 September 2010, he was elected Leader of the Labour Party.
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Eduard Bernstein
Eduard Bernstein (6 January 1850 – 18 December 1932) was a German social democratic political theoretist and politician, a member of the SPD, and the founder of evolutionary socialism and revisionism.
Bernstein was born in Schöneberg (now part of Berlin) to Jewish parents, although they did not practice religion. His father was a locomotive driver. From 1866 to 1878, after leaving school, he was employed in banks as a banker's clerk. His political career began in 1872, when he joined the Eisenach (named after the German town Eisenach) wing of the German socialist movement, a socialist party with Marxist tendencies formally known as Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei Eisenacher Programms and soon became prominent as an activist. Bernstein's party contested two elections against a rival socialist party, the Lassalleans (Ferdinand Lassalle's Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein), but in both elections neither party was able to win a significant majority of the left-wing vote. Consequently, together with August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht, Bernstein prepared the Einigungsparteitag ("unification party congress") with the Lassalleans in Gotha in 1875. Karl Marx's famous Critique of the Gotha Program criticized what he saw as a Lassallean victory over the Eisenachers whom he favored; interestingly, Bernstein later noted that it was Liebknecht, considered by many to be the strongest Marxist advocate within the Eisenacher faction, who proposed the inclusion of many of the ideas which so thoroughly irritated Marx.
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Edward Heath
Sir Edward Richard George "Ted" Heath, KG, MBE, PC (9 July 1916 – 17 July 2005) was a British Conservative politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (1970–74) and as Leader of the Conservative Party (1965–75).
Born in Broadstairs, Kent, Heath studied at Oxford and served in the Second World War. He was first elected in the 1950 general election, for Bexley and was government Chief Whip during the 1950s. Entering the Cabinet as Minister of Labour in 1959, he was then Lord Privy Seal responsible for Macmillan's unsuccessful EEC entry negotiations, then President of the Board of Trade. In 1965 Heath won the leadership of the Conservative Party against Reginald Maudling and Enoch Powell. The general election of 1966 saw the Labour government of Harold Wilson achieve a large increase in seats, however Heath remained Conservative leader.
Heath became Prime Minister after winning the 1970 general election. In 1971, Heath oversaw the decimalisation of British coinage and in 1972, he implemented major reform to the UK's system of local government. In foreign policy, Heath took the UK into the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1973. Heath's premiership oversaw the height of The Troubles in Northern Ireland, with the suspension of the Stormont parliament and the imposition of direct British rule. Unofficial talks with IRA delegates were unsuccessful, as was the Sunningdale Agreement of 1973, which caused Ulster Unionists to withdraw from the Conservative whip.
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Edward Redhead
Edward Charles Redhead JP (8 April 1902 – 15 April 1967) was a British civil servant and politician who became the successor to Clement Attlee as Member of Parliament for Walthamstow West.
Redhead was born in Walthamstow and went to Walthamstow Higher Elementary School as well as receiving a private education. He left school at 15 to be a boy clerk in the Post Office. Two years later he transferred into Her Majesty's Customs and Excise, and rose steadily through the ranks to finish as a Higher Executive Officer. Active in his trade union, Redhead left the civil service to be General Secretary of the Society of Civil Servants in 1948. A school on Higham Hill Road was later named, Edward Redhead Junior School.
He was active in municipal affairs, and was elected as a Labour Party councillor to Walthamstow Borough Council in 1929. From 1945 he was an Alderman, and served as Mayor of the town in 1949-1950 and again in 1961-1962. At the 1951 general election, Redhead fought Gillingham.
When Clement Attlee received an Earldom, Redhead was the local candidate picked to follow him. He kept the seat in a 1956 byelection. From 1959 to 1964 Redhead served as an Opposition Whip, and when Labour came into government, he was Minister of State at the Board of Trade. In October 1965 he transferred to the Department of Education and Science, retiring due to ill health in January 1967. He died the following April. The resulting by-election came at an inconvenient time for the Labour government, and the Conservative candidate Frederick Silvester gained the seat.
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Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon
Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Bowes-Lyon (4 August 1900 – 30 March 2002) was the queen consort of King George VI from 1936 until her husband's death in 1952, after which she was known as Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, to avoid confusion with her daughter, Queen Elizabeth II. She was the last queen consort of Ireland and empress consort of India.
Born into a family of British nobility as The Honourable Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, she became Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon when her father inherited the Scottish Earldom of Strathmore and Kinghorne in 1904. She came to prominence in 1923 when she married Albert, Duke of York, the second son of King George V and Queen Mary. As Duchess of York, she – along with her husband and their two daughters Elizabeth and Margaret – embodied traditional ideas of family and public service. She undertook a variety of public engagements, and became known as the "Smiling Duchess" because of her consistent public expression.
In 1936, her husband unexpectedly became King when his brother, Edward VIII, abdicated in order to marry the American divorcée Wallis Simpson. Queen Elizabeth accompanied her husband on diplomatic tours to France and North America before the start of World War II. During the war, her seemingly indomitable spirit provided moral support to the British public. In recognition of her role as an asset to British morale, Adolf Hitler described her as "the most dangerous woman in Europe". After the war, her husband's health deteriorated and she was widowed at the age of 51.
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Elizabeth II
Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary; born 21 April 1926) is the constitutional monarch of 16 sovereign states known as the Commonwealth realms, and head of the 54-member Commonwealth of Nations. She is also head of state of the Crown Dependencies.
Elizabeth was born in London, and educated privately at home. Her father acceded to the throne as George VI in 1936 on the abdication of his brother Edward VIII. She began to undertake public duties during the Second World War, in which she served in the Auxiliary Territorial Service. On the death of her father in 1952, she became Head of the Commonwealth and queen regnant of seven independent Commonwealth countries: the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan, and Ceylon. Her coronation service in 1953 was the first to be televised. Between 1956 and 1992, the number of her realms varied as territories gained independence and some realms became republics. Today, in addition to the first four aforementioned countries, Elizabeth is Queen of Jamaica, Barbados, the Bahamas, Grenada, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Belize, Antigua and Barbuda, and Saint Kitts and Nevis.
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Ellen Wilkinson
Ellen Cicely Wilkinson (8 October 1891 – 6 February 1947) was the Labour Member of Parliament for Middlesbrough and later for Jarrow on Tyneside. She was one of the first women in Britain to be elected as a Member of Parliament (MP).
Wilkinson was born in Ardwick, Manchester, the daughter of Richard Wilkinson and Ellen Wood, both Methodists. Richard Wilkinson was employed as a Manchester textile worker then became an insurance clerk. Ellen won several scholarships and was thus able to progress her education, mainly at the Ardwick School. In 1910 she became a student at the University of Manchester, where she studied history. She was a very small woman, under five feet in height, with a shock of red hair, pale skin and arresting blue eyes.
Wilkinson developed an interest in socialism after reading Merrie England by Robert Blatchford. At the age of sixteen she joined the Independent Labour Party. At University she became active in various organisations including the Fabian Society and the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, for which she became an organiser in 1913. In 1915 she was employed by the Amalgamated Union of Co-operative Employees to organise the Co-operative Employees, the first woman organiser of that trade union.
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Emanuel Shinwell
Emanuel "Manny" Shinwell, Baron Shinwell CH, PC (18 October 1884 – 8 May 1986), familiarly known as Manny, was a British trade union official, Labour politician and one of the leading figures of Red Clydeside.
Shinwell was born in Spitalfields, London, but moved with his Polish–Jewish family to Glasgow, Scotland. His father had a small clothing shop and his mother was a cook. He educated himself in a public library and at the Kelvingrove Art Gallery. He enjoyed sport, particularly boxing, and he was the trainer of a local football team. He began his working life as a machinist in a clothing workshop. In 1903 he became active in the Amalgamated Union of Clothing Operatives, and joined the Glasgow Trades Council in 1906 as a delegate of that union.
In May 1911, he was seconded to help organise the seamen of Glasgow at the request of J. Havelock Wilson of the National Sailors' and Firemen's Union (NSFU). He played a prominent role in the six-week Glasgow seamen's strike which began on 14 June and which was part of a nationwide strike. He subsequently became the secretary of the Glasgow branch of the NSFU. In August 1912, he participated in a revolt against the union, which resulted in the Glasgow branch becoming part of the Southampton-based British Seafarers' Union (BSU). He was the local secretary of the BSU until it became part of the Amalgamated Marine Workers' Union (AMWU) in 1922, after which he served as National Organiser of the new organisation. In 1919, he gained national notoriety through his involvement in the Glasgow 40 Hours' Movement. This movement culminated in clashes between police and protesters in Glasgow's George Square. He was afterwards tried for incitement to riot and was sentenced to five months' imprisonment.
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Eric Shaw
Eric Shaw is an American television writer and a former writer for SpongeBob SquarePants, a popular television show on Nickelodeon. Originally from Jericho, NY, he attended Jericho High School and graduated from Columbia University. He has been an animation writer since 2003 and has also written for Skunk Fu, Krypto the Superdog, Sid the Science Kid, My Friends Tigger and Pooh and many other animated hit shows. He is known for writing on SpongeBob SquarePants seasons five and six. As a staff writer, Eric has written for more than 50 SpongeBob episodes. Eric recently served as Head Writer on PBS' Emmy Award winning (Best Writing in an Animated Series 2008) animated series WordGirl starring Tom Kenny, Maria Bamford, Patton Oswalt, Jeffrey Tambor and others. Eric ran the writing on Season 5, 26 episodes, from Soup2Nuts' Watertown, Mass studio. In 2007, Eric served as the President of the International Jury at the prestigious Cartoons on the Bay Animation Festival, Salerno, Italy.
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Ernest Bevin
Ernest Bevin (9 March 1881 – 14 April 1951) was a British trade union leader and Labour politician. He co-founded and served as general secretary of the powerful Transport and General Workers' Union from 1922 to 1940, as Minister of Labour in the war-time coalition government, and as Foreign Secretary in the post-war Labour Government he supported the creation of NATO.
Bevin was born in the village of Winsford in Somerset, England, to Diana Bevin who, since 1877, had described herself as a widow. His father is unknown. After his mother's death in 1889, the young Bevin lived with his half-sister's family, moving to Morchard Bishop in Devon. He had little formal education, having briefly attended two village schools and then Hayward's School, Crediton, starting in 1890 and leaving in 1892. He later recalled being asked as a child to read the newspaper aloud for the benefit of adults in his family who were illiterate. At the age of eleven, he went to work as a labourer, then as a lorry driver in Bristol, where he joined the Bristol Socialist Society. In 1910 he became secretary of the Bristol branch of the Dockers' Union, and in 1914 he became a national organiser for the union.
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Ferdinand Lassalle
Ferdinand Johann Gottlieb Lassalle (1825–64) was a German-Jewish jurist, philosopher, and socialist political activist. Lassalle is best remembered as an initiator of international-style socialism in Germany.
Ferdinand Lassalle was born on 11 April 1825 in Breslau (Wrocław), Silesia to a prosperous Jewish family descending from the Upper Silesian town Loslau. The original spelling of the family name was "Lassal" – changed by Ferdinand as a young man to deemphasize his ethnic origins.
Ferdinand's father was a silk merchant and intended his son for a business career, sending him to the commercial school at Leipzig. However, Lassalle soon transferred to university, studying first in the University of Breslau and later at the University of Berlin. There Lassalle studied philology and philosophy and became an devotee of the philosophical system of Georg Hegel.
Lassalle passed his university examinations with distinction during 1845 and thereafter traveled to Paris to write a book on Heraclitus. There Lassalle met the poet Heinrich Heine, who wrote of his intense young friend during 1846: "I have found in no one so much passion and clearness of intellect united in action. You have good right to be audacious – we others only usurp this divine right, this heavenly privilege."
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Fred Mulley
Frederick William Mulley, Baron Mulley PC (3 July 1918 – 15 March 1995) was a British Labour politician, barrister-at-law, and economist.
Mulley attended Warwick School between 1929 and 1936. He served in the Worcestershire Regiment in the Second World War, reaching the rank of sergeant, but was captured in 1940 and spent five years as a prisoner of war in Germany. During this time he obtained a BSc in economics and became a chartered secretary.
At the end of the war, he received an adult scholarship to Christ Church, Oxford, and after a brief spell on an economics fellowship at the University of Cambridge (1948–50) he trained as a barrister, being called to the Bar in 1954.
Mulley had joined the Labour Party since 1936 and in 1945 he unsuccessfully contested the constituency of Sutton Coldfield. He became Member of Parliament for Sheffield Park in 1950, a position he held until retiring at the 1983 General Election.
During a long career in politics he held many ministerial positions including Minister of Aviation (1965-7), Minister for Disarmament (1967-9), and Minister of Transport (1969–70, 1974-5). While at the Transport Ministry he believed it would be inappropriate to be seen to be a car driver. Although he owned an Austin Maxi, his wife was the sole user of it during this period.
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Frederick Willey
Frederick Thomas Willey (13 November 1910 – 13 December 1987) was a British Labour politician.
Willey was educated at Johnston School and St. John's College, Cambridge, and was called to the Bar in 1936. He worked as a barrister on the Northern circuit. His political career began in the 1930s as an activist for social justice and other left wing causes: he was the keynote speaker welcoming returning International Brigade volunteers to Sunderland.
During World War II, Willey served with the Auxiliary Fire Service (AFS) and was an officer of the Fire Brigades Union.
Willey was elected to the House of Commons as Member of Parliament for Sunderland in 1945, when the Borough still sent two MPs to Parliament.
In 1950, two-member constituencies were abolished and Willey was returned for the new constituency of Sunderland North where he served until he retired at the 1983 general election.
Not confined to the backbenches, Willey served as Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Food in 1950-51 and as Minister of Land and Natural Resources, and in the latter capacity opened the UK's first long-distance footpath, the Pennine Way, in 1965.
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Friedrich Ebert
Friedrich Ebert (4 February 1871 – 28 February 1925) was a German politician of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD).
When Ebert was elected as the leader of the SPD after the death of August Bebel, the party members of the SPD were deeply divided because of the party's support for World War I. Ebert supported the Burgfrieden and tried to isolate the war opposers in the party. After the war and the end of the monarchy he served as the first President of Germany from 1919 until his death in office. Before being elected as President, he briefly served as Chancellor during the last months of the German Empire. After he was announced as the new President, the government intervened together with the army and right wing Freikorps against the leftist uprisings, which resulted in the death of several left politicians and ended the partnership of the SPD in government with the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD).
After that he changed his politics to a “policy of compensating“ between the left and the right, between the workers and the enterprises. For that he followed a policy of brittle coalitions. This resulted in some problems, for example the SPD agreed during the crisis of 1923 to an extension of the work time without extra payment for the workers, but the conservative parties hadn’t agreed to also introduce taxes for the rich as an compensation. His death, which resulted in the monarchist Paul von Hindenburg as his Presidential successor, is seen as an important break in the Weimar Republic, which ended less than a decade later.
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Geoffrey Howe
Richard Edward Geoffrey Howe, Baron Howe of Aberavon, CH, QC, PC (born 20 December 1926) is a former British Conservative politician. He was Margaret Thatcher's longest-serving Cabinet minister, successively holding the posts of Chancellor of the Exchequer, Foreign Secretary, and finally Leader of the House of Commons and Deputy Prime Minister. His resignation on 1 November 1990 is widely considered to have precipitated Thatcher's own downfall three weeks later.
Geoffrey Howe was born in 1926 at Port Talbot in Wales. A pupil of the Bridgend Preparatory School, Bryntirion, he then attended Abberley Hall School, Worcestershire and Winchester College. He then did National Service as a Lieutenant with the Royal Corps of Signals in East Africa, by his own account giving political lectures in Swahili about how Africans should avoid communism and remain loyal to "Bwana Kingy George". Having declined an offer to remain in the army as a captain, he went up to Trinity Hall, Cambridge, where he read Law and was chairman of the Cambridge University Conservative Association, and on the committee of the Cambridge Union Society. He was called to the Bar in 1952 and was made a QC in 1965. He stood as the Conservative Party candidate in Aberavon at the 1955 and 1959 general elections, losing in a very safe Labour Party seat. He became chairman of the Bow Group, an internal Conservative think tank of 'young modernisers' in the 1960s, and edited its magazine Crossbow.
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George Canning
George Canning PC, FRS (11 April 1770 – 8 August 1827) was a British statesman and politician who served as Foreign Secretary and briefly Prime Minister.
Canning was born into an Anglo-Irish family at his parents' home in Queen Anne Street, Marylebone, London. Canning described himself as "an Irishman born in London". His father, George Canning, Sr., of Garvagh, County Londonderry, Ireland, was a gentleman of limited means, a failed wine merchant and lawyer, who renounced his right to inherit the family estate in exchange for payment of his substantial debts. George Sr. eventually abandoned the family and died in poverty on 11 April 1771, his son's first birthday, in London. Canning's mother, Mary Anne Costello, took work as a stage actress, a profession not considered respectable at the time. Indeed when in 1827 it looked as if Canning would become Prime Minister, Lord Grey remarked that "the son of an actress is, ipso facto, disqualified from becoming Prime Minister".
Because Canning showed unusual intelligence and promise at an early age, family friends persuaded his uncle, London merchant Stratford Canning (father to the diplomat Stratford Canning), to become his nephew's guardian. George Canning grew up with his cousins at the home of his uncle, who provided him with an income and an education. Stratford Canning's financial support allowed the young Canning to study at Eton College and Christ Church, Oxford.[citation needed] Canning came out top of the school at Eton and left at the age of seventeen. His time at Eton has been described as "a triumph almost without parallel. He proved a brilliant classic, came top of the school, and excelled at public orations".
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George Henry Hall
George Henry Hall, 1st Viscount Hall PC (31 December 1881 – 8 November 1965) was a British Labour politician. He served Secretary of State for the Colonies between 1945 and 1946 and as First Lord of the Admiralty between 1946 and 1951.
Born in Penrhiwceiber, Glamorganshire, Hall started work at the Penrikyber colliery at 12 years of age. He continued to work as a collier until appointed checkweigher in 1911, and then to act as checkweigher Local Agent at the South Wales Miners' Federation until elected to Parliament in 1922.
Hall was Member of Parliament (MP) for Aberdare from 1922 to 1946 and served under Ramsay MacDonald as a Civil Lord of the Admiralty from 1929 to 1931, under Winston Churchill as Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies from 1940 to 1942, as Financial Secretary to the Admiralty from 1942 to 1943 and as Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs from 1943 to 1945 and under Clement Attlee as Secretary of State for the Colonies from 1945-1946. He was appointed a Privy Counsellor in 1942 and on retirement from the House of Commons in 1946 he was raised to the peerage as Viscount Hall, of Cynon Valley in the County of Glamorgan, He then served as First Lord of the Admiralty under Attlee from 1946 to 24 1951 and as Deputy Leader of the House of Lords from 1947 to 1951.
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George Isaacs
George Alfred Isaacs JP DL (28 May 1883 – 26 April 1979) was a British politician and trades unionist who served in the government of Clement Attlee.
Isaacs was born in Finsbury to a Methodist family. He married Flora Beasley (1884–1962), daughter of Richard William Beasley and Mary Ann Brett, in 1905. He worked as a printer and became active in trade union organising early in life, becoming General Secretary of the National Society of Operative Printers and Assistants (NATSOPA) from 1909. This post, which he held for forty years, also took him onto the General Council of the Trades Union Congress. He was also active in the Labour Party.
He became involved in local politics in Southwark and was Mayor of the Borough of Southwark from 1919 to 1921. In the 1922 general election he fought Gravesend and was narrowly defeated; he was readopted to fight the seat in the 1923 election and won it from the Conservatives with a majority of 119. He served as Parliamentary Private Secretary to Jimmy Thomas, who was Secretary of State for the Colonies.
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George Lathan
George Lathan (5 August 1875 – 14 June 1942) was a British trade unionist and politician. He was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Sheffield Park from 1929 to 1931 and from 1935 until his death.
Lathan worked on the railways where he became an active trade unionist and joined the Independent Labour Party. He became President of the Railway Clerks Association from 1906 until 1912, when he became its Chief Assistant Secretary, a post he held until 1937.
Lathan also joined the Labour Party, and at the 1918 general election, stood unsuccessfully in Watford. From 1921 until 1936, Lathan was a member of the Railways National Wages Board. From 1921 until 1937, he was the President of the National Federation of Professional Workers.
Lathan continued to stand for Parliament. In 1922 he was defeated in Enfield, then in 1923 and 1924 he stood in Sheffield Park, finally winning the seat in 1929. He lost the seat in 1931, but retook it in 1935. He served as the Chairman of the Labour Party National Executive Committee in 1931/2 and party treasurer from 1936 until his death.
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George Nicoll Barnes
George Nicoll Barnes CH PC (2 January 1859 – 21 April 1940) was a Scottish politician and a leader of the Labour Party.
Barnes was born in Lochee, Dundee, the second of five sons of James Barnes, a skilled engineer and mill manager from Yorkshire, and his wife, Catherine Adam Langlands. The family moved back to England and settled at Ponders End in Middlesex, where his father managed a jute mill in which George himself began working at the age of eleven, after attending a church school at Enfield Highway. He then spent two years as an engineering apprentice, first at Powis James of Lambeth then at Parker's foundry, Dundee. After finishing his apprenticeship he worked for two years at the Vickers shipyard in Barrow before returning once again to the London area, where he experienced unemployment during the slump of 1879. He had a number of short-term jobs before settling for eight years at Lucas and Airds in Fulham. In 1882 he married Jessie, daughter of Thomas Langlands, with whom he had two sons and a daughter.
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George VI
George VI (Albert Frederick Arthur George; 14 December 1895 – 6 February 1952) was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until his death. He was the last Emperor of India, and the first Head of the Commonwealth.
As the second son of King George V, he was not expected to inherit the throne and spent his early life in the shadow of his elder brother, Edward. He served in the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force during World War I, and after the war took on the usual round of public engagements. He married Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon in 1923, and they had two daughters, Elizabeth and Margaret.
George's elder brother ascended the throne as Edward VIII on the death of their father in 1936. However, later that year Edward revealed his desire to marry the divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson. British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin advised Edward that for political and religious reasons he could not marry Mrs Simpson and remain king. Edward abdicated in order to marry, and George ascended the throne as the third monarch of the House of Windsor.
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Gordon Brown
James Gordon Brown (born 20 February 1951) is a British Labour Party politician who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Labour Party from 2007 until 2010. He previously served as Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Labour Government from 1997 to 2007, becoming the longest-serving holder of that office in modern history. Brown has been a Member of Parliament (MP) since 1983, for Dunfermline East until 2005, and currently for Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath.
Brown became Prime Minister on 27 June 2007, after the resignation of Tony Blair and three days after becoming Leader of the governing Labour Party. His tenure ended on 11 May 2010, when he resigned as Prime Minister and Leader of the Labour Party. Brown was one of only three people to serve in the Cabinet continuously from Labour's victory in 1997 until its defeat in 2010, the others being Jack Straw and Alistair Darling.
Brown has a PhD in history from the University of Edinburgh and spent his early career working as a lecturer at a further education college and a television journalist. He has been a Member of Parliament since 1983; first for Dunfermline East and since 2005 for Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath. As Prime Minister, he also held the offices of First Lord of the Treasury and the Minister for the Civil Service.
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Goulash Communism
Goulash Communism (Hungarian: gulyáskommunizmus) or Kádárism (after János Kádár) refers to the variety of communism as practised in the Hungarian People's Republic from the 1960s until the collapse of Communism in Hungary in 1989. With elements of free market economics and an improved human rights record, it represented a quiet reform and deviation from the Stalinist principles Hungary clung to in the previous decade.
The name is a semi-humorous metaphor derived from "goulash", a popular Hungarian dish. As goulash is made with an assortment of unlike ingredients, it represents how Hungarian communism was a mixed ideology and no longer strictly communist. Sometimes described as "the happiest barrack in the socialist camp", Hungary in this particular period enjoyed many amenities not available to other communist countries in the Eastern bloc.
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H. H. Asquith
Herbert Henry Asquith, 1st Earl of Oxford and Asquith, KG, PC, KC (12 September 1852 – 15 February 1928) served as the Liberal Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1908 to 1916. He was the longest continuously serving Prime Minister in the 20th century until 5 January 1988.
As Prime Minister, he led his Liberal party to a series of domestic reforms, including social insurance and the reduction of the power of the House of Lords. He led the nation into the First World War, but a series of military and political crises led to his replacement in late 1916 by David Lloyd George. His falling out with Lloyd George played a major part in the downfall of the Liberal Party.
Before his term as Prime Minister he served as Chancellor of the Exchequer (1905–08) and as Home Secretary (1892–95). He was known as H. H. Asquith until his elevation to the peerage (1925), when he became Lord Oxford.
Asquith's achievements in peacetime have been overshadowed by his weaknesses in wartime. Many historians portray a vacillating Prime Minister, unable to present the necessary image of action and dynamism to the public. Others stress his continued high administrative ability. The dominant historical verdict is that there were two Asquiths: the urbane and conciliatory Asquith, who was a successful peacetime leader, and the hesitant and increasingly exhausted Asquith, who practised the politics of muddle and delay during the Great War.
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Harold Macmillan
Maurice Harold Macmillan, 1st Earl of Stockton, OM, PC, FRS (10 February 1894 – 29 December 1986) was Conservative Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 10 January 1957 to 18 October 1963.
Nicknamed 'Supermac' and known for his pragmatism, wit and unflappability, Macmillan achieved notoriety before the Second World War as a Tory radical and critic of appeasement. Rising to high office as a protégé of wartime Prime Minister Winston Churchill, he believed in the post-war settlement and the necessity of a mixed economy, and in his premiership pursued corporatist policies to develop the domestic market as the engine of growth. During his time as prime minister, average living standards steadily rose while numerous social reforms were carried out such as the 1956 Clean Air Act, the 1957 Housing Act, the 1960 Offices Act, the 1960 Noise Abatement Act, the Factories Act 1961, and the introduction of a graduated pension scheme to provide an additional income to retirees.
As a One Nation Tory of the Disraelian tradition, haunted by memories of the Great Depression, he championed a Keynesian strategy of public investment to maintain demand, winning a second term in 1959 with an increased majority on an electioneering budget. Benefiting from favourable international conditions, he presided over an age of affluence, marked by low unemployment and high if uneven growth. In his Bedford speech of July 1957 he told the nation they had 'never had it so good', but warned of the dangers of inflation, summing up the fragile prosperity of the 1950s.
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Harold Wilson
James Harold Wilson, Baron Wilson of Rievaulx, KG, OBE, FRS, FSS, PC (11 March 1916 – 24 May 1995) was a British Labour politician and Leader of the Labour Party. He was twice Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during the 1960s and 1970s, winning four general elections, including a minority government after the February 1974 general election resulted in a hung parliament. He is the most recent British Prime Minister to have served non-consecutive terms.
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Harriet Harman
Harriet Ruth Harman QC (Hon.) (born 30 July 1950), is a British Labour Party politician, who is the Member of Parliament (MP) for Camberwell and Peckham, and was MP for the predecessor Peckham constituency from 1982 to 1997. She was the interim Leader of the Labour Party and Leader of the Opposition from 11 May to 25 September 2010, until Ed Miliband took over the role.
In 2007, she was elected Deputy Leader of the Labour Party, and served in the Cabinet as Leader of the House of Commons, Lord Privy Seal, and Minister for Women and Equality from 2007 to 2010. Following the resignation of Gordon Brown as Prime Minister and Labour Leader on 11 May 2010 following his failure to win the general election (which ended in a hung parliament) five days earlier, Harman became interim Party Leader and interim Leader of the Opposition. She served in both roles until the Labour Party elected Ed Miliband Leader.
Miliband appointed her Shadow Secretary of State for International Development and in the 2011 reshuffle, Shadow Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport. She acts as stand-in Leader during Prime Minister's Questions during Milliband's absences, and shadows current Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg during Deputy Prime Minister's Questions. She is currently the longest continuously serving female MP in the House of Commons.
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Harry Nicholas
Herbert Richard Nicholas (13 March 1905–15 April 1997) was a trade unionist and political organiser.
Born in Bristol, Nicholas worked for the Port of Bristol Authority until 1936, when he took a full-time post in the Transport and General Workers' Union (TGWU). He moved to London to become National Officer in 1940, and in 1956 rose to become Assistant General Secretary. In the same year, he was elected to the National Executive Committee of the Labour Party, and from 1960 to 1964 he was the party treasurer, appointed in order to maximise trade union donations.
Frank Cousins, General Secretary of the TGWU, served as Minister of Technology from 1964 to 1966, and during this period, Nicholas became Acting General Secretary, also serving on the General Council of the Trades Union Congress. In 1967, he returned to the Labour NEC. He took early retirement from the union in 1968 to become General Secretary of the Labour Party, having been offered the post by Harold Wilson after several other candidates refused the position.
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Harry S. Truman
Harry S. Truman (May 8, 1884 – December 26, 1972) was the 33rd President of the United States (1945–1953). As President Franklin D. Roosevelt's third vice president and the 34th Vice President of the United States (1945), he succeeded to the presidency on April 12, 1945, when President Roosevelt died less than three months after beginning his unprecedented fourth term.
During World War I, Truman served in combat in France as an artillery officer in his National Guard unit. After the war, he joined the Democratic Party political machine of Tom Pendergast in Kansas City, Missouri. He was elected a county official and in 1934 United States senator. After he had gained national prominence as head of the wartime Truman Committee, Truman replaced vice president Henry A. Wallace as Roosevelt's running mate in 1944.
Truman faced many challenges in domestic affairs. The disorderly postwar reconversion of the economy of the United States was marked by severe shortages, numerous strikes, and the passage of the Taft–Hartley Act over his veto. He confounded all predictions to win election in 1948, helped by his famous Whistle Stop Tour of rural America. After his election, he passed only one of the proposals in his liberal Fair Deal program. He used executive orders to end racial discrimination in the armed forces and created loyalty checks that dismissed thousands of communist supporters from office.
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Hartley Shawcross
Hartley William Shawcross, Baron Shawcross, GBE, PC, KC (4 February 1902 – 10 July 2003) was a British barrister and politician and the lead British prosecutor at the Nuremberg War Crimes tribunal.
Hartley William Shawcross was born to John and Hilda Shawcross in Germany, whilst his father was teaching English at Giessen University. He was educated at Dulwich College, the London School of Economics and the University of Geneva and sat for the Bar at Gray's Inn, where he won first-class honours.
He joined the Labour Party at a young age, and served as Member of Parliament for St Helens, Lancashire from 1945 to 1958, holding the position of Attorney-General from 1945 to 1951. It was in 1946 when debating the repeal of anti-Union laws in the House of Commons that Shawcross allegedly said "We are the masters now,", a phrase that came to haunt him.
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Hastings Lees-Smith
Hastings Bertrand Lees-Smith PC (26 January 1878 – 18 December 1941) was a British Labour politician who was briefly in the cabinet as President of the Board of Education in 1931. He was the acting Leader of the Opposition and Leader of the Labour Party (as chairman of the Parliamentary Labour Party) from 1940 during the time Clement Attlee was in government.
Lees-Smith was from an Army family; his father was a Major in the Royal Artillery, and he was born in British India. He was educated Aldenham School, as a cadet at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and Queen's College, Oxford. Rejecting a military career for himself he chose academia and was appointed as a Lecturer in Public Administration at the London School of Economics in 1906; he remained there throughout his political career. He was also Chairman of the Executive Committee of Ruskin College, Oxford from 1907 to 1909. He resigned on appointment as Professor of Public Administration at the University of Bristol. In 1909 he went on an extended tour of India to lecture at Bombay on economics and advise on economics teaching; as a result of his experiences he wrote Studies in Indian Economics.[citation needed]
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Herbert Morrison
Herbert Stanley Morrison, Baron Morrison of Lambeth, CH, PC (3 January 1888 – 6 March 1965) was a British Labour politician; he held a various number of senior positions in the Cabinet, including Home Secretary, Foreign Secretary and Deputy Prime Minister.
Morrison was the son of a police constable and was born in Lambeth, London. As a baby he lost the sight in his right eye due to infection. Like many early Labour leaders, he had little in the way of formal education and left school at 14 to become an errand boy. His early politics were radical, and he briefly flirted with the Social Democratic Federation over the Independent Labour Party (ILP). As a conscientious objector, he worked in a market garden in Letchworth in World War I.
Morrison eventually became a pioneer leader in the London Labour Party. He was elected to the Metropolitan Borough of Hackney in 1919 when the Labour Party won control of the Borough, and he was Mayor in 1920–21. Morrison was a follower of Clapton Orient FC and became a shareholder in the club. He was elected to the London County Council (LCC) in 1922 and at the 1923 general election he became Member of Parliament (MP) for Hackney South, but lost that seat the following year when Ramsay MacDonald's first administration lost the general election.
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Hjalmar Branting
Karl Hjalmar Branting (help·info) (23 November 1860 – 24 February 1925) was a Swedish politician. He was the leader of the Swedish Social Democratic Party (1907–1925), and Prime Minister during three separate periods (1920, 1921–1923, and 1924–1925). When Branting came to power in 1920, he was the first Social Democratic Prime Minister of Sweden. When he took office for a second term after the general election of 1921, he became the first socialist politician in Europe to do so following elections with universal suffrage.
A professor's son, Branting was educated in Stockholm and at the University of Uppsala. He developed a scientific background in mathematical astronomy and was an assistant at the Stockholm Observatory, but gave up his devotion to scientific work to become a journalist in 1884 and began editing the newspapers Tiden and Social-Demokraten. His decision to publish an article by the more radical socialist Axel Danielsson - a piece denounced by opponents as insulting to religious sensitivities - resulted in political convictions for blasphemy and imprisonment for both men. Branting was imprisoned for three months in 1888.
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Hugh Dalton
Edward Hugh John Neale Dalton, Baron Dalton PC (16 August 1887 – 13 February 1962) was a British Labour Party politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1945 to 1947, when he was implicated in a political scandal involving budget leaks.
Born in Neath, in Wales, his father, John Neale Dalton, was chaplain to Queen Victoria and tutor to the future King.
Dalton was educated at Summer Fields School in Summertown, a suburb of Oxford, and then at Eton College, in the small town of Eton in Berkshire, where he was head of his house, but was disappointed not to be elected to "Pop". After leaving school he went up to King's College, Cambridge, where his socialist views, then very rare amongst undergraduates, earned him the nickname "Comrade Hugh". Whilst there, he made three unsuccessful attempts to be elected Secretary of the Cambridge Union.
He went on to study at the London School of Economics and the Middle Temple. During the First World War, he was called up into the Army Service Corps, later transferring to the Royal Artillery. He served as a Lieutenant on the French and Italian Fronts, where he was awarded the Italian decoration, the Medaglia di Bronzo al Valor Militare, in recognition of his 'contempt for danger' during the retreat from Caporetto; he later wrote a memoir of the war called With British Guns in Italy. Following demobilisation, he returned to the LSE and the University of London as a lecturer, where he was awarded a PhD for a thesis on the principles of public finance in 1920.
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Hugh Gaitskell
Hugh Todd Naylor Gaitskell, CBE (9 April 1906 – 18 January 1963) was a British Labour politician, who held Cabinet office in Clement Attlee's governments, and was the Leader of the Labour Party and Leader of the Opposition from 1955 until his death in 1963.
He was born in Kensington, London, the third and youngest child of Arthur Gaitskell (1870–1915), of the Indian Civil Service, and Adelaide Mary Gaitskell, née Jamieson (died 1956), whose father, George Jamieson, was consul-general in Shanghai. He was educated at the Dragon School from 1912 to 1919, at Winchester College from 1919 to 1924 and at New College, Oxford from 1924 to 1927, where he gained a first class degree in Philosophy, Politics and Economics in 1927.
His serious interest in politics came about as a result of the General Strike of 1926, and he lectured in economics for the Workers' Educational Association to miners in Nottinghamshire. Gaitskell moved to University College London in the early 1930s at the invitation of Noel Hall, and became head of the Department of Political Economy[citation needed] when Hall was appointed Director of the National Institute of Economic and Social Research in 1938. He also worked as a tutor at Birkbeck College.
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Ignacy Daszyński
Ignacy Ewaryst Daszyński [iɡˈnat͡sɨ daˈʂɨɲskʲi] ( listen) (26 October 1866, Zbarazh – 31 October 1936) was a Polish politician, journalist and Prime Minister of the Polish government created in Lublin in 1918.
He co-founded the Polish Social Democratic Party (Polish abbreviation: PPSD), a precursor to the Polish Socialist Party (PPS). He was also a founder in 1929 of the Centrolew (“Center-Left”). Although he supported Józef Piłsudski during the May 1926 Coup, he later joined the opposition to Piłsudski. From 1928 to 1930, he was Marshal of the Sejm.
As a journalist and underground activist, he used the pseudonyms Daszek, Żegota and Ignis.
Ignacy Daszyński was born on 26 October 1866 in Zbarazh in the Podolia region (now in Ternopil Oblast), which, following the Partitions of Poland, was then a part of the Austrian Empire. He came from a not very wealthy family of the gentry, one that cherished patriotic traditions. He was the son of Ferdynand Daszyński (1816–1875), an Austrian clerk, and Kamila, née Mierzewska (1834–1895). He had three brothers, one sister, and older half siblings from his father's first marriage.
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Igor Gouzenko
Igor Sergeyevich Gouzenko (January 13, 1919 – June 28, 1982) was a cipher clerk for the Soviet Embassy to Canada in Ottawa, Ontario. He defected on September 5, 1945, with 109 documents on Soviet espionage activities in the West. This forced Prime Minister Mackenzie King to call a Royal Commission to investigate espionage in Canada.
Gouzenko exposed Joseph Stalin's efforts to steal nuclear secrets, and the technique of planting sleeper agents. The "Gouzenko Affair" is often credited as a triggering event of the Cold War.
Gouzenko was born to a Ukrainian family on January 26, 1919, in the village of Rogachevo not far from Moscow. At the start of World War II, he joined the military where he trained as a cipher clerk. In 1943, he was stationed in Ottawa, where for two years he enciphered outgoing messages and deciphered incoming messages for the GRU. His position gave him knowledge of Soviet espionage activities in the West.
In 1945, hearing that he and his family were to be sent home to the Soviet Union and dissatisfied with the quality of life and the politics of his homeland, he decided to defect. Gouzenko walked out of the embassy door carrying with him a briefcase with Soviet code books and deciphering materials. He initially went to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, but the RCMP officers on duty refused to believe his story. He then went to the Ottawa Journal newspaper, but the paper's night editor was not interested, and suggested he go to the Department of Justice – however nobody was on duty at night when he arrived. Terrified that the Soviets had discovered his duplicity, he went back to his apartment and hid his family in the apartment across the hall for the night. Gouzenko, hidden by a neighbour, watched through the keyhole as a group of Soviet agents broke into his apartment. They began searching through his belongings, and only left when confronted by Ottawa police.
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J. R. Clynes
John Robert Clynes (27 March 1869 – 23 October 1949) was a British trade unionist and Labour Party politician. He was a Member of Parliament (MP) for 35 years, and led the party in its breakthrough at the 1922 general election. He was the first Englishman to serve as leader of the Labour Party
The son of a labourer named Patrick Clynes, he was born in Oldham, Lancashire, and began work in a local cotton mill when he was 10 years old. At the age of 16, he wrote a series of articles about child labour in the textile industry, and a year later he helped form the Piercers' Union.
In 1892, Clynes became an organiser for the Lancashire Gasworkers' Union and came in contact with the Fabian Society. Having joined the Independent Labour Party, he attended the 1900 conference where the Labour Representation Committee was formed; this committee soon afterwards became the Labour Party.
Clynes stood for the new party in the 1906 general election and was elected to Parliament for Manchester North East, becoming one of Labour's bright stars. In 1910 he became the party's deputy chairman.
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Jack Dormand
John Donkin Dormand, Baron Dormand of Easington (27 August 1919 – 18 December 2003), known as Jack Dormand, was a British educationist and Labour Party politician from the coal mining area of Easington in County Durham, in the north-east of England. He was Member of Parliament (MP) for the Easington constituency from 1970 until his retirement in 1987.
Described as an "old-style centre-right socialist", Dormand was a working-class child who progressed through grammar school education to study at Oxford and Harvard to a career as an educational administrator before entering Parliament at the age 50, where he was noted as an advocate for education and for mining areas. He never achieved ministerial office, but as a skilled administrator he played a significant role as a government whip in the 1970s, and as Chair of the Parliamentary Labour Party when the party was in opposition in the 1980s. An atheist and a staunch republican, he reluctantly accepted a life peerage when he retired from the House of Commons and was an active working peer until his death 16 years later.
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Jack Dromey
Jack Dromey (born 21 September 1948) is a British Labour Party politician and trade unionist, who has been the Member of Parliament (MP) for Birmingham Erdington since 2010 General Election. He was appointed Shadow Minister for Communities and Local Government in the Ed Miliband shadow frontbench and serves as the Chair of the All-Party Parliamentary Group on Migration.
He was previously the Deputy General Secretary of the Transport and General Workers Union and the Treasurer of the Labour Party. He was also, for some time, the Secretary of the Brent Trades Council, including when it organised the Grunwick Dispute in 1977. He is married to Harriet Harman, currently the Deputy Leader of the Labour Party and Shadow International Development Secretary.
Dromey was born to Irish parents in Brent and raised in Kilburn, London.
Dromey married Harriet Harman in 1982 in the borough of Brent, after meeting her on the picket line of the Grunwick dispute in 1977; Harman was legal advisor to the Grunwick Strike Committee. They have two sons (born February 1983 and November 1984) and a daughter (born January 1987). Labour colleague Patricia Hewitt is godmother to one of their children. They have a house in Suffolk, in addition to a home in Herne Hill, South London.
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Jack Lawson
John James "Jack" Lawson, 1st Baron Lawson PC (16 October 1881 – 3 August 1965), was a British trade unionist and a Labour politician. A miner and later Member of Parliament in County Durham, he served in the governments of Ramsay MacDonald and Clement Attlee.
Lawson was born in the port town of Whitehaven, Cumberland, and grew up in the nearby village of Kells. His father John Lawson was a sailor and miner who had begun working in a colliery by the age of nine, sailed round the world by eleven, and later served in the Royal Naval Reserve. His mother, Lisbeth Savage, was a strict disciplinarian. Both parents were illiterate and the family lived in extremes of poverty common at the time. At the age of three, Lawson was sent to the local National School, Glass House School. Here, he learned to read, developing an avid interest in popular fiction as a boy, and moving on to literary fiction and poetry in later years. When he was six his family moved to the village of Flimby, near the towns of Maryport and Workington. The family now included ten children: five boys and five girls. Two of his elder brothers worked with his father at the local colliery and the family was no longer on the breadline. A year later, they moved to County Durham, where the working members were employed at Boldon Colliery. The family joined the Co-operative Society, and were committed trade unionists, active in the Durham miners' strike of 1892. Outside of school, Jack Lawson's time was consumed with chores and he often looked after his youngest brother, Will, born in 1890.
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James Callaghan
Leonard James Callaghan, Baron Callaghan of Cardiff, KG, PC (27 March 1912 – 26 March 2005), was a British Labour politician who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1976 to 1979 and Leader of the Labour Party from 1976 to 1980. Commonly known as Jim Callaghan (and nicknamed "Sunny Jim", "Gentleman Jim", "Lucky Jim" or "Big Jim"), Callaghan is the only person to have served in all four of the Great Offices of State: Prime Minister, Chancellor of the Exchequer, Home Secretary and Foreign Secretary.
Callaghan was Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1964 to 1967 during a turbulent period in the British economy in which he had to wrestle with a balance of payments deficit and speculative attacks on the pound sterling. In November 1967, the Government was forced to devalue the pound sterling despite having already denied this would be done, both publicly and to the House of Commons. Callaghan offered to resign, but was persuaded to swap his ministerial post with Roy Jenkins, becoming Home Secretary from 1967 to 1970. In that capacity, Callaghan took the decision to use the Army to support the police in Northern Ireland, after a request from the Northern Ireland Government.
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James Henry Thomas
James Henry "Jimmy" Thomas (3 October 1874 – 21 January 1949) was a British trade unionist and Labour (later National Labour) politician. He was involved in a political scandal involving budget leaks.
Thomas was born in Newport, Monmouthshire, the son of a young unmarried mother. He was raised by his grandmother and began work at twelve years of age, soon starting a career as a railway worker. He became an official of the Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants and in 1913 helped to organize its merger with two smaller trade unions on the railways to form the National Union of Railwaymen (now part of the RMT). Thomas was elected NUR general secretary in 1917, a post he held until 1931.
Thomas was General Secretary during the successful national rail strike of 1919 that was jointly called by the NUR and ASLEF against proposed wage reductions. In 1921 Thomas played a leading role in the Black Friday crisis, in which rail and transport unions failed to come to the aid of the mineworkers, who were facing wage reductions. Before the 1926 General Strike the TUC asked Thomas to negotiate with Stanley Baldwin's Conservative Government, but the talks were unsuccessful and the strike went ahead.
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Jawaharlal Nehru
Jawaharlal Nehru (IPA: [dʒəʋaːɦərˈlaːl ˈneːɦru] ( listen), Hindi: जवाहरलाल नेहरू; 14 November 1889 – 27 May 1964), often referred to with the epithet of Panditji, was an Indian lawyer, politician and statesman who became the first Prime Minister of independent India (1947–64) and became noted for his “neutralist” policies in foreign affairs. He was also one of the principal leaders of India’s independence movement in the 1930s and ’40s. Nehru was elected by the Indian National Congress to assume office as independent India's first Prime Minister, and re-elected when the Congress Party won India's first general election in 1951 and 1952. Nehru contributed to the establishment of a parliamentary democracy in India and was one of the founders of the international Non-Aligned Movement.
The son of moderate nationalist leader and Congressman Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru became a leader of the left wing of the Congress when fairly young. Rising to become Congress President under the mentorship of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Nehru was a charismatic leader, advocating complete independence for India from the British Empire. Throughout his life, Nehru advocated Democratic Socialism/Fabian Socialism and a strong public sector as the means by which economic development could be pursued by poorer nations. He was the father of Indira Gandhi and the maternal grandfather of Rajiv Gandhi, who would later serve as the third and sixth Prime Ministers of India respectively.
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Jean Jaurès
Jean Léon Jaurès (French pronunciation: [ʒɑ̃ ʒɔ.ʁɛs]; full name Auguste Marie Joseph Jean Léon Jaurès; 3 September 1859 – 31 July 1914) was a French Socialist leader. Initially an Opportunist Republican, he evolved into one of the first social democrats, becoming the leader, in 1902, of the French Socialist Party, which opposed Jules Guesde's revolutionary Socialist Party of France. The two parties merged in 1905 in the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO). An antimilitarist, Jaurès was assassinated at the outbreak of World War I, and remains one of the main historical figures of the French Left.
The son of an unsuccessful businessman and farmer, Jean Jaurès was born in Castres (Tarn), in a modest French provincial bourgeois family. He was the first cousin once removed of the admiral and senator Benjamin Jaurès, who was named Minister of the Navy and Colonies in 1889, and of the admiral Charles Jaurès. His younger brother, Louis, also became an admiral and a Republican-Socialist deputy.
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John Major
Sir John Major, KG, CH, PC, ACIB (born 29 March 1943) is a British Conservative politician, who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Conservative Party from 1990 to 1997. He held the posts of Foreign Secretary and Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Cabinet of Margaret Thatcher and was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Huntingdon from 1979 to 2001.
Despite Thatcher's "notorious" assertion that "she expected to continue in control as a backseat driver," Major's mild and consensual style was seen as complete contrast to Thatcher's forceful and confrontational manner. Early in his term, he presided over British participation in the First Gulf War (March 1991) and negotiated "Game, Set and Match for Britain" at the Maastricht Treaty (December 1991). Despite the British economy then being in recession he led the Conservatives to a fourth consecutive election victory, winning the most votes in British electoral history in the 1992 general election, albeit with a much reduced majority in the House of Commons. He is to date, the last Conservative leader to win an outright majority in a general election.
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John Maynard Keynes
John Maynard Keynes, 1st Baron Keynes,CB FBA ( /ˈkeɪnz/ KAYNZ; 5 June 1883–21 April 1946) was a British economist whose ideas have profoundly affected the theory and practice of modern macroeconomics, as well as the economic policies of governments. He greatly refined earlier work on the causes of business cycles, and advocated the use of fiscal and monetary measures to mitigate the adverse effects of economic recessions and depressions. His ideas are the basis for the school of thought known as Keynesian economics, as well as its various offshoots.
In the 1930s, Keynes spearheaded a revolution in economic thinking, overturning the older ideas of neoclassical economics that held that free markets would, in the short to medium term, automatically provide full employment, as long as workers were flexible in their wage demands. Keynes instead argued that aggregate demand determined the overall level of economic activity, and that inadequate aggregate demand could lead to prolonged periods of high unemployment. Following the outbreak of World War II, Keynes's ideas concerning economic policy were adopted by leading Western economies. During the 1950s and 1960s, the success of Keynesian economics resulted in almost all capitalist governments adopting its policy recommendations.
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John Nott
Sir John William Frederic Nott KCB (born 1 February 1932 in Bideford, Devon) is a former British Conservative Party politician prominent in the late 1970s and early 1980s. He featured heavily in the public eye as Secretary of State for Defence during the Argentine invasion of the Falkland Islands and the subsequent Falklands War.
The son of Richard Nott and Phyllis née Francis, Nott was educated at Bradfield College and was commissioned as a regular officer in the 2nd Gurkha Rifles in Malaysia (1952–1956). He left to study law and economics at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was President of the Cambridge Union Society. At Cambridge he met his future wife Miloshka, herself a refugee from Communist Slovenia (Yugoslavia). They have two sons and a daughter.
Nott was Member of Parliament for St Ives in Cornwall from 1966 to 1983. Interestingly, John Nott was the last person to commence his parliamentary career under the nearly obsolete National Liberal label. The National Liberals were formally absorbed by the Conservatives in 1968 and Nott then sat as a Conservative MP.
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John Prescott
John Leslie Prescott, Baron Prescott (born 31 May 1938) is a British politician who was the Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1997 to 2007. Born in Prestatyn, Wales, he represented Hull East as the Labour Member of Parliament from 1970 to 2010. In the 1994 leadership election, he stood for both Leader and Deputy Leader of the Labour Party, winning election to the latter office. He was appointed Deputy Prime Minister after Labour's victory in the 1997 election, with an expanded brief as Secretary of State for the Environment, Transport and the Regions.
A former ship's steward and trade union activist, by the 1980s he was presented as the political link to the working class in a Labour Party increasingly led by modernising, middle-class professionals. In his youth, Prescott managed to overcome the handicap of failing his 11-plus entrance examination for grammar school, going on to graduate from Ruskin College in Oxford. Prescott also developed a reputation as a key conciliator in the often tense relationship between Prime Minister Tony Blair and Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown.
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John Robert Clynes
John Robert Clynes (27 March 1869 – 23 October 1949) was a British trade unionist and Labour Party politician. He was a Member of Parliament (MP) for 35 years, and led the party in its breakthrough at the 1922 general election. He was the first Englishman to serve as leader of the Labour Party
The son of a labourer named Patrick Clynes, he was born in Oldham, Lancashire, and began work in a local cotton mill when he was 10 years old. At the age of 16, he wrote a series of articles about child labour in the textile industry, and a year later he helped form the Piercers' Union.
In 1892, Clynes became an organiser for the Lancashire Gasworkers' Union and came in contact with the Fabian Society. Having joined the Independent Labour Party, he attended the 1900 conference where the Labour Representation Committee was formed; this committee soon afterwards became the Labour Party.
Clynes stood for the new party in the 1906 general election and was elected to Parliament for Manchester North East, becoming one of Labour's bright stars. In 1910 he became the party's deputy chairman.
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Joseph Stalin
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин; born Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili, Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Джугашвили; 18 December 1878 – 5 March 1953) was the Premier of the Soviet Union from 6 May 1941 to 5 March 1953. He was among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who brought about the October Revolution in Russia in 1917 and later held the position of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953. While the office of the General Secretary was officially elective and not initially regarded as the top position in the Soviet state, Stalin managed to use it to consolidate more and more power in his hands after the death of Vladimir Lenin in 1924 and gradually put down all opposition groups within the Communist Party. This included Leon Trotsky, a socialist theorist and the principal critic of Stalin among the early Soviet leaders, who was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929. Whereas Trotsky was an exponent of permanent revolution, it was Stalin's concept of socialism in one country that became the primary focus of Soviet politics.
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Joseph Westwood
Joseph Westwood PC (11 February 1884 – 17 July 1948) was a Scottish Labour politician.
Educated at Buckhaven Higher Grade School, he worked as a draper's apprentice, messenger boy and miner. Westwood was an Industrial Organiser for Fife miners from 1916–18 and a political organiser for Scottish Miners from 1918 to 1929.
Westwood was elected as Member of Parliament (MP) for Peebles and Southern Midlothian from November 1922 until his defeat in October 1931. He was an unsuccessful candidate for East Fife in February 1933 and was elected for Stirling and Falkirk in 1935, for which he sat until his death.
He was Parliamentary Private Secretary to William Adamson as Secretary of State for Scotland from June 1929, and served as Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Scotland from March to August 1931 and again from May 1940 until May 1945. He was Secretary of State for Scotland from July 1945 until October 1947. He was appointed a Privy Counsellor in 1943.
He died in a car accident in 1948. His is buried in Dysart Cemetery, by Kirkcaldy in Fife, together with his wife.
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Keir Hardie
James Keir Hardie, Sr. (15 August 1856 – 26 September 1915), was a Scottish socialist and labour leader, and was the first Independent Labour Member of Parliament elected to the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Hardie is regarded as one of the primary founders of the Independent Labour Party as well as the Labour Party of which it later was a part.
James Keir Hardie was born 15 August 1856 in a one-roomed cottage on the western edge of Newhouse, North Lanarkshire, near Holytown, a small town close to Motherwell in Scotland. His mother, Mary Keir, was a domestic servant and his father, David Hardie, was a ship's carpenter. The growing family soon moved to the shipbuilding district of Glasgow, where they made a life in a very difficult financial situation, with his father attempting to maintain continuous employment in the shipyards rather than practicing his trade at sea — never an easy proposition given the boom-and-bust cycle of the industry.
Hardie's first job came at the early age of 7, when he was put to work as a message boy for the Anchor Line Steamship Company. Formal schooling henceforth became impossible, but his parents spent evenings teaching him to read and write, skills which proved essential for future self-education. A series of low-paying entry-level jobs followed for the boy, including work as an apprentice in a brass-fitting shop, work for a lithographer, employment in the shipyards heating rivets, and time spent as a message boy for a baker for which he earned 4½ shillings a week.
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Korean War
The Korean War (Korean: 한국전쟁 or 조선전쟁, Hanja: 韓國戰爭 or 朝鮮戰爭; 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953) was a war between the Republic of Korea (supported primarily by the United States of America, with contributions from allied nations under the aegis of the United Nations) and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (supported by the People's Republic of China, with military and material aid from the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). The Korean War was primarily the result of the political division of Korea by an agreement of the victorious Allies at the conclusion of the Pacific War at the end of World War II. The Korean Peninsula was ruled by the Empire of Japan from 1910 until the end of World War II. Following the surrender of the Empire of Japan in September 1945, American administrators divided the peninsula along the 38th parallel, with U.S. military forces occupying the southern half and Soviet military forces occupying the northern half.
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Larry Whitty
John Lawrence Whitty, Baron Whitty, PC (born 15 June 1943), known as Larry Whitty, is a British Labour Party politician.
Born in 1943, Whitty was educated at Latymer Upper School and graduated from St John's College, Cambridge with a BA (Hons) degree in Economics. He worked for Hawker Siddeley Aviation from 1960 to 1962 and at the Ministry of Aviation Technology from 1965 to 1970.
He was employed by the Trades Union Congress from 1970 to 1973 and the General Municipal Boilermakers and Allied Trade Union from 1973 to 1985.
In 1985, Whitty became the General Secretary of the Labour Party, a post he held until 1994. He was part of the reforming leadership of Neil Kinnock and in the role progressed a wide-ranging agenda including reform of internal rules, a shift towards a national membership scheme, the internal Policy Review and the expulsion of the entryist Militant Tendency. Whitty's period as General Secretary meant that he oversaw the 1987 and 1992 general elections and the election of John Smith and Tony Blair as Leaders of the Party. He was the European Co-ordinator for the Labour Party from 1994 to 1997.
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Leo Amery
Leopold Charles Maurice Stennett Amery CH (22 November 1873 – 16 September 1955), usually known as Leo Amery or L. S. Amery, was a British Conservative Party politician and journalist, noted for his interest in military preparedness, India, and the British Empire.
Leopold Amery was born in Gorakhpur, India to an English father and a Hungarian Jewish mother. His father was Charles Frederick Amery (1833–1901), of Lustleigh, Devon, an officer in the Indian Forestry Commission. His mother Elisabeth Johanna Saphir (c. 1841–1908), who was the sister of the orientalist Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner, had come to India from England, where her parents had settled and converted to Protestantism. In 1877 his mother moved back to England from India and in 1885 divorced Charles.
In 1887 Amery went to Harrow, where he was a contemporary of Winston Churchill. Amery represented Harrow at gymnastics and held the top position in examinations for a number of years, also winning prizes and scholarships.
After Harrow Amery went to Balliol College, Oxford, where he performed well: he gained a First at in classical moderations in 1894; in literae humaniores in 1896; he was proxime accessit (runner-up) to the Craven scholar in 1894 and Ouseley scholar in Turkish in 1896, also winning a half-blue in cross-country running.
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Liam Fox
Liam Fox (born 22 September 1961) is a British Conservative politician, Member of Parliament for North Somerset, and former Secretary of State for Defence.
Fox studied medicine at the University of Glasgow and worked as a GP and Civilian Army Medical Officer before being elected as an MP in 1992. After holding several ministerial roles in John Major's Conservative government, Fox served as Constitutional Affairs Spokesman (1998–1999), Shadow Health Secretary (1999–2003), Conservative Party chairman (2003–05), Shadow Foreign Secretary (2005) and Shadow Defence Secretary (2005–10).
Fox stood unsuccessfully in the 2005 Conservative leadership election. In 2010, he was appointed Secretary of State for Defence, a position from which he resigned on 14 October 2011 over allegations that he had given a close friend, lobbyist Adam Werritty, access to the Ministry of Defence and allowed him to join official trips overseas.
Fox was born and raised in East Kilbride, Scotland and brought up in a council house that his parents later bought. Along with his brother and two sisters he was educated in the state sector; he attended St. Bride's High School. He studied medicine at the University of Glasgow Medical School, graduating with MB ChB degrees in 1983. Fox is a general practitioner (he was a GP in Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire, before his election to Parliament), a former Civilian Army Medical Officer and Divisional Surgeon with St John Ambulance. He is a member of the Royal College of General Practitioners.
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Lord Beginner
Lord Beginner (real name: Egbert Moore) from Port-of-Spain in Trinidad was a popular exponent of the Caribbean musical form Calypso.
Helping to spark a renaissance of the genre in the 1940s and '50s, Lord Beginner recorded and toured in New York with other leading members of Trinidad's "Old Brigade" of calypsonians, before emigrating to England with fellow calypsonian Lord Kitchener in 1948. The pair arrived near London on the Empire Windrush, the first of many voyages conveying West Indians wishing to start a new life in Britain. Beginner began playing clubs throughout London and was a success, recording for the Parlophone label in 1950.
Two of Lord Beginner's more well known calypsos were "Victory Test Match" including the lyrics "Cricket, lovely cricket, at Lord's where I saw it" and "General Election". The first song was reputedly devised on the spot following the West Indies cricket team's victory against England at Lord's in 1950, inspiring Beginner and Lord Kitchener to begin a musical march from the ground to Piccadilly followed by dancing spectators. "General Election" was inspired by Clement Attlee's victory in the 1950 British general election.
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Malcolm MacDonald
Malcolm John MacDonald OM, PC (17 August 1901 – 11 January 1981) was a British politician and diplomat.
MacDonald was the son of Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald and Margaret MacDonald. Like his father he was born in Lossiemouth, Moray. Similarly, he was initially a Labour Member of Parliament (MP) who then joined the National Government and was consequently expelled from the Labour Party.
He was educated at Bedales School and Queen's College, Oxford.
MacDonald was first elected to Parliament for Bassetlaw in the 1929 general election and proved notable as a "loyal" son, in contrast to Conservative leader Stanley Baldwin's son Oliver who was also elected a Labour MP. In 1931 the Labour government broke up and MacDonald's father formed the National Government with representatives drawn from all political parties. Very few Labour members would support it however and so Malcolm was appointed to a junior ministerial post as Under-Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs. When the Labour MPs met to discuss the formation of the government, Malcolm was the only one present who spoke in favour of his father's actions and voted against a condemnatory resolution. MacDonald held his seat in the 1931 general election as a National Labour candidate, and continued to build up a reputation as a highly competent minister. When his father retired in 1935, the new Prime Minister, Stanley Baldwin, appointed Malcolm to the Cabinet for the first time as Secretary of State for the Colonies. His father had become Lord President of the Council and they became only the third father and son to sit together in the same Cabinet.
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Malcolm Rifkind
Sir Malcolm Leslie Rifkind KCMG, PC, QC, MP (born 21 June 1946) is a British Conservative Party politician and Member of Parliament for Kensington. He served in various roles as a cabinet minister under Prime Ministers Margaret Thatcher and John Major, including Secretary of State for Scotland (1986–1990), Defence Secretary (1992–1995) and Foreign Secretary (1995–1997).
Rifkind was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Edinburgh Pentlands from 1974 to 1997, when his party lost power and he lost his seat to the Labour Party. He attempted - unsuccessfully - to be re-elected in Pentlands in 2001; the constituency was abolished before the 2005 general election and he was adopted, and subsequently elected, as the Conservative candidate for Kensington and Chelsea. He announced his intention to seek the leadership of the party before the 2005 Conservative Party leadership election, but withdrew before balloting commenced. He was Chairman of the Standards and Privileges Committee of the House of Commons until the dissolution of the House of Commons on 12 April 2010. When the Kensington and Chelsea constituency was realigned to create the new seats of Chelsea and Fulham and Kensington, Rifkind stood for the latter seat and was elected at the 2010 general election with a 50.1% share of total votes cast, with a majority of 8,616 votes.
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Margaret Beckett
Margaret Mary Beckett (née Jackson; born 15 January 1943) is a British Labour Party politician who has been the Member of Parliament (MP) for Derby South since 1983, rising to become the Deputy Leader of the Labour Party under John Smith, from 18 July 1992 to 12 May 1994, and briefly serving as Leader of the Party following Smith's death. She later served in the Cabinet under Tony Blair, most notably being appointed Foreign Secretary in 2006.
Beckett was first elected to Parliament in 1974 and held junior positions in the governments of Harold Wilson and James Callaghan. She lost her seat in 1979 but returned to the House of Commons in 1983 and became a senior member of the Labour Party. She was elected Deputy Leader of the Labour Party in 1992 and was briefly its leader in 1994 following the premature death of John Smith, the first woman to occupy either role.
After Labour's victory in the 1997 general election, Beckett became a member of Tony Blair's Cabinet. Initially the President of the Board of Trade, she was later the Leader of the House of Commons and Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. In 2006, Blair appointed her Foreign Secretary, making her the first woman to hold the position, and—after Margaret Thatcher—the second woman to hold one of the Great Offices of State.
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Margaret Thatcher
Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, LG, OM, PC, FRS, née Roberts (born 13 October 1925) is a British politician and the longest-serving (1979–1990) British prime minister of the 20th century, and the only woman ever to have held the post. A Soviet journalist nicknamed her the "Iron Lady", which later became associated with her uncompromising politics and leadership style. As prime minister, she implemented conservative policies that have come to be known as Thatcherism.
Originally a research chemist before becoming a barrister, Thatcher was elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Finchley in 1959. Edward Heath appointed her Secretary of State for Education and Science in his 1970 government. In 1975 Thatcher defeated Heath in the Conservative Party leadership election and became Leader of the Opposition, as well as the first woman to lead a major political party in the United Kingdom. She became prime minister after winning the 1979 general election.
After entering 10 Downing Street, Thatcher introduced a series of political and economic initiatives to reverse what she perceived as Britain's precipitous national decline. Her political philosophy and economic policies emphasised deregulation (particularly of the financial sector), flexible labour markets, the privatisation of state-owned companies, and reducing the power and influence of trade unions. Thatcher's popularity during her first years in office waned amid recession and high unemployment, until economic recovery and the 1982 Falklands War brought a resurgence of support, resulting in her re-election in 1983. Thatcher was re-elected for a third term in 1987, but her Community Charge (popularly referred to as "poll tax") was widely unpopular and her views on the European Community were not shared by others in her Cabinet. She resigned as Prime Minister and party leader in November 1990, after Michael Heseltine launched a challenge to her leadership.
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Matt Carter
Matthew John Carter (born 22 March 1972) is Chief Executive Officer, Burson-Marsteller UK(B-M UK) and Chairman, Penn Schoen Berland, Europe Middle East and Africa. He is a former General Secretary of the British Labour Party.
Born near Grimsby, Carter studied at Sheffield University and the University of York, and has a DPhil in Political History.
Carter was tutor in the Department of Politics at the University of York from 1994. He subsequently held a number of jobs in the Labour Party, including head of policy, local organiser for Teesside and Durham and regional organiser in South West England during the 2001 general election. As Assistant General Secretary, he set up Forethought, a policy think tank within the Party.
In 1997, Carter was a member of Labour's National Policy Forum and parliamentary candidate for the Vale of York. Matt Carter is Labour’s youngest General Secretary, appointed to the job aged 31 in December 2003. He took up office on 1 January 2004 succeeding David Triesman, and announced his resignation on 6 September 2005, following the 2005 general election victory.
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Maurice Shock
Sir Maurice Shock (born 15 April 1926) was a British university administrator and educationalist.
Maurice Shock was educated at King Edward VI Aston in Birmingham.
During his early career, Maurice Shock worked for British intelligence. He was a Fellow of University College, Oxford and was later made an Honorary Fellow of the college.
Maurice Shock served as the Vice-Chancellor at the University of Leicester from 1977 to 1987 and then became Rector of Lincoln College, Oxford until 1994. Maurice Shock was a member of the UK General Medical Council from 1989–99). The Maurice Shock Building for medical sciences at the University of Leicester was named after him.
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Michael Foot
Michael Mackintosh Foot, FRSL, PC (23 July 1913 – 3 March 2010) was a British Labour Party politician, journalist and author, who was a Member of Parliament (MP) from 1945 to 1955 and from 1960 until 1992. He was deputy leader of the Labour Party from 1976 to 1980, and later became the Leader of the Opposition from 1980 to 1983.
Associated with the Labour left for most of his career, he was a supporter of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament and British withdrawal from the European Economic Community. He was first promoted to Cabinet as Employment secretary under Harold Wilson in 1974, and later served as Leader of the House of Commons under James Callaghan. A passionate orator, he was Labour leader at the 1983 general election when the party received its lowest share of the vote since 1918.
His parallel career as a journalist included appointments as editor of Tribune, on several occasions, and the Evening Standard newspaper. Among the books he authored are Guilty Men (an attack on Neville Chamberlain and others for the policy of appeasement), a biography of Jonathan Swift (The Pen and the Sword, 1957) and a biography of Aneurin Bevan.
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Michael Heseltine
Michael Ray Dibdin Heseltine, Baron Heseltine, CH, PC (born 21 March 1933) is a British businessman, Conservative politician and patron of the Tory Reform Group. He was a Member of Parliament from 1966 to 2001 and was a prominent figure in the governments of Margaret Thatcher and John Major. In 1990, he stood for leadership of the Conservative Party against Margaret Thatcher, and whilst he was unsuccessful, this triggered Thatcher's eventual resignation.
A self-made millionaire, Heseltine entered parliament in 1966, entered the Cabinet in 1979 as Secretary of State for the Environment, and was Secretary of State for Defence from 1983 to 1986. In the latter role, he was instrumental in the political battle against the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. Heseltine was widely considered an adept media performer and charismatic Minister, although frequently at odds with Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher. He resigned from the Cabinet in 1986 over the Westland Affair and returned to the backbenches. Following Geoffrey Howe's resignation speech in November 1990, Heseltine challenged the incumbent Margaret Thatcher for the leadership of the Conservative Party, polling well enough to deny her an outright victory on the first ballot. Following her resignation in a dramatic Tory "palace coup", Heseltine returned to the Cabinet under her successor John Major.
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Michael Portillo
Michael Denzil Xavier Portillo (born 26 May 1953) is a British journalist, broadcaster, and former Conservative Party politician and Cabinet Minister. Portillo was first elected to the House of Commons in a by-election in 1984; a strong admirer of Margaret Thatcher, and a Eurosceptic, Portillo served as a junior minister under both Thatcher and John Major, before entering the cabinet in 1992. Seen as a likely challenger to Major during the 1995 Conservative leadership election, Portillo ultimately stayed loyal. As Defence Secretary, Portillo pressed for a purist Thatcherite course of "clear blue water", separating the policies of the Conservatives from Labour.
Portillo unexpectedly lost his Enfield Southgate seat at the 1997 general election; political commentators widely believe that he would have been elected Conservative leader had he retained it. Returning to the Commons through a by-election in Kensington and Chelsea in 1999, Portillo rejoined the front bench as Shadow Chancellor, although his relationship with Conservative Leader William Hague was strained. Standing for the leadership of the party in 2001, Portillo came a narrow third place behind Iain Duncan Smith and Kenneth Clarke. Portillo retired from the Commons at the 2005 general election, and has since pursued his media interests, presenting a wide range of television and radio programmes.
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Morgan Phillips
Morgan Walter Phillips (18 June 1902-15 January 1963) was a colliery worker and trade union activist who became the General Secretary of the British Labour Party, involved in two of the party's election victories.
Born in Aberdare, Glamorgan, one of the six children of William Phillips, Phillips was brought up in Bargoed. He left school when he was 12 to become a colliery surface worker.
When he was 18, Phillips became a member of the Caerphilly divisional Labour Party, and served as secretary of the party in Bargoed, 1923-25. He was chairman of the Bargoed Steam Coal Lodge, 1924-26. He was able to attend the Labour College, London for a two-year course in economic and social subjects. He remained in London and became secretary of the Labour Party in West Fulham, 1928-30. and later in Whitechapel, 1934-37. He became a councillor on Fulham borough council, 1934-37. In Fulham Labour Party he met Norah Lusher, later Baroness Phillips, whom he married in 1930. They had a son and a daughter. The latter, Gwyneth Dunwoody, was a long-serving Labour MP from 1964 until her death in 2008.
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Mozambican Civil War
The Mozambican Civil War began in 1977, two years after the end of the war of independence. The ruling party, Front for Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) and the national armed forces FAM (Armed Forces of Mozambique), was violently opposed from 1977 by the Rhodesian- and (later) South African-funded Mozambique Resistance Movement (RENAMO). About 1 000 000 people died in fighting and from starvation, five million civilians were displaced, many were made amputees by landmines, a legacy from the war that continues to plague Mozambique. Fighting ended in 1992 and the country's first multi-party elections were held in 1994.
Mozambican resistance began to surface, as some groups within the Mozambican society eventually started to blame the Portuguese authorities for centuries of exploitation, oppression and neglect.[citation needed] After a successful wave of independence movements in other African territories, cold war powers and the international community started to suggest that Portugal should leave its territories in Africa. Sentiment for Mozambique's own national independence developed and on 25 June 1962 several Mozambican anti-Portuguese political groups formed the Mozambique Liberation Front (FRELIMO) in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania.
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Neil Kinnock
Neil Gordon Kinnock, Baron Kinnock (born 28 March 1942) is a British politician belonging to the Labour Party. He served as a Member of Parliament from 1970 until 1995 and as Labour Leader and Leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition from 1983 until 1992—his leadership of the party during nearly nine years (all in opposition) making him the longest serving opposition leader in British political history.
Following Labour's defeat in the 1992 election, Kinnock resigned as party leader and after his departure from the House of Commons three years later served as a European Commissioner from 1995–2004. Until the summer of 2009 he was the Chairman of the British Council. Kinnock served as President of Cardiff University from 1998 until 2009. Today, he is regarded as one of Labour's elder statesmen.
Kinnock, an only child, was born in Tredegar, Wales. His father Gordon Herbert Kinnock was a coal miner who suffered from dermatitis and had to find work as a labourer; and his mother Mary Kinnock was a district nurse. Gordon died of a heart attack in November 1971 aged 64; Mary died the following month aged 61.
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Neville Chamberlain
Arthur Neville Chamberlain FRS (18 March 1869 – 9 November 1940) was a British Conservative politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from May 1937 to May 1940. Chamberlain is best known for his appeasement foreign policy, and in particular for his signing of the Munich Agreement in 1938, conceding the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia to Germany. When Adolf Hitler continued his aggression by invading Poland, Britain declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939, and Chamberlain led Britain through the first eight months of the Second World War.
After working in business and local government and after a short spell as Director of National Service in 1916 and 1917, Chamberlain followed his father and older half-brother in becoming a Member of Parliament in the 1918 general election at age 49. He declined a junior ministerial position, remaining a backbencher until 1922. He was rapidly promoted in 1923 to Minister of Health and then Chancellor of the Exchequer. After a short Labour-led government, he returned as Minister of Health, introducing a range of reform measures from 1924 to 1929. He was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer in the National Government in 1931.
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Nick Clegg
Nicholas William Peter "Nick" Clegg (born 7 January 1967) is the British Liberal Democrat Leader since 2007 and currently the Deputy Prime Minister and Lord President of the Council (with special responsibility for political and constitutional reform) in the coalition government of which David Cameron is the Prime Minister. Clegg has been the Leader of the Liberal Democrats since 2007, and a Member of Parliament (MP) representing Sheffield Hallam since 2005. He was previously a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) and an award winning journalist for the Financial Times.
Clegg was elected to the House of Commons at the 2005 general election and became the Liberal Democrats' Home Affairs spokesperson in 2006. Clegg became Deputy Prime Minister following the 2010 general election, when the Liberal Democrats formed a coalition government with the Conservative Party. As well as his parliamentary roles, Clegg has contributed to many pamphlets and books on political issues. He has also had a large number of jobs, including being a skiing instructor and working in the office of a bank in Helsinki.
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Norman Atkinson
Norman Atkinson (born 25 March 1923) is a British politician who served as Labour Member of Parliament for the London constituency of Tottenham from 1964 until 1987.
Manchester-born, Atkinson was educated at technical school and became a design engineer at Manchester University. He served as a councillor on Manchester City Council 1945-49. He contested Manchester Wythenshawe in 1955 and Altrincham and Sale in 1959, before being elected for Tottenham in the 1964 general election.
A member of Labour's National Executive Committee for five years, Atkinson also served as the party's national tresaurer. As treasurer, he clashed with Chancellor Denis Healey at the 1976 Labour Party Conference. He was a founding member of the Socialist Campaign Group.
He did not contest the 1987 general election, having been deselected by his constituency party (subsequent to boundary changes in 1983 which added roughly half of the old Wood Green constituency) in favour of Bernie Grant.
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Obafemi Awolowo
Jeremiah Obafemi Awolowo (Yoruba: Ọbáfẹ́mi Awólọ́wọ̀; March 6, 1909 – May 9, 1987),commonly known as Awo and often referred to as the sage, was a Nigerian economist,lawyer,journalist and founding father. His first name,Obafemi,means 'The king loves me' and the surname,Awolowo, means 'The mystic, or mysticism, commands honour or respect'. A Yoruba and native of Ikenne in Ogun State of Nigeria, he started his career as a nationalist in the Nigerian Youth Movement like some of his pre-independence contemporaries and was responsible for many of the progressive social legislations that have made Nigeria a modern nation. He was an active journalist and trade unionist as a young man, editing The Nigerian Worker amongst other publications while also organizing the Nigerian Produce Traders Association and serving as secretary of the Nigerian Motor Transport Union. After earning a Bachelor of Commerce degree in Nigeria from a London University through correspondence, he went to the UK where he earned a law degree from London School of Economics.While there,he founded the Egbe Omo Oduduwa, a pan-Yoruba cultural society,which set the stage for the formation of the Action Group,a liberal and nationalist political party.As Leader of the Group,he represented the Western Region in all the constitutional conferences intended to advance Nigeria on the path to independence. He was the first Leader of Government Business and Minister of Local Government and Finance and first Premier of the Western Region under Nigeria's parliamentary system, from 1952 to 1959, and was the official Leader of the Opposition in the federal parliament to the Balewa government from 1959 to 1963. In addition to all these, Awolowo was the first individual in the modern era to be referred to as Leader of the Yorubas (Yoruba:Asiwaju Omo Oodua), a title which has come over time to be conventionally ascribed to his direct successors as the recognised political leader of the elders and young members of the Yoruba clans of Nigeria.
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Oswald Mosley
Sir Oswald Ernald Mosley, 6th Baronet, of Ancoats, (16 November 1896 – 3 December 1980) was an English politician, known principally as the founder of the British Union of Fascists. He was a Member of Parliament for Harrow from 1918 to 1924 and for Smethwick from 1926 to 1931, as well as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in the Labour Government of 1929–1931.
Mosley was the eldest of three sons of Sir Oswald Mosley, 5th Baronet, of Ancoats (29 December 1873 - 21 September 1928), and wife Katharine Maud Edwards-Heathcote (1874–1950), the second child of Captain Justinian Edwards-Heathcote of Market Drayton, Shropshire. Mosley's family were Anglo-Irish. His branch were prosperous landowners in Staffordshire, seated at Rolleston Hall, near Burton-on-Trent. Through the intermarriage common among the British upper classes, the 5th Baronet was the third cousin of the Earl of Strathmore, which would eventually make Oswald Mosley, the 6th baronet, fourth cousin to Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, who was the Earl of Strathmore's daughter, and fourth cousin once removed to Queen Elizabeth II.
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Patrick Troughton
Patrick George Troughton (25 March 1920 – 28 March 1987) was an English actor most widely known for his roles in fantasy, science fiction and horror films, particularly in his role as the second incarnation of the Doctor in the long-running British science-fiction television series Doctor Who, which he played from 1966 to 1969, reappearing in 1973, 1983 and 1985. He was also the first actor to play Robin Hood on television.
Troughton was born on 25 March 1920 in Mill Hill, Middlesex, England to Alec George Troughton, a solicitor, and Dorothy Evelyn Offord, who married in 1914 in Edmonton, and had an elder brother, Alec Robert (1915–1994), and a younger sister, Mary Edith (1923–2005). Troughton attended Mill Hill School and continued to live in Mill Hill for most of his life. While at Mill Hill School, he acted in a production of J.B. Priestley's "Bees on the Boat Deck" in March 1937. His brother A.R. ('Robin') Troughton shared the 1933 Walter Knox Prize for Chemistry with the future Nobel Prize winner Francis Crick, who also attended Mill Hill School.
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Peaceful coexistence
Peaceful coexistence was a theory developed and applied by the Soviet Union at various points during the Cold War in the context of its ostensibly Marxist–Leninist foreign policy and was adopted by Soviet-influenced "Communist states" that they could peacefully coexist with the capitalist bloc (i.e., non-communist states). This was in contrast to the antagonistic contradiction principle that Communism and capitalism could never coexist in peace. The Soviet Union applied it to relations between the western world and in particular, the United States and NATO countries and the nations of the Warsaw Pact.
Debates over differing interpretations of peaceful coexistence were one aspect of the Sino-Soviet split in the 1950s and 1960s. During the 1960s and early 1970s, the People's Republic of China under the leadership of its founder, Mao Zedong, argued that a belligerent attitude should be maintained towards capitalist countries, and so initially rejected the peaceful coexistence theory as essentially Marxist revisionism. However, their decision in 1972 to establish a trade relationship with the United States also saw China cautiously adopting a version of the theory to relations between itself and non-socialist countries in the developing world. From that point through to the early 1980s and Socialism with Chinese characteristics, China increasingly extended its own peaceful coexistence concept to include all nations. Enver Hoxha also denounced this and turned against China as a result of China growing closer ties to the West such as 1972 Nixon visit to China and today Hoxhaist parties continue to denounce the concept of peaceful coexistence.
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Peter Hennessy
Peter John Hennessy, Baron Hennessy of Nympsfield, FBA (born 28 March 1947) is an English historian of government. Since 1992, he has been Attlee Professor of Contemporary British History at Queen Mary, University of London.
Hennessy is of Irish descent, the youngest of a large Catholic family. He was brought up in large council-requisitioned houses, first in Allandale Avenue and then in Lyndhurst Gardens, Finchley which typically fetch more than £2 million today. He attended the nearby Our Lady of Lourdes Primary School, and on Sundays he went to St Mary Magdalene Church, where he was an altar boy. He was a subject of the first episode of the BBC radio 4 series The House I Grew Up In first broadcast on 6 August 2007 in which he talked about his childhood.
Hennessy was educated at St Benedict's School, Ealing, west London. After his father's job led the family to move to the Cotswolds, he attended Marling School (a grammar school) in Stroud. He went on to attend St John's College, Cambridge where he was awarded a BA in 1969 and a PhD in 1990. Hennessy was a Kennedy Memorial Scholar at Harvard University from 1971-72.
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Peter Mandelson
Peter Benjamin Mandelson, Baron Mandelson, PC (born 21 October 1953) is a British Labour Party politician, who was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Hartlepool from 1992 to 2004, served in a number of Cabinet positions under both Tony Blair and Gordon Brown, and was a European Commissioner. He was a key architect in the rebranding of the Labour Party as "New Labour" and its subsequent landslide victory in the 1997 general election.
He twice resigned from Tony Blair's government while holding Cabinet positions. After his second resignation, he served as the European Commissioner for Trade from 2004 to 2008. He rejoined the government when he was made a life peer by the Queen and took his seat in the House of Lords on 13 October 2008.
Peter Mandelson was born in London in 1953, the son of Mary Joyce (née Morrison) and George Norman Mandelson. His father's family was Jewish, and his father was the advertising manager at The Jewish Chronicle. On his mother's side, he is the grandson of Margaret (Kent) and Herbert Morrison, the London County Council leader and Labour cabinet minister. He was educated at Hendon County Grammar School 1965–72. In 1966 he appeared on stage with the local amateur theatre group, the Hampstead Garden Suburb Dramatic Society as the eponymous lead in The Winslow Boy.
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Peter Watt
Peter Martin Watt (born 20 July 1969) was the General Secretary of the Labour Party in the United Kingdom from January 2006 until he resigned in November 2007 as a result of the Donorgate affair.
From 1989 to 1992 Watt trained as a nurse at a predecessor institution to Bournemouth University, then worked for Poole Hospital NHS Trust.
He is married and the father of five children as well as a foster carer.
From 1996 he worked for the Labour Party, first as a local organiser for Battersea and Wandsworth, then in Labour Party head office on election delivery and recruitment and then as Regional Director of the Eastern region. In 2004 he gained a Professional Certificate in Management from the Open University.
He returned to the Labour Party head office as Director of Finance and Compliance in 2005, a role that bridges legal and financial party issues and also usually includes a tacit role of enforcing party discipline and sorting out internal disputes. Viewed as loyal to the party leadership, he has on occasion come into conflict with the trade union movement over party policy and organisation, especially apparent at the Labour Party Conference in 2005.
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Philip Hammond
Philip Hammond MP (born 4 December 1955) is a British Conservative Party politician. He is the current Secretary of State for Defence in the Coalition government led by David Cameron, having succeeded Liam Fox on 14 October 2011. He previously served as Secretary of State for Transport from 13 May 2010, when he was appointed as a Privy Counsellor. He is the Member of Parliament (MP) for Runnymede and Weybridge.
Philip Hammond was born in Epping, Essex, the son of a civil engineer, he first attended Brookfield Junior school, further educated at Shenfield School (now Shenfield High School) in Brentwood, Essex, and University College, Oxford, where he was awarded a degree in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics.
He joined the medical equipment manufacturers Speywood Laboratories Ltd in 1977, becoming a director of Speywood Medical Limited in 1981. In 1982, an automatic electrocardiograph electrode manufacturing plant figured among his notable achievements. He left in 1983. From 1984, he was a director in Castlemead Ltd, and from 1993–95 he was a partner in CMA Consultants, and from 1994, a director in Castlemead Homes. He has had many business interests including house building and property, manufacturing, healthcare and oil and gas. He has undertaken various consulting assignments in Latin America for the World Bank in Washington, D.C., and was a consultant to the government of Malawi from 1995 until his election to Parliament.
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Philip Noel-Baker
Philip John Noel-Baker, Baron Noel-Baker (1 November 1889 – 8 October 1982) was a British politician, diplomat, academic, an outstanding amateur athlete, and renowned campaigner for disarmament who received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1959.
Philip John Baker was born in Hendon, to a Canadian-born Quaker father, Joseph Allen Baker, who moved to England to set up a manufacturing business and himself served on the London County Council and in the House of Commons. Educated at Bootham School and Ackworth School, York and then in the US at the Quaker-associated Haverford College in Pennsylvania, he attended King's College, Cambridge from 1910 to 1912. As well as being an excellent student, he became President of the Cambridge Union Society and the Cambridge University Athletic Club.
He was selected and ran for Britain at the Stockholm Olympic Games in 1912, and was team manager as well as a competitor for the British track team for the 1920 and 1924 Olympics. In 1920 at Antwerp he won a silver medal in the 1500 metres. The exploits of the British team at the 1924 Games in Paris were later made famous in the 1982 film Chariots of Fire, though Noel-Baker's part in such was not portrayed in that film.
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Ping Pong Diplomacy
Ping pong diplomacy refers to the exchange of table tennis (ping-pong) players between the United States and People's Republic of China (PRC) in the early 1970s. The event marked a thaw in U.S.–China relations that paved the way to a visit to Beijing by President Richard Nixon.
The U.S. Table Tennis team was in Nagoya, Japan in 1971 for the 31st World Table Tennis Championship on April 6 when they received an invitation to visit China. From the early years of the People's Republic, sports had played an important role in diplomacy, often incorporating the slogan "Friendship First, Competition Second". On April 10, 1971, the team and accompanying journalists became the first American sports delegation to set foot in the Chinese capital since 1949. The meeting was facilitated by the National Committee on United States – China Relations. Prior to the visit by the American table tennis players, eleven Americans were admitted into the PRC for one week because they all professed affiliation with the international Black Panther Party and China viewed the international organization as an organization fighting for human equality. This was unusual, given that high-profile American citizens such as Senator Eugene McCarthy expressed interest in visiting China after the 1968 presidential election, but even he could not have a trip arranged for him despite his office.
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Rab Butler
Richard Austen Butler, Baron Butler of Saffron Walden, KG CH DL PC (9 December 1902 – 8 March 1982), who invariably signed his name R. A. Butler and was familiarly known as Rab, was a British Conservative politician. Butler was one of only two British politicians (the other being John Simon, 1st Viscount Simon) to have served in three of the four Great Offices of State (Chancellor of the Exchequer, Home Secretary and Foreign Secretary) but never to have achieved the Premiership, for which he was twice passed over.
Butler was born in Attock Serai, Attock in India (now Punjab, Pakistan) to Sir Montagu Sherard Dawes Butler and his wife, Anne Gertrude (née Smith). His maternal uncles were Charles Aitchison Smith, Sir George Adam Smith and Sir James Dunlop Smith. His father later remarried and thus he gained a half-sister, Iris Mary Butler, who became Iris Portal upon her marriage.
Butler's was a family of Cambridge dons and Indian Governors; as a child his right arm was injured in a riding accident, leaving his hand never again fully functional. His limp handshake and inevitable lack of military experience (and stooping donnish manner at a time when many politicians were former officers) were political handicaps in later life. He was educated at Marlborough College and Pembroke College, Cambridge, where he was President of the Cambridge Union Society in the summer term of his third year; in March 1924, as a newly-elected President, he entertained the Opposition Leader Stanley Baldwin at a debate.
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Ramsay MacDonald
James Ramsay MacDonald, PC, FRS (12 October 1866 – 9 November 1937) was a British politician who was the first ever Labour Prime Minister, leading a minority government for two terms.
MacDonald entered Parliament at the 1906 General Election and had become chairman of the Labour MPs by 1914. His opposition to the First World War made him unpopular and he was defeated at the 1918 General Election, returning to Parliament at the 1922 General Election, at which Labour replaced the Liberals as the largest left-wing party in the UK. MacDonald was a powerful if woolly orator and by then had earned great public respect for his opposition to the war. His first government - formed with Liberal support - in 1924 lasted nine months, but was defeated at the 1924 General Election amidst allegations, now thought to have been fabricated, that his government was endorsed by the Soviet Foreign Minister Zinoviev.
Labour returned to power - this time as the largest party - in 1929 but was soon overwhelmed by the crisis of the Great Depression, in which the Labour government was split by demands for public spending cuts to preserve the Gold Standard. In 1931, he formed a National Government in which only two of his Labour colleagues agreed to serve and the majority of whose MPs were from the Conservatives. As a result, MacDonald was expelled from the Labour Party, which accused him of "betrayal". The Gold Standard soon had to be abandoned after the Invergordon Mutiny and MacDonald's National Government won a huge "doctor's mandate" at the 1931 General Election, at which the Labour Party was reduced to a rump of around 50 seats in the House of Commons.
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Richard Stokes
Major Sir Richard Rapier Stokes MC (27 January 1897–3 August 1957) was a British Labour politician who served briefly as Lord Privy Seal in 1951.
Stokes was educated at Downside School, the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich and Trinity College, Cambridge. He served in the Royal Artillery during World War I, winning the Military Cross and bar and the Croix de Guerre[disambiguation needed
]. He became chairman and managing director of the engineering firm Ransomes & Rapier Ltd. He was chairman and supporter of the School of Economic Science.
Stokes won the Ipswich seat in a 1938 by-election, which he kept in the 1945, 1950, 1951 and 1955 elections. He was known for his independence in parliament, including, with Bishop George Bell and fellow Labour Member of Parliament (MP) Alfred Salter, opposing area strategic bombing during World War II. Stokes was also a prominent critic of the inadequacy of Allied tank design. Prior to the war, he co-wrote a paper (with Andrew MacLaren and George Lansbury) analysing the economic forces menacing peace in Europe. After the RAF's bombing of Dresden on the night of 13 February and the early hours of 14 February, his questions in the House about the act, were in part responsible for the reappraisal of the Government's bombing policy in the last month of the war in Europe. He raised other issue after the war relating to Yalta and the forced repatriation of Yugoslavs, and the treatment of Dr George Chatterton-Hill in Germany.
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Robert Peel
Sir Robert Peel, 2nd Baronet (5 February 1788 – 2 July 1850) was a British Conservative statesman who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 10 December 1834 to 8 April 1835, and again from 30 August 1841 to 29 June 1846. While Home Secretary, Peel helped create the modern concept of the police force, leading to officers being known as "bobbies" (in England) and "Peelers" (in Northern Ireland). While Prime Minister after 1841, Peel repealed the Corn Laws and issued the Tamworth Manifesto (1834), leading to the formation of the Conservative Party out of the shattered Tory Party.
Peel was born in Bury, Lancashire, England, to the industrialist and Member of Parliament Sir Robert Peel, 1st Baronet. His father was one of the richest textile manufacturers of the early Industrial Revolution. Peel was educated first at Hipperholme Grammar School, then at Harrow School and finally Christ Church, Oxford, where he took a double first in classics and mathematics. He is also believed to have attended Bury Grammar School. While living in Tamworth, he is credited with the development of the Tamworth Pig by breeding Irish stock with some local Tamworth pigs.
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Robert Walpole
Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford, KG, KB, PC (26 August 1676 – 18 March 1745), known before 1742 as Sir Robert Walpole, was a British statesman who is generally regarded as having been the first Prime Minister of Great Britain. Although the position of "Prime Minister" had no recognition in law or official use at the time, Walpole is nevertheless acknowledged as having held the office de facto because of his influence within the Cabinet.
A Whig who was first elected in 1701, Walpole served during the reigns of George I and George II. His tenure is normally dated from 1721 when he obtained the post of First Lord of the Treasury; others date it from 1730 when, with the retirement of Lord Townshend, he became the sole and undisputed leader of the Cabinet. The "longer" version of the tenure is generally upheld by the contemporary press, most notably that of the opposition, who focused far more attention upon Walpole than his counterpart. Walpole continued to govern until his resignation in 1742 prompted by the Battle of Cartagena disaster, making his administration the longest in British history. Because of his homely ways and strong Norfolk roots, he was often known to both friends and detractors as the "fat old Squire of Norfolk."
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Ron Hayward
Ronald George Hayward CBE (27 June 1917–22 March 1996), known as Ron Hayward, was a leading activist in the British Labour Party.
Born near Chipping Sodbury in Oxfordshire, Hayward served in the Royal Air Force during World War II. At the end of the war, he became the Labour Party's secretary and agent in Banbury. In 1949 he moved to Kent, where he began a friendship with local MP Arthur Bottomley. The following year, Bottomley ensured his appointed as the party's London assistant regional organiser, and in 1959 he became organiser for the Southern region. He served in this role until 1969, when he became National Agent. In 1972, he narrowly defeated Gwyn Morgan to become General Secretary of the Labour Party.
As General Secretary, Hayward opposed entry to the Common Market and supported unilateral nuclear disarmament. He strongly supported the Chilean Revolution, and after its overthrow became friends with Hortensia Bussi, Allende's former wife. Privately, he was very critical of the Labour Party leadership's lack of response to the counter-revolution. In the 1980s he opposed the Militant Tendency, but was reluctant to expel its supporters from the party. He was fiercely opposed to the Gang of Four, who led the split which formed the Social Democratic Party.
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Roy Hattersley
Roy Sydney George Hattersley, Baron Hattersley FRSL (born 28 December 1932) is a British Labour politician, author and journalist from Sheffield. He served as Deputy Leader of the Labour Party from 1983 to 1992.
Roy Hattersley has been a socialist and Labour supporter from his youth, electioneering at the age of 12 for his local MP and city councillors, beginning in 1945. His own mother, Enid Hattersley, was a city councillor, and later, Lord Mayor of Sheffield (in 1981). Enid Hattersley kept the fact secret from her son (until he was in his 50s) that his father, who died an atheist, had been a Roman Catholic priest, Father Frederick Hattersley, and had renounced the Church to marry her.
He won a scholarship to Sheffield City Grammar School and went from there to study at the University of Hull. Having been accepted to read English at the University of Leeds, he was diverted into reading Economics when told by a Sheffield colleague of his mother that it was necessary for a political career.
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Roy Jenkins
Roy Harris Jenkins, Baron Jenkins of Hillhead OM, PC (11 November 1920 – 5 January 2003) was a British politician.
The son of a Welsh coal miner who later became a union official and Labour MP, Roy Jenkins served with distinction in World War II. Elected to Parliament as a Labour member in 1948, he served in several major posts in Harold Wilson's First Government. As Home Secretary from 1965–1967, he sought to build what he described as "a civilized society", with measures such as the effective abolition in Britain of capital punishment and theatre censorship, the decriminalisation of homosexuality, relaxing of divorce law, suspension of birching and the legalisation of abortion. As Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1967–1970, he pursued a tight fiscal policy later praised by Margaret Thatcher. In 1970, he was elected Deputy Leader of the Labour Party, but resigned in 1972 because he supported entry to the Common Market, while the party opposed it.
When Wilson re-entered government in 1974 Jenkins returned to the Home Office, but, increasingly disenchanted by the swing to the left of the Labour Party,[citation needed] he chose to leave British politics in 1976 and was appointed President of the European Commission in 1977, serving until 1981: he was the first and to date only British holder of this office. In 1981, dismayed with the Labour Party's continuing leftward drift, he was one of the "Gang of Four" - Labour moderates who formed the Social Democratic Party (SDP). In 1982 he won a famous by-election in a Conservative seat and returned to parliament; but after disappointment with the performance of the SDP in the 1983 election he resigned as SDP leader.
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Sam McCluskie
Sam McCluskie (11 August 1932–15 September 1995) was a British Labour Party politician and trade unionist. He came from Leith in Edinburgh. He followed Albert Booth as Treasurer of the Labour Party from 1984 to 1992. He was general secretary of the National Union of Seamen from 1986 up to the merger which formed the RMT in 1990. He held a post in that union but retired in 1991.
In 1988, McCluskie recorded a fundraising single with John Prescott.
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Selwyn Lloyd
John Selwyn Brooke Lloyd, Baron Selwyn-Lloyd CH PC CBE TD (28 July 1904 – 18 May 1978), known for most of his career as Selwyn Lloyd, was a British Conservative Party politician who served as Foreign Secretary from 1955 to 1960, then as Chancellor of the Exchequer until 1962. He was Speaker of the House of Commons from 1971 to 1976.
Lloyd was educated at Fettes College and Magdalene College, Cambridge, where he was President of the Cambridge Union and the Cambridge University Liberal Club. He was a Liberal Parliamentary candidate at Macclesfield in the 1929 general election, coming third.
He served as a councillor on Hoylake Urban District Council 1932–40.
During the Second World War he reached the rank of brigadier and was Deputy Chief of Staff of the British Second Army.
He was elected to the House of Commons to represent Wirral in the 1945 general election. Originally a Liberal, he became a member of the "Young Turks" faction of the Conservative Party.
When the Conservatives returned to power under Churchill in 1951, Lloyd served under Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden as Minister of State for Foreign Affairs from 1951 to 1954.
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Sino-Albanian split
The Sino-Albanian split (Chinese: 中阿破裂; pinyin: Zhōng-Ā pòliè) in 1978 saw the parting of the People's Republic of China (PRC) and People's Socialist Republic of Albania, which was the only Eastern European nation to side with the PRC in the Sino-Soviet split of the early 1960s.
The relations between Communist Party of China (CPC) and the Party of Labour of Albania (PPSh) had stagnated by 1970. When China began to reemerge from isolation in the early 1970s, Mao Zedong and other Communist Chinese leaders reassessed their commitment to Albania. In response, Tirana, led by Enver Hoxha, began broadening its international position. Albania opened trade negotiations with France, Italy and the newly independent Asian and African states, and later in 1971 it normalized relations with Yugoslavia and Greece. Albania's leaders abhorred the PRC's rapprochement with the United States in the early 1970s. Tirana press and radio ignored President Richard Nixon's trip to Beijing in 1972. Nevertheless, Albania proposed the key resolution in the UN General Assembly which enabled the PRC to replace the Republic of China in the United Nations.
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Sino-Indian War
The Sino-Indian War (Hindi: भारत-चीन युद्ध Bhārat-Chīn Yuddh), also known as the Sino-Indian Border Conflict (simplified Chinese: 中印边境战争; traditional Chinese: 中印邊境戰爭; pinyin: Zhōng-Yìn Biānjìng Zhànzhēng), was a war between China and India that occurred in 1962. A disputed Himalayan border was the main pretext for war, but other issues played a role. There had been a series of violent border incidents after the 1959 Tibetan uprising, when India had granted asylum to the Dalai Lama. India initiated a Forward Policy in which it placed outposts along the border, including several north of the McMahon Line, the eastern portion of a Line of Actual Control proclaimed by Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai in 1959.
Unable to reach political accommodation on disputed territory along the 3,225-kilometer-long Himalayan border, the Chinese launched simultaneous offensives in Ladakh and across the McMahon Line on 20 October 1962, coinciding with the Cuban Missile Crisis. Chinese troops advanced over Indian forces in both theatres, capturing Rezang la in Chushul in the western theatre, as well as Tawang in the eastern theatre. The war ended when the Chinese declared a ceasefire on 20 November 1962, and simultaneously announced its withdrawal from the disputed area.
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Sino-Vietnamese War
The Sino–Vietnamese War (Vietnamese: Chiến tranh biên giới Việt-Trung), also known as the Third Indochina War, known in the PRC as Chinese: 对越自卫反击战; pinyin: duì yuè zìwèi fǎnjī zhàn; literally "Defensive Counterattack against Vietnam" and in Vietnam as Chiến tranh chống bành trướng Trung Hoa (War against Chinese expansionism), was a brief but bloody border war fought in 1979 between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. The PRC launched the offensive in response to Vietnam's 1978 invasion and occupation of Cambodia, which ended the reign of the PRC-backed Khmer Rouge.
The Chinese invaded Northern Vietnam and captured some of the northernmost cities in Vietnam. On March 6 China declared that the gate to Hanoi was open and that their punitive mission had been achieved and retreated back to China. Both China and Vietnam claimed victory in the last of the Indochina Wars of the 20th century; as Vietnamese troops remained in Cambodia until 1989 it can be said that the PRC failed to achieve the goal of dissuading Vietnam from involvement in Cambodia. China achieved its strategic objective of reducing the offensive capability of Vietnam along the Sino-Vietnam border by implementing a scorched earth policy. China also achieved another strategic objective of demonstrating to its Cold War foe, the Soviet Union, that they were unable to protect their Vietnamese ally. As many as 1.5 million Chinese troops were stationed along China's borders with the USSR at the time and were prepared for a full-scale war.
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Spanish Civil War
The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict fought in Spain from 17 July 1936 to 1 April 1939. The war began after a pronunciamiento (declaration of opposition) by a group of generals under the leadership of José Sanjurjo against the elected government of the Second Spanish Republic, at the time under the leadership of President Manuel Azaña. The rebel coup was supported by a number of conservative groups including the Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right, monarchists such as the religious conservative Carlists, and the Fascist Falange. The uprising was authoritarian and anti-separatist in inspiration; anti-Basque and anti-Catalan feeling marked the Nationalist zone.
Following the only partially successful coup, Spain was left militarily and politically divided. From that moment onwards, general Francisco Franco began a protracted war of attrition against the established government for the control of the country. The rebel forces received the support of Nazi Germany and the Kingdom of Italy, as well as neighbouring Portugal, while the Soviet Union and Mexico intervened in support of the Republican government or loyalist side.
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Spencer Perceval
Spencer Perceval, KC (1 November 1762 – 11 May 1812) was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 4 October 1809 until his death on 11 May 1812. He is the only British Prime Minister to have ever been assassinated. He is also the only Solicitor General or Attorney General to have been Prime Minister.
The younger son of an Irish earl, Perceval was educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge. He studied law at Lincoln’s Inn, practised as a barrister on the Midland Circuit and in 1796 became a King’s Counsel before entering politics at the age of 33 as a Member of Parliament for Northampton. A follower of William Pitt, Perceval always described himself as a "friend of Mr Pitt" rather than a Tory. Perceval was opposed to Catholic emancipation and reform of Parliament; he supported the war against Napoleon and the abolition of the slave trade. He was opposed to hunting, gambling and adultery, did not drink as much as most Members of Parliament, gave generously to charity, and enjoyed spending time with his twelve children.
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Stafford Cripps
Sir Richard Stafford Cripps (24 April 1889 – 21 April 1952) was a British Labour politician of the first half of the 20th century. During World War II he served in a number of positions in the wartime coalition, including Ambassador to the Soviet Union and Minister of Aircraft Production. After the war he served in the Attlee Ministry, firstly as President of the Board of Trade and between 1947 and 1950 as Chancellor of the Exchequer. In the latter position, Cripps was responsible for laying the foundations of Britain’s post-war economic prosperity, and was, according to the historian Eric Shaw, “the real architect of the rapidly improving economic picture and growing affluence from 1952 onwards.”
Cripps was born in London. His father was a Conservative member of the House of Commons who late in life, as Lord Parmoor, joined the Labour Party. His mother, the former Theresa Potter, was the sister of Beatrice Webb. Cripps grew up in a wealthy family and was educated at Winchester College and at University College London, where he studied chemistry. He left science for the law, and in 1912 was called to the bar as a barrister. He served in the First World War as an ambulance driver in France, and managed a factory producing armaments. He remained a barrister during the 1920s, where he specialised in patent cases, and was reported to be the highest paid lawyer in the country.
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Stanley Baldwin
Stanley Baldwin, 1st Earl Baldwin of Bewdley, KG, PC, FRS (3 August 1867 – 14 December 1947) was a British Conservative politician, who dominated the government in his country between the two world wars. Three times Prime Minister, he is the only one to serve under three different monarchs (George V, Edward VIII and George VI).
Baldwin first entered the House of Commons in 1908 as the Member of Parliament for Bewdley, and held government office in the coalition ministry of David Lloyd George. In 1922 Baldwin was one of the prime movers in the withdrawal of Conservative support from Lloyd George and became Chancellor of the Exchequer in Bonar Law's Conservative ministry. Upon Bonar Law's resignation in May 1923, Baldwin became Prime Minister and Conservative Party leader. He called an Election on the issue of tariffs and lost the Conservatives' majority, after which Ramsay MacDonald formed a minority Labour government.
After winning the 1924 General Election Baldwin formed his second government, which saw important tenures of office by Sir Austen Chamberlain (Foreign Secretary), Winston Churchill (at the Exchequer) and Neville Chamberlain (Health). That government also saw the General Strike in 1926 and the 1927 Trades Disputes Act to curb the powers of trade unions, although Baldwin was supportive of Labour politicians at Westminster forming minority governments. Baldwin lost the 1929 General Election and his continued leadership was subject to criticism by the press barons Rothermere and Beaverbrook.
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Stephen Churchett
Stephen Churchett (born 10 April 1947) is a British actor and writer.
One of his most notable roles was as solicitor Marcus Christie in EastEnders, on and off from 1990 to 2004.
He has also appeared in various television programmes, including Up Pompeii!, Enemy at the Door, C.A.T.S. Eyes, Casualty, 'Allo 'Allo!, The House of Elliot, The Brittas Empire, Peak Practice, Silent Witness, Dangerfield, The Bill and Dalziel and Pascoe. He also appeared in the Doctor Who episode Attack of the Cybermen in 1985.
He has written episodes of The Bill, Kavanagh QC, Inspector Morse, Dalziel and Pascoe and Hornblower, as well as writing the screenplay for Lewis, and five Marple television adaptations.
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Stoker Edwards
Walter James Edwards (1900 – 15 October 1964), known as Stoker Edwards or Wally Edwards, was a British Labour Party politician.
Edwards was born in Whitechapel, in the East End of London. He briefly worked as a carman from 1917 and in 1918 enlisted in the Royal Navy as a stoker and served until 1923. He then became a docker. He joined the Labour Party and the Transport and General Workers' Union and in 1937 was appointed a full-time officer with the union's Docks Group. From 1935 to 1939 he was chairman of the Whitechapel Labour Party.
In the Second World War he was recalled as a Naval reservist and rose to the rate of Leading Stoker. In 1942 he was elected as Member of Parliament (MP) for Whitechapel and St Georges, the first serving Royal Navy rating to be elected to Parliament. Following boundary changes in 1950, he was elected for the new Stepney constituency and served until his retirement in 1964. He served as Civil Lord of the Admiralty from 1945 to 1951. A devout Roman Catholic, he was known as a campaigner against prostitution, which was a big problem in his constituency. He died on the day of the 1964 general election.
wn.com/Stoker_Edwards -
Tom Driberg
Thomas Edward Neil Driberg, Baron Bradwell (22 May 1905 – 12 August 1976), generally known as Tom Driberg, was a British journalist, politician and High Anglican churchman who served as a Member of Parliament (MP) from 1942 to 1955 and from 1959 to 1974. A member of the British Communist Party for more than 20 years, he was first elected to parliament as an Independent, and joined the Labour Party in 1945. He never held any ministerial office, but rose to senior positions within the Labour Party and was a popular and influential figure in left-wing politics for many years.
The son of a retired colonial officer, Driberg was educated at Lancing and Christ Church, Oxford. After leaving the university without a degree, he attempted to establish himself as a poet before joining the Daily Express as a reporter, later becoming a columnist. In 1933 he began the "William Hickey" society column, which he continued to write until 1943. He was later a regular columnist for the Co-operative Group newspaper Reynolds News and for other left-leaning journals. He wrote several books, including biographies of the press baron Lord Beaverbrook and the fugitive British diplomat Guy Burgess. He retired from the House of Commons in 1974, and was subsequently raised to the peerage as Baron Bradwell of Bradwell juxta Mare in the County of Essex.
wn.com/Tom_Driberg -
Tommy Douglas
Thomas Clement "Tommy" Douglas, PC CC SOM (20 October 1904 – 24 February 1986) was a Scottish-born Baptist minister, and Canadian social democratic politician. He was elected to the Canadian House of Commons in 1935 as a member of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) party. He left federal politics to become the Saskatchewan CCF's leader and then the seventh Premier of Saskatchewan from 1944 to 1961. His government was the first social democratic government in North America, and it introduced the continent's first single payer, universal health care program. After setting up Saskatchewan's medicare program, he stepped down as premier and ran to lead the newly formed federal New Democratic Party, the National CCF's successor party. Douglas was elected as its first federal leader in 1961. Although he never led the party to government, through much of his tenure, the party held the balance of power in the House. He was noted as being the main opposition voice to the inposition of the War Measures Act, during the 1970 October Crisis. He stepped down as leader the following year, but remained as a Member of Parliament until 1979. He was awarded many honorary degrees, and a foundation was named for him and his political mentor M.J. Coldwell in 1971. In 1981, he was invested into the Order of Canada; and became a member of Canada's Privy Council in 1984. He died in 1986 after a battle with cancer. In 2004, a CBC Television program named him "The Greatest Canadian," based on a viewer-supported survey.
wn.com/Tommy_Douglas -
Tony Blair
Anthony Charles Lynton Blair (born 6 May 1953) is a British Labour Party politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 2 May 1997 to 27 June 2007. He was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Sedgefield from 1983 to 2007 and Leader of the Labour Party from 1994 to 2007. He resigned from all of these positions in June 2007.
Blair was elected Leader of the Labour Party in the leadership election of July 1994, following the sudden death of his predecessor, John Smith. Under his leadership, the party used the phrases "New Labour" and "New Socialism" to define its policy, and moved away from its support of state socialism since the 1960s and created a new version of the ethical socialism that was last pursued by Clement Attlee. Critics of Blair claim that "New Labour" did not adhere to socialism as claimed, and that it effectively advocated capitalism. Blair subsequently led Labour to a landslide victory in the 1997 general election. At 43 years old, he became the youngest Prime Minister since Lord Liverpool in 1812. In the first years of the New Labour government, Blair's government implemented a number of 1997 manifesto pledges, introducing the minimum wage, Human Rights Act and Freedom of Information Act, and carrying out devolution, establishing the Scottish Parliament, the National Assembly for Wales, and the Northern Ireland Assembly.
wn.com/Tony_Blair -
Tony Lloyd
Anthony Joseph 'Tony' Lloyd (born 25 February 1950) is a British Labour Party politician who has been the Member of Parliament (MP) for Manchester Central since 1997, and was the Chair of the Parliamentary Labour Party from 2006 to 2012, when he stepped down in order to stand as the Labour candidate to be the elected Police and Crime Commissioner for Greater Manchester .
He went to Stretford Grammar School for Boys on Great Stone Road in Stretford and the University of Nottingham gaining a BSc in Maths in 1972. Later he went to Manchester Business School studying for an MBA, becoming a university lecturer in Business Studies at the University of Salford.
Lloyd was first elected in a political capacity when he successfully contested the 1979 Trafford Council elections, standing in Clifford ward of Old Trafford.
Following this, was first returned to the British House of Commons at the 1983 general election, as Member of Parliament for Stretford. When constituency boundaries were revised for the 1997 general election, he transferred to the Manchester Central constituency, where he has been returned at subsequent elections.
wn.com/Tony_Lloyd -
Valentine McEntee
Valentine la Touche McEntee, 1st Baron McEntee (16 January 1871 – 11 February 1953) was an Irish-born Labour Member of Parliament (MP) in the United Kingdom.
McEntee was born in Kingstown (now Dún Laoghaire) near Dublin, the son of William Charles McEntee, a physician, and Kate, daughter of Valentine Burchell.
McEntee was a carpenter by trade. From 1896 to 1899, like Con Lehane, he was a member of James Connolly's Irish Socialist Republican Party. After a brief stay in the United States he moved to London and became a member of Social Democratic Federation (SDF), whence he went on to help found the Socialist Party of Great Britain in June 1904. So far as is known McEntee was not at all active in the SPGB. He resigned on 4 March 1905 after he was nominated as parliamentary candidate for the Labour Representation Committee (predecessor of the Labour Party).
After leaving the SPGB McEntee joined the Independent Labour Party. By 1908 he was back in the SDF, being a local election candidate for that organisation in Walthamstow in that year. In 1909 he published a short pamphlet Socialism Explained, a criticism of capitalism. The following year he was a delegate at the Social Democratic Party (as the SDF had been renamed) Conference and was elected to its 1910–1911 Executive Committee.
wn.com/Valentine_McEntee -
Vietnam War
The Vietnam War was a Cold War-era military conflict that occurred in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1 November 1955 to the fall of Saigon on 30 April 1975. This war followed the First Indochina War and was fought between North Vietnam, supported by its communist allies, and the government of South Vietnam, supported by the United States and other anti-communist countries. The Viet Cong (also known as the National Liberation Front, or NLF), a lightly armed South Vietnamese communist-controlled common front, largely fought a guerrilla war against anti-communist forces in the region. The Vietnam People's Army (North Vietnamese Army) engaged in a more conventional war, at times committing large units into battle. U.S. and South Vietnamese forces relied on air superiority and overwhelming firepower to conduct search and destroy operations, involving ground forces, artillery, and airstrikes.
The U.S. government viewed involvement in the war as a way to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam as part of their wider strategy of containment. The North Vietnamese government and Viet Cong viewed the conflict as a colonial war, fought initially against France, backed by the U.S., and later against South Vietnam, which it regarded as a U.S. puppet state. American military advisors arrived in what was then French Indochina beginning in 1950. U.S. involvement escalated in the early 1960s, with troop levels tripling in 1961 and tripling again in 1962. U.S. combat units were deployed beginning in 1965. Operations spanned international borders, with Laos and Cambodia heavily bombed. American involvement in the war peaked in 1968, at the time of the Tet Offensive. After this, U.S. ground forces were gradually withdrawn as part of a policy known as Vietnamization. Despite the Paris Peace Accords, signed by all parties in January 1973, fighting continued.
wn.com/Vietnam_War -
Warsaw Pact
The Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance (1955–1991), more commonly referred to as the Warsaw Pact, was a mutual defense treaty between eight communist states of Eastern Europe in existence during the Cold War. The founding treaty was established under the initiative of the Soviet Union and signed on 14 May 1955, in Warsaw. The Warsaw Pact was the military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CoMEcon), the regional economic organization for the communist states of Eastern Europe. The Warsaw Pact was a Soviet military response to the integration of West Germany into NATO in 1955, per the Paris Pacts of 1954.
In the West, the Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance is often called the Warsaw Pact military alliance; abbreviated WAPA, Warpac, and WP. Elsewhere, in the former member states, the Warsaw Treaty is known as:
The Warsaw Treaty’s organization was two-fold: the Political Consultative Committee handled political matters, and the Combined Command of Pact Armed Forces controlled the assigned multi-national forces, with headquarters in Warsaw, Poland. Furthermore, the Supreme Commander of the Unified Armed Forces of the Warsaw Treaty Organization was also a First Deputy Minister of Defense of the USSR, and the head of the Warsaw Treaty Combined Staff also was a First Deputy Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the USSR. Therefore, although ostensibly an international collective security alliance, the USSR dominated the Warsaw Treaty armed forces.
wn.com/Warsaw_Pact -
Willem Drees
Willem Drees ( Dutch pronunciation (help·info)) (July 5, 1886 – May 14, 1988) was a Dutch politician of the Labour Party (PvdA). He served as Prime Minister of the Netherlands from August 7, 1948 until December 22, 1958.
He previously served as Member of the House of Representatives from May 9, 1933 until June 24, 1945. And as the Parliamentary leader of the Social Democratic Workers' Party in the House of Representatives from August 19, 1939 until June 24, 1945 when he became Minister of Social Affairs and Deputy Prime Minister serving from June 24, 1945 until August 7, 1948 in the Cabinets Schermerhorn-Drees and Beel I. He served again a short periode as a Member of the House of Representatives, after the Dutch general election of 1946 from June 4, 1946 until July 4, 1946. After the Dutch general election of 1948, Drees became Prime Minister of the Netherlands, leading the Cabinets Drees-Van Schaik, Drees I, Drees II and Drees III. And as acting Minister of Colonial Affairs from March 15, 1951 until March 31, 1951 and as acting Minister of Finance from July 1, 1952 until September 2, 1952, following the resignations of Johannes Henricus van Maarseveen and Piet Lieftinck respectively. He again had two short stints as a Member of the House of Representatives after the Dutch general election of 1952 and 1952, serving from July 15, 1952 until September 2, 1952 and from July 3, 1956 until October 3, 1956.
wn.com/Willem_Drees -
William Adamson
William Adamson (2 April 1863 – 23 February 1936) was a Scottish trade unionist and Labour politician. He was Leader of the Labour Party between 1917 and 1921 and served as Secretary of State for Scotland in 1924 and between 1929 and 1931 in the first two Labour administrations headed by Ramsay MacDonald.
Adamson was born in Dunfermline, Fife, and was educated at a local dame school. He worked as a miner in Fife where he became involved with the National Union of Mineworkers. Between 1902 and 1908 he was Assistant Secretary of the Fife, Kinross and Clackmannan Miners' Association.
Active with the new Labour Party, Adamson was first elected to Parliament for West Fife in the December 1910 general election and became leader of the party in 1917, a position he held until 1921. In 1918 he was sworn of the Privy Council. He served as Secretary for Scotland and Secretary of State for Scotland in 1924 and between 1929 and 1931 in the Labour governments of Ramsay MacDonald.
However, he split with MacDonald after the formation of the National Government. Adamson lost his seat in the 1931 election which he contested for Labour against MacDonald's coalition. He stood again in the 1935 election but again failed to take the seat, losing on this occasion to William Gallacher of the Communist Party of Great Britain.[citation needed]
wn.com/William_Adamson -
William Beveridge
William Henry Beveridge, 1st Baron Beveridge KCB (5 March 1879 – 16 March 1963) was a British economist and social reformer. He is best known for his 1942 report Social Insurance and Allied Services (known as the Beveridge Report) which served as the basis for the post-World War II welfare state put in place by the Labour government elected in 1945.
Lord Beveridge, considered an authority on unemployment insurance from early in his career, served under Winston Churchill on the Board of Trade as Director of the newly created labour exchanges and later as Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Food. He was Director of the London School of Economics and Political Science from 1919 until 1937, when he was elected Master of University College, Oxford.
Beveridge published widely on unemployment and social security, his most notable works being: Unemployment: A Problem of Industry (1909), Planning Under Socialism (1936), Full Employment in a Free Society (1944), Pillars of Security (1948), Power and Influence (1953), and A Defence of Free Learning (1959).
wn.com/William_Beveridge -
William Jowitt
William Allen Jowitt, 1st Earl Jowitt PC, KC (15 April 1885 – 16 August 1957), was a British Labour politician and lawyer, who served as Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain under Clement Attlee from 1945 to 1951.
Jowitt was born in Stevenage, the son of Reverend William Jowitt, the village rector, by his wife Louisa Margaret (née Allen). At the age of nine he was sent to Northaw Place, a preparatory school in Potters Bar, where he first met and was looked after by Clement Attlee. From Northaw he went to Marlborough, and then to New College, Oxford. He studied law and was called to the Bar in 1909.
Jowitt became a member of chambers in Brick Court in London. He proved himself a skilled advocate, attracting attention for his subdued and charming manner, at a time when barristers were more inclined to browbeat witnesses. He became a King's Counsel the day before the 1922 general election, in which he was elected Member of Parliament (MP) for The Hartlepools. Jowitt was a member of the faction of the Liberal Party led by Herbert Asquith, and somewhat radical in his beliefs. He continued to practise law whilst a backbench MP, and was not considered a great orator in the House of Commons.
wn.com/William_Jowitt -
William Ormsby-Gore
For his great-great grandson, see William Ormsby-Gore, 4th Baron Harlech.
William Ormsby-Gore (14 March 1779 - 4 May 1860), known as William Gore until 1815, was a British Member of Parliament.
Born William Gore, he was the great-great-grandson of William Gore, third and youngest son of Sir Arthur Gore, 1st Baronet, of Newtown, second son of Sir Paul Gore, 1st Baronet, of Magharabag, whose eldest son Paul was the grandfather of Arthur Gore, 1st Earl of Arran. In 1815 he married Mary Jane Ormsby, daughter and heiress of Owen Ormsby, and assumed by Royal license the additional surname of Ormsby the same year.
Ormsby-Gore was elected to the House of Commons for County Leitrim in 1806, a seat he held until 1807, and then represented Carnarvon from 1830 to 1831 and North Shropshire from 1835 to 1857. Ormsby-Gore died in May 1860, aged 81. His eldest son John Ralph Ormsby-Gore was created Baron Harlech in 1876.
wn.com/William_Ormsby-Gore -
Winston Churchill
Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, TD, PC, DL, FRS, Hon. RA (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British Conservative politician and statesman known for his leadership of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. Widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the century, he served as Prime Minister twice (1940–45 and 1951–55). A noted statesman and orator, Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, a historian, a writer, and an artist. He is the only British prime minister to have received the Nobel Prize in Literature, and was the first person to be made an Honorary Citizen of the United States.
Churchill was born into the aristocratic family of the Dukes of Marlborough. His father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was a charismatic politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer; his mother, Jenny Jerome, was an American socialite. As a young army officer, he saw action in British India, the Sudan, and the Second Boer War. He gained fame as a war correspondent and wrote books about his campaigns.
wn.com/Winston_Churchill -
World War I
World War I (WWI), which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939 (World War II), and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918. It involved all the world's great powers, which were assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the Triple Entente of the United Kingdom, France and Russia) and the Central Powers (originally centred around the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy; but, as Austria–Hungary had taken the offensive against the agreement, Italy did not enter into the war). These alliances both reorganised (Italy fought for the Allies), and expanded as more nations entered the war. Ultimately more than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history. More than 9 million combatants were killed, largely because of enormous increases in lethality of weapons, thanks to new technology, without corresponding improvements in protection or mobility. It was the sixth-deadliest conflict in world history, subsequently paving the way for various political changes such as revolutions in the nations involved.
wn.com/World_War_I -
Zhang Junmai
Zhang Junmai (张君劢) (1886–1969, also transliterated as Chang Chun-mai), also known by his courtesy name Carsun Chang), was a prominent Chinese philosopher, public intellectual and political figure. Zhang Junmai was a social democratic politician.
A pioneering theorist of human rights in the Chinese context, Zhang established his own small "Third Force" democratic party during the Nationalist era.
Zhang supported German-style social democracy while opposing capitalism, communism, and guild socialism. He supported socialization of major industries such as railroads and mines to be run by a combination of government officials, technicians, and consumers. the development of a mixed economy in China, like that advocated by the Social Democratic Party of Germany under Philipp Scheidemann.
Equipped with the traditional Confucian degree of xiucai or "accomplished scholar", Zhang went on to study at Waseda University in Japan where he came under the influence of Liang Qichao's theory of constitutional monarchy. In 1918 he accompanied Liang’s tour of post-war Europe, later going to Germany to study philosophy for a short time at Berlin University. While in Germany he came under the influence of the teachings of Rudolf Eucken (1846–1926) and Henri Bergson (1859–1941). With Hans Driesch, who was formerly Eucken's student, Zhang travelled throughout China in the early 1920s, serving as Driesch's Chinese translator as he lectured on Eucken's philosophical vision. Appointed a professor of philosophy at Beijing University, he instigated polemics over science and metaphysics (known in Chinese as the "worldview controversy.") He wrote extensively on what now forms part of modern neo-Confucianism.
wn.com/Zhang_Junmai -
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (Urdu: ذوالفقار علی بھٹو, Sindhi: ذوالفقار علي ڀُٽو, IPA: [zʊlfɪqɑːɾ ɑli bʱʊʈːoː]) (5 January 1928 – 4 April 1979) was 9th Prime Minister of Pakistan from 1973 to 1977, and prior to that, 4th President of Pakistan from 1971 to 1973. Bhutto was the founder of the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) and served as its chairman until his execution in 1979. His elder daughter, Benazir Bhutto, later also served as Prime Minister, while his son Murtaza Bhutto served as member of Parliament of Pakistan.
Educated at the University of Southern California and University of California, Berkeley in the United States and the University of Oxford in the United Kingdom, Bhutto was noted for his progressive economic initiatives, industrialisation, education, and foreign policy, and his intellectualism. In addition to national security issues, Bhutto promoted his policies on nationalisation, health care, and social reforms. Under his premiership, Pakistan's Parliament gave approval and passed unanimously the 1973 Constitution of Pakistan, a supreme law that provides a parliamentary system to Pakistan, strengthened Sino-Pakistani and Saudi-Pakistani relations, recognised East-Pakistan as Bangladesh, and hosted the second Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC) in 1974 where he delegated and invited leaders from the Muslim world to Lahore, Punjab Province of Pakistan. In July 1972, Bhutto successfully proceeded the Shimla treaty, signed with Indira Gandhi of India, brought 93,000 Prisoners of War back to Pakistan, and secured 5,000 sq mi (13,000 km2) held by India. In 20 January 1972, weeks after the Indo-Pakistani 1971 winter war, Bhutto orchestrated, authorised, and administrated the scientific research on nuclear weapons; for this, he is colloquially known in the world as "Father of the Pakistan's nuclear deterrent programme".
wn.com/Zulfikar_Ali_Bhutto
Attlee, Clement Filmography
- Frost on Interviews (2012)
- X Day: The Invasion of Japan (2005)
- The Truth About 60s TV (2004)
- In Our Own Hands (2000)
- The Korean War: Fire and Ice (1999)
- The Long Way Home (1997)
- Our Time in Hell: The Korean War (1997)
- The Churchills (1996)
- Truman (1995)
- Hiroshima (1995)
- Hiroshima: Why the Bomb Was Dropped (1995)
- Enola Gay and the Atomic Bombing of Japan (1995)
- The Complete Churchill (1991)
- The 1940's: Music, Memories & Milestones (1988)
- The Speeches of Winston Churchill (1988)
- The 1950's: Music, Memories & Milestones (1988)
- If You Love This Planet (1982)
- The World at War (1973)
- 1964 General Election (1964)
- The Other World of Winston Churchill (1964)
- The Clouded Dawn (1962)
- Passport to Pimlico (1949)
- The Weaker Sex (1948)
Famous quotes by Clement Attlee:
"already seething with social injustice."
"The last of our enemies is laid low"
"One layer was certainly 17th century. The 18th century in him is obvious. There was the 19th century, and a large slice, of course, of the 20th century; and another, curious layer which may possibly have been the 21st."
"The House of Lords is like a glass of champagne that has stood for five days."
"I think the British have the distinction above all other nations of being able to put new wine into old bottles without bursting them."
"Russian Communism is the illegitimate child of Karl Marx and Catherine the Great."
"Democracy means government by discussion, but it is only effective if you can stop people talking."
"already seething with social injustice."
"The last of our enemies is laid low"
"One layer was certainly 17th century. The 18th century in him is obvious. There was the 19th century, and a large slice, of course, of the 20th century; and another, curious layer which may possibly have been the 21st."
"The House of Lords is like a glass of champagne that has stood for five days."
"I think the British have the distinction above all other nations of being able to put new wine into old bottles without bursting them."
"Russian Communism is the illegitimate child of Karl Marx and Catherine the Great."
"Democracy means government by discussion, but it is only effective if you can stop people talking."
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Andrew Marr's History of Modern Britain - Episode 1 (Pt 1)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
Andrew Marr's History of Modern Britain Episode 1 - 'Advance Britannia' (Pt 1) 1945 - 1955 - Churchill loses general election - Clement Attlee landslide victory - Herbert Morrison - William Beveridge
http://wn.com/Andrew_Marr's_History_of_Modern_Britain_Episode_1_Pt_1
Andrew Marr's History of Modern Britain Episode 1 - 'Advance Britannia' (Pt 1) 1945 - 1955 - Churchill loses general election - Clement Attlee landslide victory - Herbert Morrison - William Beveridge
Clement Attlee talks about the 1964 election
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:53
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
An 81 year old Clement Attlee (Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland 1945-1951) is interviewed by Robin Day during the BBC's 1964 election coverage. The interview took place in the few minutes after Alec Douglas-Home had resigned as Prime Minister but before Harold Wilson had been appointed. Wilson had an overall majority in the House of Commons of just four.
http://wn.com/Clement_Attlee_talks_about_the_1964_election
An 81 year old Clement Attlee (Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland 1945-1951) is interviewed by Robin Day during the BBC's 1964 election coverage. The interview took place in the few minutes after Alec Douglas-Home had resigned as Prime Minister but before Harold Wilson had been appointed. Wilson had an overall majority in the House of Commons of just four.
- published: 04 Oct 2008
- views: 23215
- author: Medeasbiggestfan
Part 2.3 Clement Atlee & Social Democracy in the UK (Heaven on Earth The Rise and Fall of Socialism)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:28
- Updated: 20 Dec 2012
Part 1.1 Introduction www.youtube.com Part 1.2 Robert Owen & Utopian Socialism in New Harmony Indiana www.youtube.com Part 1.3 Marx and Engels; Birth of a Manifesto www.youtube.com Part 1.4 Eduard Bernstein & A Crisis of Faith www.youtube.com Part 1.5 Lenin & the Bolshevik Revolution www.youtube.com Part 1.6 Samuel Gompers & American Labor www.youtube.com Part 1.7 Canadian Socialism www.youtube.com Part 2.1 Mussolini & Fascism www.youtube.com Part 2.2 China & the Spread of Communism www.youtube.com Part 2.3 Clement Atlee & Social Democracy in the UK www.youtube.com Part 2.4 The Kibbutz in Israel Part I www.youtube.com Part 2.5 Julius Nyerere & African Socialism www.youtube.com Part 2.6 Great Britain in the 1970's www.youtube.com Part 2.7 The Kibbutz in Israel Part II www.youtube.com Part 2.8 Tanzania's Ujamaa Villages www.youtube.com Part 3.1 Socialist High Tide www.youtube.com Part 3.2 Gorbachev & Reform www.youtube.com Part 3.3 Deng & Modernization www.youtube.com Part 3.4 Gorbachev and Revolution www.youtube.com Part 3.5 Tony Blair & New Labour www.youtube.com Part 3.6 The Future of Socialism www.youtube.com Part 3.7 The Kibbutz Part III www.youtube.com Playlist with all Episodes www.youtube.com The film "Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism" explores Socialism's meteoric rise and spectacular fall in a three-hour PBS documentary miniseries. The film traces socialism's evolution through a series of compelling profiles of the movement's most important figures ...
http://wn.com/Part_23_Clement_Atlee_Social_Democracy_in_the_UK_Heaven_on_Earth_The_Rise_and_Fall_of_Socialism
Part 1.1 Introduction www.youtube.com Part 1.2 Robert Owen & Utopian Socialism in New Harmony Indiana www.youtube.com Part 1.3 Marx and Engels; Birth of a Manifesto www.youtube.com Part 1.4 Eduard Bernstein & A Crisis of Faith www.youtube.com Part 1.5 Lenin & the Bolshevik Revolution www.youtube.com Part 1.6 Samuel Gompers & American Labor www.youtube.com Part 1.7 Canadian Socialism www.youtube.com Part 2.1 Mussolini & Fascism www.youtube.com Part 2.2 China & the Spread of Communism www.youtube.com Part 2.3 Clement Atlee & Social Democracy in the UK www.youtube.com Part 2.4 The Kibbutz in Israel Part I www.youtube.com Part 2.5 Julius Nyerere & African Socialism www.youtube.com Part 2.6 Great Britain in the 1970's www.youtube.com Part 2.7 The Kibbutz in Israel Part II www.youtube.com Part 2.8 Tanzania's Ujamaa Villages www.youtube.com Part 3.1 Socialist High Tide www.youtube.com Part 3.2 Gorbachev & Reform www.youtube.com Part 3.3 Deng & Modernization www.youtube.com Part 3.4 Gorbachev and Revolution www.youtube.com Part 3.5 Tony Blair & New Labour www.youtube.com Part 3.6 The Future of Socialism www.youtube.com Part 3.7 The Kibbutz Part III www.youtube.com Playlist with all Episodes www.youtube.com The film "Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism" explores Socialism's meteoric rise and spectacular fall in a three-hour PBS documentary miniseries. The film traces socialism's evolution through a series of compelling profiles of the movement's most important figures ...
- published: 26 Jul 2012
- views: 1144
- author: Vlad Lennin
Clement Attlee, British Prime Minister Speaking at the United Nations
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:36
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
Clement Attlee, British Prime Minister Speaking at the United Nations.
http://wn.com/Clement_Attlee,_British_Prime_Minister_Speaking_at_the_United_Nations
Clement Attlee, British Prime Minister Speaking at the United Nations.
- published: 06 Dec 2010
- views: 6455
- author: iconic
Labour wins Election
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:26
- Updated: 14 Nov 2012
Labour won the 1945 election with a landslide majority and put the Beveridge Plan into action. Despite tremendous opposition from Conservatives, the Labour Government created the National Health Service and embarked on a programme of taking into public ownership utilities and industries which had hitherto been used to amass wealth for private individuals. With the building of hospitals , schools and other major works, unemployment was now hoped to be a thing of the past. When the next election came in 1950, Labour got even more votes than they did in 1945. In fact, they got the largest vote ever polled for a political party in Britain. But the way the boundaries were carved up meant that they didn't get enough MPs so a second election was held in 1951. Again Labour got the most votes (200000 more) but despite this the Conservatives got more MPs and formed a government committed to the dismantling of change made by Labour. But it was not until 1979 that the Conservatives really returned to their Victorian values using the fear of unemployment as a tool of control and discipline whilst taking back into private control the profitable public industries. Soon would come the Falklands War and the Bombing of Iraq where lucrative rebuilding contracts could be won for private businesses following the destruction which had been done (at public expense) by the Governments of the business corporations who would profit.
http://wn.com/Labour_wins_Election
Labour won the 1945 election with a landslide majority and put the Beveridge Plan into action. Despite tremendous opposition from Conservatives, the Labour Government created the National Health Service and embarked on a programme of taking into public ownership utilities and industries which had hitherto been used to amass wealth for private individuals. With the building of hospitals , schools and other major works, unemployment was now hoped to be a thing of the past. When the next election came in 1950, Labour got even more votes than they did in 1945. In fact, they got the largest vote ever polled for a political party in Britain. But the way the boundaries were carved up meant that they didn't get enough MPs so a second election was held in 1951. Again Labour got the most votes (200000 more) but despite this the Conservatives got more MPs and formed a government committed to the dismantling of change made by Labour. But it was not until 1979 that the Conservatives really returned to their Victorian values using the fear of unemployment as a tool of control and discipline whilst taking back into private control the profitable public industries. Soon would come the Falklands War and the Bombing of Iraq where lucrative rebuilding contracts could be won for private businesses following the destruction which had been done (at public expense) by the Governments of the business corporations who would profit.
- published: 29 Apr 2010
- views: 8001
- author: tedfrombumpstead
UK General Election 1950 - Election Night Report
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:43
- Updated: 14 Dec 2012
The BBC reports on the highs and lows of election night 1950. Also includes the declaration of Clement Attlee's Walthamstow seat. Labour only just managed to hang on to power in 1950. Despite getting more votes than in his 1945 landslide victory, Prime Minister Clement Attlee now had a Commons majority of just five seats. Five years of post-war austerity had dented Labours appeal to the middle class as Conservative fortunes revived. Although both the major parties were able to take heart from the results, 1950 was an unmitigated disaster for the Liberals. They took just nine seats and suffered a massive financial blow as over 300 of their candidates lost their deposits.
http://wn.com/UK_General_Election_1950_Election_Night_Report
The BBC reports on the highs and lows of election night 1950. Also includes the declaration of Clement Attlee's Walthamstow seat. Labour only just managed to hang on to power in 1950. Despite getting more votes than in his 1945 landslide victory, Prime Minister Clement Attlee now had a Commons majority of just five seats. Five years of post-war austerity had dented Labours appeal to the middle class as Conservative fortunes revived. Although both the major parties were able to take heart from the results, 1950 was an unmitigated disaster for the Liberals. They took just nine seats and suffered a massive financial blow as over 300 of their candidates lost their deposits.
- published: 23 Oct 2009
- views: 5626
- author: MrElectionist
The British Attempt to Construct a Socialist Commonwealth, 1945-1951
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 61:24
- Updated: 25 Nov 2012
To the surprise of many, the 1945 general election led to the return of Britain's first Labour majority government. Labour's 1945 election manifesto declared that it was a socialist party and proud of it. The Attlee government created the modern welfare state and the National Health Service, and nationalized the public utilities. It sought to construct a New Jerusalem, a socialist commonwealth. Why did it not succeed in doing so? Thetranscript and downloadable versions of the lecture are available from the Gresham College website: www.gresham.ac.uk Gresham College has been giving free public lectures since 1597. This tradition continues today with all of our five or so public lectures a week being made available for free download from our website. www.gresham.ac.uk
http://wn.com/The_British_Attempt_to_Construct_a_Socialist_Commonwealth,_1945-1951
To the surprise of many, the 1945 general election led to the return of Britain's first Labour majority government. Labour's 1945 election manifesto declared that it was a socialist party and proud of it. The Attlee government created the modern welfare state and the National Health Service, and nationalized the public utilities. It sought to construct a New Jerusalem, a socialist commonwealth. Why did it not succeed in doing so? Thetranscript and downloadable versions of the lecture are available from the Gresham College website: www.gresham.ac.uk Gresham College has been giving free public lectures since 1597. This tradition continues today with all of our five or so public lectures a week being made available for free download from our website. www.gresham.ac.uk
- published: 06 Dec 2011
- views: 2336
- author: GreshamCollege
Tony Benn Interview (July 14th 2008): Part One
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:59
- Updated: 22 Oct 2012
Tony Benn is interviewed about his life in politics.
http://wn.com/Tony_Benn_Interview_July_14th_2008_Part_One
Tony Benn is interviewed about his life in politics.
- published: 23 Oct 2010
- views: 4776
- author: sambar0986
UK General Election 1945: Churchill's Shock Defeat
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:47
- Updated: 05 Dec 2012
The UK General Election of 1945 is perhaps the most notorious in British political history. It saw the Labour party defeat the Conservatives and sitting Prime Minister Winston Churchill, who had become a heroic figure the world over for his war time leadership. Nobody - the press, the Americans or the Conservatives - predicted this shocking result. From the BBC Documentary series "Andrew Marr's History of Modern Britain".
http://wn.com/UK_General_Election_1945_Churchill's_Shock_Defeat
The UK General Election of 1945 is perhaps the most notorious in British political history. It saw the Labour party defeat the Conservatives and sitting Prime Minister Winston Churchill, who had become a heroic figure the world over for his war time leadership. Nobody - the press, the Americans or the Conservatives - predicted this shocking result. From the BBC Documentary series "Andrew Marr's History of Modern Britain".
- published: 26 Mar 2009
- views: 22419
- author: UnitedBritannia
Daniel Hannan MEP - Winston Churchill & Clement Atlee Joke
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:54
- Updated: 02 Aug 2012
Daniel Hannan MEP addressing the British Conservative Party's 2009 Spring Forum at Cheltenham Racecourse, Gloustershire tells a take about former Prime Ministers Clement Atlee and Winston Churchill.
http://wn.com/Daniel_Hannan_MEP_Winston_Churchill_Clement_Atlee_Joke
Daniel Hannan MEP addressing the British Conservative Party's 2009 Spring Forum at Cheltenham Racecourse, Gloustershire tells a take about former Prime Ministers Clement Atlee and Winston Churchill.
- published: 27 Apr 2009
- views: 3043
- author: gilesmcneill
Clement Attlee mega mix- the best music video in the world?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:26
- Updated: 22 Nov 2012
Only two Attlee videos on YouTube, so here's my history essay, with mild female nudity and jihad daleks, with sneezing babies and nucler explosions, set to eminem VS the eurythmics... Is this the greates music video in the world?
http://wn.com/Clement_Attlee_mega_mix_the_best_music_video_in_the_world?
Only two Attlee videos on YouTube, so here's my history essay, with mild female nudity and jihad daleks, with sneezing babies and nucler explosions, set to eminem VS the eurythmics... Is this the greates music video in the world?
- published: 16 Feb 2008
- views: 1725
- author: SpecialKid2000
Clement Attlee Quotes
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:57
- Updated: 21 Mar 2012
What was your favorite Clement Attlee quote? 'Like' and leave a comment below, then jump over to quotetank.com and make a list of your favorites, so you'll never forget! We update our Twitter and Facebook with new quotes every few minutes, don't miss out! twitter.com | www.facebook.com If you enjoyed these quotes, please LIKE, SHARE and SUBSCRIBE! Who is Clement Attlee? A British Labour politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951, and as the Leader of the Labour Party from 1935 to 1955.
http://wn.com/Clement_Attlee_Quotes
What was your favorite Clement Attlee quote? 'Like' and leave a comment below, then jump over to quotetank.com and make a list of your favorites, so you'll never forget! We update our Twitter and Facebook with new quotes every few minutes, don't miss out! twitter.com | www.facebook.com If you enjoyed these quotes, please LIKE, SHARE and SUBSCRIBE! Who is Clement Attlee? A British Labour politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951, and as the Leader of the Labour Party from 1935 to 1955.
- published: 15 Mar 2012
- views: 135
- author: quotetank
Attlee in the United States for talks, November 1945
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:36
- Updated: 06 Apr 2012
A Universal Newsreel from 13 November 1945, shortly after the end of World War 2, covering Clement Attlee's visit to the United States. The Prime Minister held talks with President Truman on world security and attended an Armistice Day wreath laying ceremony at Arlington National Cemetery, alongside the US President and the Prime Minister of Canada.
http://wn.com/Attlee_in_the_United_States_for_talks,_November_1945
A Universal Newsreel from 13 November 1945, shortly after the end of World War 2, covering Clement Attlee's visit to the United States. The Prime Minister held talks with President Truman on world security and attended an Armistice Day wreath laying ceremony at Arlington National Cemetery, alongside the US President and the Prime Minister of Canada.
- published: 17 Jul 2007
- views: 11346
- author: DowningSt
DMUNC 2011 Joseph Stalin kills Clement Attlee
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:34
- Updated: 16 May 2011
At first it appears peace may be in order as Stalin and North Korea extend an offer of peace to Clement Attlee and allied forces. However, many things go terribly wrong.
http://wn.com/DMUNC_2011_Joseph_Stalin_kills_Clement_Attlee
At first it appears peace may be in order as Stalin and North Korea extend an offer of peace to Clement Attlee and allied forces. However, many things go terribly wrong.
- published: 16 May 2011
- views: 113
- author: meghling
Neville Chamberlain Winston Churchill and Clement Attlee 1940
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:37
- Updated: 12 Feb 2011
Neville Chamberlain Winston Churchill and Clement Attlee 1940
http://wn.com/Neville_Chamberlain_Winston_Churchill_and_Clement_Attlee_1940
Neville Chamberlain Winston Churchill and Clement Attlee 1940
- published: 12 Feb 2011
- views: 22
- author: 80omar80omar80
Nu - Attlee Agreement.mp4
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:41
- Updated: 21 Apr 2012
Nu - Attlee agreement was signed between Prime Minister U Nu (Burma) and Prime Minister Clement Attlee (Great Britain) on transferring power to Burma. This is the basic step toward the Independence of Burma from Britain. Many nationalists from Burma tried to gain freedom for Britain under the leadership of General Aung San.
http://wn.com/Nu_Attlee_Agreementmp4
Nu - Attlee agreement was signed between Prime Minister U Nu (Burma) and Prime Minister Clement Attlee (Great Britain) on transferring power to Burma. This is the basic step toward the Independence of Burma from Britain. Many nationalists from Burma tried to gain freedom for Britain under the leadership of General Aung San.
- published: 03 Jan 2012
- views: 499
- author: MrSizarwin
UK General Election 1955 - Election Programming comes to an End
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:57
- Updated: 01 Jul 2011
Richard Dimbleby presents. Only three hours of this coverage was kept. The 1955 United Kingdom general election was held on 26 May 1955, four years after the previous general election. It resulted in a substantially increased majority of 60 for the Conservative government under Sir Anthony Eden against the Labour Party under Clement Attlee.
http://wn.com/UK_General_Election_1955_Election_Programming_comes_to_an_End
Richard Dimbleby presents. Only three hours of this coverage was kept. The 1955 United Kingdom general election was held on 26 May 1955, four years after the previous general election. It resulted in a substantially increased majority of 60 for the Conservative government under Sir Anthony Eden against the Labour Party under Clement Attlee.
- published: 24 Oct 2009
- views: 2527
- author: MrElectionist
The 67th Anniversary of the British Labour Party government of Prime Minister Clement Attlee
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:51
- Updated: 24 Jul 2012
From 1945-1951, the British Labour Party government of Prime Minister Clement Attlee transformed Great Britain from the world's most capitalist society to a society based on democratic socialist economics. Such reforms as National Boards followed by Public Corporations, the introduction of the welfare state, full employment, and the creation of the National Health Service rescued Great Britain from the misery of poverty and war.
http://wn.com/The_67th_Anniversary_of_the_British_Labour_Party_government_of_Prime_Minister_Clement_Attlee
From 1945-1951, the British Labour Party government of Prime Minister Clement Attlee transformed Great Britain from the world's most capitalist society to a society based on democratic socialist economics. Such reforms as National Boards followed by Public Corporations, the introduction of the welfare state, full employment, and the creation of the National Health Service rescued Great Britain from the misery of poverty and war.
- published: 23 Jul 2012
- views: 32
- author: TheRedLabour
Potsdam Conference 1945
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:36
- Updated: 06 Dec 2012
Potsdam Conference 1945 British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, Clement Attlee, US President Harry S. Truman and Premiere Joseph Stalin at the Potsdam Conference, July 1945
http://wn.com/Potsdam_Conference_1945
Potsdam Conference 1945 British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, Clement Attlee, US President Harry S. Truman and Premiere Joseph Stalin at the Potsdam Conference, July 1945
- published: 31 May 2011
- views: 4643
- author: 80omar80omar80
Churchill's Florida Vacation, January 1946
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:59
- Updated: 16 Jun 2012
A Universal Newsreel from January 1946 covers Sir Winston Churchill's holiday in Florida. Although Churchill was not Prime MInister at the time of this visit, having lost the 1945 election to Clement Attlee, he remained an internationally renowned statesman.
http://wn.com/Churchill's_Florida_Vacation,_January_1946
A Universal Newsreel from January 1946 covers Sir Winston Churchill's holiday in Florida. Although Churchill was not Prime MInister at the time of this visit, having lost the 1945 election to Clement Attlee, he remained an internationally renowned statesman.
- published: 20 Jul 2007
- views: 15824
- author: DowningSt
UK General Election 1951 - Campaigning Begins
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:04
- Updated: 04 May 2012
Campaigning starts as Attlee announces the election date. The 1951 United Kingdom general election was held eighteen months after the1950 general election, which the Labour Party won, but with a very slim majority of just five seats. Labour called the election on 25 October 1951 hoping to increase their majority. In the event, despite Labour polling almost a quarter of a million votes more than the Conservative Party (and its National Liberal allies) - and more votes than in the 1950 election - it was the Conservatives who went on to form the next government. This was because under the first past the post electoral system, the Labour votes translated into increased majorities for MPs in already safe seats, rather than into gaining new seats. This was one of only three elections where this happened, the others being 1929 and February 1974. It was also the last general election in which some candidates were elected unopposed, in this case four Conservatives, although there have been later unopposed by-elections. The Conservatives, under Winston Churchill, formed the next government with the help of the National Liberals - giving the Government a majority of 16 seats over all other parties.
http://wn.com/UK_General_Election_1951_Campaigning_Begins
Campaigning starts as Attlee announces the election date. The 1951 United Kingdom general election was held eighteen months after the1950 general election, which the Labour Party won, but with a very slim majority of just five seats. Labour called the election on 25 October 1951 hoping to increase their majority. In the event, despite Labour polling almost a quarter of a million votes more than the Conservative Party (and its National Liberal allies) - and more votes than in the 1950 election - it was the Conservatives who went on to form the next government. This was because under the first past the post electoral system, the Labour votes translated into increased majorities for MPs in already safe seats, rather than into gaining new seats. This was one of only three elections where this happened, the others being 1929 and February 1974. It was also the last general election in which some candidates were elected unopposed, in this case four Conservatives, although there have been later unopposed by-elections. The Conservatives, under Winston Churchill, formed the next government with the help of the National Liberals - giving the Government a majority of 16 seats over all other parties.
- published: 23 Oct 2009
- views: 2994
- author: MrElectionist
Andrew Marr's History of Modern Britain - Episode 1 (Pt 2)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 07 Dec 2012
Andrew Marr's History of Modern Britain Episode 1 - 'Advance Britannia' (Pt 2) 1945 - 1955 - William Beveridge - Atomic bombing of Japan - Truman pulls plug on aid - Britain in debt - John Maynard Keynes goes to Washington to negotiate loan - $4bn US loan - Ealing Studios - Rationing still in place - Sir Stafford Cripps - Passport to Pimlico
http://wn.com/Andrew_Marr's_History_of_Modern_Britain_Episode_1_Pt_2
Andrew Marr's History of Modern Britain Episode 1 - 'Advance Britannia' (Pt 2) 1945 - 1955 - William Beveridge - Atomic bombing of Japan - Truman pulls plug on aid - Britain in debt - John Maynard Keynes goes to Washington to negotiate loan - $4bn US loan - Ealing Studios - Rationing still in place - Sir Stafford Cripps - Passport to Pimlico
- published: 13 Aug 2009
- views: 48359
- author: HellwrathUK
Part 2.5 Julius Nyerere & African Socialism (Heaven on Earth The Rise and Fall of Socialism)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:36
- Updated: 28 Oct 2012
Part 1.1 Introduction www.youtube.com Part 1.2 Robert Owen & Utopian Socialism in New Harmony Indiana www.youtube.com Part 1.3 Marx and Engels; Birth of a Manifesto www.youtube.com Part 1.4 Eduard Bernstein & A Crisis of Faith www.youtube.com Part 1.5 Lenin & the Bolshevik Revolution www.youtube.com Part 1.6 Samuel Gompers & American Labor www.youtube.com Part 1.7 Canadian Socialism www.youtube.com Part 2.1 Mussolini & Fascism www.youtube.com Part 2.2 China & the Spread of Communism www.youtube.com Part 2.3 Clement Atlee & Social Democracy in the UK www.youtube.com Part 2.4 The Kibbutz in Israel Part I www.youtube.com Part 2.5 Julius Nyerere & African Socialism www.youtube.com Part 2.6 Great Britain in the 1970's www.youtube.com Part 2.7 The Kibbutz in Israel Part II www.youtube.com Part 2.8 Tanzania's Ujamaa Villages www.youtube.com Part 3.1 Socialist High Tide www.youtube.com Part 3.2 Gorbachev & Reform www.youtube.com Part 3.3 Deng & Modernization www.youtube.com Part 3.4 Gorbachev and Revolution www.youtube.com Part 3.5 Tony Blair & New Labour www.youtube.com Part 3.6 The Future of Socialism www.youtube.com Part 3.7 The Kibbutz Part III www.youtube.com Playlist with all Episodes www.youtube.com The film "Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism" explores Socialism's meteoric rise and spectacular fall in a three-hour PBS documentary miniseries. The film traces socialism's evolution through a series of compelling profiles of the movement's most important figures ...
http://wn.com/Part_25_Julius_Nyerere_African_Socialism_Heaven_on_Earth_The_Rise_and_Fall_of_Socialism
Part 1.1 Introduction www.youtube.com Part 1.2 Robert Owen & Utopian Socialism in New Harmony Indiana www.youtube.com Part 1.3 Marx and Engels; Birth of a Manifesto www.youtube.com Part 1.4 Eduard Bernstein & A Crisis of Faith www.youtube.com Part 1.5 Lenin & the Bolshevik Revolution www.youtube.com Part 1.6 Samuel Gompers & American Labor www.youtube.com Part 1.7 Canadian Socialism www.youtube.com Part 2.1 Mussolini & Fascism www.youtube.com Part 2.2 China & the Spread of Communism www.youtube.com Part 2.3 Clement Atlee & Social Democracy in the UK www.youtube.com Part 2.4 The Kibbutz in Israel Part I www.youtube.com Part 2.5 Julius Nyerere & African Socialism www.youtube.com Part 2.6 Great Britain in the 1970's www.youtube.com Part 2.7 The Kibbutz in Israel Part II www.youtube.com Part 2.8 Tanzania's Ujamaa Villages www.youtube.com Part 3.1 Socialist High Tide www.youtube.com Part 3.2 Gorbachev & Reform www.youtube.com Part 3.3 Deng & Modernization www.youtube.com Part 3.4 Gorbachev and Revolution www.youtube.com Part 3.5 Tony Blair & New Labour www.youtube.com Part 3.6 The Future of Socialism www.youtube.com Part 3.7 The Kibbutz Part III www.youtube.com Playlist with all Episodes www.youtube.com The film "Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism" explores Socialism's meteoric rise and spectacular fall in a three-hour PBS documentary miniseries. The film traces socialism's evolution through a series of compelling profiles of the movement's most important figures ...
- published: 26 Jul 2012
- views: 754
- author: Vlad Lennin
photo: AP / Aijaz Rahi
22 Dec 2012
Tweet. 0 Email. Report. Photo 1 of 18. In 2009, ELLE Magazine named Mrs Assad the most stylish woman in world politics. She is an icon of fashion in her country. Credit. Aimee Kligman. In 2009, ELLE Magazine named Mrs Assad the most stylish woman in world politics. She is an icon of fashion in her country.In 2009, ELLE Magazine named Mrs Assad the most stylish woman in world politics ... Syrians detained by the Assad regime. 13 Photos ... 10 Photos ... ....(size: 6.3Kb)
photo: AP / Virginie Nguyen Huang
23 Dec 2012
Tweet. Moscow, Dec 23 (IANS/RIA Novosti) Chemical weapons in Syria are under the control of the government, which has consolidated them in one or two locations, Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov said. "As of right now, the (Syrian) government is doing all it can to safeguard those weapons," he said. "We are following all leads concerning chemical weapons," Lavrov said ... "My answer is very simple. Why use us as a postman ... pm/ ... ) .. ). ... . ....(size: 3.2Kb)
photo: AP / Eranga Jayawardena
22 Dec 2012
Salman Khan's Dabangg 2 has broken the record for the biggest non-holiday opener ... "Biggest opener [holiday] #EkThaTiger 32.92 cr ... Biggest opener [non-holiday] #RowdyRathore 15.1 cr ... ....(size: 0.9Kb)
photo: AP / Altaf Qadri
23 Dec 2012
A commission will be set up to probe the gang-rape and torture of a 23-year-old woman in Delhi and measures to ensure such crimes do not recur while laws will be amended to enhance punishment for rape, Home Minister Sushilkumar Shinde said . He also appealed the thousands of protesters on the capital’s streets, demanding justice for the victim, to withdraw ... “The government is serious on the issue. ... . . ....(size: 2.4Kb)
photo: AP
23 Dec 2012
North Korea's launching of a rocket into space last week amounted to the test of a ballistic missile capable of carrying a half-ton payload over 10,000km, the South Korean defence ministry says. "Based on our analysis and simulation, the missile is capable of flying more than 10,000km with a warhead of 500-600kg," a defence ministry official told reporters on Sunday ... 415 Source.. Agencies. Share. Send Feedback. Featured on Al Jazeera. Jaws....(size: 18.8Kb)
Bloomberg
24 Dec 2012
“A modest man,” Winston Churchill supposedly quipped about Clement Attlee, his successor as prime minister, “but then he has so much to be modest about.” We should say the same about economists, particularly their ability to forecast anything in a useful and timely manner. Those predicting an imminent American economic decline have usually been no exception. This time, though, they may be on to something ... Even so, the U.S ... And the U.S ... ....(size: 7.3Kb)
The Independent
07 Dec 2012
It is the time of year for lists ... 1 Attlee 2 Wilson 3 Brown 4 Blair 5 Callaghan 6 MacDonald ... Nabila Ramdani said ... 1 Good Blair 2 Bad Blair 3 Attlee. One of these days, I will do my “Myth of the Sainted Attlee” seminar as a blog post. But not today ... Professor Peter Hennessy, Lutfur Rahman, mayor of Tower Hamlets, Clement Attlee, Peter Mandelson and Principal Professor Simon Gaskell, Queen Mary, University of London. Tagged in ... ....(size: 3.8Kb)
The Guardian
07 Dec 2012
It's richly satisfying when the victims of the select committee are wretched bankers, incompetents, or tax avoiders. Addictive viewing. Bob Diamond, former Barclays CEO, gives evidence before the Treasury select committee. Photograph. PA ... Or at least no fun ... Only space for one story, about Clement Attlee, probably the most taciturn prime minister ever ... Mr Attlee said furiously. 'Who's that bloody fool?'. "I said, 'that was Mrs Attlee, sir' ... ....(size: 7.9Kb)
The Daily Telegraph
29 Nov 2012
Alamy ... Beveridge’s proposals, which Clement Attlee, the prime minister, endorsed, were value-driven. Both Attlee and Beveridge had clear views on what characteristics should be encouraged in the British citizenry, and Beveridge built his system around these ... The irony is that it could take an economic crisis, where overall cuts in expenditure have to be made, for us to begin discovering the truism that Attlee took for granted ... ....(size: 13.4Kb)
BBC News
26 Nov 2012
William Beveridge paved the way for the welfare state 70 years ago. But do people now think more in terms of "scroungers" than the "deserving"? ... The UK was at war. Yet the report proved a huge success with the public and by February 1944 over 600,000 copies had been sold. Under Clement Attlee's post-war government, the National Insurance Act of 1946 created unemployment, pension, sickness and child benefits ... Fast forward to the present ... ....(size: 15.3Kb)
The Independent
25 Nov 2012
Dear Brian. The history of journalism is not, as supporters of press regulation underpinned by statute pretend, a long march towards state involvement. Campaigners for a free press have fought for centuries against state interference ... But it has done nothing to undermine this truth ... Dear Tim ... Dear Brian ... Tim. Dear Tim ... Phone hacking is just your latest pretext for a campaign that has waxed and waned since Clement Attlee was prime minister....(size: 12.4Kb)
The Daily Telegraph
22 Nov 2012
A new Dictionary of Humorous Political Quotations has just been published, demonstrating that political quibs can be funny and telling. Winston Churchill's sayings included ... Winston Churchill. By Michael Deacon. 8.44PM GMT 22 Nov 2012. Comments. Clement Attlee “looks like a female llama surprised while bathing”. That was one of his ... Show-off ... For example, the pun (Clement Freud calling Mrs Thatcher “Attila the Hen”) ... ....(size: 14.2Kb)
The Guardian
18 Nov 2012
The chancellor is pinning the government's re-electoral hopes on voters believing that Labour is responsible for the mess he has created. George Osborne ... Photograph ... Perhaps both prime minister and chancellor should reflect on another colloquial meaning of "green" – as in "inexperienced" or "not up to it" – which latter phrase was once used by Labour prime minister Clement Attlee on being asked why he was firing a member of his cabinet....(size: 6.6Kb)
Irish Times
16 Nov 2012
Mark Hennessy. London Letter��. Agricultural workers in England and Wales fear for the future of their wages board. Margaret Thatcher hated bodies that set pay for trades ... Since 1948, when the system was overhauled during Clement Attlee���s Labour administration, the board has an equal number of employers and employees, along with four independent members and an independent chair. Abolition advice�� ... ���Feudal��� situation�� ... ....(size: 5.2Kb)
Stuff
27 Oct 2012
Liddell tirelessly documented his dealings between 1945 and 1953 with the UK government and other intelligence officials, including the government of Clement Attlee, and the "Cambridge Five" now-notorious double agents whom Liddell mentions with affection ... "We've got the whole beginning of the Cold War." ... "It seems pretty clear that the pair of them have gone off," Liddell writes wryly in May, 1951 ... Ad Feedback. ....(size: 2.8Kb)
The Times of India
25 Oct 2012
The Hindu
25 Oct 2012
It was Clement Attlee to the rescue. ‘Name the British Prime Minister who once taught at the Sir Ratan Tata Department at the London School of Economics.’ “Winston Churchill,” said one team and lost 10 precious points. That was when an excited Yogesh Pai pressed the buzzer and gave the correct answer ... Yogesh was even part of the iconic Quiz Time ... “No one had anything nice to say about Tirupur, where we live....(size: 5.3Kb)
The Independent
23 Oct 2012
There was the depression in the Thirties, World War Two, the post-war era under Clement Attlee, the IMF hovering over the UK like the sword of Damocles in 1974 when inflation was 20 per cent, the Scargill saga of 1981, Black Monday of 1987, the 1989/1991 recession, the Iraq war of 2003 and finally the credit crunch of 2008 ... Those working in the City of London have always provided some fortitude as well as the backbone of recovery....(size: 3.1Kb)
"Attlee" redirects here. For other people named Attlee, see Atlee (name). For other uses, see Atlee.
| The Right Honourable The Earl Attlee KG OM CH FRS PC |
|
|---|---|
 |
|
| Prime Minister of the United Kingdom | |
| In office 26 July 1945 – 26 October 1951 |
|
| Monarch | George VI |
| Deputy | Herbert Morrison |
| Preceded by | Winston Churchill |
| Succeeded by | Winston Churchill |
| Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom | |
| In office 19 February 1942 – 23 May 1945 |
|
| Prime Minister | Winston Churchill |
| Preceded by | Office Created |
| Succeeded by | Herbert Morrison |
| Leader of the Opposition | |
| In office 26 October 1951 – 25 November 1955 |
|
| Monarch | George VI Elizabeth II |
| Prime Minister | Winston Churchill Sir Anthony Eden |
| Preceded by | Winston Churchill |
| Succeeded by | Herbert Morrison |
| In office 23 May 1945 – 26 July 1945 |
|
| Monarch | George VI |
| Prime Minister | Winston Churchill |
| Preceded by | Arthur Greenwood |
| Succeeded by | Winston Churchill |
| In office 25 October 1935 – 22 May 1940 |
|
| Monarch | George VI |
| Prime Minister | Ramsay MacDonald |
| Preceded by | George Lansbury |
| Succeeded by | Hastings Lees-Smith |
| Leader of the Labour Party | |
| In office 25 October 1935 – 25 November 1955 |
|
| Deputy | Arthur Greenwood Herbert Morrison |
| Preceded by | George Lansbury |
| Succeeded by | Hugh Gaitskell |
| Deputy Leader of the Labour Party | |
| In office 25 October 1933 – 25 October 1935 |
|
| Leader | George Lansbury |
| Preceded by | John Robert Clynes |
| Succeeded by | Arthur Greenwood |
| Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs | |
| In office 15 February 1942 – 24 September 1943 |
|
| Prime Minister | Winston Churchill |
| Preceded by | Viscount Cranborne |
| Succeeded by | Viscount Cranborne |
| Minister of Defence | |
| In office 27 July 1945 – 20 December 1946 |
|
| Prime Minister | Himself |
| Preceded by | Winston Churchill |
| Succeeded by | A. V. Alexander |
| Lord President of the Council | |
| In office 24 September 1943 – 23 May 1945 |
|
| Prime Minister | Winston Churchill |
| Preceded by | Sir John Anderson |
| Succeeded by | The Lord Woolton |
| Lord Privy Seal | |
| In office 24 September 1943 – 23 May 1945 |
|
| Prime Minister | Winston Churchill |
| Preceded by | Sir Kingsley Wood |
| Succeeded by | Sir Stafford Cripps |
| Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster | |
| In office 23 May 1930 – 13 March 1931 |
|
| Preceded by | Sir Oswald Mosley |
| Succeeded by | The Lord Ponsonby of Shulbrede |
| Member of Parliament for Walthamstow West |
|
| In office 23 February 1950 – 26 December 1955 |
|
| Preceded by | Valentine McEntee |
| Succeeded by | Edward Redhead |
| Member of Parliament for Limehouse |
|
| In office 15 November 1922 – 23 February 1950 |
|
| Preceded by | Sir William Pearce |
| Succeeded by | Walter Edwards (Stepney) |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Clement Richard Attlee (1883-01-03)3 January 1883 London, England, UK |
| Died | 8 October 1967(1967-10-08) (aged 84) Westminster Hospital, London, England |
| Resting place | Westminster Abbey |
| Nationality | British |
| Political party | Labour |
| Spouse(s) | Violet Attlee |
| Children | Janet Helen (Lady) Felicity Ann Martin Richard Alison Elizabeth |
| Alma mater | University College, Oxford |
| Profession | Lawyer, Soldier (served in World War I as a Major) |
| Religion | Agnostic |
Clement Richard Attlee, 1st Earl Attlee, KG, OM, CH, PC, FRS[1] (3 January 1883 – 8 October 1967) was a British Labour politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951, and as the Leader of the Labour Party from 1935 to 1955. He was also the first person to hold the office of Deputy Prime Minister, under Winston Churchill in the wartime coalition government, before leading the Labour Party to a landslide election victory over Churchill's Conservative Party in 1945. He was the first Labour Prime Minister to serve a full Parliamentary term, and the first to command a Labour majority in Parliament.
The government he led put in place the post-war settlement, based upon the assumption that full employment would be maintained by Keynesian policies, and that a greatly enlarged system of social services would be created – aspirations that had been outlined in the wartime Beveridge Report. Within this context, his government undertook the nationalisation of major industries and public utilities as well as the creation of the National Health Service. After initial Conservative opposition to Keynesian fiscal policy, this settlement was broadly accepted by all parties[2] until Margaret Thatcher became Prime Minister in 1979.
His government also presided over the decolonisation of a large part of the British Empire when India, Pakistan, Burma, Ceylon and Jordan were granted independence. The British Mandate of Palestine also came to an end with the creation of Israel on the day of British withdrawal.
In 2004, he was voted the greatest British prime minister of the 20th century in a poll of 139 academics organised by MORI.[3]
Early life and family[link]
Attlee was born in Putney, London, the seventh of eight children. His father was Henry Attlee (1841–1908), a solicitor, and his mother was Ellen Bravery Watson (1847–1920).
Education[link]
Attlee was educated at Northaw School, a boys' preparatory school near Pluckley in Kent (which in 1952 was relocated and named Norman Court School), Haileybury College, and University College, Oxford, where he graduated with a Second Class Honours BA in Modern History in 1904. Attlee then trained as a lawyer, and was called to the Bar in 1906.[4]
Life and career[link]
From 1906 to 1909, Attlee worked as manager of Haileybury House, a charitable club for working-class boys in Limehouse in the East End of London run by his old school. Prior to this, his political views had been conservative. However, he was shocked by the poverty and deprivation he saw while working with slum children. He came to the view that private charity would never be sufficient to alleviate poverty, and only massive action and income redistribution by the state would have any serious effect. This sparked up a process of political evolution which saw him develop into a full fledged supporter of socialism.[4] He joined the Independent Labour Party in 1908, and became active in London local politics.
In 1909 he worked briefly as secretary for Beatrice Webb, and from 1909 to 1910 he worked as secretary for Toynbee Hall.[4] In 1911 he took up a government job as an "official explainer", touring the country to explain David Lloyd George's National Insurance Act. He spent the summer of that year touring Essex and Somerset on a bicycle, explaining the Act at public meetings.[4]
Attlee became a lecturer at the London School of Economics in 1912, but promptly applied for a Commission in August 1914 for World War I.[4]
Military service during World War I[link]
During World War I, Attlee was given the rank of captain and served with the South Lancashire Regiment in the Gallipoli Campaign in Turkey. After a period of fighting in the heat, sand and flies, he became ill with dysentery and was sent to hospital in Malta to recover. This may have saved his life, as while he was in hospital he missed the Battle of Sari Bair in which many of his comrades were killed.
Attlee had gained a reputation among his superiors as a competent leader. When he returned to the front, he was informed that his company had been chosen to hold the final lines when Gallipoli was evacuated. He was the last-but-one man to be evacuated from Suvla Bay (the last being General F.S. Maude).[4]
The Gallipoli Campaign had been masterminded by Winston Churchill. Attlee believed that it was a bold strategy, which could have been successful if it had been better implemented. This gave him an admiration for Churchill as a military strategist, which improved their working relationship in later years.[4]
He later served in the Mesopotamian Campaign in Iraq, where he was badly wounded at El Hannah after being hit in the leg by shrapnel from an exploding shell while taking enemy trenches. He was sent back to England to recover, and spent most of 1917 training soldiers. He was sent to France in June 1918 to serve on the Western Front for the last months of the war.[4]
In 1917 he had been promoted to the rank of Major, and continued to be known as "Major Attlee" for much of the inter-war period.
His decision to fight in the war caused a rift between him and his older brother Tom Attlee, who as a pacifist and a conscientious objector spent much of the war in prison.[4] After the war, he returned to teaching at the London School of Economics until 1923.
Marriage and children[link]
Attlee met Violet Millar on a trip to Italy in 1921. Within a few weeks of their return they became engaged and were married at Christ Church, Hampstead on 10 January 1922.[4] It would come to be a devoted marriage, until her death in 1964. They had four children: (Lady) Janet Helen (b. 1923), (Lady) Felicity Ann (1925–2007), Martin Richard (1927–91) and (Lady) Alison Elizabeth (b. 1930).
Early political career[link]
Local politics[link]
Attlee returned to local politics in the immediate post-war period, becoming mayor of the Metropolitan Borough of Stepney in 1919, one of London's poorest inner-city boroughs. During his time as mayor, the council undertook action to tackle slum landlords who charged high rents but refused to spend money on keeping their property in habitable condition. The council served and enforced legal orders on house-owners to repair their property. It also appointed health visitors and sanitary inspectors, and reduced the infant mortality rate.[4]
In 1920, while mayor, he wrote his first book, The Social Worker, which set out many of the principles that informed his political philosophy and that were to underpin the actions of his government in later years.[4] The book attacked the idea that looking after the poor could be left to voluntary action. He wrote:
"Charity is a cold grey loveless thing. If a rich man wants to help the poor, he should pay his taxes gladly, not dole out money at a whim."
He went on to write:
"In a civilised community, although it may be composed of self-reliant individuals, there will be some persons who will be unable at some period of their lives to look after themselves, and the question of what is to happen to them may be solved in three ways – they may be neglected, they may be cared for by the organised community as of right, or they may be left to the goodwill of individuals in the community. The first way is intolerable, and as for the third: Charity is only possible without loss of dignity between equals. A right established by law, such as that to an old age pension, is less galling than an allowance made by a rich man to a poor one, dependent on his view of the recipient’s character, and terminable at his caprice."[4]
He strongly supported the Poplar Rates Rebellion led by George Lansbury in 1921. This put him into conflict with many of the leaders of the London Labour Party, including Herbert Morrison.[5]
Member of Parliament[link]
At the 1922 general election, Attlee became the Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency of Limehouse in Stepney. He helped Ramsay MacDonald, whom at the time he admired, get elected as Labour Party leader at the 1922 Labour leadership election, a decision which he later regretted.[4] He served as Ramsay MacDonald's parliamentary private secretary for the brief 1922 parliament.
His first taste of ministerial office came in 1924, when he served as Under-Secretary of State for War in the short-lived first Labour government, led by MacDonald.[4]
Attlee opposed the 1926 General Strike, believing that strike action should not be used as a political weapon. However, when it happened he did not attempt to undermine it. At the time of the strike he was chairman of the Stepney Borough Electricity Committee. He negotiated a deal with the Electrical Trade Union that they would continue to supply power to hospitals, but would end supplies to factories. One firm, Scammell and Nephew Ltd, took a civil action against Attlee and the other Labour members of the committee (although not against the Conservative members who had also supported this). The court found against Attlee and his fellow councillors and they were ordered to pay £300 damages. The decision was later reversed on appeal, but the financial problems caused by the episode almost forced Attlee out of politics.[4]
In 1927 he was appointed a member of the multi-party Simon Commission, a Royal Commission set up to examine the possibility of granting self-rule to India. As a result of the time he needed to devote to the commission, and contrary to a promise made to Attlee by MacDonald to induce him to serve on the commission, he was not initially offered a ministerial post in the Second Labour Government.[4] However, his unsought service on the Commission was to equip Attlee (who was later to have to decide the future of India as Prime Minister) with a thorough exposure to India and many of its political leaders.
In 1930, Labour MP Oswald Mosley left the party after its rejection of his proposals for solving the unemployment problem. Attlee was given Mosley's post of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. He was Postmaster-General at the time of the 1931 crisis, during which most of the party's leaders lost their seats. During the course of the second Labour government, Attlee had become increasingly disillusioned by Ramsay MacDonald, whom he came to regard as vain and incompetent, and later wrote scathingly of him in his autobiography.[4][6]
Opposition during the 1930s[link]
Deputy Leader of the Labour Party[link]
After the downfall of the second Labour government, the 1931 General Election was held. The election was a disaster for the Labour Party, which lost over 200 seats; most of the party's senior figures lost their seats, including Arthur Henderson, the party leader. George Lansbury and Attlee were among the few surviving Labour MPs who had served in government. Accordingly, Lansbury became leader of the party and Attlee became deputy leader.[4]
Attlee served as acting leader for nine months from December 1933, after Lansbury fractured his thigh in an accident.[4] This raised his public profile. During this period, financial problems again almost forced Attlee to quit politics, as his wife was ill, and there was then no separate salary for the Leader of the Opposition. He was persuaded to stay on, however, by Stafford Cripps, a wealthy socialist who agreed to pay him an additional salary.[4]
Leader of the Opposition[link]
George Lansbury, a convinced pacifist, resigned as leader at the 1935 Labour Party conference, after the party voted in favour of sanctions against Italy for its aggression against Abyssinia, a policy which Lansbury strongly opposed. With a general election looming, the Parliamentary Labour Party then appointed Attlee as interim leader, on the understanding that a leadership election would be held after the general election.[4]
Attlee led Labour through the 1935 general election, which saw the party stage a partial recovery from its disastrous performance in 1931, gaining over one hundred seats. In the post-election leadership contest held in November 1935, Attlee was opposed by Herbert Morrison and Arthur Greenwood. Morrison was seen as the favourite by many, but was distrusted by many sections of the party, especially the left. Arthur Greenwood's leadership bid was hampered by his alcohol problem. Attlee came first in both the first and second ballots, and subsequently retained the leadership, a post which he would keep until 1955.[4]
Throughout the 1920s and most of the 1930s, the Labour Party's official policy, supported by Attlee, was to oppose rearmament, and support internationalism and collective security under the League of Nations. At the Labour Party conference at Southport in 1934, Attlee declared that "We have absolutely abandoned any idea of nationalist loyalty. We are deliberately putting a world order before our loyalty to our own country. We say we want to see put on the statute book something which will make our people citizens of the world before they are citizens of this country".[7] During a debate on defence a year later Attlee declared "We are told in the White Paper that there is danger against which we have to guard ourselves. We do not think you can do it by national defence. We think you can only do it by moving forward to a new world—a world of law, the abolition of national armaments with a world force and a world economic system. I shall be told that that is quite impossible".[8]
On 21 May 1935 Hitler gave a speech in which he proclaimed that German rearmament offered no threat to world peace. Attlee responded the next day in the debate on increased air estimates that Hitler's speech contained unfavourable references to the Soviet Union but that "We see here a chance to call a halt in the armaments race...We do not think that our answer to Herr Hitler should be just rearmament. We are in an age of rearmaments, but we on this side cannot accept that position".[9]
In April 1936 the Chancellor of the Exchequer Neville Chamberlain introduced a budget which increased the amount spent on the armed forces. Attlee made a broadcast in opposition to it, saying the budget
...was the natural expression of the character of the present Government. There was hardly any increase allowed for the services which went to build up the life of the people, education and health. Everything was devoted to piling up the instruments of death. The Chancellor expressed great regret that he should have to spend so much on armaments, but said that it was absolutely necessary and was due only to the actions of other nations. One would think to listen to him that the Government had no responsibility for the state of world affairs...The Government has now resolved to enter upon an arms race, and the people will have to pay for their mistake in believing that it could be trusted to carry out a policy of peace. ... This is a War Budget. We can look in the future for no advance in Social Legislation. All available resources are to be devoted to armaments.[10]
However, with the rising threat from Nazi Germany, and the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations, this policy lost credibility. By 1937, Labour had jettisoned its pacifist position and came to support rearmament and oppose Neville Chamberlain's policy of appeasement.[4] In 1938 Attlee opposed the Munich Agreement in which Chamberlain negotiated with Hitler to give Germany the German-speaking parts of Czechoslovakia, the Sudetenland:
We all feel relief that war has not come this time. Every one of us has been passing through days of anxiety; we cannot, however, feel that peace has been established, but that we have nothing but an armistice in a state of war. We have been unable to go in for care-free rejoicing. We have felt that we are in the midst of a tragedy. We have felt humiliation. This has not been a victory for reason and humanity. It has been a victory for brute force. At every stage of the proceedings there have been time limits laid down by the owner and ruler of armed force. The terms have not been terms negotiated; they have been terms laid down as ultimata. We have seen to-day a gallant, civilised and democratic people betrayed and handed over to a ruthless despotism. We have seen something more. We have seen the cause of democracy, which is, in our view, the cause of civilisation and humanity, receive a terrible defeat...The events of these last few days constitute one of the greatest diplomatic defeats that this country and France have ever sustained. There can be no doubt that it is a tremendous victory for Herr Hitler. Without firing a shot, by the mere display of military force, he has achieved a dominating position in Europe which Germany failed to win after four years of war. He has overturned the balance of power in Europe. He has destroyed the last fortress of democracy in Eastern Europe which stood in the way of his ambition. He has opened his way to the food, the oil and the resources which he requires in order to consolidate his military power, and he has successfully defeated and reduced to impotence the forces that might have stood against the rule of violence.[11]
In April 1939 Attlee opposed the government's introduction of conscription.[12]
In 1937, Attlee visited Spain and visited the British Battalion of the International Brigades fighting in the Spanish Civil War.[4] One of the companies was named the 'Major Attlee Company' in his honour.
Deputy Prime Minister[link]
Attlee remained opposition leader when war broke out in September 1939. The disastrous Norwegian campaign resulted in a motion of no confidence in the government.[13] Although Chamberlain survived this, the reputation of his administration was so badly damaged that it was clear that a coalition government was necessary. The crisis coincided with the Labour Party Conference. Even if Attlee had been prepared to serve under Chamberlain (in a "national emergency government"), he would not have been able to carry the party with him. Consequently, Chamberlain tendered his resignation, and Labour and the Conservatives entered a coalition government led by Winston Churchill.[5]
In the World War II coalition government, three interconnected committees ran the war. Churchill chaired the War Cabinet and the Defence Committee. Attlee was his regular deputy in these committees, and answered for the government in parliament when Churchill was absent. Attlee chaired the third body, the Lord President's Committee, which ran the civil side of the war. As Churchill was most concerned with executing the war, the arrangement suited both men.[5]
Only he and Churchill remained in the war cabinet from the formation of the Government of National Unity to the 1945 election. Attlee was Lord Privy Seal (1940–42), Deputy Prime Minister (1942–45), Dominions Secretary (1942–43), and Lord President of the Council (1943–45). Attlee supported Churchill in his continuation of Britain's resistance after the French capitulation in 1940, and proved a loyal ally to Churchill throughout the conflict;[5] when the war cabinet had voted on whether to negotiate peace terms, Attlee (along with fellow Labour minister Arthur Greenwood) voted in favour of fighting, giving Churchill the majority he needed to continue the war.[14]
1945 general election[link]
Main article: United Kingdom general election, 1945
Following the end of the war in Europe in May 1945, Attlee and Churchill wanted the coalition government to last until Japan had been defeated. However, Herbert Morrison argued that the party would not accept this, and the Labour National Executive Committee agreed with him. Churchill responded by resigning as coalition Prime Minister and calling for an immediate election.[5]
The war set in motion profound social changes within Britain and led to a popular desire for social reform. This mood was epitomised in the Beveridge Report. The report assumed that the maintenance of full employment would be the aim of postwar governments, which would provide the basis for the welfare state. Immediately on its release, it sold hundreds of thousands of copies. All major parties were committed to this aim, but perhaps Attlee and Labour were seen by the electorate as the best candidates to follow it through.
Labour campaigned on the theme of "Let Us Face the Future" and positioned themselves as the party best placed to rebuild Britain after the war, while the Conservatives' campaign centred around Churchill. With the hero status of Churchill, few expected a Labour victory. However, Churchill made some errors during the campaign: his suggestion during a radio broadcast that a Labour government would require "some form of a gestapo" to implement their socialist policies was widely seen as being in bad taste, and backfired.[5]
The results of the election came as a surprise to almost everyone when they were announced on 26 July, including Attlee: Labour had been swept to power on a landslide, winning just under 50% of the vote, to the Conservatives' 36%. Labour won 393 seats, giving them a majority of 146 seats.[15]
The story goes that when Attlee visited King George VI at Buckingham Palace to kiss hands, the notoriously laconic Attlee and the notoriously tongue-tied George VI stood for some minutes in silence, before Attlee finally volunteered the remark "I've won the election." The King replied "I know. I heard it on the Six O'Clock News."[16]
Prime Minister[link]
Now Prime Minister, Attlee appointed Ernest Bevin as Foreign Secretary; Hugh Dalton was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer (it had widely been expected to be the other way around). Stafford Cripps became President of the Board of Trade, while Herbert Morrison was given the post of Deputy Prime Minister and given overall control of Labour's nationalisation programme. Aneurin Bevan became Minister of Health, whilst Ellen Wilkinson, the only woman to serve in Attlee's government, became Minister of Education.
Attlee's government proved itself to be a radical reforming administration. In the 1945-46 session alone, pensions and other benefits were substantially increased,[17] and from 1945 to 1948, over 200 public Acts of Parliament were passed, with eight major pieces of legislation placed on the statute book in 1946 alone.[18]
Domestic policy[link]
Health and Welfare reforms[link]
In domestic policy, the party had clear aims. Attlee's first Health Secretary, Aneurin Bevan, fought against the general disapproval of the medical establishment in creating the British National Health Service; the publicly funded healthcare system, which offers treatment free at the point of use. Reflecting pent-up demand that had long existed for medical services, the NHS treated some 8.5 million dental patients and dispensed more than 5 million pairs of spectacles during its first year of operation.[17] Consultants also benefited from the new system by being paid salaries that provided an acceptable standard of living without the need for them to resort to private practice.[19] Although there are often disputes about its organisation and funding, British parties to this day must still voice their general support for the NHS in order to remain electable.[20]
In the field of healthcare, funds were allocated towards modernisation and extension schemes aimed at improving administrative efficiency. Improvements were made in nursing accommodation in order to recruit more nurses and reduce labour shortages which were keeping 60,000 beds out of use, while efforts were made to reduce the imbalance “between an excess of fever and tuberculosis (TB) beds and a shortage of maternity beds.”[21] In addition, BCG vaccinations were introduced for the protection of medical students, midwives, nurses, and contacts of patients with TB,[22] while a pension scheme was set up for employees of the newly-established NHS.[23] Numerous lesser reforms were also introduced, some of which were of great benefit to certain segments of British society, such as the mentally deficient and the blind.[24]
The government set about implementing William Beveridge's plans for the creation of a 'cradle to grave' welfare state, and set in place an entirely new system of social security. Among the most important pieces of legislation was the National Insurance Act 1946, in which people in work paid a flat rate of national insurance. In return, they (and the wives of male contributors) were eligible for flat-rate pensions, sickness benefit, unemployment benefit, and funeral benefit. Various other pieces of legislation provided for child benefit and support for people with no other source of income.[25] The New Towns Act of 1946 set up development corporations to construct new towns, while the Town and Country Planning Act of 1947 instructed county councils to prepare development plans and also provided compulsory purchase powers.[26] The Attlee Government also extended the powers of local authorities to requisition houses and parts of houses, and made the acquisition of land less difficult than was the case before.[27] In 1949, local authorities were empowered to provide people suffering from poor health with public housing at subsidised rents.[28]
A block grant introduced in 1948 helped the social services provided by local authorities.[29] Personal Social Services or welfare services were developed in 1948 for individual and families in general, particularly special groups such as the mentally disordered, deprived children, the elderly, and the handicapped.[30] The Attlee Government also significantly increased pensions and other benefits, with pensions raised to the point that they became more of a living income than they had been before.
A large house-building programme was carried out with the intention of providing millions of people with high-quality homes.[17] A housing bill passed in 1946 increased Treasury subsidies for the construction of local authority housing in England and Wales,[26] while four out of five houses constructed under Labour were council properties, built to more generous specifications than before the Second World War, while subsidies kept down council rents. Altogether, these policies provided public-sector housing with its biggest ever boost up until that point, while low-wage earners particularly benefited from these developments. Although the Attlee Government failed to meet its targets owing to economic constraints, over a million new homes were built between 1945 and 1951 (a significant achievement under the circumstances) which ensured that decent, affordable housing was available to many low-income families for the first time ever.[17]
A more extensive system of social welfare benefits was established by the Attlee Government, which did much to reduce acute social deprivation. The cumulative impact of the Attlee’s Government’s health and welfare policies was such that all the indices of health (such as statistics of school medical or dental officers, or of medical officers of health) showed signs of improvement, with continual improvements in survival rates for infants and increased life expectancy for the elderly.[29] The success of the Attlee Government's welfare legislation in reducing poverty was such that, in the general election of 1950, according to Kevin Jefferys, "Labour propaganda could make much of the claim that social security had eradicated the most abject destitution of the 1930s".[17]
Women and children[link]
A number of reforms were embarked upon to improve conditions for women and children. In 1946, universal family allowances were introduced to provide financial support to households for raising children.[31][32] These benefits had been legislated for the previous year by Churchill’s Family Allowances Act 1945, and was the first measure pushed through parliament by Attlee’s government.[33] Conservatives would later criticise Labour for having been “too hasty” in introducing family allowances.[34]
A Married Women (Restraint Upon Anticipation) Act was passed in 1949 “to equalise, to render inoperative any restrictions upon anticipation or alienation attached to the enjoyment of property by a woman,” while the Married Women (Maintenance) Act of 1949 was enacted with the intention of improving the adequacy and duration of financial benefits for married women.[35] The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act of 1950 amended an Act of 1885 to bring prostitutes within the law and safeguard them from abduction and abuse.[36] The Criminal Justice Act of 1948 restricted imprisonment for juveniles and brought improvements to the probation and remand centres systems, while the passage of the Justices of the Peace Act of 1949 led to extensive reforms of magistrates courts.
Workers[link]
Various measures were carried out to improve conditions in the workplace. Entitlement to sick leave was greatly extended, with sick pay schemes introduced for local authority administrative, professional and technical workers in 1946 and for various categories of manual workers in 1948,[37] while worker’s compensation was significantly improved.[38] The Electricity Act 1947 introduced better retirement benefits for workers in that industry,[39] while in 1948 a Workers’ Compensation (Supplementation) Act was passed which introduced a scheme to provide benefits for workers with certain asbestos-related diseases which had occurred before 1948.[40] Other changes on behalf of workers included the repeal of the Trades Disputes Act 1927, the introduction of a Dock Labour Scheme in 1947 (which sought to put an end to the casual system of hiring labour in the docks)[41] and the introduction of a Miner’s Charter in 1946, which instituted a five-day workweek for miners and a standardised day wage structure.[29] Wages for members of the police force were significantly increased,[42] while in 1948 a Colliery Workers Supplementary Scheme was approved, providing supplementary allowances to disabled coal-workers and their dependants.[43][44]
The Merchant Shipping Act of 1948 and the Merchant Shipping (Safety Convention) Act of 1949 were passed to improve conditions for seamen,[45] while the Shops Act of 1950 consolidated previous legislation which provided that no one could be employed in a shop for more than six hours without having a break for at least 20 minutes. The legislation also required a lunch break of at least 45 minutes for anyone for worked between 11:30am and 2:30 pm and a half hour tea break for anyone working between 4pm and 7pm.[46] Under the Coal Industry Nationalisation (Superannuation) Regulations of 1950, a pension scheme for mineworkers was established.[47]
Nationalisation[link]
Attlee's government also carried out their manifesto commitment for nationalisation of basic industries and public utilities. The Bank of England and civil aviation were nationalised in 1946. Coal mining, the railways, road haulage, canals and cable and wireless were nationalised in 1947, electricity and gas followed in 1948. The steel industry was finally nationalised in 1951. By 1951 about 20% of the British economy had been taken into public ownership.[25]
Although nationalisation failed to provide workers with a greater say in the running of the industries that they worked in (as many on the Left had hoped), it did bring about significant material gains for workers in the form of higher wages, reduced working hours,[48] and improvements in working conditions, especially in regards to safety.[49] As noted by the historian Eric Shaw, in the years following nationalisation, the electricity and gas supply companies became “impressive models of public enterprise” in terms of efficiency, while in relation the coal industry, the National Coal Board was not only profitable, but working conditions for miners had significantly improved as well.[50] Within a few years of nationalisation, a number of progressive measures had been carried out which did much to improve conditions in the mines, including better pay, a five-day workweek, a national safety scheme (with proper standards at all the collieries), a ban on young boys under the age of 16 going underground, the introduction of training for newcomers before going down to the coalface, and the making of pithead baths into a standard facility.[51]
Agriculture[link]
The Attlee Government placed strong emphasis on improving the quality of life in rural areas, benefiting both farmers and other consumers. Security of tenure for farmers was introduced, while consumers were protected by food subsidies and the redistributive effects of deficiency payments. Between 1945 and 1951, the quality of rural life was improved by improvements in gas, electricity, water services, as well as in leisure and public amenities. In addition, the 1947 Transport Act improved provision of rural bus services, while the Agriculture Act 1947 established a more generous subsidy system for farmers.[29] Legislation was also passed in 1947 and 1948 which established a permanent Agricultural Wages Board to fix minimum wages for agricultural workers.[52][53]
Education[link]
The Attlee Government ensured provisions of the Education Act 1944 were fully implemented, with free secondary education becoming a right for the first time. Fees in state grammar schools were eliminated, while new secondary modern schools were constructed.[54] The school leaving age was raised to 15 in 1947, while increased Treasury funds were made available for education, particularly for upgrading school buildings suffering from years of neglect and war damage.[55] “Prefab” classrooms were also built and 928 new primary schools were constructed between 1945 and 1950. The provision of free school meals was expanded, while opportunities for universal entrants were widened.[56] State scholarships to universities were increased,[57] while free milk was made available to all schoolchildren for the first time.[58] Spending on technical education also rose, while the number of nursery schools was increased.[59] In addition, greater financial assistance was provided to those who had won scholarships to universities, salaries for teachers were improved, and funds were allocated towards improving existing schools.[60]
A Ministry of Education was established, while free County Colleges were set up for the compulsory part-time instruction of teenagers between the ages of 15 and 18 who were not in full-time education.[61] An Emergency Training Scheme was also introduced which turned out an extra 25,000 teachers in 1945-51.[62] Despite these achievements, Attlee's government failed to introduce comprehensive education as many socialists had hoped as a means of making the educational system less meritoric, although this reform was eventually carried out by Harold Wilson's government.
The economy[link]
The most significant problem facing Attlee and his ministers remained the economy, as the war effort had left Britain nearly bankrupt. The war had cost Britain about a quarter of its national wealth. Overseas investments had been wound up to pay for the war. The transition to a peacetime economy, and the maintaining of strategic military commitments abroad led to continuous and severe problems with the balance of trade. This meant that strict rationing of food and other essential goods were continued in the post war period, to force a reduction in consumption in an effort to limit imports, boost exports and stabilise the Pound Sterling so that Britain could trade its way out of its crisis.
The abrupt ending of the American Lend-Lease program in August 1945 almost caused a crisis. This was mitigated by the Anglo-American loan negotiated in December 1945 by John Maynard Keynes, which provided some respite. The conditions attached to the loan included making the pound fully convertible to the dollar. When this was introduced in July 1947, it led to a currency crisis and convertibility had to be suspended after just five weeks.[25] Britain benefited from the American Marshall Aid program from 1948, and the economic situation improved significantly. However another balance of payments crisis in 1949 forced Chancellor of the Exchequer Stafford Cripps into devaluation of the pound.[25]
Despite these problems, one of the main achievements of Attlee's government was the maintenance of near full employment. The government maintained most of the wartime controls over the economy, including control over the allocation of materials and manpower, and unemployment rarely rose above 500,000, or 3% of the total workforce.[25] In fact labour shortages proved to be more of a problem. In addition, the inflation rate was also kept low.[50]
One area where the government was not quite as successful was in housing, which was also the responsibility of Aneurin Bevan. The government had a target to build 400,000 new houses a year to replace those which had been destroyed in the war, but shortages of materials and manpower meant that less than half this number were built. Nevertheless, millions of people were rehoused as a result of the Attlee government's housing policies, and between August 1945 and December 1951, 1,016,349 new homes were completed in England, Scotland, and Wales.[63]
In addition, when the Attlee Government was voted out of office in 1951, it had left the economy in better shape than they had found it in 1945, while the period from 1946 to 1951 saw continuous full employment and steadily rising living standards, which increased by about 10% per annum. During that same period, the economy grew by 3% a year, and by 1951 the United Kingdom had “the best economic performance in Europe, while output per person was increasing faster than in the United States.”[64] Careful planning after 1945 also ensured that demobilisation was carried out without having a negative impact upon economic recovery, and that unemployment would be kept at very low levels.[65] In addition, the number of motor cars on the roads rose from 3 million to 5 million from 1945 to 1951, while seaside holidays were now taken by far more people than ever before.[66]
1947 crisis[link]
1947 proved to be a particularly difficult year for the government; an exceptionally cold winter that year caused coal mines to freeze and cease production, creating widespread power cuts and food shortages. The Minister of Fuel and Power, Emanuel Shinwell, became a scapegoat for the crisis and was widely blamed for failing to ensure adequate coal stocks, and soon resigned from his post. The Conservatives capitalised on the crisis with the slogan 'Starve with Strachey and shiver with Shinwell' (referring to the Minister of Food John Strachey).[67]
The crisis led to an unsuccessful plot by Hugh Dalton to replace Attlee as Prime Minister with Ernest Bevin. Later that year Stafford Cripps tried to persuade Attlee to stand aside for Bevin. However these plots petered out after Bevin refused to co-operate.[4] Later that year, Hugh Dalton resigned as Chancellor after inadvertently leaking details of the budget to a journalist. He was replaced by Cripps.
Relations with the press and Royal family[link]
Attlee's government faced constant hostility from Conservative supporting sections of society, including the Conservative supporting press. The Sunday Times journalist James Margach, wrote of the Attlee years; "I have never known the Press so consistently and irresponsibly political, slanted and prejudiced". As early as 1946 the Attorney-General Sir Hartley Shawcross attacked "the campaign of calumny and misrepresentation which the Tory Party and the Tory stooge press has directed at the Labour government. Freedom of the press does not mean freedom to tell lies". In 1946 the government set up a Royal Commission on the press which eventually led to the setting up of the Press Council in 1953.[4]
Relations with the Royal Family were also strained. A letter from Queen Elizabeth (later the Queen Mother), dated 17 May 1947, showed "her decided lack of enthusiasm for the socialist government" and describes the British electorate as "poor people, so many half-educated and bemused" for electing Attlee over Winston Churchill, whom she saw as a war hero. That said, according to Lord Wyatt, this was to be expected as the Queen Mother was "the most right-wing member of the Royal Family."[68]
Foreign policy[link]
Postwar Europe and the Cold War[link]
In foreign affairs, Attlee's cabinet was concerned with four issues: postwar Europe, the onset of the cold war, the establishment of the United Nations, and decolonisation. The first two were closely related, and Attlee was assisted in these matters by Ernest Bevin. Attlee attended the later stages of the Potsdam Conference in the company of Harry S. Truman and Joseph Stalin.
In the immediate aftermath of the war, the Government faced the challenge of managing relations with Britain's former war-time ally, Stalin and the Soviet Union. Attlee's Foreign Secretary, the former trade union leader Ernest Bevin, was passionately anti-communist, based largely on his experience of fighting communist influence in the trades union movement. Bevin's initial approach to the USSR as Foreign Secretary has been described by historian Kenneth O. Morgan as "wary and suspicious, but not automatically hostile".[69]
In an early "good-will" gesture that was later heavily criticised, the Attlee government allowed the Soviets access, under the terms of a 1946 UK-USSR Trade Agreement, to several Rolls-Royce Nene jet engines. The Soviets, who at the time were well behind the West in jet technology, reverse-engineered the Nene, and installed their own version in the MiG-15 interceptor, used to good effect against US-UK forces in the subsequent Korean War, as well as in several later MiG models.[70]
After Stalin took political control of most of Eastern Europe and began to subvert other governments in the Balkans, Attlee's and Bevin's worst fears of Soviet intentions were borne out. The Attlee government then became instrumental in the creation of the successful NATO defence alliance to protect Western Europe against any Soviet aggression.[71] In a crucial contribution to the economic stability of post-War Europe, Attlee's cabinet was instrumental in promoting the American Marshall Plan for the economic recovery of Europe.
A group of left wing Labour MPs organised under the banner of "Keep Left", urged the government to steer a middle way between the two emerging superpowers, and advocated the creation of 'third force' of European powers to stand between the USA and USSR. However, deteriorating relations between Britain and the USSR, and Britain's economic reliance on America, steered policy towards supporting America.[25]
Fear of Soviet and American intentions led, in January 1947, to a secret meeting of senior cabinet ministers, where it was decided to press ahead with the development of Britain's independent nuclear deterrent, an issue which later caused a split in the Labour Party, although the first successful test did not occur until 1952, after Attlee had left office.[25]
In 1950 American president Harry S. Truman said that atomic weapons may be used in the Korean War. Attlee became concerned with the power America possessed and therefore called a meeting of some foreign affairs ministers in order to discuss the issue that had evolved.
Decolonisation[link]
Attlee's government was responsible for the first significant decolonisation of part of the British Empire – India. Attlee appointed Lord Louis Mountbatten Viceroy of India, and agreed to Mountbatten's request for plenipotentiary powers for negotiating Indian independence. In view of implacable demands by the political leadership of both Hindu and Islamic communities in British India for a separate Hindu and a separate Muslim homeland, Mountbatten conceded the notion of two nations consisting of a Hindu-majority India and a Muslim-majority Pakistan (which at the time incorporated East Pakistan, now Bangladesh)[citation needed].
The drawing of borders was accomplished at the cost of large-scale population movements and heavy communal bloodshed on both sides. The independence of Burma and Ceylon was also negotiated around this time. Some of the new countries became British Dominions, the genesis of the modern Commonwealth of Nations.[25]
One of the most urgent problems concerned the future of the Palestine Mandate. British policies there were perceived by the Zionist movement and the Truman administration as pro-Arab and anti-Jewish, and in the face of armed revolt of Jewish militant groups and increasing violence of the local Arab population Britain had found itself unable to control events. This was a very unpopular commitment and the evacuation of British troops and subsequent handing over of the issue to the UN was widely supported by the public.[25]
The government's policies with regard to the other colonies, however, particularly those in Africa, were very different. A major military base was built in Kenya, and the African colonies came under an unprecedented degree of direct control from London, as development schemes were implemented with a view to helping solve Britain's desperate post-war balance of payments crisis, and raising African living standards. This 'new colonialism' was, however, generally a failure: in some cases, such as a then-infamous Tanganyika groundnut scheme, spectacularly so.[25]
Demise of Attlee's government[link]
The Labour Party was returned to power in the general election of 1950 with a much reduced parliamentary majority (a mere five seats compared to the triple-digit majority of five years previously) under the first-past-the-post voting system, despite an increase in the popular vote. This was largely blamed on post-war austerity denting Labour's appeal to wealthier voters who felt they would be more prosperous under a Conservative government.[72]
It was at this time that a degree of Conservative opposition recovered at the expense of the declining Liberal Party. Although Attlee's second government was less radical than the first, it oversaw the passage of a number of reforms, relating to issues such as industry in development areas, the restoration of land which had been devastated by ironstone pollution, and river pollution.[73]
By 1951, the Attlee government was looking increasingly exhausted, with several of its most important ministers having died or ailing. Attlee himself was hospitalised with duodenal ulcers.[74] The party split in 1951 over the austerity budget brought in by Hugh Gaitskell to pay for the cost of Britain's participation in the Korean War: Aneurin Bevan, architect of the National Health Service (NHS), resigned to protest against the new charges for "teeth and spectacles" introduced by the budget, and was joined in this action by the later prime minister, Harold Wilson.[25]
Labour lost the general election of 1951 to Churchill's renewed Conservatives, despite polling more votes than in the 1945 election and more votes nationwide than the Conservative party, and, indeed, the most votes Labour had ever won.
His short list of Resignation Honours announced in November 1951 included an Earldom for William Jowitt, Lord Chancellor.[75]
Having served as prime minister for six years and 92 days, his reign as prime minister was the longest unbroken reign of any Labour leader until Tony Blair more than 50 years later; although Harold Wilson did manage a total of almost eight year as prime minister across two different spells between 1964 and 1976.[76]
Return to opposition and retirement[link]
Following the defeat in 1951, Attlee continued to lead the party in opposition. His last four years as leader are widely seen as one of the Labour Party's weaker periods.[25] The party became split between its right wing led by Hugh Gaitskell and its left led by Aneurin Bevan. Many Labour MPs felt Attlee should have retired after the 1951 election and allowed a younger man to lead the party. Bevan openly called for him to stand down in the summer of 1954.[77] One of his main reasons for staying on as leader was to frustrate the leadership ambitions of Herbert Morrison,[25] whom Attlee disliked for political and personal reasons. (Ernest Bevin had died shortly before Labour lost office.) Attlee had reportedly at one time favoured Aneurin Bevan to succeed him as leader,[4] but this became problematic after the latter split the party.
Attlee, now aged 72, contested the 1955 general election against Anthony Eden, which saw the Conservative majority increase. He retired as leader of the party on 14 December 1955, having led Labour for twenty years, and was succeeded by Hugh Gaitskell.[5]
He retired from the Commons and was elevated to the peerage to take his seat in the House of Lords as Earl Attlee and Viscount Prestwood on 16 December 1955. In 1958 he was, along with Bertrand Russell, one of a group of notables to establish the Homosexual Law Reform Society, which campaigned for the decriminalisation of homosexual acts in private by consenting adults, a reform which was voted through parliament nine years later.
He attended Churchill's funeral in January 1965 – elderly and frail by then, he had to remain seated in the freezing cold as the coffin was carried, having tired himself out by standing at the rehearsal the previous day. After the service Attlee had to be helped down the steps of St Paul's Cathedral by Sir Anthony Eden and a Guards officer. A heavy pipe and cigarette smoker from an early age, Attlee had breathing problems in his later years.
He lived to see Labour return to power under Harold Wilson in 1964, but also to see his old constituency of Walthamstow West fall to the Conservatives in a by-election in September 1967. He died of pneumonia at the age of 84 at Westminster Hospital on 8 October 1967.[4]
On his death, the title passed to his son Martin Richard Attlee, 2nd Earl Attlee (1927–91). It is now held by Clement Attlee's grandson John Richard Attlee, 3rd Earl Attlee. The third earl (a member of the Conservative Party) retained his seat in the Lords as one of the hereditary peers to remain under an amendment to Labour's 1999 House of Lords Act.
When Attlee died, his estate was sworn for probate purposes at a value of £7,295, a relatively modest sum for so prominent a figure.
Attlee was cremated and his ashes buried in the nave of Westminster Abbey, close to those of Lord Passfield and Ernest Bevin.
Legacy[link]
"A modest man, but then he has so much to be modest about", is a quote about Attlee that is very commonly ascribed to Churchill (although Churchill in fact denied saying it, and respected Attlee's service in the War Cabinet).[78] Attlee's modesty and quiet manner hid a great deal that has only come to light with historical reappraisal. In terms of the machinery of government, he was one of the most businesslike and effective of all the British prime ministers. Indeed he is widely praised by his successors, both Labour and Conservative.
His leadership style of consensual government, acting as a chairman rather than a president, won him much praise from historians and politicians alike. Christopher Soames, Britain's Ambassador to France during the government of Edward Heath - and later a cabinet minister under Margaret Thatcher - remarked that "Mrs. Thatcher was not really running a team. Every time you have a Prime Minister who wants to make all the decisions, it mainly leads to bad results. Attlee didn't. That's why he was so damn good."[79] Even Thatcher herself wrote in her 1995 memoirs, which charted her beginnings in Grantham to her victory in the 1979 General Election, that she admired Attlee: "Of Clement Attlee, however, I was an admirer. He was a serious man and a patriot. Quite contrary to the general tendency of politicians in the 1990s, he was all substance and no show".
Attlee's administration presided over the successful transition from a wartime economy to peacetime, tackling problems of demobilisation, shortages of foreign currency, and adverse deficits in trade balances and government expenditure. Further domestic policies that he brought about included the establishment of the National Health Service and post-war Welfare State, which became key to the reconstruction of post-war Britain. Attlee and his ministers did much to transform Britain into a more prosperous and egalitarian society during their time in office, with reductions in poverty and a rise in the general economic security of the population.[80]
In foreign affairs, he did much to assist with the post-war economic recovery of Europe, though this did not lead to a realisation that this was where Britain's future might lie. He proved a loyal ally of America at the onset of the cold war. Because of his style of leadership it was not he but Ernest Bevin who masterminded foreign policy.
It was Attlee's government that decided Britain should have an independent atomic weapons programme, and work began on it in 1947. Bevin, Attlee's Foreign Secretary, famously stated that "We've got to have it and it's got to have a bloody Union Jack on it." However, the first operational British A Bomb was not detonated until October 1952, about one year after Attlee had left office.
Though a socialist, Attlee still believed in the British Empire of his youth, an institution that, on the whole, he thought was a power for good in the world. Nevertheless, he saw that a large part of it needed to be self-governing. Using the Dominions of Canada, Australia, and New Zealand as a model, he began the transformation of the Empire into the Commonwealth.
His greatest achievement, surpassing many of these, was, perhaps, the establishment of a political and economic consensus about the governance of Britain that all parties, whether Labour, Conservative or Liberal subscribed to for three decades, fixing the arena of political discourse until the later 1970s.
Several years after his death, a street on a new housing development in Tividale, West Midlands, was named Attlee Close in his memory.
On 30 November 1988, a bronze statue of Clement Attlee was unveiled by Harold Wilson (the next Labour prime minister after Attlee) outside Limehouse Library in his former constituency.[81] By then Wilson was the last surviving member of Attlee's cabinet[82] and the unveiling of the statue would be the last public appearance by Wilson, who was by then in the first stages of Alzheimer's Disease and who died in May 1995 after a decade of ill health.[83] In April 2011, Limehouse Library having closed in 2003, the Attlee statue was unveiled in its new home at Queen Mary University of London.[84] Attlee was awarded an Honorary Fellowship of Queen Mary College on 15 December 1948.[85]
Image[link]
Although possessed of a genial personality, Clement Attlee was notably taciturn in his relations with the Press, sometimes offering only monosyllabic answers to reporters' questions. He was seldom referred to by his forename; usually he was referred to as "C. R. Attlee" or "Mr. Attlee".
Religious views[link]
Although one of his brothers became a clergyman and one of his sisters a missionary, Attlee himself is usually regarded as an agnostic. In an interview he described himself as "incapable of religious feeling", saying that he believed in "the ethics of Christianity" but not "the mumbo-jumbo". When asked whether he was an agnostic, Attlee replied "I don't know".[86]
Appearance in popular culture[link]
Literature[link]
- Attlee composed this limerick about himself to demonstrate how he was often underestimated:
- Few thought he was even a starter.
- There were many who thought themselves smarter.
- But he finished PM,
- CH and OM,
- An earl and a Knight of the Garter.
- Source: Jones, B., Barry Jones' Dictionary of World Biography, 1998
- An alternative version also exists, which may reflect Attlee's use of English more closely:
- There were few who thought him a starter,
- Many who thought themselves smarter.
- But he ended PM,
- CH and OM,
- an Earl and a Knight of the Garter.
- Source: Kenneth Harris, "Attlee" (Weidenfeld and Nicholson, London, 1982)
Music[link]
- Lord Beginner's song "General Election" was inspired by Attlee's victory in the 1950 British general election.
Sport[link]
- In 1981, Attlee again entered British popular culture as one of the famous English people taunted by name in Bjørge Lillelien's legendary commentary immediately after Norway defeated England in a FIFA World Cup qualifier.
Drama[link]
- Played by Patrick Troughton in Edward & Mrs. Simpson.
- A character in the play Tom and Clem, by Stephen Churchett. In the original production in 1997, Alec McCowen played Attlee, and Michael Gambon played Tom Driberg.
- Played by Alan David in the final episode of the BBC sitcom Goodnight Sweetheart,
- The main character in the BBC Radio 4 Saturday Play That Man Attlee. Broadcast on 15 September 2007, it was written by Robin Glendinning, with Bill Wallis playing Attlee.
- Played by his grandson Richard Attlee, in the TV series Dunkirk in 2004, and in Jerome Vincent’s 'Stuffing Their Mouths with Gold'; the story of how the National Health Service came to be. Broadcast on Radio 4 on 4 July 2008, the day before the 60th anniversary of the founding of the NHS.
- Played by Bill Paterson in Into the Storm (2009).
Major legislation enacted by the Attlee Government[link]
- Law Reform (Contributory Negligence) Act 1945
- Housing (Financial and Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1946
- Coal Industry Nationalisation Act 1946
- Furnished Houses (Rent Control) Act 1946
- National Health Service Act 1946
- National Insurance Act 1946
- National Insurance (Industrial Injuries) Act 1946
- New Towns Act 1946
- Trade Disputes and Trade Unions Act 1946
- Hill Farming Act 1946
- Agriculture Act 1947
- Pensions (Increase) Act 1947
- Electricity Act 1947
- Town and Country Planning Act 1947
- Transport Act 1947
- Fire Services Act 1947
- National Assistance Act 1948
- Children Act 1948
- Factories Act 1948
- Education (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1948
- Agricultural Holdings Act 1948
- Employment and Training Act 1948
- Nurseries and Child-Minders Regulation Act 1948
- Law Reform (Personal Injuries) Act 1948
- Local Government Act 1948
- Representation of the People Act 1948
- Housing Act 1949
- Superannuation Act 1949
- House of Commons (Redistribution of Seats) Act 1949
- Landlord and Tenant (Rent Control) Act 1949
- Lands Tribunal Act 1949
- Legal Aid and Advice Act 1949
- Adoption of Children Act 1949
- Marriage Act 1949
- National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949
- Parliament Act 1949
- Representation of the People Act 1949
- Distribution of Industry Act 1950
- Coal-Mining (Subsidence) Act 1950
- Allotments Act 1950
- Workmen's Compensation (Supplementation) Act 1951
Attlee's cabinet 1945–50[link]
- Clement Attlee: Prime Minister and Minister of Defence
- Lord Jowitt: Lord Chancellor
- Herbert Morrison: Deputy Prime Minister, Lord President of the Council and Leader of the House of Commons
- Arthur Greenwood: Lord Privy Seal
- Hugh Dalton: Chancellor of the Exchequer
- Ernest Bevin: Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs
- James Chuter Ede: Secretary of State for the Home Department
- George Henry Hall: Secretary of State for the Colonies
- Lord Addison: Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs and Leader of the House of Lords
- Lord Pethick-Lawrence: Secretary of State for India and Burma
- A. V. Alexander: First Lord of the Admiralty
- Jack Lawson: Secretary of State for War
- William Wedgwood Benn, Lord Stansgate: Secretary of State for Air
- Ellen Wilkinson: Minister of Education
- Joseph Westwood: Secretary of State for Scotland
- Tom Williams: Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries
- George Isaacs: Minister of Labour and National Service
- Aneurin Bevan: Minister of Health
- Sir Stafford Cripps: President of the Board of Trade
- Emanuel Shinwell: Minister of Fuel and Power
Changes[link]
- July 1946 – Arthur Greenwood becomes Paymaster-General as well as Lord Privy Seal.
- October 1946 – The three service ministers (Secretary of State for War, Secretary of State for Air, and First Lord of the Admiralty) cease to be cabinet positions. A. V. Alexander remains in the cabinet as Minister without Portfolio. George Hall replaces A. V. Alexander as First Lord of the Admiralty, outside the cabinet. Arthur Creech Jones succeeds Hall as Secretary of State for the Colonies.
- December 1946 – A. V. Alexander succeeds Attlee as Minister of Defence.
- February 1947 – George Tomlinson succeeds Ellen Wilkinson as Minister of Education upon her death.
- March 1947 – Arthur Greenwood ceases to be Paymaster-General, remaining Lord Privy Seal. His successor as Paymaster-General is not in the cabinet.
- April 1947 – Arthur Greenwood becomes Minister without Portfolio. Lord Inman succeeds Arthur Greenwood as Lord Privy Seal. William Francis Hare, Lord Listowel succeeds Lord Pethick-Lawrence as Secretary of State for India and Burma.
- July 1947 – The Dominion Affairs Office becomes the Office of Commonwealth Relations. Addison remains at the head.
- August 1947 – The India and Burma Office becomes the Burma office with India's independence. Lord Listowel remains in office.
- September 1947 – Sir Stafford Cripps becomes Minister of Economic Affairs. Harold Wilson succeeds Cripps as President of the Board of Trade. Arthur Greenwood retires from the Front Bench.
- October 1947 – Lord Addison succeeds Lord Inman as Lord Privy Seal, remaining also Leader of the House of Lords. Philip Noel-Baker succeeds Lord Addison as Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations. Arthur Woodburn succeeds Joseph Westwood as Secretary of State for Scotland. The Minister of Fuel and Power, Emanuel Shinwell, leaves the Cabinet.
- November 1947 – Sir Stafford Cripps succeeds Hugh Dalton as Chancellor of the Exchequer.
- January 1948 – The Burma Office is abolished with Burma's independence.
- May 1948: Hugh Dalton re-enters the Cabinet as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. Lord Pakenham enters the Cabinet as Minister of Civil Aviation.
- July 1948: Lord Addison becomes Paymaster-General.
- April 1949: Lord Addison ceases to be Paymaster-General, remaining Lord Privy Seal and Leader of the House of Lords. His successor as Paymaster-General is not in the Cabinet.
Attlee's cabinet 1950–51[link]
In February 1950, a substantial reshuffle took place following the General Election:
- Clement Attlee: Prime Minister
- Lord Jowitt: Lord Chancellor
- Herbert Morrison: Deputy Prime Minister, Lord President of the Council and Leader of the House of Commons
- Lord Addison: Lord Privy Seal and Leader of the House of Lords
- Sir Stafford Cripps: Chancellor of the Exchequer
- Ernest Bevin: Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs
- James Chuter Ede: Secretary of State for the Home Department
- Jim Griffiths: Secretary of State for the Colonies
- Patrick Gordon Walker: Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations
- Harold Wilson: President of the Board of Trade
- Lord Alexander of Hillsborough: Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster
- George Tomlinson: Minister of Education
- Hector McNeil: Secretary of State for Scotland
- Tom Williams: Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries
- George Isaacs: Minister of Labour and National Service
- Aneurin Bevan: Minister of Health
- Emanuel Shinwell: Minister of Defence
- Hugh Dalton: Minister of Town and Country Planning
Changes[link]
- October 1950: Hugh Gaitskell succeeds Sir Stafford Cripps as Chancellor of the Exchequer.
- January 1951: Aneurin Bevan succeeds George Isaacs as Minister of Labour and National Service. Bevan's successor as Minister of Health is not in the cabinet. Hugh Dalton's post is renamed Minister of Local Government and Planning.
- March 1951: Herbert Morrison succeeds Ernest Bevin as Foreign Secretary. Lord Addison succeeds Morrison as Lord President. Bevin succeeds Addison as Lord Privy Seal. James Chuter Ede succeeds Morrison as Leader of the House of Commons whilst remaining Home Secretary.
- April 1951: Richard Stokes succeeds Ernest Bevin as Lord Privy Seal. Alf Robens succeeds Aneurin Bevan (resigned) as Minister of Labour and National Service. Sir Hartley Shawcross succeeds Harold Wilson (resigned) as President of the Board of Trade.
Further reading[link]
Clement Attlee published his memoirs, As it Happened, in 1954.
Francis Williams' A Prime Minister Remembers, based on interviews with Attlee, was published in 1961.
Attlee's other publications include:
The Social Worker (1920); The Town Councillor (1925); The Will and the Way to Socialism (1935); The Labour Party in Perspective (1937); Collective Security Under the United Nations (1958); Empire into Commonwealth (1961).
Biographies include:
- Roy Jenkins, Mr Attlee (1948)
- Kenneth Harris, Attlee (1982)
- Trevor Burridge, Clement Attlee: A Political Biography, (1985)
- Francis Beckett, Clem Attlee (1997)
- David Howell, Attlee (2006)
- Nicklaus Thomas-Symonds, Attlee: A Life in Politics (2010)
Biographies of Attlee and of his Cabinet can be found in:
- Greg Rosen (ed) Dictionary of Labour Biography. Politicos Publishing. ISBN 1-902301-18-8
The entry on Attlee in the Dictionary of National Biography (DNB) was prepared by Maurice Shock, who as a Fellow of University College, Oxford (Attlee's alma mater), came to know Attlee personally in his later years.
Accounts of the period include:
Kenneth O. Morgan, Labour in Power 1945–51, Oxford University Press, 1984;
Greg Rosen, Old Labour to New, Politicos Publishing, 2005.
Notes[link]
- ^ Bridges, Lord (1968). "Clement Richard Attlee First Earl Attlee. 1883-1967". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 14: 15–10. DOI:10.1098/rsbm.1968.0002. JSTOR 769437. edit
- ^ Conservative Party website – the postwar consensus.
- ^ "Rating British Prime Ministers". Ipsos MORI. http://www.ipsos-mori.com/researchpublications/researcharchive/poll.aspx?oItemId=661. Retrieved 2011-10-02.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac Beckett, Francis. (1997) Clem Attlee A Biography By Francis Beckett, Richard Cohen Books, ISBN 1-86066-101-7
- ^ a b c d e f g Howell, David. (2006) Attlee (20 British Prime Ministers of the 20th Century), Haus Publishing, ISBN 1-904950-64-7
- ^ Spartacus Schoolnet – Contains excerpt from Attlee's biography towards the bottom of the page.
- ^ Talus, Your Alternative Government (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1945), p. 17.
- ^ DEFENCE.HC Deb 11 March 1935 vol 299 cc35-174
- ^ DEFENCE POLICY. HC Deb 22 May 1935 vol 302 cc359-486
- ^ "Mr. Attlee on a war budget", The Times, 23 April 1936, p. 16.
- ^ PRIME MINISTER'S STATEMENT. HC Deb 03 October 1938 vol 339 cc40-162
- ^ REARMAMENT PROFITS LIMITATION. HC Deb 26 April 1939 vol 346 cc1150-8
- ^ "BBC – History – The Norway Campaign in World War Two". Bbc.co.uk. 2011-03-30. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/norway_campaign_06.shtml. Retrieved 2011-10-02.
- ^ Marr, Andrew: A History of Modern Britain (2009 paperback), p. xv to xvii
- ^ [1]
- ^ Hennessy 2006, p. 56
- ^ a b c d e The Attlee Governments 1945-1951 by Kevin Jefferys
- ^ To Build a New Jerusalem: the British Labour movement from the 1880s to the 1990s by A.J. Davies
- ^ The Five Giants: A Biography of the Welfare State by Nicholas Timmins
- ^ See, e.g., http://content.healthaffairs.org/cgi/reprint/8/4/52.pdf
- ^ Industrial policy in Britain 1945-1951: Economic planning, nationalisation and the Labour governments by Martin Chick
- ^ Poverty, inequality and health in Britain, 1800-2000: a reader edited by George Davey Smith, Daniel Dorling, and Mary Shaw
- ^ http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mbv_YPJTKy8C&pg=PA179&dq=NHS+pension+scheme+1948&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OlkPT9__FMKz8QO87dzjAw&ved=0CF0Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=NHS%20pension%20scheme%201948&f=false
- ^ British Economic and Social History 1700-1964 by C.P. Hill
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Thorpe, Andrew. (2001) A History Of The British Labour Party, Palgrave, ISBN 0-333-92908-X
- ^ a b The Longman Companion to The Labour Party 1900-1998 by Harry Harmer
- ^ The Labour Government 1945-51 by Denis Nowell Pritt
- ^ http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eVUXALnSc1cC&pg=PA172&dq=locala+uthorities+granted+powers+provide+those+in+poor+health+subsidised+Rent+1949&hl=en&sa=X&ei=j0VJT7aHMoem0AXJkt2oDg&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
- ^ a b c d Labour in Power, 1945-51 by Kenneth Morgan
- ^ Social Services: Made Simple by Tony Byrne, BA, BSc(Econ.), and Colin F. Padfield, LLB, DPA(Lond)
- ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-11467577
- ^ https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:YdHEFfT32noJ:campbeltowngrammar.org.uk/downloads/history/5_year/british_higher/labour-reforms/i-assessment/1945-1951_labour_government.doc+Labour+government+1946+family+allowances&hl=en&gl=uk&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESgaOtfB49c9TMEFcKCx0vUvwvLMyzSWQ9JMXlhiobC4Nc_-tDp2dZDqxDPSU6ylDlCONx_3vjFQ7Fc3VaJMijATeUPQ9lRI_EbAVSjjKj4Wb-s5sWyh0gIQ-oyKgx9L9VZIEDfB&sig=AHIEtbTtOCE2eC5FNXAq-FZF9jaF9PJUvg
- ^ http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mQBkiNPupvsC&pg=PA199&dq=The+case+for+the+living+wage+by+Jerold+L.+Waltman+1945+Labour+government+family+allowances&hl=en&sa=X&ei=OUw2T5WEL-jU0QWr25SkAg&sqi=2&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false
- ^ The Labour Government 1945-51 by Denis Nowell Pritt
- ^ http://www.jstor.org/pss/1089590
- ^ http://learningeye.net/Mulberry/default.asp?WebPage_ID=492
- ^ Poverty in the United Kingdom: A Survey of Household Resources and Standards of Living by Peter Townsend
- ^ Social democracy & welfare capitalism: a century of income security politics by Alexander M. Hicks
- ^ http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1957/nov/21/midlands-electricity-board-workers
- ^ http://iiac.independent.gov.uk/pdf/command_papers/Cm6553.pdf
- ^ "DOCK WORKERS (PENSIONS) BILL (Hansard, 11 May 1960)". Hansard.millbanksystems.com. 1960-05-11. http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1960/may/11/dock-workers-pensions-bill. Retrieved 2011-10-02.
- ^ http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1949/jun/29/police-pensions-regulations#S5CV0466P0_19490629_HOC_546
- ^ http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/101315
- ^ “Social security in Britain,” Great Britain, Central Office of Information, Reference Division, H.M. Stationery Off., 1977
- ^ The seamen by Arthur Ivor Marsh and Victoria Ryan
- ^ www.parliament.uk/briefing-papers/RP96-106.pdf
- ^ http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1994/2974/body/made
- ^ The Labour Governments, 1945-51 by Henry Pelling
- ^ Britain in the Twentieth Century by Ian Cawood
- ^ a b The Labour Party since 1945 by Eric Shaw
- ^ Austerity Britain 1945-1951 by David Kynaston
- ^ "The Cabinet Papers | Farming and the Agriculture Acts". Nationalarchives.gov.uk. http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/cabinetpapers/themes/farming-agriculture-acts.htm. Retrieved 2011-10-02.
- ^ The State and the Farmer by Peter Self and Herbert J. Storing
- ^ Industrialisation and society: a social history, 1830-1951 by Eric Hopkins
- ^ The Labour Party since 1945 by Kevin Jefferys
- ^ A historical dictionary of British women by Cathy Hartley
- ^ A Short History of the Labour Party by Henry Pelling and Alastair J. Reid
- ^ From plain fare to fusion food: British diet from the 1890s to the 1990s by Derek J. Oddy
- ^ http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=zaD1Gn0Wls0C&pg=PA244&dq=labour+government+1945-1951+nursery+schools+increased&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Tp0YT9miKIab8QPRrviUCw&sqi=2&ved=0CEUQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=labour%20government%201945-1951%20nursery%20schools%20increased&f=false
- ^ The Labour Government 1945-51 by Denis Nowell Pritt
- ^ Higher School Certificate History by B. Hodge, B.A. (Hons.) and W.L. Mellor, B.A., Dip.Ed.
- ^ "Powered by Google Docs". Docs.google.com. http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:YdHEFfT32noJ:campbeltowngrammar.org.uk/downloads/history/5_year/british_higher/labour-reforms/i-assessment/1945-1951_labour_government.doc+%E2%80%9CPrefab%E2%80%9D+classrooms+were+also+built+and+928+new+primary+schools+were+constructed+between+1945+and+1950&hl=en&gl=uk&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESgaOtfB49c9TMEFcKCx0vUvwvLMyzSWQ9JMXlhiobC4Nc_-tDp2dZDqxDPSU6ylDlCONx_3vjFQ7Fc3VaJMijATeUPQ9lRI_EbAVSjjKj4Wb-s5sWyh0gIQ-oyKgx9L9VZIEDfB&sig=AHIEtbTl0DuRvchpzLCqCLa8NHX25FRRPA. Retrieved 2011-10-02.
- ^ Labour in power, 1945-1951 by Kenneth Morgan
- ^ Ten Years of New Labour, edited by Matt Beech and Simon Lee
- ^ The Labour Party since 1945 by Kevin Jefferys
- ^ British Economic and Social History 1700-1964 by C.P. Hill
- ^ Winter of 1947. jubileeriver.co.uk
- ^ Andrew Pierce, "What Queen Mother really thought of Attlee's socialist 'heaven on earth'." The Times, 13 May 2006, p. 9)
- ^ Morgan, Labour in Power.
- ^ Gordon, Yefim, Mikoyan-Gurevich MIG-15: The Soviet Union's Long-Lived Korean War Fighter, Midland Press (2001)
- ^ See, e.g., Kenneth O. Morgan, Labour in Power (Oxford, 1984), especially Chapter 6.
- ^ [2]
- ^ The 1945-1951 Labour Governments by Roger Eatwell
- ^ Williams, Charles Harold Macmillan (2009) p. 203
- ^ The Times, 30 November 1951; p. 6; Issue 52172; col G: "The Resignation Honours: Earldom For Lord Jowitt".
- ^ [3]
- ^ Williams, Charles Harold Macmillan (2009) p. 221
- ^ Walter L. Arnstein, Britain Yesterday and Today: 1830 to the Present, Chapter 19, p. 363
- ^ Peter Hennessy, The Prime Minister: The Office and its Holders since 1945, Chapter 7, p. 150
- ^ Labour’s First Century by Duncan Tanner, Pat Thane, and Nick Tiratsoo
- ^ "December03". Btinternet.com. 1988-11-30. http://www.btinternet.com/~eastlondonpostcard/POM2004/Jan04.htm. Retrieved 2011-10-02.
- ^ [4]
- ^ "Harold Wilson". Number 10. http://www.number10.gov.uk/history-and-tour/harold-wilson-2/. Retrieved 2011-10-02.
- ^ "Lord Mandelson joins Lord Hennessy to unveil Clement Attlee statue". Queen Mary University of London. http://www.qmul.ac.uk/media/news/items/hss/46923.html. Retrieved 8 July 2011.
- ^ The Times, 16 December 1948, page 3
- ^ Brookshire, Jerry Hardman (1995), Clement Attlee, New York: Manchester University Press, p. 15, ISBN 0-7190-3244-X, http://books.google.com/books?id=Tn27AAAAIAAJ
References[link]
- Hennessy, Peter (2006), Never Again: Britain 1945–51 (2 ed.), London: Penguin Books, ISBN [[Special:BookSources/0-14-101602-3|0-14-101602-3]]
External links[link]
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Clement Attlee |
 |
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Clement Attlee |
- Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by Clement Attlee
- More about Clement Attlee on the Downing Street website.
- Clement Attlee at Find-A-Grave
- Archival material relating to Clement Attlee listed at the UK National Register of Archives
- Annotated bibliography for Clement Attlee from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
- Works by or about Clement Attlee in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
.svg)
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Attlee, Clement |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | British politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom 1945–51 |
| Date of birth | 3 January 1883 |
| Place of birth | Putney, London, England |
| Date of death | 8 October 1967 |
| Place of death | London, England |
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Andrew Marr | |
|---|---|
 At the 2009 BAFTA awards |
|
| Born | Andrew William Stevenson Marr (1959-07-31) 31 July 1959 (age 52) Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom |
| Nationality | British |
| Education | Trinity Hall, Cambridge |
| Occupation | Journalist, presenter, political commentator |
| Notable credit(s) | BBC News The Andrew Marr Show |
| Salary | £580,000[1] |
| Spouse | Jackie Ashley (m. 1987-present) |
| Children | Son and 2 daughters |
Andrew William Stevenson Marr (born 31 July 1959) is a British journalist and political commentator. He edited The Independent for two years until May 1998, and was political editor of BBC News from 2000 until 2005. He began hosting a political programme Sunday AM, now called The Andrew Marr Show, on Sunday mornings on BBC One from September 2005. Marr also hosts the BBC Radio 4 programme Start the Week.
In 2007 he presented a political history of post-war Britain on BBC Two, Andrew Marr's History of Modern Britain, followed by a prequel in 2009 - Andrew Marr's The Making of Modern Britain focusing on the period between 1901 and 1945. In 2010 he presented a series, Andrew Marr's Megacities, examining the life, development and challenges of some of the largest cities in the world. In early 2012 he presented The Diamond Queen, a 3 part series about the 60-year reign of Queen Elizabeth II.[2]
Contents |
Early life[link]
Marr was born on 31 July 1959 in Glasgow, Scotland[3] to Donald and Valerie Marr. His father was an investment trust manager and Marr was educated in Scotland at the independent High School of Dundee, Craigflower School and at Loretto, also an independent school in Musselburgh, East Lothian, where he was a member of Pinkie House. He went on to study English at Trinity Hall, Cambridge gaining first class honours.[3][4]
He was once a member of the Socialist Campaign for a Labour Victory. At Cambridge, Marr says he was a "raving leftie", and he acquired the nickname 'Red Andy'.[5][6]
Newspaper career[link]
Marr joined The Scotsman as a trainee and junior business reporter in 1981. He became a parliamentary correspondent for the newspaper in 1984, moving to London at this time, and then a political correspondent in 1986. During this period, Marr met the political journalist Anthony Bevins, who became Marr's mentor and close friend. Bevins was responsible for Marr's first appointment at The Independent as a member of the newspaper's launch staff.
Marr left shortly afterwards, and joined The Economist, where he contributed the weekly "Bagehot" political column and ultimately became the magazine's political editor in 1988. Marr has remarked that his time at The Economist "changed me quite a lot" and "made me question a lot of my assumptions".[7] He admits that while working at The Economist he earned himself the jocular nickname ‘Tearound Tessa’ because of his enthusiasm for trips to the canteen on behalf of his colleagues.[8]
Marr returned to The Independent as the newspaper's political editor in 1992, and became its editor in 1996. His period as editor coincided with a particularly turbulent time at the paper. Faced with price cutting by the Murdoch-owned Times, sales had begun to decline, and Marr made two attempts to arrest the slide. He made use of bold 'poster-style' front pages, and then in 1996 radically re-designed the paper along a mainland European model, with Gill Sans headline fonts, and stories being themed and grouped together, rather than according to strict news value. This tinkering ultimately proved disastrous. The limited advertising budget meant the paper's re-launch struggled to get noticed, and when it did, it was mocked for reinterpreting its original marketing slogan 'It Is - Are You' to read 'It's changed - have you?'. The response from some was that many existing readers had indeed changed - to The Guardian. At the beginning of 1998 Marr was sacked. According to one version of events he was sacked after refusing to implement a further round of redundancies. The author and journalist Nick Cohen writes that Tony Blair's director of communications, Alastair Campbell demanded that David Montgomery, The Independent's publisher, sack Marr over an article which compared Blair with his predecessor John Major. Blair, in the offending article, had written "On the day we remember the legend that St George slayed a dragon to protect England, some will argue that there is another dragon to be slayed: Europe." Marr's offence was to suggest Blair was speaking in bad faith, and that the phrase "some will argue" was a weasel phrase to create distance from an otherwise xenophobic article.[9]
Three months later he returned to the Independent. Tony O'Reilly had increased his stake in the paper and bought out owners Mirror Group. O'Reilly, who had a high regard for Marr, asked him to collaborate as co-editor with Rosie Boycott, in an arrangement whereby Marr would edit the comment pages, and Boycott would have overall control of the news pages.
Many pundits predicted the arrangement would not last, and two months later Boycott left to replace Richard Addis as editor of the Daily Express. Marr was sole editor again, but only for one week. Simon Kelner, who had worked on the paper when it was first launched accepted the editorship, and asked Marr to stay on as a political columnist. Kelner was not Marr's "cup of tea" Marr observed later, and he left the paper for the final time in May 1998.[10]
At the BBC[link]
Marr wrote as a columnist for The Daily Express and The Observer before being appointed BBC Political Editor in May 2000. Like his predecessor-but-one John Cole and his famous herringbone overcoat, he soon developed a trademark style, characterised by much gesticulation, as sent up in the comedy impersonation programme Dead Ringers where the impressionists use ridiculously long plastic arms when portraying him. He also became known and widely praised for his ability to describe the background to Westminster gossip and intrigue and explain to viewers and listeners how it would affect their lives. A great believer in the view that "politics matters", Marr championed the democratic process and saw it as part of his role as Political Editor of the BBC to help make politics meaningful and relevant for many people who tended to see politics as the preserve of a remote, largely male and middle aged Westminster clique.
Among his personal scoops as Political Editor were the second resignation of Peter Mandelson, and the interview in late 2004 in which Tony Blair told him that he would not seek a fourth term as Prime Minister should he win the forthcoming general election. Marr was criticised for some of his on air statements during this period. John Pilger claimed that Marr "rejoiced at the vindication of Blair who, he said, had promised 'to take Baghdad without a bloodbath'" during the second Iraq war in March 2003. Pilger has attacked Marr further over an interview with Tony Blair, in which Blair was promoting his memoirs. Pilger is critical towards Marr for not questioning Blair on whether he had colluded with George Bush to invade Iraq and for not bringing up the legality of the invasion.[11]
File:Andrew marr show presentation.jpg
Marr reviewing the papers with Armando Iannucci and Janine di Giovanni on The Andrew Marr Show in December 2009
During his time as political editor Marr assumed various presentational roles, and announced in 2005 that following the 2005 General Election, he would step down as Political Editor to spend more time with his family. He was replaced as Political Editor by Nick Robinson. In September 2005, he moved to a new role presenting the BBC's Sunday morning flagship news programme Sunday AM, known as The Andrew Marr Show since September 2007;[12] the slot was previously filled with Breakfast with Frost and hosted by Sir David Frost. Marr also hosts the BBC Radio 4 programme Start the Week.
In May and June 2007, the BBC broadcast Andrew Marr's History of Modern Britain. He presented the five one-hour documentaries, and chronicled the history of Britain from 1945 to 2007. Unsold copies of the book of the series, a best seller, were recalled in March 2009 by publishers Macmillan when legal action was taken over false claims that domestic violence campaigner Erin Pizzey had been a member of The Angry Brigade terrorist group.[13][14] According to her own account, in a Guardian interview in 2001, Pizzey had been present at a meeting when they discussed their intention of bombing Biba, a fashion store, and threatened to report their activities to the police.[15][16] Damages were paid to Pizzey and Marr's book was republished with the error removed.[17][18]
Marr has written several books on politics and journalism, notably state-of-the-nation reflection The Day Britain Died (2000) and My Trade: A Short History of British Journalism (2004). The former was a three-part television series shown after Newsnight on BBC Two from 31 January to 2 February 2000. He has also written several articles for the British political magazine Prospect.
In 2008, he presented the prime time BBC One series Britain From Above. The following year, he contributed a three-part series called Darwin's Dangerous Idea to the BBC Darwin Season, celebrating the bicentenary of Charles Darwin and the 150th anniversary of the publication of his theory of evolution. He played a small role as himself in a Doctor Who episode, "World War Three"; reporting Slitheen entering 10 Downing Street, he was noted as himself in the credits. In late 2009, BBC Two broadcast his six-part television series on British politics in the first half of the 20th century Andrew Marr's The Making of Modern Britain.[19]
In September 2009 on the Sunday before the Labour Party conference in Brighton, Marr interviewed Prime Minister Gordon Brown. Towards the end of the interview, Marr told Brown he wanted to ask about:[20]
| “ | Something everybody has been talking about in the Westminster village... A lot of people in this country use prescription painkillers and pills to help them get through. Are you one of them? | ” |
The Prime Minister responded: "No. I think this is the sort of questioning which is all too often entering the lexicon of British politics." Marr was later heavily criticised by Labour politicians,[21] the media and fellow political journalists for what was described as a vague question which relied on its source being a singular entry on a political blog.[22] In later interview with Krishnan Guru-Murthy of Channel 4 News, John Ward, the author of the Not Born Yesterday blog, admitted that he has no proof to back up the claim.[23]
Politics[link]
 |
Wikinews has related news: Andrew Marr angers bloggers, describing them as 'inadequate, pimpled and single' |
Marr has written about the need to remain impartial and "studiously neutral" whilst delivering news reports and "convey fact, and nothing more".[24] Marr responded to criticism as "pernicious anti-journalism".[25]
In the Daily Telegraph he claimed to be a libertarian when discussing his conflicting views on smoking bans.[26] However, writing in The Guardian, he said "And the final answer, frankly, is the vigorous use of state power to coerce and repress. It may be my Presbyterian background, but I firmly believe that repression can be a great, civilising instrument for good. Stamp hard on certain 'natural' beliefs for long enough and you can almost kill them off. The police are first in line to be burdened further, but a new Race Relations Act will impose the will of the state on millions of other lives too."[27]
At an October 2006 BBC seminar discussing impartiality, Marr highlighted alleged bias within the BBC. He stated: "The BBC is not impartial or neutral. It's a publicly funded, urban organisation with an abnormally large number of young people, ethnic minorities, and gay people. It has a liberal bias, not so much a party-political bias. It is better expressed as a cultural liberal bias."[28][29]
Marr spoke at the Cheltenham Literary Festival on 10 October 2010 about political blogging. He claimed that "[a] lot of bloggers seem to be socially inadequate, pimpled, single, slightly seedy, bald, cauliflower-nosed young men sitting in their mother's basements and ranting. They are very angry people."[30]
Other work[link]
Marr has helped support the Sense-National Deafblind and Rubella Association, and was the face of a Sense direct marketing appeal. He has also been involved with the charity Common Purpose UK.[citation needed] Marr is President of the Galapagos Conservation Trust.
Personal life[link]
Family[link]
Marr lives in East Sheen, London, with his wife, the political journalist Jackie Ashley of The Guardian, whom he married in August 1987 in Surrey.[4] She is a daughter of the Labour life peer Lord Ashley of Stoke. The couple have a son and two daughters.[31]
Privacy injunction[link]
On 28 June 2008, Richard Ingrams reported in The Independent that Marr had obtained a High Court injunction preventing disclosure in the media of "private" information. The order was anonymised, preventing press reporting. The injunction was not mentioned in the UK media until Private Eye commented on it.[32]
On 26 April 2011, following legal action by Private Eye editor Ian Hislop, an interview with Marr was published in the Daily Mail, in which he revealed that the super-injunction had covered the reporting of an extra-marital affair with a female journalist.[33] Marr said that he had believed that a child of the journalist was his, but had learned through a DNA test that it was not. He commented: "I did not come into journalism to go around gagging journalists. Am I embarrassed by it? Yes. Am I uneasy about it? Yes. But at the time there was a crisis in my marriage and I believed there was a young child involved. I also had my own family to think about, and I believed this story was nobody else's business."[34] Hislop had filed a court challenge earlier in April 2011, and described the super-injunction as "pretty rank".[35]
Awards[link]
In 1995 he was named Columnist of the Year at both the What the Papers Say Awards and the British Press Awards, and received the Journalist Award in the Channel 4 Political Awards of 2001.[36]
He was considered for honorary membership of The Coterie for 2007.[37] Marr has received two British Academy Television Awards: the Richard Dimbleby Award at the 2004 ceremony[38] and the award for Best Specialist Factual Programme (for his History of Modern Britain) at the 2008 ceremony.[39]
Marr and his wife were both awarded honorary doctorates from Staffordshire University in July 2009.[40]
References[link]
- ^ http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/bbc/8335398/Pigeonhole-mix-up-lets-slip-Andrew-Marrs-600000-BBC-salary.html
- ^ "The Diamond Queen". BBC Media Centre. BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/proginfo/2012/06/The-Diamond-Queen.html. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
- ^ a b "Meet Andrew Marr". BBC Online. 13 April 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/andrew_marr_show/7081002.stm. Retrieved 22 November 2011.
- ^ a b Grice, Elizabeth (12 May 2007). "The view from Marr". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/features/3632566/The-view-from-Marr.html.
- ^ Michael White "Robinson poached from ITN as BBC name successor to Marr", The Guardian, 21 June 2005. Retrieved on 28 April 2007.
- ^ Politicians interview pundits: George Osborne and Andrew Marr, The Guardian, 26 September 2009
- ^ Paul Vallely "Profile: Andrew Marr - On a roll: the BBC's all-action, 24-hour [...]", The Independent, 2 November 2002. Retrieved on 28 April 2006.
- ^ A History of Andrew Marr
- ^ Cruel Britannia: Reports on the Sinister and the Preposterous by Nick Cohen, Verso, London 1999 p154
- ^ Marr, Andrew (2005). My Trade: A Short History of British Journalism. London: Macmillan. p. 205. ISBN 978-0-330-41192-9.
- ^ http://www.johnpilger.com/articles/the-bbc-is-on-murdoch-s-side 30 September 2010, accessed 14 Feb 2011
- ^ Barney Jones "What's in a name?", BBC News 26 September 2007.
- ^ Sam Jones & Maev Kennedy "Marr book urgently withdrawn", The Guardian, 9 March 2009.
- ^ "The Scotsman, 9 March 2009". http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/latestnews/Marr39s-bestseller-is-taken-off.5050625.jp.
- ^ Rabinovitch, Dina (26 November 2001). "Domestic violence can't be a gender issue". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2001/nov/26/gender.uk1. Retrieved 2009-03-20. "She was thrown out of the movement for informing on bombings by the Angry Brigade. 'I said that if you go on with this - they were discussing bombing Biba [the legendary department store in Kensington] - I'm going to call the police in, because I really don't believe in this'"
- ^ "Campaigner accepts libel damages". BBC.co.uk. 1 April 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7976546.stm. Retrieved 2009-04-01.
- ^ Adams, Stephen (1 April 2009). "Andrew Marr's publisher pays 'significant' damages to women's campaigner". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/booknews/5089062/Andrew-Marrs-publisher-pays-significant-damages-to-womens-campaigner.html. Retrieved 25 April 2010.
- ^ Dolan, Andy (9 March 2009). "Marr's pulped 'fiction': BBC star's history bestseller withdrawn after legal fears". Daily Mail (London). http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1160398/Marrs-pulped-fiction-BBC-stars-history-bestseller-withdrawn-legal-fears.html.
- ^ Gibson, Owen (21 April 2008). "Comedies have the last laugh at Baftas". London: The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2008/apr/21/television.itv. Retrieved 22 May date 2008.
- ^ "'I'm not dependent on painkillers': Under-fire Brown hits out at questions over his eyesight". London: Daily Mail. 28 September 2009. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1216444/Brown-hits-questions-eyesight.html#ixzz0TjNoHxQa. Retrieved 2009-10-11.
- ^ "Mandelson Slams 'PM On Painkillers' Rumour". Sky News. 28 September 2009. http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/Politics/PM-Gordon-Brown-Quizzed-by-Andrew-Marr-Over-Painkillers-Lord-Mandelson-Criticises-BBC/Article/200909415393708?f=rss. Retrieved 2009-10-11.
- ^ Damian Thompson (28 September 2009). "Gordon Brown and the pills: what was Andrew Marr thinking?". London: Telegraph. http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/damianthompson/100011610/gordon-brown-and-the-pills-what-was-andrew-marr-thinking/. Retrieved 2009-10-11.
- ^ Krishnan Guru-Murthy (28 September 2009). "'Brown on pills' blogger admits he has no proof". Channel 4. http://www.channel4.com/news/article.jsp?id=3362797&time=135016. Retrieved 2009-10-11. [dead link]
- ^ Marr, Andrew (2004). My Trade: A short history of British Journalism. Macmillan. p. 279.
- ^ David Edwards and David Cromwell. Guardians of Power. p.106-7
- ^ Marr, Andrew (28 March 2007). "Britain could be in for some turbulent times". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/main.jhtml;jsessionid=ANNEGFH15GZLVQFIQMFCFFWAVCBQYIV0?xml=/opinion/2007/03/28/do2803.xml.
- ^ Marr, Andrew (28 Feb 1999). "Poor? Stupid? Racist? Then don't listen to a pampered white liberal like me". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/1999/feb/28/lawrence.ukcrime4.
- ^ Leonard, Tom (27 October 2006). "The BBC's commitment to bias is no laughing matter". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/personal-view/3633619/The-BBCs-commitment-to-bias-is-no-laughing-matter.html.
- ^ Douglas, Torin (18 June 2007). "Does the BBC have a bias problem?". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/6764779.stm.
- ^ John Plunkett "Andrew Marr says bloggers are 'inadequate, pimpled and single'", The Guardian, 11 October 2010
- ^ Vallely, Paul (14 May 2005). "Andrew Marr: Relentless rise of Renaissance Man". The Independent (London). http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/andrew-marr-relentless-rise-of-renaissance-man-490629.html. Retrieved 6 September 2010.
- ^ Richard Ingrams "Richard Ingrams' Week: You try challenging an editor armed with a writ", The Independent, 28 June 2008. Retrieved on 29 June 2008.
- ^ "BBC's Andrew Marr 'embarrassed' by super-injunction". BBC (UK: BBC). 26 April 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13190424. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ Greenhill, Sam (26 April 2011). "Gagging orders are out of control, says Andrew Marr as he abandons injunction over affair". Daily Mail (London). http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1380546/Andrew-Marr-affair-BBC-star-says-gagging-orders-control.html. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ "Marr super-injunction 'pretty rank'". BBC (UK). 26 April 2011. http://news.bbc.co.uk/today/hi/today/newsid_9468000/9468067.stm. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ "Panorama: Andrew Marr". BBC News Online. 24 September 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/panorama/2276311.stm. Retrieved 18 April 2010.
- ^ Martin Bright, New Statesman, 22 January 2007
- ^ "Meet Andrew Marr". BBC News Online. 3 May 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/sunday_am/4162938.stm. Retrieved 28 October 2009.
- ^ "Bafta TV Awards 2008: The winners". BBC News Online. 20 April 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/7302291.stm. Retrieved 18 April 2010.
- ^ "Journalists honoured for contribution to industry and society". The Sentinel. 11 July 2009. http://www.thisisstaffordshire.co.uk/news/Journalists-honoured-contribution-industry-society/article-1157244-detail/article.html. Retrieved 18 April 2010.
External links[link]
- Press Office — Andrew Marr — BBC biography
- 'Marr quits as BBC political chief' — BBC News'
- TV is less up itself than newspapers — The Guardian
- Transcript - The Big Idea - BBC, 1996
| Media offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Charles Wilson |
Editor: The Independent 1996–January 1998 |
Succeeded by Rosie Boycott |
| Preceded by Rosie Boycott |
Editor: The Independent March–May 1998 With: Rosie Boycott |
Succeeded by Simon Kelner |
| Preceded by Robin Oakley |
Political Editor: BBC News 2000–2005 |
Succeeded by Nick Robinson |
|
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|
|||||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Marr, Andrew |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | 31 July 1959 |
| Place of birth | Glasgow, Scotland, UK |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Andrew_Marr
Related pages:
http://nl.wn.com/Andrew Marr
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Marr
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| The Right Honourable Tony Benn |
|
|---|---|
 |
|
| President of the Stop the War Coalition | |
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office 21 September 2001 |
|
| Vice President | Lindsey German |
| Preceded by | Office created |
| Secretary of State for Energy | |
| In office 10 June 1975 – 4 May 1979 |
|
| Prime Minister | Harold Wilson James Callaghan |
| Preceded by | Eric Varley |
| Succeeded by | David Howell |
| Secretary of State for Industry | |
| In office 5 March 1974 – 10 June 1975 |
|
| Prime Minister | Harold Wilson |
| Preceded by | Peter Walker (at DTI) |
| Succeeded by | Eric Varley |
| Chairman of the Labour Party | |
| In office 20 September 1971 – 25 September 1972 |
|
| Leader | Harold Wilson |
| Preceded by | Ian Mikardo |
| Succeeded by | William Simpson[disambiguation needed ] |
| Minister of Technology | |
| In office 4 July 1966 – 19 June 1970 |
|
| Prime Minister | Harold Wilson |
| Preceded by | Frank Cousins |
| Succeeded by | Geoffrey Rippon |
| Postmaster General | |
| In office 15 October 1964 – 4 July 1966 |
|
| Prime Minister | Harold Wilson |
| Preceded by | Reginald Bevins |
| Succeeded by | Edward Short |
| Member of Parliament for Chesterfield |
|
| In office 1 March 1984 – 7 June 2001 |
|
| Preceded by | Eric Varley |
| Succeeded by | Paul Holmes |
| Majority | 24,633 (46.5%) |
| Member of Parliament for Bristol South East |
|
| In office 20 August 1963 – 9 June 1983 |
|
| Preceded by | Malcolm St Clair |
| Succeeded by | Constituency Abolished |
| Majority | 1,890 (3.5%) |
| In office 30 November 1950 – 17 November 1960 |
|
| Preceded by | Stafford Cripps |
| Succeeded by | Malcolm St Clair |
| Majority | 13,044 (39%) |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Anthony Neil Wedgwood Benn (1925-04-03) 3 April 1925 (age 87) Marylebone, London, United Kingdom |
| Nationality | British |
| Political party | Labour |
| Spouse(s) | Caroline DeCamp (m. 1949–2000) |
| Children | Stephen, Hilary, Melissa, Joshua |
| Alma mater | New College, Oxford |
| Religion | Agnostic[1] – United Reformed Church[citation needed] |
| Website | Official website |
| Military service | |
| Service/branch | Royal Air Force |
| Rank | Pilot Officer |
| Battles/wars | World War II |
Anthony Neil Wedgwood "Tony" Benn, PC (born 3 April 1925), formerly 2nd Viscount Stansgate, is a British Labour Party politician, who served as a Member of Parliament (MP) for fifty years, and was also a Cabinet Minister under Harold Wilson and James Callaghan.
His successful campaign to renounce his hereditary peerage was instrumental in the creation of the Peerage Act 1963.[2] In the Labour Government of 1964–1970 he served first as Postmaster General, where he oversaw the opening of the Post Office Tower, and later as a notably "technocratic" Minister of Technology. In the period when the Labour Party was in Opposition, Benn served for a year as the Chairman of the Labour Party. In the Labour Government of 1974–1979, he returned to the Cabinet, initially serving as Secretary of State for Industry, before being made Secretary of State for Energy, retaining his post when James Callaghan replaced Wilson as Prime Minister. During the Labour Party's time in Opposition during the 1980s, he was seen as the party's prominent figure on the left, and the term "Bennite" has come to be used in Britain for someone of a more radical left-wing position.[3]
Benn has topped several polls to find the most popular politician in Britain.[4] He has also been described as "one of the few UK politicians to have become more left-wing after holding ministerial office."[5] Since leaving Parliament, Benn has become more involved in the grass-roots politics of demonstrations and meetings, as opposed to parliamentary activities, and has been the President of the Stop the War Coalition for the last decade. He has also been a vegetarian since the 1970s.
Contents |
Biography[link]
Early life and family[link]
Benn was born in London on 3 April 1925.[6] Benn's paternal grandfather was John Benn (a successful politician who had been created a baronet in 1914) and his father William Wedgwood Benn was a Liberal Member of Parliament who later crossed the floor to the Labour Party. He was appointed Secretary of State for India by Ramsay MacDonald in 1929, a position he held until 1931. He was elevated to the House of Lords, with the title of Viscount Stansgate in 1941; the new wartime coalition government was short of working Labour peers in the upper house.[7] From 1945 to 1946, he was the Secretary of State for Air in the first majority Labour Government.
Both his grandfathers, John Benn (who founded a publishing company)[8] and Daniel Holmes, were also Liberal MPs (respectively, for Tower Hamlets, Devonport and Glasgow Govan).[9] Benn's contact with leading politicians of the day thus dates back to his earliest years as a result of his family's profile; he met Ramsay MacDonald when he was five,[10] David Lloyd George when he was twelve and Mahatma Gandhi in 1931, while his father was Secretary of State for India.
Benn's mother Margaret Eadie (née Holmes) (1897–1991), was a dedicated theologian, feminist and the founder President of the Congregational Federation. She was a member of the League of the Church Militant, which was the predecessor of the Movement for the Ordination of Women – in 1925 she was rebuked by Randall Thomas Davidson, then-Archbishop of Canterbury, for advocating the ordination of women. His mother's theology had a profound influence on Benn, as she taught him that the stories in the Bible were based around the struggle between the prophets and the kings and that he ought in his life to support the prophets over the kings, who had power, as the prophets taught righteousness.[11]
Benn was a pupil at Westminster School and later studied at New College, Oxford where he read Philosophy, Politics and Economics and was elected President of the Oxford Union in 1947. In later life, Benn attempted to remove public references to his private education from Who's Who; in the 1975 edition his entry stated "Education—still in progress". In the 1976 edition, almost all details of his biography were omitted save for his name, jobs as a Member of Parliament and as a Government Minister, and address; the publishers confirmed that Benn had sent back his draft entry with everything else struck through.[12] In the 1977 edition, Benn's entry disappeared entirely.[13] In October 1973 he announced on BBC Radio that he wished to be known as "Mr Tony Benn" and his book Speeches from 1974 is credited to "Tony Benn".
Benn met US-born Caroline Middleton DeCamp (born 13 October 1926, Cincinnati, Ohio) over tea at Worcester College in 1949 and nine days later he proposed to her on a park bench in the city. Later, he bought the bench from Oxford City Council and installed it in the garden of their home in Holland Park. Tony and Caroline had four children—Stephen, Hilary, Melissa and Joshua, and ten grandchildren. Caroline Benn died of cancer on 22 November 2000, aged 74, after a prominent career as an educationalist.[14]
In July 1943, Benn joined the Royal Air Force.[15] His father and brother Michael (who was later killed in an accident) were already serving in the RAF in 1943. Whilst holding the rank of pilot officer, Tony Benn served as a pilot in South Africa and Rhodesia.[16]
Benn's children have also been active in politics; his first son Stephen served as an elected Member of the Inner London Education Authority from 1986 to 1990. His second son Hilary served as a councillor in London, and stood for Parliament in 1983 and 1987, finally becoming the Labour MP for Leeds Central in 1999. He served as Secretary of State for International Development from 2003 to 2007, and then as Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs until 2010. This makes him the third generation of his family to have sat in the Cabinet of the United Kingdom, a rare distinction for a modern political family in Britain. Benn's granddaughter Emily Benn fought and ultimately lost the seat of East Worthing and Shoreham in 2010,[17] becoming the Labour Party's youngest ever candidate in the process.[18] Tony Benn is a first cousin once removed of the late actress Dame Margaret Rutherford.[19]
Member of Parliament[link]
Following his Second World War service as a pilot in the Royal Air Force, Benn worked briefly as a BBC Radio producer. On 1 November 1950, he was unexpectedly selected to succeed Sir Stafford Cripps as the Labour candidate for Bristol South East, after Cripps stood down because of ill-health, and won the seat in a by-election on 30 November 1950.[20] Anthony Crosland helped him get the seat as he was the MP for nearby South Gloucestershire at the time. Upon taking the oath on 4 December 1950[21] Benn became the youngest MP, or "Baby of the House" for one day, being succeeded by Thomas Teevan, who was two years younger but took his oath a day later.[22] He became the "Baby" again in 1951, when Teevan was not re-elected. In the 1950s, Benn held middle-of-the-road or soft left views, and was not associated with the young left wing group around Aneurin Bevan.[23]
Peerage reform[link]
Benn's father had been created Viscount Stansgate in 1942 when Winston Churchill increased the number of Labour peers to aid political work in the House of Lords; at this time, Benn's elder brother Michael was intending to enter the priesthood and had no objections to inheriting a peerage. However, Michael was later killed in an accident while on active service in the Second World War, and this left Tony Benn as the heir to the peerage. He made several attempts to renounce the succession, but they were unsuccessful.[23]
In November 1960, Viscount Stansgate died, and as a result Benn automatically became a peer and was thus prevented from sitting in the House of Commons. Insisting on his right to abandon his peerage, Benn fought to retain his seat in a by-election caused by his succession on 4 May 1961. Although he was disqualified from taking his seat, the voters of Bristol South-East re-elected him regardless. An election court found that the voters were fully aware that Benn was disqualified, and declared the seat won by the Conservative runner-up, Malcolm St Clair, who was at the time also the heir presumptive to a peerage.[2]
Outside Parliament, Benn continued his campaign, and eventually the Conservative Government of the time accepted the need for a change in the law.[24] The Peerage Act 1963, allowing renunciation of peerages, was given the Royal Assent and became law shortly after 6 pm on 31 July 1963. Benn was the first peer to renounce his title, at 6.22 pm that day. Malcolm St. Clair, fulfilling a promise he had made at the time of his seating, then accepted the office of Stewardship of the Manor of Northstead, thereby disqualifying himself from the House (outright resignation being impermissible). Benn returned to the Commons after winning a by-election on 20 August 1963.[23]
In government (1964–1970)[link]
In the 1964 Government of Harold Wilson, Benn was appointed Postmaster General; during his time in that position, he oversaw the opening of what was then the UK's tallest building, the Post Office Tower, and the creations of the Postal Bus Service and Girobank. He proposed issuing stamps without the Sovereign's head, but this met with private opposition from the Queen. Instead, the portrait was reduced to a small profile in silhouette, a format that is still used on commemorative stamps today.[25] Benn also led the government's campaign to close down the many off-shore pirate radio stations of the time, a campaign that forms the centrepiece of the 2009 film The Boat That Rocked, and was responsible for introducing the Marine Broadcasting Offences Bill.[26] By the time the bill became law in 1967, Benn had been promoted to the post of Minister of Technology, which included specific responsibility for overseeing the development of Concorde and the formation of International Computers Ltd. The period also saw government involvement in industrial rationalisation, and the merger of several car companies to form British Leyland. [27] Labour lost the 1970 election to Edward Heath's Conservatives, and upon Heath's application to join the European Economic Community, Benn campaigned in favour of a referendum on the UK's membership. The Shadow Cabinet voted to support a referendum on 29 March 1972, and as a result Roy Jenkins resigned as Deputy Leader of the Labour Party.
In government (1974–1979)[link]
In the Labour Government of 1974, Benn was appointed Secretary of State for Industry, where he set up worker cooperatives in struggling industries, the best known being at Meriden, which kept Triumph Motorcycles in production until 1983. In 1975, he was appointed Secretary of State for Energy, immediately following his ultimately unsuccessful campaign for a "No" vote in the referendum on the UK's membership of the EEC. By his own admission in his diary (25 October 1977), Benn "loathed" the EEC; he claimed it was "bureaucratic and centralised" and "of course it is really dominated by Germany. All the Common Market countries except the UK have been occupied by Germany, and they have this mixed feeling of hatred and subservience towards the Germans".[28]
Harold Wilson resigned as Leader of the Labour Party and Prime Minister in March 1976. Benn entered the subsequent leadership contest and came fourth with 37 votes in the first ballot. Benn then withdrew from the second ballot and supported Michael Foot for the leadership, although James Callaghan eventually won. Despite not receiving his support in the vote, Callaghan kept Benn as Energy Secretary. Later in the autumn of 1976, there was a sterling crisis, and then-Chancellor of the Exchequer Denis Healey sought to gain a loan from the International Monetary Fund. Benn publicly circulated the Cabinet minutes from the 1931 National Labour Government of Ramsay MacDonald, which cut unemployment benefits in order to secure a loan from American bankers and resulted in the inadvertent splitting of the Labour Party. Callaghan allowed Benn to put forward his "alternative economic strategy", which consisted of a siege economy. However this plan would later be rejected by the Cabinet.[29]
Move to the Left[link]
By the end of the 1970s, Benn had migrated to the left-wing of the Labour Party. He attributed this political shift to his experience as a Cabinet Minister in the 1964–1970 Labour Government. Benn wrote:
As a minister, I experienced the power of industrialists and bankers to get their way by use of the crudest form of economic pressure, even blackmail, against a Labour Government. Compared to this, the pressure brought to bear in industrial disputes is minuscule. This power was revealed even more clearly in 1976 when the IMF secured cuts in our public expenditure. These lessons led me to the conclusion that the UK is only superficially governed by MPs and the voters who elect them. Parliamentary democracy is, in truth, little more than a means of securing a periodical change in the management team, which is then allowed to preside over a system that remains in essence intact. If the British people were ever to ask themselves what power they truly enjoyed under our political system they would be amazed to discover how little it is, and some new Chartist agitation might be born and might quickly gather momentum.[30]
Benn's philosophy consisted of a form of syndicalism, economic planning, greater democracy in the structures of the Labour Party and observance of Party conference decisions by the Party leadership;[31] he was vilified in the right-wing press, and his enemies implied that a Benn-led Labour Government would implement a type of East European socialism.[32] Conversely, Benn was overwhelmingly popular with Labour activists. A survey of delegates at the Labour Conference of 1978 found that by large margins they supported both Benn for the leadership and many Bennite policies.[33]
He publicly supported Sinn Féin and the unification of Ireland, although in 2005 he suggested to Sinn Féin leaders that Sinn Féin abandon its long-standing policy of not taking seats at Westminster. Sinn Féin argue that to do so would recognise Britain's claim over Northern Ireland, and the Sinn Féin constitution prevents its elected members from taking their seats in any British-created institution.[34]
In opposition[link]
In a keynote speech to the Labour Party Conference of 1980, shortly before the resignation of party leader James Callaghan and election of Michael Foot as successor, Benn outlined what he envisaged the next Labour Government would do. "Within days", a Labour Government would grant powers to nationalise industries, control capital and implement industrial democracy; "within weeks", all powers from Brussels would be returned to Westminster and then they would abolish the House of Lords by creating one thousand peers and then abolishing the peerage. Benn received tumultuous applause from the audience.[35]
In 1981, he stood for election against the incumbent Denis Healey for the post of Deputy Leader of the Labour Party, disregarding the appeal from Michael Foot either to stand for the leadership, or to abstain from inflaming the party's divisions. Benn defended his decision with insistence that it was "not about personalities, but about policies." The contest was extremely closely fought in the summer of 1981, and Healey eventually won by a margin of barely 1%. The decision of several moderate left-wing MPs, including Neil Kinnock, to abstain from supporting Benn triggered the split of the Campaign Group from the Left of the Tribune Group.[36]
After Argentina had invaded the Falkland Islands in April 1982, Benn argued that the dispute should be settled by the United Nations and that the British Government should not send a task force to recapture the islands. The task force was sent and the Falklands were soon back in British control. In a subsequent debate in the Commons, Benn's demand for "a full analysis of the costs in life, equipment and money in this tragic and unnecessary war" was rejected by Margaret Thatcher, who stated that "he would not enjoy the freedom of speech that he put to such excellent use unless people had been prepared to fight for it".[37]
In 1983, Benn's Bristol South East constituency was abolished by boundary changes, and he subsequently lost the battle to stand in the new seat of Bristol South to Michael Cocks. Rejecting offers from the new seat of Livingston in Scotland, Benn contested Bristol East, losing to Conservative candidate Jonathan Sayeed in what was perceived to be a shock result. He was selected for the next Labour seat to fall vacant, and was elected as MP for Chesterfield in a by-election after Eric Varley resigned his seat to head Coalite. On the day of the by-election, 1 March 1984, The Sun newspaper ran a hostile feature article "Benn on the Couch" which purported to be the opinions of an American psychiatrist.[38] In the intervening period, since Benn's defeat in Bristol, Michael Foot had stepped down after the general election in June 1983 (which saw Labour return a mere 209 MPs) and was succeeded in October of that year by Neil Kinnock.[39]
Benn was a prominent supporter of the 1984–1985 UK miners' strike and of his long-standing friend, the National Union of Mineworkers leader Arthur Scargill. Some miners, however, considered Benn's 1977 industry reforms to have caused problems during the strike; firstly, that they led to huge wage differences and distrust between miners of different regions; and secondly, that the controversy over balloting miners for these reforms made it unclear as to whether a ballot was needed for a strike or whether it could be deemed as a "regional matter" in the same way that the 1977 reforms had been.[40][41]
In June 1985, three months after the miners admitted defeat and ended their strike, Benn introduced the Miners' Amnesty (General Pardon) Bill in the Commons which would have extended an amnesty to all miners imprisoned during the strike. This would have included two men convicted of murder (later reduced to manslaughter) for the killing of David Wilkie, a taxi driver driving a non-striking miner to work in South Wales during the strike.[42]
Benn later stood for election as Party Leader in 1988, against Neil Kinnock, following Labour's third successive defeat in the 1987 general election, and lost again, on this occasion by a substantial margin.[43] During the Gulf War, he visited Baghdad to persuade Saddam Hussein to release the hostages who had been captured.[44] He was also one of the very few MPs to oppose the Kosovo War. In 1991, with Labour still in opposition and another general election due by June 1992, he proposed the Commonwealth of Britain Bill, which involved abolishing the British Monarchy in favour of the United Kingdom becoming a "democratic, federal and secular commonwealth"; in effect, a republic with a written constitution. It was read in Parliament a number of times until his retirement at the 2001 election, but never achieved a second reading.[45] He presented an account of his proposal in Common Sense: A New Constitution for Britain.[46]
Retirement[link]
Tony Benn did not stand at the 2001 general election; as he explained it, he was "leaving parliament in order to spend more time on politics".[47] Along with Edward Heath, Benn was given the privilege of being able to continue using the House of Commons Library and Members' refreshment facilities by the Speaker. Shortly after his retirement, he was approached by the Stop the War Coalition, and was asked to become its President, an offer he accepted.[44] He thus became a leading figure of the British opposition to the War on Iraq, and in February 2003 he travelled to Baghdad to again meet, and interview, Saddam Hussein. The interview was shown on British television.[48] He also spoke out against the Iraq war at the February 2003 protest in London organised by the Stop the War Coalition, attended by over 1 million people.[49] In February 2004 and 2008, he was re-elected President of the Stop the War Coalition.[50]
He has toured with a one-man stage show and also appears a few times each year in a two-man show with folk singer Roy Bailey. In 2003, his show with Bailey was voted 'Best Live Act' at the BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards.[51] In 2002 he opened the "Left Field" stage at the Glastonbury Festival. In October 2003, Benn was a guest of British Airways on the last-ever scheduled Concorde flight from New York to London.[52] In June 2005, Benn was a panellist on a special edition of BBC1's Question Time. The special edition was edited entirely by a school age film crew selected by a BBC competition.[53]
On 21 June 2005, Benn presented a programme on democracy as part of the Channel 5 series Big Ideas That Changed The World, he presented a left-wing view of democracy as the means to pass power from the "wallet to the ballot". He argued that traditional social democratic values were under threat in an increasingly globalised world in which powerful institutions such as the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank and the European Commission remain unelected and unaccountable to those whose lives they affect daily.[54]
On 27 September 2005, Benn was taken ill at the Labour Party Conference in Brighton and taken by ambulance to the Royal Sussex County Hospital after being treated by paramedics at the Brighton Centre. Benn reportedly fell and struck his head. He was to be kept in hospital for observation, but was described as being in a "comfortable condition".[55] He was subsequently fitted with an artificial pacemaker to help regulate his heartbeat.[56] In a list compiled by the magazine New Statesman in 2006, he was voted twelfth in the list of "Heroes of our Time".[57]
In September 2006, Benn joined the "Time to Go" demonstration in Manchester the day before the start of the final Labour Conference with Tony Blair as Party Leader, with the aim of persuading the Labour Government to withdraw troops from Iraq, to refrain from attacking Iran and to reject replacing the Trident missile and submarines with a new system. He spoke to the demonstrators in the rally afterwards along with other politicians and journalists, including George Galloway and members of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament.[58] In 2007, he appeared in an extended segment in the Michael Moore film Sicko giving comments about democracy, social responsibility, and health care.
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A poll by the BBC2 The Daily Politics programme in January 2007 selected Benn as the UK's "Political Hero" with 38% of the vote, beating Margaret Thatcher with 35% and five other contenders including Alex Salmond, Leader of the Scottish National Party; Clare Short, Independent MP; Neil Kinnock, previous Labour Party Leader; Norman Tebbit, previous Conservative Party Chairman and Shirley Williams, one of the 'gang of four' who founded the Social Democratic Party.[4]
In the 2007 Labour Party leadership election, Tony Benn backed the left-wing MP John McDonnell in his ultimately unsuccessful bid. In September 2007, Benn called for the government to hold a referendum on the EU Reform Treaty.[59] In October 2007, at the age of 82, and when it appeared that a general election was about to be held, Benn reportedly announced that he wanted to stand, having written to his local Kensington and Chelsea Constituency Labour Party offering himself as a prospective candidate for the seat held by the Conservative Malcolm Rifkind.[60][61] No election, however, was ultimately held in 2007, and the Kensington and Chelsea seat was abolished.
In September 2008, Benn appeared on the DVD release for the Doctor Who story The War Machines with a vignette discussing the Post Office Tower; he became the second Labour politician, after Roy Hattersley to appear in a feature on a Doctor Who DVD.[62] Also in 2008, Benn appeared on track 12 "Pay Attention to the Human" on Colin MacIntyre's The Water album.[63]
At the Stop the War Conference 2009, he described the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan as "Imperialist war(s)" and discussed the killing of American and allied troops by Iraqi or foreign insurgents, questioning whether they were in fact freedom fighters, and comparing the insurgents to a British Dad's Army, saying "If you are invaded you have a right to self defence, and this idea that people in Iraq and Afghanistan who are resisting the invasion are militant Muslim extremists is a complete bloody lie. I joined Dad's Army when I was sixteen, and if the Germans had arrived, I tell you, I could use a bayonet, a rifle, a revolver, and if I'd seen a German officer having a meal I'd have tossed a grenade through the window. Would I have been a freedom fighter or a terrorist?"[64]
In an interview published in Dartford Living in September 2009, Benn was critical of the Government's decision to delay the findings of the Iraq War Inquiry until after the General Election, stating that "people can take into account what the inquiry has reported on but they’ve deliberately pushed it beyond the election. Government is responsible for explaining what it has done and I don’t think we were told the truth."[65] He also stated that local government was strangled by Margaret Thatcher and hadn't been liberalised by New Labour.[65]
During the autumn of 2009, Tony Benn was again admitted into hospital and as a result of this, "An Evening with Tony Benn", scheduled to take place at London's Cadogan Hall was cancelled.[66] He resumed a tour of these shows in 2010. He has most recently performed his show "The Writing on the Wall" with Roy Bailey at St Mary's Church, Ashford, Kent (Sept 2011) as part of the arts venue's first Revelation St Mary's Season. [67] In July 2011 he was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University Of Glamorgan, Wales.[68]
In November 2011, it was reported that Benn had moved out of his home in Holland Park Avenue, London and taken up residence in a smaller £750,000 flat nearby which benefits from a warden.[69]
Diaries and biographies[link]
Benn is a prolific diarist: eight volumes of his diaries have been published (the first six collected as ISBN 0-09-963411-2, the penultimate available as ISBN 0-09-941502-X), he stopped writing them following his stroke and in April 2012 was working on the final volume due for publication in September 2012. Collections of his speeches and writings were published as Arguments for Socialism (1979), Arguments for Democracy (1981), (both edited by Chris Mullin), Fighting Back (1988) and (with Andrew Hood) Common Sense (1993), as well as Free Radical: New Century Essays (2004). In August 2003, London DJ Charles Bailey created an album of Benn's speeches (ISBN 1-904734-03-0) set to ambient groove.
He has also made public several episodes of audio diaries he made during his time in Parliament and after retirement, entitled 'The Benn Tapes', broadcast originally on BBC Radio 4. Short series of these have been played periodically on BBC Radio 7.[70] A major biography was written by Jad Adams and published by Macmillan in 1992; it was updated to cover the intervening 20 years and reissued by Biteback Publishing in 2011. Tony Benn: A Biography (ISBN 0-333-52558-2) A more recent 'semi-authorised' biography, with a foreword by Benn, was published in 2001: David Powell, Tony Benn: A Political Life, Continuum Books (ISBN 978-0826464156). An autobiography, Dare to be a Daniel: Then and Now, Hutchinson (ISBN 978-0099471530), was published in 2004.
There are substantial essays on Benn in both the Dictionary of Labour Biography by Phillip Whitehead, Greg Rosen [ed], Politicos Publishing, 2001 (ISBN 978-1902301181) and in Labour Forces: From Ernie Bevin to Gordon Brown, Kevin Jefferys [ed], I. B. Taurus Publishing, 2002 (ISBN 978-1860647437). Michael Moore dedicates his book Mike's Election Guide 2008 (ISBN 978-0141039817) to Tony Benn with: "For Tony Benn, keep teaching us".[71]
Plaques[link]
During his final years in Parliament, Benn placed three plaques within the Houses of Parliament as well as one in Highbury, North London (to commemorate the Peasants' Revolt of 1381).[72]
Two of the three parliamentary plaques are in the 'Suffragettes room' (next to the Central Lobby).
The first was placed in 1995 and reads as follows:
"This plaque is dedicated/ with respect, gratitude and affection/ to the many hundreds of thousands of men and women/ who lived and worked on these islands/ and who devoted themselves to the advancement of/ freedom, civil liberties, social justice and democracy/ who campaigned for popular representation in Parliament
Including: Wat Tyler, John Ball, William Tyndale, Thomas More, the Levellers, John Lilburne, William Walwyn, The Diggers, Gerard Winstanley, Tom Paine, Mary Wollstonecraft, Robert Owen, The Tolpuddle Martyrs, the Chartists, Keir Hardie, Annie Besant, Charles Bradlaugh, Robert Tressell, the Suffragettes and Constance Markievicz
And many others whose names have never/ been recorded in our history"
The second plaque was placed in 1996 and is dedicated to all who work within the Houses of Parliament.
The third plaque is dedicated to Suffragette Emily Wilding-Davison and was placed in the broom cupboard next to the Undercroft Chapel within the Palace of Westminster where Davison is said to have hidden during the 1911 census in order to establish her address as the House of Commons.[73]
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ Tony Benn (2007). More Time for Politics: Diaries 2001–2007. London: Hutchinson. p. 223.
- ^ a b Re Parliamentary Election for Bristol South East [1964] 2 Q.B. 257, [1961] 3 W.L.R. 577
- ^ Renton, Dave (February 1997). "Does Labour's Left Have an Alternative?". Socialist Review. http://pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk/sr205/labour.htm. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ a b "The Magnificent Seven political heroes...". BBC News (BBC). 12 December 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/politics_show/6161847.stm. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
- ^ "Collection – The Rt Hon Tony Benn MP –". Art in Parliament. UK Parliament. http://art.parliament.uk/worksofart/artwork/andrew-tift/the-rt-hon-tony-benn-mp/4761/. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ "Tony Benn – Official Website". tonybenn.com. http://www.tonybenn.com/Biography.html. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ Hale, Mark (January 2008). "Benn, William Wedgwood" (Subscription required). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/30705?docPos=2. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ Brodie, Marc (January 2008). "Benn, Sir John Williams" (Subscription required). Oxford National Dictionary of Biography Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/58236/?back=,30705. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ Stearn, Roger T (2004). "Benn, Margaret Eadie Wedgwood" (Subscription required). Oxford National Dictionary of Biography Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/50714/?back=,30705. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ "Tony Benn: You Ask The Questions". The Independent (London: Independent News and Media). 19 August 2005. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/tony-benn-you-ask-the-questions-503487.html. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ Benn, Tony (2003). Free Radical. Continuum. p. 226. ISBN 0-8264-6596-X. http://books.google.com/?id=UsYKitlTrdYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=tony+benn+free+radical&q.
- ^ "Mr Benn wipes away his past". The Times Diary (Times Newspapers). 18 March 1976.
- ^ "Not Out". The Times Diary (Times newspapers). 4 April 1977.
- ^ "Caroline Benn". Daily Telegraph (London: Telegraph Media Group). 24 November 2000. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1375544/Caroline-Benn.html. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ "Tony Benn". The Biography Channel. http://www.thebiographychannel.co.uk/biography_story/455:0/1/Tony_Benn.htm. Retrieved 2 April 2007.
- ^ "William Wedgwood Benn". Spartacus Educational. http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/TUbenn.htm. Retrieved 2 April 2007.
- ^ "Benn's granddaughter runs for MP". BBC News (BBC). 25 September 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/7011922.stm. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ Skinitis, Alexia (10 January 2009). "Emily Benn the younger". Times Online (London: Times Newspapers). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/politics/article5452741.ece. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ French, Philip (26 July 2009). "Philip French's screen legends: Margaret Rutherford". Guardian News and Media (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2009/jul/26/screen-legends-margaret-rutherford. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ "The Benn dynasty". BBC News (BBC). 11 June 1999. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/366619.stm. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ "New Members Sworn". Hansard. House of Commons. 4 December 1950. http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1950/dec/04/new-members-sworn#S5CV0482P0_19501204_HOC_256. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ "New Members Sworn". Hansard. House of Commons. 5 December 1950. http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1950/dec/05/new-member-sworn#S5CV0482P0_19501205_HOC_264. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ a b c "Profile: Tony Benn". BBC Bristol. BBC. 4 April 2008. http://www.bbc.co.uk/bristol/content/articles/2008/04/03/tony_benn_profile_feature.shtml. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ "Disclaiming a peerage". BBC News (London: British Broadcasting Corporation). 14 July 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/82121.stm. Retrieved 7 June 2008.
- ^ "A Revolution in British Stamp Design". The British Postal Museum and Archive. http://postalheritage.org.uk/exhibitions/onlineexhibitions/gentleman-on-stamps/the-david-gentleman-album. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ Lynskey, Dorian (27 March 2009). "All bands on deck: Director Richard Curtis and DJ Johnnie Walker on the making of The Boat That Rocked". The Guardian (London: Guardian News and Media). http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2009/mar/27/boat-that-rocked-background. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ "UK Confidential Transcripts: Tony Benn – The Labour Minister". BBC News (BBC). 1 January 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/uk_confidential/1706972.stm. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ Benn, Tony (1995). The Benn Diaries. Arrow. p. 432. ISBN 978-0-09-963411-9.
- ^ Powell, David (2003). Tony Benn: a political life (2 ed.). London & New York: Continuum. pp. 82, 84. ISBN 0-8264-7074-2. http://books.google.com/?id=dYeVIfy0by8C&pg=PA82&lpg=PA82&dq=alternative+economic+strategy+tony+benn&q=alternative%20economic%20strategy%20tony%20benn.
- ^ Benn, Tony (1988). Out of the Wilderness: Diaries 1963–67. Arrow. p. Introduction. ISBN 978-0-09-958670-8.
- ^ Kavanagh, Dennis (1990). "Tony Benn: Nuisance or Conscience?". In Kavanagh, Dennis. Politics and Personalities. Macmillan. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-333-51580-8.
- ^ Kavanagh, Dennis (1990). "Tony Benn: Nuisance or Conscience?". In Kavanagh, Dennis. Politics and Personalities. Macmillan. p. 178. ISBN 978-0-333-51580-8.
- ^ Whiteley, Ian (11 January 1980). "The Labour Party: Middle Class, Militant and Male". New Statesman: 41–42.
- ^ "Benn's call for SF to take seats". BBC News. 12 May 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/northern_ireland/4540343.stm. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ Emery, Fred (30 September 1980). "Mr Benn proposes timetable of one month to abolish Lords and leave EEC" (Subscription required). The Times, archived by Gale Group (Times Newspapers). http://infotrac.galegroup.com/itw/infomark/27/443/107065937w16/purl=rc1_TTDA_0_CS17008446&dyn=12!xrn_20_0_CS17008446&hst_1?sw_aep=uwesteng. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ Taylor, Gary (February 2001). "Media Review: The Transformation Of Labour". Contemporary Review (findarticle.com): 2–4. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2242/is_1621_278/ai_71712189/pg_2/?tag=content;col1. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ "House of Commons Statement: Falkland Islands". Margaret Thatcher Foundation. 15 June 1982. http://www.margaretthatcher.org/speeches/displaydocument.asp?docid=104969. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
- ^ "Benn on the couch". The Sun (News international). 1 March 1984.
- ^ "Labour's new line-up" (Subscription required). The Times, archived by Gale Group (Times Newspapers). 3 November 1983. http://infotrac.galegroup.com/itw/infomark/27/443/107065937w16/purl=rc1_TTDA_0_CS51350883&dyn=21!xrn_30_0_CS51350883&hst_1?sw_aep=uwesteng. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ "Chapter 06; ...1974 strike...a conversation with miners...Labour government... ...Benn helps divide miners...". libcom.org. http://libcom.org/library/chapter-06-1974-strikea-conversation-minerslabour-government-benn-helps-divide-miners. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ Robertson, Jack (23 April 2010). "25 years after the Great Miners’ Strike". International Socialism (London: Socialist Workers Party) (126). http://www.isj.org.uk/index.php4?id=640&issue=126. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ "Miners' Amnesty (General Pardon)". Hansard. House of Commons. 28 June 1985. http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1985/jun/28/miners-amnesty-general-pardon. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ Durkin, Paul. "Leadership Elections: Labour Party" (PDF). House of Commons Library. http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/briefings/snpc-03938.pdf. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ a b Stadlen, Nick (8 December 2006). "Brief Encounter: Tony Benn". The Guardian (London: Guardian News and Media). http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2006/dec/08/1. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ "Commonwealth of Britain Bill". Hansard. House of Commons. http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/bills/commonwealth-of-britain-bill. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ Benn, Tony; Hood, Andrew (17 June 1993). Hood, Andrew. ed. Common Sense: New Constitution for Britain. London: Hutchinson. ISBN 978-0-09-177308-3.
- ^ Gary Younge "The stirrer", The Guardian, 20 July 2002
- ^ "Full text of Benn interview with Saddam". BBC News. 4 February 2003. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/2726831.stm. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ "'Million' march against Iraq war". BBC News. 16 February 2003. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/2765041.stm. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ "Elected positions". Stop the War Coalition. Archived from the original on 1 April 2010. http://web.archive.org/web/20100401145946/http://stopwar.org.uk/content/view/20/52/. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ "Promoters' Pack – Roy Bailey & Tony Benn". Roy Bailey. http://www.roybailey.net/promotersPack/rbtb.php?PHPSESSID=50526581978a2d6f9d2fc747533000d8. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ "Concorde Aircraft Facts, Dates and History". flightlevel350.com. http://www.flightlevel350.com/Concorde_aircraft_facts.html. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ "Question Time : A question of citizenship". BBC News (BBC). 1 July 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/question_time/4642035.stm. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ Wardle, Tony (Spring 2006). "The Extraordinary Adventures of Mr Benn". Viva!LIFE (Viva!) (31). http://www.viva.org.uk/celebs/tonybenn_interview.html. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ Staff (28 September 2005). "Tony Benn 'comfortable' in hospital after fall". Guardian News and Media (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2005/sep/28/labourconference.labour2. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ "Benn gets pacemaker after fall". BBC NEWS (BBC). 1 October 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4300306.stm. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ Cowley, Jason (22 May 2006). "Heroes of our time – the top 50". New Statesman. http://www.newstatesman.com/200605220016. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
- ^ "Thousands at city's anti-war demo". BBC News. 23 September 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/manchester/5373128.stm. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ "Give us EU referendum, says Benn". BBC News (BBC). 24 September 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/7011231.stm. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ "I want to be an MP again – Benn". BBC News (BBC). 4 October 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/7028042.stm. Retrieved 4 October 2007.
- ^ Attewill, Fred (4 October 2007). "Benn: I want to return to parliament". The Guardian (Guardian News and Media). http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,,2183661,00.html. Retrieved 5 October 2007.
- ^ Wilkins, Jonathan (21 August 2008). "Doctor Who: The War Machines Review". Total SciFi Online. http://totalscifionline.com/reviews/2386-doctor-who-the-war-machines. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ Sandall, Robert (7 February 2008). "Tony Benn, pop star". Telegraph Media Group (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/3670995/Tony-Benn-pop-star.html. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ Jesse Oldershaw (camera); Andy Cousins (editor) (25 April 2009) (Adobe Flash). Tony Benn – Stop the War Conference 2009 (Streaming http). Stop the War Coalition. Event occurs at 3:06. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=og4K4yhQF8E.
- ^ a b Khairoun, Abdel (September 2009). "Big Benn Chimes in to Dartford" (PDF). Dartford Living. p. 10. http://www.dartfordadvertising.co.uk/uploaded_files/Dartford%20Living%20September%202009.pdf. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ^ "Cadogan Hall : Featured Event". cadoganhall.com. 12 October 2009. http://www.cadoganhall.com/showpage.php?pid=902. Retrieved 7 July 2011. [dead link]
- ^ "Clive Conway Celebrity Productions – An Audience With An Evening With Tony Benn". celebrityproductions.info. 2011 [last update]. http://www.celebrityproductions.info/displayer_productions.php/178/An_Evening_with_Tony_Benn. Retrieved 7 July 2011.
- ^ "University of Glamorgan honours contributions to public life, communities, science, literature, and sport". news.glam.ac.uk. 2011 [last update]. http://news.glam.ac.uk/news/en/2011/jun/28/university-glamorgan-honours-contributions-public-/. Retrieved 7 July 2011.
- ^ Richard Kay "Frail Tony Benn downsizes to £750,000 flat (well, his house was worth £3m)", Daily Mail, 1 November 2011. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ "BBC Radio 7 Programmes – The Benn Tapes". BBC. 16 March 2009. http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b007jr2r#synopsis. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ Goodman, Amy (1 November 2008). "Michael Moore on the Election, the Bailout, Healthcare, and 10 Proposals for the Next President by Michael Moore". Democracy Now!. ZCommunications. http://www.zcommunications.org/michael-moore-on-the-election-the-bailout-healthcare-and-10-proposals-for-the-next-president-by-michael-moore. Retrieved 3 May 2010.
- ^ "Tony Benn to unveil Islington People's Plaque commemorating the Peasants' Revolt". Islington Borough Council. 2011-06-02. http://www.islington.gov.uk/Council/CouncilNews/PressOffice/2011/06/PR4430.asp. Retrieved 2011-11-03.
- ^ "Benn's secret tribute to suffragette martyr". BBC News. 1999-03-17. http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/music/article6529773.ece. Retrieved 2011-11-03.
Bibliography[link]
- Levellers and the English Democratic Tradition, Spokesman Books (1976) ISBN 978-0-85124-633-8
- Why America Needs Democratic Socialism, Spokesman Books (1978) ISBN 978-0-85124-266-8
- Prospects, Amalgamated Union of Engineering Workers, Technical, Administrative and Supervisory Section (1979)
- Case for Constitutional Civil Service, Inst. for Workers' Control (1980) ISBN 978-0-901740-67-0
- Case for Party Democracy, Inst. for Workers' Control (1980) ISBN 978-0-901740-70-0
- Arguments for Socialism, Penguin Books (1980) ISBN 978-0-14-005489-7
- & Chris Mullin, Arguments for Democracy, Jonathan Cape (1981) ISBN 978-0-224-01878-4
- European Unity: A New Perspective, Spokesman Books (1981) ISBN 978-0-85124-326-9
- Parliament and Power: Agenda for a Free Society, Verso Books (1982) ISBN 978-0-86091-057-2
- & Andrew Hood, Common Sense: New Constitution for Britain, Hutchinson (1993)
- Free Radical: New Century Essays, Continuum International Publishing (2004) ISBN 978-0-8264-7400-1
- Dare to Be a Daniel: Then and Now, Hutchinson (2004) ISBN 978-0-09-179999-1
- Letters To My Grandchildren: Thoughts On The Future, Arrow Books (2010) ISBN 978-0-09-953909-4
Diaries[link]
- Out of the Wilderness: Diaries 1963–67, Hutchinson (1987) ISBN 978-0-09-170660-9
- Office Without Power: Diaries 1968–72, Hutchinson (1988) ISBN 978-0-09-173647-7
- Against the Tide: Diaries 1973–76, Hutchinson (1989) ISBN 978-0-09-173775-7
- Conflicts of Interest: Diaries 1977–80, Hutchinson (1990) ISBN 978-0-09-174321-5
- The End of an Era: Diaries 1980–90, Hutchinson (1992) ISBN 978-0-09-174857-9
- Years of Hope: Diaries 1940–62, Hutchinson (1994) ISBN 978-0-09-178534-5
- The Benn Diaries: Single Volume Edition 1940–90, Hutchinson (1995) ISBN 978-0-09-179223-7
- Free at Last!: Diaries 1991–2001, Hutchinson (2002) ISBN 978-0-09-179352-4
- More Time for Politics: Diaries 2001–2007, Hutchinson (2007) ISBN 978-0-09-951705-4
External links[link]
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Tony Benn |
|
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Tony Benn |
- Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by Tony Benn
- Unofficial Tony Benn site with extensive interview, articles, audio and visual
- 'Face-to-Face with Tony Benn'. Freeview video interview by the Vega Science Trust
- Tony Benn's interview with The Third Estate.
- Andrew Roth. Tony Benn Chesterfield and Bristol South East MP, The Guardian, 25 March 2001.
- Guardian web guide to the veteran leftwinger Tony Benn
- Tony Benn interview for Leftfield appearances at the Glastonbury Festival
- Tony Benn. Atomic hypocrisy: West is not in a position to take a high moral line, The Guardian, 30 November 2005.
- Amy Goodman. Interview with Tony Benn: How Britain secretly helped Israel build its nuclear arsenal, Democracy Now!, 10 March 2006.
- Benn in the 1960s as seen by Private Eye
- Audio interview with The Guardian.
- His Address to the College Historical Society of Trinity College
- Interview with Tony Benn – Radio France Internationale – 28 March 2008 – 6 minute audio – Ahead of G20 marches, London
- Tony Benn on Tony Blair: "He Is Guilty of a War Crime" – video report by Democracy Now!
| Parliament of the United Kingdom | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Peter Baker |
Baby of the House 1950 |
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| Party political offices | ||
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| Non-profit organisation positions | ||
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Incumbent |
| Order of precedence in England and Wales | ||
| Preceded by James Ramsden as a Member of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council |
Gentlemen as a Member of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council |
Succeeded by Sir Edward du Cann as a Member of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council |
| Order of precedence in Scotland | ||
| Preceded by James Ramsden as a Member of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council |
Gentlemen as a Member of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council |
Succeeded by Sir Edward du Cann as a Member of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council |
| Order of precedence in Northern Ireland | ||
| Preceded by James Ramsden as a Member of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council |
Gentlemen as a Member of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council |
Succeeded by Sir Edward du Cann as a Member of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council |
| Peerage of the United Kingdom | ||
| Preceded by William Wedgwood Benn |
Viscount Stansgate 1960–1963 Disclaimed |
Succeeded by Disclaimed |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Benn, Tony |
| Alternative names | Benn, Anthony Neil Wedgwood; 2nd Viscount Stansgate |
| Short description | British politician on the left of the Labour Party |
| Date of birth | 3 April 1925 |
| Place of birth | Marylebone, London, England |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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| Daniel Hannan MEP |
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|---|---|
 |
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| Member of the European Parliament for South East England |
|
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office 14 July 1999 |
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| Personal details | |
| Born | (1971-09-01) 1 September 1971 (age 40) Lima, Peru |
| Nationality | British |
| Political party | Conservative |
| Spouse(s) | Sara Hannan (née Maynard) |
| Children | 2 [1] |
| Alma mater | Oriel College, Oxford |
| Profession | Journalist Politician |
| Religion | Christian |
| Website | www.hannan.co.uk |
Daniel John Hannan (born 1 September 1971)[2] is a British journalist, author and politician who is a Member of the European Parliament, representing South East England for the Conservative Party. He is also the Secretary-General of the Alliance of European Conservatives and Reformists (AECR). An advocate of localism and a Eurosceptic, Hannan earned worldwide fame for a speech in the European Parliament criticising Gordon Brown.[3]
After stints as a speech-writer for Michael Howard and William Hague, Hannan was elected to the European Parliament at the 1999 election. He led the campaign to withdraw the Conservative Party from the EPP–ED, and was expelled from the group in 2008. Hannan joined the European Conservatives and Reformists (ECR) with his Conservative colleagues when it was formed in 2009 and became Secretary-General of its sister Europarty, the AECR. He currently serves on the Committee on Constitutional Affairs and the delegation to the ACP–EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly.[2] He is also President of the Young Britons' Foundation.
Hannan's ideology is localism, and he has written several books arguing for democratic reform. He is a Eurosceptic and is strongly critical of European integration. Besides politics, Hannan is a journalist, having written leaders and currently authoring a blog for The Daily Telegraph and several books on both the EU and localism. Having been born in Peru, Hannan speaks Spanish, as well as French, fluently.[4]
Contents |
Early life[link]
Upbringing[link]
Hannan was born on his parents' farm near Lima, Peru.[5] Hannan's father served in Italy during the Second World War with the North Irish Horse. Hannan has indicated that his father's Irish Catholic origins made him more sensitive to issues related to Northern Ireland and The Troubles.[6]
Growing up, he made regular trips to the family's cotton farm in Santa Cruz, Bolivia.[5] After spending his childhood in Peru, Hannan was educated at Marlborough College, and Oriel College, Oxford, where he studied Modern History.[5] He speaks English, French and Spanish.[4]
Early political career[link]
Hannan was President of the Oxford University Conservative Association (OUCA) in 1992. When standing in OUCA's committee elections for Michaelmas 1991, his strongly Eurosceptic views prompted accusations of "xenophobia" in the Oxford student paper Cherwell, prompting Hannan to threaten them with legal action.[7] He also served as national vice-chairman of Conservative Students from 1992-3, and then chairman of Conservative Graduates from 1994.[8] He had earlier established the Oxford Campaign for an Independent Britain, and on 12 September 1992 led a members' protest at a European financial summit held in Bath, which was widely televised and, he has since light-heartedly claimed, led to the withdrawal of the Pound Sterling from the European Exchange Rate Mechanism a few days later.[9]
Through the CIB he became involved with the Bruges Group, and after he graduated he became, in 1994, director of a Eurosceptic political think-tank, the European Research Group. In 1996 he was hired by the Daily Telegraph as a leader-writer,[8] and has since contributed to The Spectator and many other newspapers and magazines around the world. In 1997 he became an adviser and speechwriter to Michael Howard, then Shadow Foreign Secretary,[10] and in 1998 he was given a place on the Conservative candidates' list for the following year's European Parliament election. He later became a speechwriter for party leader William Hague.[5] In 1999 he stood down from his posts at the European Research Group and Conservative Graduates.[8]
Member of the European Parliament[link]
Hannan was first elected to the European Parliament in 1999.
A year after his first election, Hannan courted controversy when he appeared to be using the Conservative Party's central office as headquarters for a campaign to persuade Danish voters to block the introduction of the European Single Currency; however, he was able to show that the campaign was actually being run from his Westminster flat.[11]
In his first term, he served on the Committee on Fisheries and the Delegation for Relations with Afghanistan.[2]
He was re-elected at the top of his party's list for the South East England constituency in 2004.
Hannan led the campaign to withdraw the Conservatives from the European People's Party–European Democrats (EPP–ED) group in the European Parliament and form a new anti-federalist group.[12] Hannan welcomed David Cameron's promise during Cameron's successful 2005 leadership campaign to withdraw: even promising to leave the EPP–ED unilaterally if the party didn't.[13]
In April 2009, he criticised an EC Directive that would end the exemption in British law for religious groups to discriminate on grounds on conscience.[14]
In April 2008, Daniel Hannan was elected to the top position of the Conservative list for the 2009 European elections in the constituency of South East England, and in June 2009 he was re-elected to the European Parliament.[15]
Campaign against the Lisbon Treaty[link]
Hannan opposed ratification of the Lisbon Treaty in the European Parliament, and was one of several MEPs who took part in a demonstration in the chamber after Parliament voted to endorse the Treaty. He has continued to speak against the Treaty, and in the manner of Cato the Elder's famous call, Carthago delenda est, he ended every speech, whatever its subject, with a call for the Lisbon Treaty to be put to a referendum: "Pactio Olisipiensis censenda est".[16][17]
Expulsion from the EPP-ED[link]
Attempts by several MEPs to disrupt the work of the Parliament caused sufficient annoyance for a majority of Members to endorse a rule change giving the Speaker/President the discretion to limit the use of filibustering procedures where he "is convinced that these are manifestly intended to cause, and will result in, a prolonged and serious obstruction of the procedures of the House or the rights of other Members" (Rule 20, para 1). In the parliamentary session just before the new rule was to be presented by the President of the European Parliament Hans-Gert Pöttering,[citation needed]
Hannan criticised what he termed a deviation from the rule of law. He continued speaking after his allocated time had ended by quoting Edmund Burke, but was interrupted mid-quote and had his microphone cut off by Luigi Cocilovo, one of the 14 Vice-Presidents.[18] He then responded by damning, without vocal amplification, what he claimed were Parliament’s deviations from its own rules:[19][20]
An absolute majority is not the same as the rule of law. I accept that there is a minority in this house in favour of a referendum. That there is a minority in this house against the ratification of the Lisbon Treaty. But this house must nonetheless follow its own rulebooks. And by popular acclamation to discard the rules under which we operate is indeed an act of arbitrary and despotic rule. It is only my regard for you Mr. Chairman and my personal affection for you that prevents me from likening it to the Ermächtigungsgesetz of 1933 which was also voted through by a parliamentary majority.
Pöttering is a German national and a member of the same political group (EPP-ED) as Hannan. Hannan's remarks were attacked by other MEPs from the EPP-ED. The head of EPP-ED, Joseph Daul, responded by initiating proceedings to expel Hannan immediately from their Group. Daniel Hannan left the EPP-ED on 19 February 2008. He sat, for the remainder of the five-year term as a Conservative without pan-European affiliation (Non-Inscrit).[citation needed] Following his 2009 re-election, he sits with the new eurosceptic European Conservatives and Reformists along with his Conservative Party colleagues.
YouTube hit[link]
On 24 March 2009, after Gordon Brown had given a short speech to the European Parliament in Strasbourg in advance of the G20 London summit, Hannan followed up by delivering a 3-minute speech criticising in very strong terms the response by Gordon Brown to the global financial crisis.[21] He finished the speech:
You cannot spend your way out of recession or borrow your way out of debt. And when you repeat, in that wooden and perfunctory way, that our situation is better than others', that we are well placed to weather the storm, I have to tell you, you sound like a Brezhnev-era apparatchik giving the party line. You know, and we know, and you know that we know that it's nonsense. Everyone knows that Britain is worse off than any other country as we go into these hard times. The IMF has said so. The European Commission has said so. The markets have said so, which is why our currency has devalued by thirty percent. And soon, the voters too will get their chance to say so. They can see what the markets have already seen: that you are the devalued Prime Minister of a devalued government.[22]
The final phrase, "the devalued Prime Minister of a devalued government", was a quote from a speech by Labour Party leader John Smith criticising then-Prime Minister John Major in 1992.[23]
A video clip of the speech went viral on YouTube that evening,[24][25] attracting more than 630,000 views in 24 hours.[21][26] It became the 'most viewed today' YouTube video worldwide two consecutive days.[26] Hannan was invited to appear on several shows on American cable news channels, including Fox News and MSNBC: he appeared on television program Hannity via video link at 9pm EST on the same day,[27] and on the Glenn Beck Program the following day.[28][29] He also appeared on Your World with Neil Cavuto, where he stated he would have voted for Ron Paul in the 2008 presidential election had he been an American citizen.[30] The main British television channels, particularly the BBC and ITV, gave the speech fairly limited coverage, for which they faced some criticism from Conservative MPs and "a handful of viewers";[31] Conservative MP Nigel Evans stated that their lack of coverage rendered YouTube the 'ultimate in public service broadcasting'. As of July 2010, there have been 2.7 million views of the clip. Nearly all of the hits are from the UK and US.
ECR and AECR[link]
Hannan was re-elected in the 2009 European election, having been voted by party members to top the Conservatives' list in South East England. After the election, the Conservatives united with other anti-federalist, centre-right parties to form the European Conservatives and Reformists, for which Hannan had campaigned. Hannan was appointed the group's legal spokesperson. He resigned this position on 5 November 2009, after David Cameron announced that he wouldn't hold a referendum on the Treaty of Lisbon,[32] saying that he wanted to concentrate on campaigning for a referendum.[33] However, he accepted Cameron's decision, provided that a referendum on European integration was held.[34]
Hannan became the first Secretary-General of the ECR-affiliated European political party – the Alliance of European Conservatives and Reformists (AECR) – when it was founded on 1 October 2009.
He criticised a ban on blood donation by people who had visited the United States less than one month previously, a measure instituted due to the risk posed by West Nile fever following the 2003 US epidemic.[14]
Political positions[link]
Localism[link]
Hannan's main idea is the promotion of localism.[5] He believes that local government independence is impossible without giving local government self-financing.[35] To that end, he supports replacing Value Added Tax with a local sales tax, set by local councils.[5]
Electoral reform[link]
Hannan argues in his writings and in the media (for example, during an appearance on Question Time on BBC television on 28 May 2009) for ballot initiatives (whereby electors can directly enact legislation as happens in Switzerland), a power of recall (whereby a sitting Member of Parliament can be forced to submit to re-election if enough of his local electorate support this), fixed term parliaments, local and national referendums, open primaries and the abolition of party lists.
Economic policy[link]
Hannan wrote in March 2011 criticizing anti-austerity protesters, stating that that they "have decided to indulge their penchant for empty, futile, self-righteous indignation." He remarked, "After “No Cuts!” the marchers’ favourite slogan was "Fairness!" Alright, then... How about being fair to our children, whom we have freighted with a debt unprecedented in peacetime?"[36]
Foreign policy[link]
Hannan has a 'deep admiration' of the United States,[37] and describes himself as an Atlanticist with inherently positive views of the United States as well as other English-speaking nations.
Hannan supports the British efforts in the Afghanistan war after the September 11th attacks, pointing out that "more British subjects died in the Twin Towers than in any terrorist atrocity in our history – more than at Lockerbie or Omagh" (see Pan Am Flight 103 and Omagh bombing). He also supports a timetable for set military withdrawal from the country. He wrote in June 2010, "there comes a point when our presence is doing more harm than good, serving to destabilise Pakistan rather than to stabilise Afghanistan. We are reaching that point now."[38] He opposed the 2003 invasion of Iraq undertaken during the premiership of Tony Blair.[39] He was one of few British politicians that opposed British intervention in Libya.[37]
He endorsed then-Democratic candidate Barack Obama for President on 18 October 2008. He stated that a McCain presidency would mean an "imperial overstretch", particularly arguing that the U.S. should have been preparing to leave Iraq immediately. He labeled Obama's opponents as symbolic of "big federal budgets, protectionism, crony capitalism and, for that matter, the socialisation of failing banks."[40] On 14 June 2010, Hannan took back his endorsement, which he called his "single most unpopular post" in his blogging career. He argued, "Any American reader who wants to know where Obamification will lead should spend a week with me in the European Parliament. I’m working in your future and, believe me, you won’t like it." He also accused the Obama administration of straining the special relationship between the U.S. and the U.K., particularly over the Falkland Islands.[41]
Social policy[link]
Hannan is opposed to the concept of "victimless crimes", and he favours drug decriminalisation: "I'd start with cannabis, and if that worked I wouldn't in principle be against decriminalising heroin."[5]
Healthcare[link]
In April 2009, he criticised claims that the National Health Service was the greatest British invention, saying that it is clearly eclipsed by the inventions of parliamentary democracy, penicillin, and common law, the discovery of DNA, or the abolition of slavery.[42] He also argued that the NHS has left Britain with low survival rates for cancers, strokes, high chances of becoming iller in hospital, and constant waiting lists. David Cameron, who had said that his priorities were "three letters: NHS", distanced himself from Hannan's remarks, saying that Hannan has "some rather eccentric points of view".[43][44]
Writing in The Telegraph, Mr Hannan said of the media storm around his comments:
- On a visit to the US, I was asked by an interviewer whether I would recommend a British-style health-care model, paid for out of general taxation. I replied that all three parties were devoted to the NHS, and that it had public support (although I added that this was at least partly the result of the inaccurate belief that free health care for the poor is a unique attribute of the British system). But I didn't want to dissemble: I have for years argued that Britain would be better off with a Singapore-style system of personal health-care accounts. So I cautioned against nationalisation, citing international league tables on survival rates and waiting times.[45]
Also making the wider point that: "we seem to have lost the notion that a backbencher speaks for himself. I like David Cameron, and want him to be Prime Minister, not least so that Britain stops racking up debt. But the idea that I therefore agree with him on every issue is, when you think about it, silly."[45]
Enoch Powell[link]
It was reported in August 2009 that Hannan had praised the anti-immigrant Conservative politician Enoch Powell as "somebody who understood the importance of national democracy, who understood why you need to live in an independent country and what that meant, as well as being a free marketeer and a small-government Conservative."[46][47]
However, he is also on record as saying "For what it’s worth, I think Enoch Powell was wrong on immigration. The civil unrest that he forecast, and that many feared in 1968, didn’t materialise. Britain assimilated a large population with an ease that few countries have matched. Being an immigrant myself, I have particular cause to be grateful for Britain’s understated cosmopolitanism."[48]
Writing in on The Telegraph website, Mr Hannan said: "I’m surprised that no one has picked up on the thing that I most admire about Enoch Powell, namely his tendency to ignore conventional wisdom and think things through from first principles. Like Rowan Williams, he always did his hearers the courtesy of addressing them as intelligent adults. Both men regularly got into trouble in consequence, either because they were genuinely misunderstood or because their detractors affected to misunderstand them. Neither responded by dumbing down. That, in politics, takes a special kind of integrity."[49]
UKIP[link]
In spring 2012, Hannan suggested that an accommodation be made between the Conservative Party and UKIP. The fielding of candidates by the Eurosceptic minority party against Conservatives has effectively led to both losing elections to Europhile left-wing candidates. Indeed, had UKIP backed the Conservatives at the 2010 General Election, David Cameron would have been Prime Minister of a majority Conservative Government, rather than in a coalition with Europhile Liberal Democrats. In 2010, UKIP endorsed four Conservative candidates, all of whom secured swings well above the national average.[50]
Publications[link]
Hannan has been a leader writer for the Daily Telegraph since 1996.[51] He has also written for various other newspapers, including The Wall Street Journal, the German daily Die Welt, the Swiss weekly Weltwoche, The Sunday Telegraph, The Catholic Herald, Freedom Today, the Brussels Journal and The Spectator.
He is the author of Time for a Fresh Start in Europe (1993) A Guide to the Amsterdam Treaty (1997), The Euro: Bad for Business (1998), The Challenge of the East (1999), What if Britain Votes No? (2002), The Case for EFTA (2004), and The New Road to Serfdom: A Letter of Warning to America (2010) and contributed to Treason at Maastricht (1994), by Rodney Atkinson and Norris McWhirter.[52]
He was the co-founder of Direct Democracy and co-author, along with 27 Conservative MPs elected in 2005, of Direct Democracy: An Agenda for a New Model Party, which proposes the wholesale devolution of power and the direct election of decision-makers. These ideas were developed further in a series of six pamphlets, The Localist Papers, serialised in The Daily Telegraph in 2007. In 2008, he published the book The Plan: Twelve Months to Renew Britain together with Douglas Carswell.
Awards and prizes[link]
In 2009, Hannan was awarded the Bastiat Prize for Online Journalism for his Telegraph blog.[53] He was shortlisted for the Orwell Prize in blogging in 2011.[54]
He won Speech of the Year at the 2009 Spectator Awards, for his Gordon Brown speech in the European Parliament.[55]
He has been named by The Telegraph as one of the 100 most-influential people on the centre-right in the United Kingdom for the last four years: peaking as the tenth-most influential in 2009.[56] This was up from 86th in 2008.[57] He fell to 33rd in 2010,[58] followed by 38th in 2011.[59]
Bibliography[link]
- Daniel, Hannan (1993). Time for a Fresh Start in Europe. London: Bow Publications. ISBN 978-0-86129-073-4. http://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Time_for_a_Fresh_Start_in_Europe.html?id=qscZAAAACAAJ.
- Daniel, Hannan (1994). Towards 1996: Britain in a Multi-Speed Europe. London: Institute for European Defence & Strategic Studies. ISBN 978-0-907967-54-5. http://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Towards_1996.html?id=U1AKAQAAMAAJ.
- Daniel, Hannan (1996). The Challenge of the East.
- Daniel, Hannan (1997). A Guide to the Amsterdam Treaty. London: European Research Group. http://books.google.co.uk/books/about/A_guide_to_the_Amsterdam_treaty.html?id=x1qeQwAACAAJ.
- Daniel, Hannan (1998). The Euro: Bad for Business. London: European Research Group.
- Daniel, Hannan (2002). What if Britain Votes No?.
- Daniel, Hannan (2004). The Case for EFTA. London: Bruges Group. ISBN 978-0-9547087-3-3. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=AXBmAAAAMAAJ.
- Carswell, Douglas, et al (2005). Direct Democracy: An Agenda for a New Model Party. ISBN 978-0-9550598-0-3.
- Daniel, Hannan; Carswell, Douglas (2008). The Plan: Twelve Months to Renew Britain. ISBN 978-0-9559799-0-3. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=LJ5aYhMYRCsC.
- Daniel, Hannan (2010). The New Road to Serfdom: A Letter of Warning to America. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-195694-2. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WY_XtgAACAAJ.
- Daniel, Hannan (2011). Why America Must Not Follow Europe. New York: Encounter Books. ISBN 978-1-59403-560-9. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=MHeKOSJucOMC.
References[link]
- ^ http://www.sevenoaksconservatives.org/person/daniel-hannan-mep
- ^ a b c "Daniel Hannan". European Parliament. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/members/public/geoSearch/view.do?country=GB&partNumber=1&zone=South+East&language=EN&id=4555. Retrieved 2008-03-03.
- ^ "Browns join Twitter war over NHS". BBC News. 13 August 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8199615.stm. Retrieved 7 March 2012.
- ^ a b Dod's European Companion. London: Vacher Dod Publishing. 2002. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-905702-37-7.
- ^ a b c d e f g Sylvester, Rachel; Thomson, Alice (5 October 2009). "Daniel Hannan: the Tory Eurosceptic MEP whom Labour loves to hate". The Times. http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/politics/article2029688.ece. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ Hannan, Daniel (2010-06-15). "David Cameron was right to apologise: Bloody Sunday diminished us all – Telegraph Blogs". London: Blogs.telegraph.co.uk. http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/danielhannan/100043608/david-cameron-was-right-to-apologise-bloody-sunday-diminished-us-all/. Retrieved 2010-07-07.
- ^ David Blair, and ed. Andrew Page, The History of the Oxford University Conservative Association (OUCA, Oxford, 1995), p.38
- ^ a b c MEP biography European Parliament website
- ^ Daniel Hannan How Our One Small Protest Toppled the Pound Daily Telegraph (2002-09-13)
- ^ "Latin Link", The Times (1997-05-17) p22
- ^ George Eaton The NS Profile: Daniel Hannan New Statesman (2009-08-20)
- ^ "A foolish promise". The Economist. 13 July 2006. http://www.economist.com/node/7161963. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ Browne, Anthony; Charter, David (7 June 2006). "Tories close to splitting on Cameron’s Europe U-turn". The Times. http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/politics/article2029123.ece. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ a b Adams, Stephen (13 June 2011). "EC directive 'bans blood donations after US trips'". The Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/8571071/EC-directive-bans-blood-donations-after-US-trips.html. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ "Partypolitical.com". Playpolitical.typepad.com. 2009-06-08. http://playpolitical.typepad.com/uk_conservative/2009/06/quoting-dr-seuss-dan-hannan-urges-gordon-brown-to-go-go-go.html. Retrieved 2009-08-14.
- ^ Hannan, Daniel (17 January 2008). "EU treaty censored by Euro-federalists". London: The Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/columnists/danielhannan/3553818/EU-treaty-censored-by-Euro-federalists.html. Retrieved 2008-03-03.
- ^ "European Parliament debates, 30 January 2008: Daniel Hannan". Webcitation.org. http://www.webcitation.org/5eoU36rEa. Retrieved 2009-08-14.
- ^ "Debates - 31 January 2008". European Parliament. 8 February 2008. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+CRE+20080131+ITEM-001+DOC+XML+V0//EN&language=EN. Retrieved 2008-03-07.
- ^ "Creeping EU Totalitarianism". YouTube. 2008-02-18. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QVeMBNB0cII. Retrieved 2009-08-14.
- ^ "EU — The last days of democracy?". YouTube. 2008-07-03. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uXflgt7ZmOU. Retrieved 2009-08-14.
- ^ a b DanHannanMEP (2009-03-24). "Daniel Hannan MEP: The devalued Prime Minister of a devalued Government". YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=94lW6Y4tBXs. Retrieved 2009-03-27.
- ^ "Daniel Hannan MEP: Watch the tirade against Gordon Brown that's become a huge hit on YouTube". London: Daily Mail. 27 March 2009. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/debate/article-1165007/DANIEL-HANNAN-MEP-Watch-tirade-Gordon-Brown-thats-huge-hit-YouTube.html. Retrieved 2009-04-06.
- ^ The Recall of Parliament: Smith savages 'devalued government': Labour MPs roar approval for new leader - Prime Minister defends Lamont - Benn to launch referendum petition, Nicholas Timmins, The Independent, September 25, 1992
- ^ Martin, Iian (2009-03-25). "Hurrah for Hannan: Brown hasn't been spoken to like that for decades". Daily Telegraph (London). http://blogs.uat.telegraph.co.uk/news/iainmartin/9290067/Hurrah_for_Hannan_Brown_hasnt_been_spoken_to_like_that_for_decades/.
- ^ Bingham, John (2009-03-25). "MEP Dan Hannan's 'Brezhnev apparatchik' attack on Gordon Brown is a YouTube hit". Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/5050574/MEP-Dan-Hannans-Brezhnev-apparatchik-attack-on-Gordon-Brown-is-a-YouTube-hit.html. Retrieved 2009-03-27.
- ^ a b Walker, Kirsty (2009-03-27). "An internet sensation, the Tory who told Brown to his face that he's a disaster". Daily Mail (London). http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1165027/An-internet-sensation-Tory-told-Brown-face-hes-disaster.html. Retrieved 2009-03-27.
- ^ "Outcry Against U.S. Budget Heard Around Globe". Fox News. 2009-03-27. http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,511011,00.html. Retrieved 2009-03-27.
- ^ "Daniel Hannan". Gather. 2009-03-26. http://www.gather.com/viewArticle.jsp?articleId=281474977638368. Retrieved 2009-03-27.
- ^ DanHannanMEP (2009-03-25). "Daniel Hannan MEP appears on Glenn Beck". YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t_Pa30Sp_sw. Retrieved 2009-03-27.
- ^ DanHannanMEP (2009-03-27). "Daniel Hannan MEP appears on Your World with Neil Cavuto: Part 1/2". YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9JKhzUffBCQ. Retrieved 2009-03-28.
- ^ John, Bingham; Singh, Anita (27 March 2009). "Questions for BBC and ITV over Daniel Hannan speech coverage". London: Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/gordon-brown/5056568/Questions-for-BBC-and-ITV-over-Daniel-Hannan-speech-coverage.html. Retrieved 6 April 2009.
- ^ Booth, Jenny; Bremner, Charles (5 November 2009). "Tories stung by autism gibe from French minister and resignations of MEPs". The Times. http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/news/politics/article2030081.ece. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ Porter, Andrew (5 November 2009). "David Cameron faces further unrest over new EU policy". The Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/6506599/David-Cameron-faces-further-unrest-over-new-EU-policy.html. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ Porter, Andrew; Kirkup, James (4 November 2009). "Tories admit defeat over Lisbon Treaty". The Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/6495994/Tories-admit-defeat-over-Lisbon-Treaty.html. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ Oborne, Peter (30 April 2011). "Let's put the local back into local elections". The Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/local-elections/8485600/Lets-put-the-local-back-into-local-elections.html. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ Hannan, Daniel (26 March 2011). "'March for the Alternative'? WHAT alternative?". The Daily Telegraph. http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/danielhannan/100081436/march-for-the-alternative-what-alternative/. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ a b "The war drums boom in Britain". The Economist. 18 March 2011. http://www.economist.com/blogs/bagehot/2011/03/crisis_libya_0. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ Hannan, Daniel (2010-06-26). "David Cameron is right to want to leave Afghanistan – Telegraph Blogs". London: Blogs.telegraph.co.uk. http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/danielhannan/100044975/david-cameron-is-right-to-want-to-leave-afghanistan-within-five-years/. Retrieved 2010-07-07.
- ^ Hannan, Daniel (2008-03-30). "Are we losing in Afghanistan?". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/danielhannan/3676691/Are_we_losing_in_Afghanistan/. Retrieved 2010-11-07.
- ^ "Why this conservative is for Barack Obama". The Telegraph. 18 October 2008. http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/danielhannan/5484919/Why_this_conservative_is_for_Barack_Obama/.
- ^ "I admit it: I was wrong to have supported Barack Obama publisher=The Telegraph". 14 June 2010. http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/danielhannan/100043479/i-admit-it-i-was-wrong-to-have-supported-barack-obama/.
- ^ Hannan, Daniel (2009-04-06). "Americans! Don't copy the British healthcare system!". London: Blogs.telegraph.co.uk. http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/danielhannan/9407633/Americans_Dont_copy_the_British_healthcare_system/. Retrieved 2009-08-14.
- ^ "Cameron: 'NHS Is Our Number One Priority'". Sky News. 14 August 2009. http://news.sky.com/home/politics/article/15360859. Retrieved 25 April 2010.
- ^ "'Nasty Tories' beat retreat on hunting and spending cuts". Thisislondon.co.uk. http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/nasty-tories-beat-retreat-on-hunting-and-spending-cuts-6922630.html. Retrieved 2009-08-14.
- ^ a b "There is no harm in agreeing to disagree Let's return to the good old days when MPs didn't always toe the party line, says Daniel Hannan.". The Daily Telegraph (London). 2009-08-28. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/personal-view/6103235/There-is-no-harm-in-agreeing-to-disagree.html. Retrieved 2010-04-30.
- ^ Prince, Rosa (2009-08-26). "Daniel Hannan risks angering David Cameron by praising Enoch Powell". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/6095533/Daniel-Hannan-risks-angering-David-Cameron-by-praising-Enoch-Powell.html. Retrieved 2010-04-30.
- ^ "Daniel Hannan & Enoch Powell: Spectacular Media Stupidity Guaranteed". The Spectator. 2009-08-26. http://www.spectator.co.uk/alexmassie/5289796/daniel-hannan-and-enoch-powell-spectacular-media-stupidity-guaranteed.thtml. Retrieved 2010-07-07.
- ^ "Journalists' magic word". The Daily Telegraph (London). 2007-11-06. http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/danielhannan/3677651/Journalists_magic_word/. Retrieved 2010-04-30.
- ^ "Down with collective responsibility". The Daily Telegraph (London). 2009-08-28. http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/danielhannan/100007818/down-with-collective-responsibility/. Retrieved 2010-04-30.
- ^ "A deal with UKIP is preferable to one with the LibDems". The Daily Telegraph (London). 2012-05-24. http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/news/danielhannan/100160250/most-conservatives-would-prefer-a-deal-with-ukip-to-one-with-the-libdems/. Retrieved 2012-05-25.
- ^ Who's Who. London: A & C Black. 2007. ISBN 978-0-7136-7527-6.
- ^ Treason at Maastricht: Destruction of the Nation State. Compuprint Publishing. 1994. ISBN 0-9509353-9-5.
- ^ "Telegraph columnist and blogger Daniel Hannan awarded online prize". The Daily Telegraph. 27 October 2009. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/6437795/Telegraph-columnist-and-blogger-Daniel-Hannan-awarded-online-prize.html. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ Lachno, James (27 April 2011). "Christopher Hitchens' memoir among Orwell Prize 2011 nominations". The Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/bookprizes/8476557/Christopher-Hitchens-memoir-among-Orwell-Prize-2011-nominations.html. Retrieved 23 January 2012.
- ^ "Lord Mandelson named Politician of the Year". The Daily Telegraph. 12 November 2009. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/6554667/Lord-Mandelson-named-Politician-of-the-Year.html. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ Dale, Iain; Brivati, Brian (5 October 2009). "Top 100 most influential Right-wingers: 50-1". The Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/conservative/6256390/Top-100-most-influential-Right-wingers-50-1.html. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ Dale, Iain; Brivati, Brian (26 September 2008). "Top 100 right wingers: 100-76". The Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/conservative/3086523/Top-100-right-wingers-100-76.html. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ Dale, Iain; Brivati, Brian (4 October 2011). "Top 100 most influential Right-wingers: 50-26". The Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/conservative/8042131/Top-100-most-influential-Right-wingers-50-26.html. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ Dale, Iain; Brivati, Brian (4 October 2011). "The Top 100 most influential people on the Right 2011, 50-26". The Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/conservative/8804388/The-Top-100-most-influential-people-on-the-Right-2011-50-26.html. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
External links[link]
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Hannan, Daniel |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | British politician |
| Date of birth | 1971-09-01 |
| Place of birth | Lima, Peru |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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| The Right Honourable Sir Winston Churchill KG OM CH TD PC DL FRS RA |
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|---|---|
 |
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| Prime Minister of the United Kingdom | |
| In office 26 October 1951 – 7 April 1955 |
|
| Monarch | |
| Deputy | Anthony Eden |
| Preceded by | Clement Attlee |
| Succeeded by | Anthony Eden |
| In office 10 May 1940 – 26 July 1945 |
|
| Monarch | George VI |
| Deputy | Clement Attlee |
| Preceded by | Neville Chamberlain |
| Succeeded by | Clement Attlee |
| Leader of the Opposition | |
| In office 26 July 1945 – 26 October 1951 |
|
| Monarch | George VI |
| Prime Minister | Clement Attlee |
| Preceded by | Clement Attlee |
| Succeeded by | Clement Attlee |
| Leader of the Conservative Party | |
| In office 9 November 1940 – 7 April 1955 |
|
| Preceded by | Neville Chamberlain |
| Succeeded by | Anthony Eden |
| Minister of Defence | |
| In office 28 October 1951 – 1 March 1952 |
|
| Prime Minister | Himself |
| Preceded by | Emanuel Shinwell |
| Succeeded by | The Earl Alexander of Tunis |
| In office 10 May 1940 – 26 July 1945 |
|
| Prime Minister | Himself |
| Preceded by | The Lord Chatfield (Minister for Coordination of Defence) |
| Succeeded by | Clement Attlee |
| Chancellor of the Exchequer | |
| In office 6 November 1924 – 4 June 1929 |
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| Prime Minister | Stanley Baldwin |
| Preceded by | Philip Snowden |
| Succeeded by | Philip Snowden |
| Home Secretary | |
| In office 19 February 1910 – 24 October 1911 |
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| Prime Minister | Herbert Henry Asquith |
| Preceded by | Herbert Gladstone |
| Succeeded by | Reginald McKenna |
| President of the Board of Trade | |
| In office 12 April 1908 – 14 February 1910 |
|
| Prime Minister | Herbert Henry Asquith |
| Preceded by | David Lloyd George |
| Succeeded by | Sydney Buxton |
| Member of Parliament for Woodford |
|
| In office 5 July 1945 – 15 October 1964 |
|
| Preceded by | New constituency |
| Succeeded by | Patrick Jenkin |
| Member of Parliament for Epping |
|
| In office 29 October 1924 – 5 July 1945 |
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| Preceded by | Sir Leonard Lyle |
| Succeeded by | Leah Manning |
| Member of Parliament for Dundee with Alexander Wilkie |
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| In office 24 April 1908 – 15 November 1922 |
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| Preceded by | |
| Succeeded by | |
| Member of Parliament for Manchester North West |
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| In office 8 February 1906 – 24 April 1908 |
|
| Preceded by | William Houldsworth |
| Succeeded by | William Joynson-Hicks |
| Member of Parliament for Oldham with Alfred Emmott |
|
| In office 24 October 1900 – 12 January 1906 |
|
| Preceded by | Walter Runciman Alfred Emmott |
| Succeeded by | |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill (1874-11-30)30 November 1874 Blenheim Palace, Woodstock, Oxfordshire, England, United Kingdom |
| Died | 24 January 1965(1965-01-24) (aged 90) 28 Hyde Park Gate, London, England |
| Resting place | St Martin's Church, Bladon, Oxfordshire |
| Citizenship | British |
| Nationality | English |
| Political party |
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| Spouse(s) | Clementine Churchill (m. 1908–1965) «start: (1908-09-12)–end+1: (1965-01-25)»"Marriage: Clementine Churchill to Winston Churchill" Location: (linkback:http://en-wiki.pop.wn.com/index.php/Winston_Churchill) |
| Relations |
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| Children | |
| Residence |
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| Alma mater | Harrow School, Royal Military Academy Sandhurst |
| Profession | Member of Parliament, statesman, soldier, journalist, historian, author, painter |
| Religion | Anglican |
| Signature |  |
| Military service | |
| Allegiance | British Empire |
| Service/branch | British Army |
| Years of service | 1895–1900, 1902–24 |
| Rank | 15px Lieutenant-Colonel |
| Battles/wars | |
| Awards | |
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Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, TD, PC, DL, FRS, Hon. RA (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British Conservative politician and statesman known for his leadership of the United Kingdom during the Second World War. Widely regarded as one of the greatest wartime leaders of the century, he served as Prime Minister twice (1940–45 and 1951–55). A noted statesman and orator, Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, a historian, a writer, and an artist. He is the only British prime minister to have received the Nobel Prize in Literature, and was the first person to be made an Honorary Citizen of the United States.
Churchill was born into the aristocratic family of the Dukes of Marlborough. His father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was a charismatic politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer; his mother, Jenny Jerome, was an American socialite. As a young army officer, he saw action in British India, the Sudan, and the Second Boer War. He gained fame as a war correspondent and wrote books about his campaigns.
At the forefront of politics for fifty years, he held many political and cabinet positions. Before the First World War, he served as President of the Board of Trade, Home Secretary, and First Lord of the Admiralty as part of the Asquith Liberal government. During the war, he continued as First Lord of the Admiralty until the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign, which he had sponsored, caused his departure from government.[neutrality is disputed] He then briefly resumed active army service on the Western Front as commander of the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers. He returned to government as Minister of Munitions, Secretary of State for War, and Secretary of State for Air. After the War, Churchill served as Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Conservative (Baldwin) government of 1924–29, controversially returning the pound sterling in 1925 to the gold standard at its pre-war parity, a move widely seen as creating deflationary pressure on the UK economy. Also controversial were Churchill's opposition to increased home rule for India and his resistance to the 1936 abdication of Edward VIII.
Out of office and politically "in the wilderness" during the 1930s, Churchill took the lead in warning about Nazi Germany and in campaigning for rearmament. On the outbreak of the Second World War, he was again appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. Following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain on 10 May 1940, Churchill became Prime Minister. His steadfast refusal to consider defeat, surrender, or a compromise peace helped inspire British resistance, especially during the difficult early days of the War when Britain stood alone in its active opposition to Hitler. Churchill was particularly noted for his speeches and radio broadcasts, which helped inspire the British people. He led Britain as Prime Minister until victory over Nazi Germany had been secured.
After the Conservative Party lost the 1945 election, he became Leader of the Opposition. In 1951, he again became Prime Minister, before retiring in 1955. Upon his death, Elizabeth II granted him the honour of a state funeral, which saw one of the largest assemblies of world statesmen in history.[1] Named the Greatest Briton of all time in a 2002 poll, Churchill is widely regarded as being among the most influential persons in British history.
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Family and early life[link]
Born into the aristocratic family of the Dukes of Marlborough, a branch of the noble Spencer family,[2] Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, like his father, used the surname "Churchill" in public life.[3] His ancestor George Spencer had changed his surname to Spencer-Churchill in 1817 when he became Duke of Marlborough, to highlight his descent from John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. Winston's father, Lord Randolph Churchill, the third son of John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough, was a politician; and his mother, Lady Randolph Churchill (née Jennie Jerome) was the daughter of American millionaire Leonard Jerome. Winston was born on 30 November 1874, two months prematurely, in a bedroom in Blenheim Palace, Woodstock, Oxfordshire.[4]
From age two to six, he lived in Dublin, where his grandfather had been appointed Viceroy and employed Churchill's father as his private secretary. Churchill's brother, John Strange Spencer-Churchill, was born during this time in Ireland. It has been claimed that the young Winston first developed his fascination with military matters from watching the many parades pass by the Vice Regal Lodge (now Áras an Uachtaráin, the official residence of the President of Ireland).[5][6]
Churchill's earliest exposure to education occurred in Dublin, where a governess tried teaching him reading, writing, and arithmetic (his first reading book was called 'Reading Without Tears'). With limited contact with his parents, Churchill became very close to his nanny, 'Mrs' Elizabeth Anne Everest, whom he called 'Old Woom'. She served as his confidante, nurse, and mother substitute.[7] The two spent many happy hours playing in the Phoenix Park.[8][9]
Independent and rebellious by nature, Churchill generally had a poor academic record in school, for which he was punished.[10] He was educated at three independent schools: St. George's School, Ascot, Berkshire; Brunswick School in Hove, near Brighton (the school has since been renamed Stoke Brunswick School and relocated to Ashurst Wood in West Sussex); and at Harrow School from 17 April 1888. Within weeks of his arrival at Harrow, Churchill had joined the Harrow Rifle Corps.[11] Due to his poor record, this seemingly justified his father’s decision to enter him into an army career. It was only at the third attempt that he managed to pass the entrance examination to the Royal Military College, but, once there, he applied himself seriously and passed out (graduated) 20th in a class of 130.[10]
He passed an unhappy and sadly neglected childhood, redeemed only by the affection of Mrs Everest, his devoted nurse.[10] Churchill was rarely visited by his mother, and wrote letters begging her either to come to the school or to allow him to come home. His relationship with his father was distant; he once remarked that they barely spoke to one another.[12] His father died on 24 January 1895, aged 45, leaving Churchill with the conviction that he too would die young and so should be quick about making his mark on the world.[13]
Speech impediment[link]
See also: List of stutterers
Many authors writing in the 1920s and 1930s, before sound recording became common, mentioned Churchill's stutter in terms such as 'severe' or 'agonising' and Churchill described himself as having a "speech impediment" which he worked to overcome. His dentures were specially designed to aid his speech (Demosthenes' pebbles).[14] After many years of public speeches carefully prepared to not only inspire, but also to avoid hesitations, he could finally state, "My impediment is no hindrance".[15]
The Churchill Centre, however, flatly denies the claim that Churchill stuttered, while confirming that he did have difficulty pronouncing the letter S and spoke with a lisp[16] as did his father.[17]
Marriage and children[link]
_with_fianc%C3%A9e_Clementine_Hozier_(1885-1977)_shortly_before_their_marriage_in_1908.jpg)
Churchill met his future wife, Clementine Hozier, in 1904 at a ball in Crewe House, home of the Earl of Crewe and Crewe's wife Margaret Primrose (daughter of Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery and Hannah Rothschild).[18] In 1908, they met again at a dinner party hosted by Susan Jeune, Baroness St Helier. Churchill found himself seated beside Clementine, and they soon began a lifelong romance.[19] He proposed to Clementine during a house party at Blenheim Palace on 10 August 1908, in a small Temple of Diana.[20]
On 12 September 1908, they were married in St. Margaret's, Westminster. The church was packed; the Bishop of St Asaph conducted the service.[21] The couple spent their honeymoon at Highgrove House in Eastcote.[22] In March 1909, the couple moved to a house at 33 Eccleston Square.
Their first child, Diana, was born in London on 11 July 1909. After the pregnancy, Clementine moved to Sussex to recover, while Diana stayed in London with her nanny.[23] On 28 May 1911, their second child, Randolph, was born at 33 Eccleston Square.[24]
Their third child, Sarah, was born on 7 October 1914 at Admiralty House. The birth was marked with anxiety for Clementine, as Winston had been sent to Antwerp by the Cabinet to "stiffen the resistance of the beleaguered city" after news that the Belgians intended to surrender the town.[25]
Clementine gave birth to her fourth child, Marigold Frances Churchill, on 15 November 1918, four days after the official end of the First World War.[26] In the early days of August 1921, the Churchills' children were entrusted to a French nursery governess in Kent named Mlle Rose. Clementine, meanwhile, travelled to Eaton Hall to play tennis with Hugh Grosvenor, 2nd Duke of Westminster and his family. While still under the care of Mlle Rose, Marigold had a cold, but was reported to have recovered from the illness. As the illness progressed with hardly any notice, it turned into septicaemia. Following advice from a landlady, Rose sent for Clementine. However the illness turned fatal on 23 August 1921, and Marigold was buried in the Kensal Green Cemetery three days later.[27]
On 15 September 1922, the Churchills' last child, Mary, was born. Later that month, the Churchills bought Chartwell, which would be Winston's home until his death in 1965.[28][29]
Military service[link]
After Churchill left Harrow in 1893, he applied to attend the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. He tried three times before passing the entrance exam; he applied for cavalry rather than infantry because the grade requirement was lower and did not require him to learn mathematics, which he disliked. He graduated eighth out of a class of 150 in December 1894,[30] and although he could now have transferred to an infantry regiment as his father had wished, chose to remain with the cavalry and was commissioned as a Cornet (Second Lieutenant) in the 4th Queen's Own Hussars on 20 February 1895.[11] In 1941, he received the honour of being appointed Regimental Colonel of the 4th Hussars an honour which was increased after the Second World War when he was appointed as Colonel-in-Chief; a privilege usually reserved for royalty.
Churchill's pay as a second lieutenant in the 4th Hussars was £300 annually. However, he believed that he needed at least a further £500 (equivalent to £25,000 in 2001 terms) to support a style of life equal to that of other officers of the regiment. His mother provided an allowance of £400 per year, but this was repeatedly overspent. According to biographer Roy Jenkins, this is one reason he took an interest in war correspondence.[31] He did not intend to follow a conventional career of promotion through army ranks, but rather to seek out all possible chances of military action, using his mother's and family influence in high society to arrange postings to active campaigns. His writings brought him to the attention of the public, and earned him significant additional income. He acted as a war correspondent for several London newspapers[32] and wrote his own books about the campaigns.
Cuba[link]
In 1895, Churchill travelled to Cuba to observe the Spanish fight the Cuban guerrillas; he had obtained a commission to write about the conflict from the Daily Graphic. He came under fire on his twenty-first birthday,[11] the first of about 50 times during his life, and the Spanish awarded him his first medal.[33]:17 Churchill had fond memories of Cuba as a "...large, rich, beautiful island..."[34] While there, he soon acquired a taste for Havana cigars, which he would smoke for the rest of his life. While in New York, he stayed at the home of Bourke Cockran, an admirer of his mother. Bourke was an established American politician, and a member of the House of Representatives. He greatly influenced Churchill, both in his approach to oratory and politics, and encouraging a love of America.[35]
He soon received word that his nanny, Mrs Everest, was dying; he then returned to England and stayed with her for a week until she died. He wrote in his journal, "She was my favourite friend." In My Early Life he wrote: "She had been my dearest and most intimate friend during the whole of the twenty years I had lived."[36]
India[link]
In early October 1896, he was transferred to Bombay, British India. He was considered one of the best polo players in his regiment and led his team to many prestigious tournament victories.[37]
In 1897, Churchill attempted to travel to both report and, if necessary, fight in the Greco-Turkish War, but this conflict effectively ended before he could arrive. Later, while preparing for a leave in England, he heard that three brigades of the British Army were going to fight against a Pashtun tribe in the North West Frontier of India and he asked his superior officer if he could join the fight.[38] He fought under the command of General Jeffery, who was the commander of the second brigade operating in Malakand, in the Frontier region of British India. Jeffery sent him with fifteen scouts to explore the Mamund Valley; while on reconnaissance, they encountered an enemy tribe, dismounted from their horses and opened fire. After an hour of shooting, their reinforcements, the 35th Sikhs arrived, and the fire gradually ceased and the brigade and the Sikhs marched on. Hundreds of tribesmen then ambushed them and opened fire, forcing them to retreat. As they were retreating four men were carrying an injured officer but the fierceness of the fight forced them to leave him behind. The man who was left behind was slashed to death before Churchill's eyes; afterwards he wrote of the killer, "I forgot everything else at this moment except a desire to kill this man."[39] However the Sikhs' numbers were being depleted so the next commanding officer told Churchill to get the rest of the men and boys to safety.
Before he left he asked for a note so he would not be charged with desertion.[40] He received the note, quickly signed, and headed up the hill and alerted the other brigade, whereupon they then engaged the army. The fighting in the region dragged on for another two weeks before the dead could be recovered. He wrote in his journal: "Whether it was worth it I cannot tell."[39][41] An account of the Siege of Malakand was published in December 1900 as The Story of the Malakand Field Force. He received £600 for his account. During the campaign, he also wrote articles for the newspapers The Pioneer and The Daily Telegraph.[42] His account of the battle was one of his first published stories, for which he received £5 per column from The Daily Telegraph.[43]
Sudan and Oldham[link]
Churchill was transferred to Egypt in 1898. He visited Luxor before joining an attachment of the 21st Lancers serving in the Sudan under the command of General Herbert Kitchener. During this time he encountered two military officers with whom he would work during the First World War: Douglas Haig, then a captain and David Beatty, then a gunboat lieutenant.[44] While in the Sudan, he participated in what has been described as the last meaningful British cavalry charge, at the Battle of Omdurman in September 1898.[45] He also worked as a war correspondent for the Morning Post. By October 1898, he had returned to Britain and begun his two-volume work; The River War, an account of the reconquest of the Sudan which was published the following year. Churchill resigned from the British Army effective from 5 May 1899.
Main article: Oldham by-election, 1899
He soon had his first opportunity to begin a Parliamentary career, when he was invited by Robert Ascroft to be the second Conservative Party candidate in Ascroft's Oldham constituency. Ascroft's sudden death caused a double by-election and Churchill was one of the candidates. In the midst of a national trend against the Conservatives, both seats were lost; however Churchill impressed by his vigorous campaigning.
South Africa[link]
Having failed at Oldham, Churchill looked about for some other opportunity to advance his career. On 12 October 1899, the Second Boer War between Britain and the Boer Republics broke out and he obtained a commission to act as war correspondent for the Morning Post with a salary of £250 per month. He rushed to sail on the same ship as the newly appointed British commander, Sir Redvers Buller. After some weeks in exposed areas he accompanied a scouting expedition in an armoured train, leading to his capture and imprisonment in a POW camp in Pretoria (converted school building for Pretoria High School for Girls). His actions during the ambush of the train led to speculation that he would be awarded the Victoria Cross, Britain's highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy, but this did not occur.[11]
He escaped from the prison camp and travelled almost 300 miles (480 km) to Portuguese Lourenço Marques in Delagoa Bay, with the assistance of an English mine manager.[46] His escape made him a minor national hero for a time in Britain, though instead of returning home, he rejoined General Buller's army on its march to relieve the British at the Siege of Ladysmith and take Pretoria.[47] This time, although continuing as a war correspondent, he gained a commission in the South African Light Horse. He was among the first British troops into Ladysmith and Pretoria. He and his cousin, the Duke of Marlborough, were able to get ahead of the rest of the troops in Pretoria, where they demanded and received the surrender of 52 Boer prison camp guards.[48]
In 1900, Churchill returned to England on the RMS Dunottar Castle, the same ship on which he set sail for South Africa eight months earlier.[50] He there published London to Ladysmith and a second volume of Boer war experiences, Ian Hamilton's March. Churchill stood again for parliament in Oldham in the general election of 1900 and won (his Conservative colleague, Crisp, was defeated) in the contest for two seats.[51][52] After the 1900 general election he embarked on a speaking tour of Britain, followed by tours of the United States and Canada, earning in excess of £5,000.[53]
Territorial service[link]
In 1900, he retired from the regular army and in 1902 joined the Imperial Yeomanry where he was commissioned as a Captain in the Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars on 4 January 1902.[54] In April 1905, he was promoted to Major and appointed to command of the Henley Squadron of the Queen's Own Oxfordshire Hussars.[55] In September 1916, he transferred to the territorial reserves of officers where he remained till retiring in 1924, at the age of fifty.[55]
First Lord of the Admiralty[link]
In October 11, Churchill was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. While serving in this position, he put a strong emphasis on modernization and was also in favor of using airplanes in combat. He launched a program to replace coal power with oil power. When he assumed his position, oil was already being used on submarines and destroyers, but most ships were still coal-powered, though oil was sprayed on the coals. Churchill began this program by ordering that the upcoming Queen Elizabeth-class battleships were to be built with oil-fired engines. Churchill also established a Royal Commission chaired by Admiral Sir John Fisher, which confirmed the benefits of oil over coal in three classified reports, and judged that ample supplies of oil existed, but recommended that oil reserves be maintained in the event of war. The delegation then traveled to the Persian Gulf, and the government, largely through Churchill's advice, eventually invested in the Anglo-Persian Oil Company and bought most of it's stock, and negotiated a secret contract with a 20-year supply.[56][57]
Churchill continued to serve as First Lord of the Admiralty into World War I. He resigned in May 1915 after the disastrous Battle of Gallipoli. Churchill had felt obliged to resign from the war cabinet because he had proposed the Gallipoli expedition.
Western Front[link]
Some months after his resignation, Churchill rejoined the British Army after having served for six months as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. He attempted to obtain an appointment as a brigade commander, but settled for command of a battalion. After spending some time as a Major with the 2nd Battalion, Grenadier Guards, he was appointed Lieutenant-Colonel, commanding the 6th Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers (part of the 9th (Scottish) Division), on 1 January 1916. Correspondence with his wife shows that his intent in taking up active service was to rehabilitate his reputation, but this was balanced by the serious risk of being killed. As a commander he continued to exhibit the reckless daring which had been a hallmark of all his military actions, although he disapproved strongly of the mass slaughter involved in many Western Front actions.[58]
Lord Deedes opined to a gathering of the Royal Historical Society in 2001 why Churchill went to the front line: "He was with Grenadier Guards, who were dry at battalion headquarters. They very much liked tea and condensed milk, which had no great appeal to Winston, but alcohol was permitted in the front line, in the trenches. So he suggested to the colonel that he really ought to see more of the war and get into the front line. This was highly commended by the colonel, who thought it was a very good thing to do."[59]
Political career to the Second World War[link]
Main article: Winston Churchill in politics: 1900–1939
Early years in Parliament[link]
Churchill stood again for the seat of Oldham at the 1900 general election.[60] After winning the seat, he went on a speaking tour throughout Britain and the United States, raising £10,000 for himself (about £800,000 today).[61] In Parliament, he became associated with a faction of the Conservative Party led by Lord Hugh Cecil; the Hughligans. During his first parliamentary session, he opposed the government's military expenditure[62] and Joseph Chamberlain's proposal of extensive tariffs, which were intended to protect Britain's economic dominance. His own constituency effectively deselected him, although he continued to sit for Oldham until the next general election. After the Whitsun recess in 1904 he crossed the floor to sit as a member of the Liberal Party. As a Liberal, he continued to campaign for free trade. When the Liberals took office with Henry Campbell-Bannerman as prime minister, in December 1905, Churchill became Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies dealing mainly with South Africa after the Boer War. From 1903 until 1905, Churchill was also engaged in writing Lord Randolph Churchill, a two-volume biography of his father which was published in 1906 and received much critical acclaim.[63]
Following his deselection in the seat of Oldham, Churchill was invited to stand for Manchester North West. He won the seat at the 1906 general election with a majority of 1,214 and represented the seat for two years, until 1908.[64] When Campbell-Bannerman was succeeded by Herbert Henry Asquith in 1908, Churchill was promoted to the Cabinet as President of the Board of Trade.[52] Under the law at the time, a newly appointed Cabinet Minister was obliged to seek re-election at a by-election; Churchill lost his seat but was soon back as a member for Dundee constituency. As President of the Board of Trade he joined newly appointed Chancellor Lloyd George in opposing First Lord of the Admiralty, Reginald McKenna's proposed huge expenditure for the construction of Navy dreadnought warships, and in supporting the Liberal reforms.[65] In 1908, he introduced the Trade Boards Bill setting up the first minimum wages in Britain.[66] In 1909, he set up Labour Exchanges to help unemployed people find work.[67] He helped draft the first unemployment pension legislation, the National Insurance Act of 1911.[68] As a supporter of eugenics, he participated in the drafting of the Mental Deficiency Act 1913; however, the Act, in the form eventually passed, rejected his preferred method of sterilisation of the feeble-minded in favour of their confinement in institutions.[69]
Churchill also assisted in passing the People's Budget[70] becoming President of the Budget League, an organisation set up in response to the opposition's "Budget Protest League".[71] The budget included the introduction of new taxes on the wealthy to allow for the creation of new social welfare programmes. After the budget bill was sent to the Commons in 1909 and passed, it went to the House of Lords, where it was vetoed. The Liberals then fought and won two general elections in January and December 1910 to gain a mandate for their reforms. The budget was then passed following the Parliament Act 1911 for which he also campaigned. In 1910, he was promoted to Home Secretary. His term was controversial after his responses to the Siege of Sidney Street and the dispute at the Cambrian Colliery and the suffragettes.
In 1910, a number of coal miners in the Rhondda Valley began what has come to be known as the Tonypandy Riot.[65] The Chief Constable of Glamorgan requested troops be sent in to help police quell the rioting. Churchill, learning that the troops were already travelling, allowed them to go as far as Swindon and Cardiff but blocked their deployment. On 9 November, The Times criticised this decision. In spite of this, the rumour persists that Churchill had ordered troops to attack, and his reputation in Wales and in Labour circles never recovered.[72]
In early January 1911, Churchill made a controversial visit to the Siege of Sidney Street in London. There is some uncertainty as to whether he attempted to give operational commands, and his presence attracted much criticism. After an inquest, Arthur Balfour remarked, "he [Churchill] and a photographer were both risking valuable lives. I understand what the photographer was doing, but what was the right honourable gentleman doing?"[73] A biographer, Roy Jenkins, suggests that he went simply because "he could not resist going to see the fun himself" and that he did not issue commands.[74] Another account said the police had the miscreants – Latvian anarchists wanted for murder – surrounded in a house, but Churchill called in the Scots Guards from the Tower of London and, dressed in top hat and astrakhan collar greatcoat, directed operations. The house caught fire and Churchill prevented the fire brigade from dousing the flames so the men inside were burned to death. "I thought it better to let the house burn down rather than spend good British lives in rescuing those ferocious rascals."[75]
Churchill's proposed solution to the suffragette issue was a referendum on the issue, but this found no favour with Herbert Henry Asquith and women's suffrage remained unresolved until after the First World War.[76]
In 1911, Churchill was transferred to the office of the First Lord of the Admiralty, a post he held into the First World War. He gave impetus to several reform efforts, including development of naval aviation (he undertook flying lessons himself),[77] the construction of new and larger warships, the development of tanks, and the switch from coal to oil in the Royal Navy.[78]
First World War and the Post War Coalition[link]
On 5 October 1914, Churchill went to Antwerp, which the Belgian government proposed to evacuate. The Royal Marine Brigade was there and at Churchill's urgings the 1st and 2nd Naval Brigades were also committed. Antwerp fell on 10 October with the loss of 2500 men. At the time he was attacked for squandering resources.[79] It is more likely that his actions prolonged the resistance by a week (Belgium had proposed surrendering Antwerp on 3 October) and that this time saved Calais and Dunkirk.[80]
Churchill was involved with the development of the tank, which was financed from naval research funds.[81] He then headed the Landships Committee which was responsible for creating the first tank corps and, although a decade later development of the battle tank would be seen as a tactical victory, at the time it was seen as misappropriation of funds.[81] In 1915, he was one of the political and military engineers of the disastrous Gallipoli landings on the Dardanelles during the First World War.[82] He took much of the blame for the fiasco, and when Prime Minister Asquith formed an all-party coalition government, the Conservatives demanded his demotion as the price for entry.[83]
For several months Churchill served in the sinecure of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. However on 15 November 1915 he resigned from the government, feeling his energies were not being used[84] and, though remaining an MP, served for several months on the Western Front commanding the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers, with the rank of lieutenant colonel.[85][86] While in command he personally made 36 forays into no man's land, and his section of the front at Ploegsteert became one of the most active.[86] In March 1916, Churchill returned to England after he had become restless in France and wished to speak again in the House of Commons.[87] Future prime minister David Lloyd George acidly commented: "You will one day discover that the state of mind revealed in (your) letter is the reason why you do not win trust even where you command admiration. In every line of it, national interests are completely overshadowed by your personal concern."[88] In July 1917, Churchill was appointed Minister of Munitions, and in January 1919, Secretary of State for War and Secretary of State for Air. He was the main architect of the Ten Year Rule, a principle that allowed the Treasury to dominate and control strategic, foreign and financial policies under the assumption that "there would be no great European war for the next five or ten years".[89]
A major preoccupation of his tenure in the War Office was the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War. Churchill was a staunch advocate of foreign intervention, declaring that Bolshevism must be "strangled in its cradle".[90] He secured, from a divided and loosely organised Cabinet, intensification and prolongation of the British involvement beyond the wishes of any major group in Parliament or the nation—and in the face of the bitter hostility of Labour. In 1920, after the last British forces had been withdrawn, Churchill was instrumental in having arms sent to the Poles when they invaded Ukraine.He was also instrumental in having para-military forces (Black and Tans & Auxiliaries) intervene in the Anglo-Irish War.[91] He became Secretary of State for the Colonies in 1921 and was a signatory of the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, which established the Irish Free State. Churchill was involved in the lengthy negotiations of the treaty and to protect British maritime interests, he engineered part of the Irish Free State agreement to include three Treaty Ports—Queenstown (Cobh), Berehaven and Lough Swilly—which could be used as Atlantic bases by the Royal Navy.[92] In 1938, however, under the terms of the Chamberlain-De Valera Anglo-Irish Trade Agreement the bases were returned to the Irish Free State.
Churchill advocated the use of tear gas on Kurdish tribesmen in Iraq,[93] Though the British did consider the use of poison gas in putting down Kurdish rebellions, it was not used, as conventional bombing was considered effective.[94]
In 1923, he acted as a paid consultant for Burmah Oil (now BP plc) to lobby the British government to allow Burmah to have exclusive rights to Persian (Iranian) oil resources, which were successfully granted.[95]
Rejoining the Conservative Party—Chancellor of the Exchequer[link]
In September, the Conservative Party withdrew from the Coalition government following a meeting of backbenchers dissatisfied with the handling of the Chanak Crisis, a move that precipitated the looming October 1922 General Election. Churchill fell ill during the campaign, and had to have an appendicectomy. This made it difficult for him to campaign, and a further setback was the internal division that continued to beset the Liberal Party. He came only fourth in the poll for Dundee, losing to the prohibitionist Edwin Scrymgeour. Churchill later quipped that he left Dundee "without an office, without a seat, without a party and without an appendix".[64] He stood for the Liberals again in the 1923 general election, losing in Leicester, and then as an independent, first without success in a by-election in the Westminster Abbey constituency, and then successfully in the general election of 1924 for Epping. The following year, he formally rejoined the Conservative Party, commenting wryly that "anyone can rat, but it takes a certain ingenuity to re-rat."[64][96]
Churchill was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1924 under Stanley Baldwin and oversaw Britain's disastrous return to the Gold Standard, which resulted in deflation, unemployment, and the miners' strike that led to the General Strike of 1926.[97] His decision, announced in the 1924 Budget, came after long consultation with various economists including John Maynard Keynes, the Permanent Secretary to the Treasury, Sir Otto Niemeyer and the board of the Bank of England. This decision prompted Keynes to write The Economic Consequences of Mr. Churchill, arguing that the return to the gold standard at the pre-war parity in 1925 (£1=$4.86) would lead to a world depression. However, the decision was generally popular and seen as 'sound economics' although it was opposed by Lord Beaverbrook and the Federation of British Industries.[98]
Churchill later regarded this as the greatest mistake of his life. However in discussions at the time with former Chancellor McKenna, Churchill acknowledged that the return to the gold standard and the resulting 'dear money' policy was economically bad. In those discussions he maintained the policy as fundamentally political—a return to the pre-war conditions in which he believed.[99] In his speech on the Bill he said "I will tell you what it [the return to the Gold Standard] will shackle us to. It will shackle us to reality."[100]
The return to the pre-war exchange rate and to the Gold Standard depressed industries. The most affected was the coal industry. Already suffering from declining output as shipping switched to oil, as basic British industries like cotton came under more competition in export markets, the return to the pre-war exchange was estimated to add up to 10% in costs to the industry. In July 1925, a Commission of Inquiry reported generally favouring the miners, rather than the mine owners' position.[101] Baldwin, with Churchill's support proposed a subsidy to the industry while a Royal Commission prepared a further report.
That Commission solved nothing and the miners' dispute led to the General Strike of 1926, Churchill was reported to have suggested that machine guns be used on the striking miners. Churchill edited the Government's newspaper, the British Gazette, and, during the dispute, he argued that "either the country will break the General Strike, or the General Strike will break the country" and claimed that the fascism of Benito Mussolini had "rendered a service to the whole world," showing, as it had, "a way to combat subversive forces"—that is, he considered the regime to be a bulwark against the perceived threat of Communist revolution. At one point, Churchill went as far as to call Mussolini the "Roman genius... the greatest lawgiver among men."[102]
Later economists, as well as people at the time, also criticised Churchill's budget measures. These were seen as assisting the generally prosperous rentier banking and salaried classes (to which Churchill and his associates generally belonged) at the expense of manufacturers and exporters which were known then to be suffering from imports and from competition in traditional export markets,[103] and as paring the Armed Forces too heavily.[104]
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Political isolation[link]
The Conservative government was defeated in the 1929 General Election. Churchill did not seek election to the Conservative Business Committee, the official leadership of the Conservative MPs. Over the next two years, Churchill became estranged from the Conservative leadership over the issues of protective tariffs and Indian Home Rule and by his political views and by his friendships with press barons, financiers and people whose characters were seen as dubious. When Ramsay MacDonald formed the National Government in 1931, Churchill was not invited to join the Cabinet. He was at the low point in his career, in a period known as "the wilderness years".[105]
He spent much of the next few years concentrating on his writing, including Marlborough: His Life and Times—a biography of his ancestor John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough—and A History of the English Speaking Peoples (though the latter was not published until well after the Second World War),[105] Great Contemporaries and many newspaper articles and collections of speeches. He was one of the best paid writers of his time.[105] His political views, set forth in his 1930 Romanes Election and published as Parliamentary Government and the Economic Problem (republished in 1932 in his collection of essays "Thoughts and Adventures") involved abandoning universal suffrage, a return to a property franchise, proportional representation for the major cities and an economic 'sub parliament'.[106]
Indian independence[link]
See also: Simon Commission and Government of India Act 1935
Churchill opposed Gandhi's peaceful disobedience revolt and the Indian Independence movement in the 1930s, arguing that the Round Table Conference "was a frightful prospect".[107] Later reports indicate that Churchill favoured letting Gandhi die if he went on a hunger strike.[108] During the first half of the 1930s, Churchill was outspoken in his opposition to granting Dominion status to India. He was a founder of the India Defence League, a group dedicated to the preservation of British power in India. Churchill brooked no moderation. "The truth is," he declared in 1930, "that Gandhi-ism and everything it stands for will have to be grappled with and crushed."[109] In speeches and press articles in this period he forecast widespread unemployment in Britain and civil strife in India should independence be granted.[110] The Viceroy Lord Irwin, who had been appointed by the prior Conservative Government, engaged in the Round Table Conference in early 1931 and then announced the Government's policy that India should be granted Dominion Status. In this the Government was supported by the Liberal Party and, officially at least, by the Conservative Party. Churchill denounced the Round Table Conference.
At a meeting of the West Essex Conservative Association specially convened so Churchill could explain his position he said, "It is alarming and also nauseating to see Mr Gandhi, a seditious Middle Temple lawyer, now posing as a fakir of a type well-known in the East, striding half-naked up the steps of the Vice-regal palace... to parley on equal terms with the representative of the King-Emperor."[111][112] He called the Indian National Congress leaders "Brahmins who mouth and patter principles of Western Liberalism".[113]
Two incidents damaged Churchill's reputation greatly within the Conservative Party in this period. Both were taken as attacks on the Conservative front bench. The first was his speech on the eve of the St George by-election in April 1931. In a secure Conservative seat, the official Conservative candidate Duff Cooper was opposed by an independent Conservative. The independent was supported by Lord Rothermere, Lord Beaverbrook and their respective newspapers. Although arranged before the by-election was set,[114] Churchill's speech was seen as supporting the independent candidate and as a part of the press baron's campaign against Baldwin. Baldwin's position was strengthened when Duff Cooper won, and when the civil disobedience campaign in India ceased with the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. The second issue was a claim by Churchill that Sir Samuel Hoare and Lord Derby had pressured the Manchester Chamber of Commerce to change evidence it had given to the Joint Select Committee considering the Government of India Bill, and in doing so had breached Parliamentary privilege. He had the matter referred to the House of Commons Privilege Committee which after investigations, in which Churchill gave evidence, reported to the House that there had been no breach.[115] The report was debated on 13 June. Churchill was unable to find a single supporter in the House and the debate ended without a division.
Churchill permanently broke with Stanley Baldwin over Indian independence and never again held any office while Baldwin was prime minister. Some historians see his basic attitude to India as being set out in his book My Early Life (1930).[116] Another source of controversy about Churchill's attitude towards Indian affairs arises over what some historians term the Indian 'nationalist approach' to the Bengal famine of 1943, which has sought to place significant blame on Churchill's wartime government for the excessive mortality of up to three million people.[117][118][119] While some commentators point to the disruption of the traditional marketing system and maladministration at the provincial level,[120] Arthur Herman, author of Churchill and Gandhi, contends, 'The real cause was the fall of Burma to the Japanese, which cut off India's main supply of rice imports when domestic sources fell short...[though] it is true that Churchill opposed diverting food supplies and transports from other theatres to India to cover the shortfall: this was wartime.'[121] In response to an urgent request by the Secretary of State for India, Leo Amery, and Viceroy of India, Wavell, to release food stocks for India, Churchill responded with a telegram to Wavell asking, if food was so scarce, "why Gandhi hadn't died yet."[122] In July 1940, newly in office, he welcomed reports of the emerging conflict between the Muslim League and the Indian Congress, hoping "it would be bitter and bloody".[109]
German rearmament and conflicts in Europe, Asia and Africa[link]
Beginning in 1932, when he opposed those who advocated giving Germany the right to military parity with France, Churchill spoke often of the dangers of Germany's rearmament.[123] He later, particularly in The Gathering Storm, portrayed himself as being for a time, a lone voice calling on Britain to strengthen itself to counter the belligerence of Germany.[124] However Lord Lloyd was the first to so agitate.[125] Churchill's attitude toward the fascist dictators was ambiguous. In 1931, he warned against the League of Nations opposing the Japanese in Manchuria "I hope we shall try in England to understand the position of Japan, an ancient state.... On the one side they have the dark menace of Soviet Russia. On the other the chaos of China, four or five provinces of which are being tortured under Communist rule".[126] In contemporary newspaper articles he referred to the Spanish Republican government as a Communist front, and Franco's army as the "Anti-red movement".[127] He supported the Hoare-Laval Pact and continued up until 1937 to praise Benito Mussolini.[128]
Speaking in the House of Commons in 1937, Churchill said "I will not pretend that, if I had to choose between communism and Nazism, I would choose communism".[129] In a 1935 essay titled "Hitler and his Choice", which was republished in his 1937 book Great Contemporaries, Churchill expressed a hope that Hitler, if he so chose, and despite his rise to power through dictatorial action, hatred and cruelty, might yet "go down in history as the man who restored honour and peace of mind to the great Germanic nation and brought it back serene, helpful and strong to the forefront of the European family circle."[130] Churchill's first major speech on defence on 7 February 1934 stressed the need to rebuild the Royal Air Force and to create a Ministry of Defence; his second, on 13 July urged a renewed role for the League of Nations. These three topics remained his themes until early 1936. In 1935, he was one of the founding members of The Focus, which brought together people of differing political backgrounds and occupations who were united in seeking "the defence of freedom and peace".[131] The Focus led to the formation of the much wider Arms and the Covenant Movement in 1936.
Churchill was holidaying in Spain when the Germans reoccupied the Rhineland in February 1936, and returned to a divided Britain. The Labour opposition was adamant in opposing sanctions and the National Government was divided between advocates of economic sanctions and those who said that even these would lead to a humiliating backdown by Britain as France would not support any intervention.[132] Churchill's speech on 9 March was measured, and praised by Neville Chamberlain as constructive. But within weeks Churchill was passed over for the post of Minister for Co-ordination of Defence in favour of the Attorney General Sir Thomas Inskip.[133] Alan Taylor called this "an appointment rightly described as the most extraordinary since Caligula made his horse a consul".[134] In June 1936, Churchill organised a deputation of senior Conservatives who shared his concern to see Baldwin, Chamberlain and Halifax. He had tried to have delegates from the other two parties and later wrote, "If the leaders of the Labour and Liberal oppositions had come with us there might have been a political situation so intense as to enforce remedial action".[135] As it was the meeting achieved little, Baldwin arguing that the Government was doing all it could, given the anti-war feeling of the electorate.[citation needed]
On 12 November Churchill returned to the topic. Speaking in the Address in Reply debate, after giving some specific instances of Germany's war preparedness, he said "The Government simply cannot make up their mind or they cannot get the prime minister to make up his mind. So they go on in strange paradox, decided only to be undecided, resolved to be irresolute, adamant for drift, solid for fluidity, all powerful for impotency. And so we go on preparing more months more years precious perhaps vital for the greatness of Britain for the locusts to eat."[citation needed]
R. R. James called this one of Churchill's most brilliant speeches in this period, Baldwin's reply sounding weak and disturbing the House. The exchange gave new encouragement to the Arms and the Covenant Movement.[136]
Abdication crisis[link]
Main article: Edward VIII abdication crisis
In June 1936, Walter Monckton told Churchill that the rumours that King Edward VIII intended to marry Mrs Wallis Simpson were true. Churchill then advised against the marriage and said he regarded Mrs Simpson's existing marriage as a 'safeguard'.[137] In November, he declined Lord Salisbury's invitation to be part of a delegation of senior Conservative backbenchers who met with Baldwin to discuss the matter. On 25 November he, Attlee and Liberal leader Archibald Sinclair met with Baldwin, were told officially of the King's intention, and asked whether they would form an administration if Baldwin and the National Government resigned should the King not take the Ministry's advice. Both Attlee and Sinclair said they would not take office if invited to do so. Churchill's reply was that his attitude was a little different but he would support the government.[138]
The Abdication crisis became public, coming to a head in the first fortnight of December 1936. At this time Churchill publicly gave his support to the King. The first public meeting of the Arms and the Covenant Movement was on 3 December. Churchill was a major speaker and later wrote that in replying to the Vote of Thanks he made a declaration 'on the spur of the moment' asking for delay before any decision was made by either the King or his Cabinet.[139] Later that night Churchill saw the draft of the King's proposed wireless broadcast and spoke with Beaverbrook and the King's solicitor about it. On 4 December, he met with the King and again urged delay in any decision about abdication. On 5 December, he issued a lengthy statement implying that the Ministry was applying unconstitutional pressure on the King to force him to make a hasty decision.[140] On 7 December he tried to address the Commons to plead for delay. He was shouted down. Seemingly staggered by the unanimous hostility of all Members he left.[141]
Churchill's reputation in Parliament and England as a whole was badly damaged. Some such as Alistair Cooke saw him as trying to build a King's Party.[142] Others like Harold Macmillan were dismayed by the damage Churchill's support for the King had done to the Arms and the Covenant Movement.[143] Churchill himself later wrote "I was myself so smitten in public opinion that it was the almost universal view that my political life was at last ended."[144] Historians are divided about Churchill's motives in his support for Edward VIII. Some such as A J P Taylor see it as being an attempt to 'overthrow the government of feeble men'.[145] Others such as Rhode James see Churchill's motives as entirely honourable and disinterested, that he felt deeply for the King.[146]
Return from exile[link]
Churchill later sought to portray himself as (to some extent) an isolated voice warning of the need to rearm against Germany. While it is true that he had a small following in the House of Commons during much of the 1930s he was given privileged information by some elements within the Government, particularly by disaffected civil servants in the War Ministry. The "Churchill group" in the later half of the decade consisted only of himself, Duncan Sandys and Brendan Bracken. It was isolated from the other main factions within the Conservative Party pressing for faster rearmament and a stronger foreign policy.[147] Churchill continued to be consulted on many matters by the Government or seen as an alternative leader.[148]
Even during the time Churchill was campaigning against Indian independence, he received official and otherwise secret information. From 1932, Churchill's neighbour, Major Desmond Morton with Ramsay MacDonald's approval, gave Churchill information on German air power.[149] From 1930 onwards Morton headed a department of the Committee of Imperial Defence charged with researching the defence preparedness of other nations. Lord Swinton as Secretary of State for Air, and with Baldwin's approval, in 1934 gave Churchill access to official and otherwise secret information.
Swinton did so, knowing Churchill would remain a critic of the government, but believing that an informed critic was better than one relying on rumour and hearsay.[150] Churchill was a fierce critic of Neville Chamberlain's appeasement of Adolf Hitler[151] and in a speech to the House of Commons, he bluntly and prophetically stated, "You were given the choice between war and dishonour. You chose dishonour, and you will have war."[152]
First term as prime minister[link]
See also: Britain in World War II
"Winston is back"[link]
After the outbreak of the Second World War on 3 September 1939, the day Britain declared war on Germany, Churchill was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty and a member of the War Cabinet, as he had been during the first part of the First World War. When they were informed, the Board of the Admiralty sent a signal to the Fleet: "Winston is back".[153][154] In this job, he proved to be one of the highest-profile ministers during the so-called "Phoney War", when the only noticeable action was at sea. Churchill advocated the pre-emptive occupation of the neutral Norwegian iron-ore port of Narvik and the iron mines in Kiruna, Sweden, early in the war. However, Chamberlain and the rest of the War Cabinet disagreed, and the operation was delayed until the successful German invasion of Norway.
Bitter beginnings of the war[link]
On 10 May 1940, hours before the German invasion of France by a lightning advance through the Low Countries, it became clear that, following failure in Norway, the country had no confidence in Chamberlain's prosecution of the war and so Chamberlain resigned. The commonly accepted version of events states that Lord Halifax turned down the post of prime minister because he believed he could not govern effectively as a member of the House of Lords instead of the House of Commons. Although the prime minister does not traditionally advise the King on the former's successor, Chamberlain wanted someone who would command the support of all three major parties in the House of Commons. A meeting between Chamberlain, Halifax, Churchill and David Margesson, the government Chief Whip, led to the recommendation of Churchill, and, as a constitutional monarch, George VI asked Churchill to be prime minister. Churchill's first act was to write to Chamberlain to thank him for his support.[155]
Churchill had been among the first to recognise the growing threat of Hitler long before the outset of the Second World War, and his warnings had gone largely unheeded. Although there was an element of British public and political sentiment favouring negotiated peace with a clearly ascendant Germany, among them the Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax, Churchill nonetheless refused to consider an armistice with Hitler's Germany.[156] His use of rhetoric hardened public opinion against a peaceful resolution and prepared the British for a long war.[157] Coining the general term for the upcoming battle, Churchill stated in his "finest hour" speech to the House of Commons on 18 June 1940, "I expect that the Battle of Britain is about to begin."[158] By refusing an armistice with Germany, Churchill kept resistance alive in the British Empire and created the basis for the later Allied counter-attacks of 1942–45, with Britain serving as a platform for the supply of Soviet Union and the liberation of Western Europe.
In response to previous criticisms that there had been no clear single minister in charge of the prosecution of the war, Churchill created and took the additional position of Minister of Defence. He immediately put his friend and confidant, the industrialist and newspaper baron Lord Beaverbrook, in charge of aircraft production. It was Beaverbrook's business acumen that allowed Britain to quickly gear up aircraft production and engineering that eventually made the difference in the war.[159]
Churchill's speeches were a great inspiration to the embattled British. His first speech as prime minister was the famous "I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat". He followed that closely with two other equally famous ones, given just before the Battle of Britain. One included the words:
... we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender.[160]
The other:
Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties, and so bear ourselves, that if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will still say, 'This was their finest hour'.[161]
At the height of the Battle of Britain, his bracing survey of the situation included the memorable line "Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few", which engendered the enduring nickname The Few for the RAF fighter pilots who won it.[162] He first spoke these famous words upon his exit from No. 11 Group's underground bunker at RAF Uxbridge, now known as the Battle of Britain Bunker on 16 August 1940. One of his most memorable war speeches came on 10 November 1942 at the Lord Mayor's Luncheon at Mansion House in London, in response to the Allied victory at the Second Battle of El Alamein. Churchill stated:
This is not the end. It is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning.[163]
Without having much in the way of sustenance or good news to offer the British people, he took a risk in deliberately choosing to emphasise the dangers instead.
"Rhetorical power", wrote Churchill, "is neither wholly bestowed, nor wholly acquired, but cultivated." Not all were impressed by his oratory. Robert Menzies, prime minister of Australia and himself a gifted phrase-maker, said of Churchill during the Second World War: "His real tyrant is the glittering phrase so attractive to his mind that awkward facts have to give way."[164] Another associate wrote: "He is... the slave of the words which his mind forms about ideas.... And he can convince himself of almost every truth if it is once allowed thus to start on its wild career through his rhetorical machinery."[165]
Relations with the United States[link]
File:Winston Churchill 1941 photo by Yousuf Karsh.jpg
Churchill after his speech to the Parliament of Canada in December of 1941
Churchill's good relationship with Franklin D. Roosevelt secured vital food, oil and munitions via the North Atlantic shipping routes.[166] It was for this reason that Churchill was relieved when Roosevelt was re-elected in 1940. Upon re-election, Roosevelt immediately set about implementing a new method of providing military hardware and shipping to Britain without the need for monetary payment. Put simply, Roosevelt persuaded Congress that repayment for this immensely costly service would take the form of defending the US; and so Lend-lease was born. Churchill had 12 strategic conferences with Roosevelt which covered the Atlantic Charter, Europe first strategy, the Declaration by the United Nations and other war policies. After Pearl Harbor was attacked, Churchill's first thought in anticipation of US help was, "We have won the war!"[167] On 26 December 1941, Churchill addressed a joint meeting of the US Congress, asking of Germany and Japan, "What kind of people do they think we are?"[168] Churchill initiated the Special Operations Executive (SOE) under Hugh Dalton's Ministry of Economic Warfare, which established, conducted and fostered covert, subversive and partisan operations in occupied territories with notable success; and also the Commandos which established the pattern for most of the world's current Special Forces. The Russians referred to him as the "British Bulldog".
Churchill's health was fragile, as shown by a mild heart attack he suffered in December 1941 at the White House and also in December 1943 when he contracted pneumonia. Despite this, he travelled over 100,000 miles (160,000 km) throughout the war to meet other national leaders. For security, he usually travelled using the alias Colonel Warden.[169]
Churchill was party to treaties that would redraw post-Second World War European and Asian boundaries. These were discussed as early as 1943. At the Second Quebec Conference in 1944 he drafted and, together with US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, signed a toned-down version of the original Morgenthau Plan, in which they pledged to convert Germany after its unconditional surrender "into a country primarily agricultural and pastoral in its character."[170] Proposals for European boundaries and settlements were officially agreed to by Harry S. Truman, Churchill, and Joseph Stalin at Potsdam. Churchill's strong relationship with Harry Truman was also of great significance to both countries. While he clearly regretted the loss of his close friend and counterpart Roosevelt, Churchill was enormously supportive of Truman in his first days in office, calling him, "the type of leader the world needs when it needs him most."[171]
Relations with the Soviet Union[link]
When Hitler invaded the Soviet Union, Winston Churchill, a vehement anti-Communist, famously stated "If Hitler invaded Hell, I would at least make a favourable reference to the Devil in the House of Commons," regarding his policy toward Stalin.[172] Soon, British supplies and tanks were flowing to help the Soviet Union.[173]
A meeting of Allied powers held in Casablanca, Morocco, 14–23 January 1943, produced what was to be known as the “Casablanca Declaration.” In attendance were Churchill, Franklin Roosevelt and Charles de Gaulle. Joseph Stalin had bowed out, citing the need for his presence in the Soviet Union to attend to the Stalingrad crisis. It was in Casablanca that it was announced that the Allies would accept nothing less than “unconditional surrender” from the Axis powers.
The settlement concerning the borders of Poland, that is, the boundary between Poland and the Soviet Union and between Germany and Poland, was viewed as a betrayal in Poland during the post-war years, as it was established against the views of the Polish government in exile. It was Winston Churchill, who tried to motivate Mikołajczyk, who was prime minister of the Polish government in exile, to accept Stalin's wishes, but Mikołajczyk refused. Churchill was convinced that the only way to alleviate tensions between the two populations was the transfer of people, to match the national borders.
As he expounded in the House of Commons on 15 December 1944, "Expulsion is the method which, insofar as we have been able to see, will be the most satisfactory and lasting. There will be no mixture of populations to cause endless trouble... A clean sweep will be made. I am not alarmed by these transferences, which are more possible in modern conditions."[174][175] However the resulting expulsions of Germans were carried out in a way which resulted in much hardship and, according to a 1966 report by the West German Ministry of Refugees and Displaced Persons, the death of over 2.1 million. Churchill opposed the effective annexation of Poland by the Soviet Union and wrote bitterly about it in his books, but he was unable to prevent it at the conferences.[176]
During October 1944, he and Eden were in Moscow to meet with the Russian leadership. At this point, Russian forces were beginning to advance into various eastern European countries. Churchill held the view that until everything was formally and properly worked out at the Yalta conference, there had to be a temporary, war-time, working agreement with regard to who would run what.[177] The most significant of these meetings was held on 9 October 1944 in the Kremlin between Churchill and Stalin. During the meeting, Poland and the Balkan problems were discussed.[178] Churchill told Stalin:
Let us settle about our affairs in the Balkans. Your armies are in Rumania and Bulgaria. We have interests, missions, and agents there. Don't let us get at cross-purposes in small ways. So far as Britain and Russia are concerned, how would it do for you to have ninety per cent predominance in Rumania, for us to have ninety per cent of the say in Greece, and go fifty-fifty about Yugoslavia?[177]
Stalin agreed to this Percentages Agreement, ticking a piece of paper as he heard the translation. In 1958, five years after the account of this meeting was published (in The Second World War), authorities of the Soviet Union denied that Stalin accepted the "imperialist proposal".[178]
One of the conclusions of the Yalta Conference was that the Allies would return all Soviet citizens that found themselves in the Allied zone to the Soviet Union. This immediately affected the Soviet prisoners of war liberated by the Allies, but was also extended to all Eastern European refugees.[179] Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn called the Operation Keelhaul "the last secret of World War II."[180] The operation decided the fate of up to two million post-war refugees fleeing eastern Europe.[181]
Dresden bombings controversy[link]
Main article: Bombing of Dresden in the Second World War
Between 13–15 February 1945, British and US bombers attacked the German city of Dresden, which was crowded with German wounded and refugees.[182] Because of the cultural importance of the city, and of the number of civilian casualties close to the end of the war, this remains one of the most controversial Western Allied actions of the war. Following the bombing Churchill stated in a top secret telegram:
It seems to me that the moment has come when the question of bombing of German cities simply for the sake of increasing the terror, though under other pretexts, should be reviewed... I feel the need for more precise concentration upon military objectives such as oil and communications behind the immediate battle-zone, rather than on mere acts of terror and wanton destruction, however impressive.[183]
On reflection, under pressure from the Chiefs of Staff and in response to the views expressed by Sir Charles Portal (Chief of the Air Staff) and Sir Arthur Harris (AOC-in-C of RAF Bomber Command), among others, Churchill withdrew his memo and issued a new one.[184][185] This final version of the memo completed on 1 April 1945, stated:
It seems to me that the moment has come when the question of the so called 'area-bombing' of German cities should be reviewed from the point of view of our own interests. If we come into control of an entirely ruined land, there will be a great shortage of accommodation for ourselves and our allies... We must see to it that our attacks do no more harm to ourselves in the long run than they do to the enemy's war effort.[184][185]
Ultimately, responsibility for the British part of the attack lay with Churchill, which is why he has been criticised for allowing the bombings to occur. The German historian Jörg Friedrich claims that "Winston Churchill's decision to [area] bomb a shattered Germany between January and May 1945 was a war crime",[186] and writing in 2006 the philosopher A. C. Grayling questioned the whole strategic bombing campaign by the RAF, presenting the argument that although it was not a war crime it was a moral crime that undermines the Allies' contention that they fought a just war.[187] On the other hand, it has also been asserted that Churchill's involvement in the bombing of Dresden was based on the strategic and tactical aspects of winning the war. The destruction of Dresden, while immense, was designed to expedite the defeat of Germany. As the historian and journalist Max Hastings said in an article subtitled "the Allied Bombing of Dresden": "I believe it is wrong to describe strategic bombing as a war crime, for this might be held to suggest some moral equivalence with the deeds of the Nazis. Bombing represented a sincere, albeit mistaken, attempt to bring about Germany's military defeat." British historian Frederick Taylor asserts that "All sides bombed each other's cities during the war. Half a million Soviet citizens, for example, died from German bombing during the invasion and occupation of Russia. That's roughly equivalent to the number of German citizens who died from Allied raids. But the Allied bombing campaign was attached to military operations and ceased as soon as military operations ceased."[188]
The Second World War ends[link]
In June 1944, the Allied Forces invaded Normandy and pushed the Nazi forces back into Germany on a broad front over the coming year. After being attacked on three fronts by the Allies, and in spite of Allied failures, such as Operation Market Garden, and German counter-attacks, including the Battle of the Bulge, Germany was eventually defeated. On 7 May 1945 at the SHAEF headquarters in Rheims the Allies accepted Germany's surrender. On the same day in a BBC news flash John Snagge announced that 8 May would be Victory in Europe Day.[189] On Victory in Europe Day, Churchill broadcast to the nation that Germany had surrendered and that a final cease fire on all fronts in Europe would come into effect at one minute past midnight that night.[190][191] Afterwards, Churchill told a huge crowd in Whitehall: "This is your victory." The people shouted: "No, it is yours", and Churchill then conducted them in the singing of Land of Hope and Glory. In the evening he made another broadcast to the nation asserting the defeat of Japan in the coming months.[52] The Japanese later surrendered on 15 August 1945.
As Europe celebrated peace at the end of six years of war, Churchill was concerned with the possibility that the celebrations would soon be brutally interrupted.[192] He concluded that the UK and the US must anticipate the Red Army ignoring previously agreed frontiers and agreements in Europe, and prepare to "impose upon Russia the will of the United States and the British Empire."[193] According to the Operation Unthinkable plan ordered by Churchill and developed by the British Armed Forces, the Third World War could have started on 1 July 1945 with a sudden attack against the allied Soviet troops. The plan was rejected by the British Chiefs of Staff Committee as militarily unfeasible.
Leader of the opposition[link]
Main article: Later life of Winston Churchill
Although Churchill's role in the Second World War had generated much support for him amongst the British population, he was defeated in the 1945 election.[194] Many reasons for this have been given, key among them being that a desire for post-war reform was widespread amongst the population and that the man who had led Britain in war was not seen as the man to lead the nation in peace.[195] It was anticipated that Churchill would step down and hand over the leadership to Anthony Eden, who became his deputy after the election defeat, but Churchill (despite now being in his seventies) was determined to fight on as leader and Eden was too loyal to challenge his leadership. It would be another decade before Churchill finally did hand over the reins to Eden.[196]
For six years he was to serve as the Leader of the Opposition. During these years Churchill continued to have an impact on world affairs. During his 1946 trip[197] to the United States, Churchill famously lost a lot of money in a poker game with Harry Truman and his advisors.[198] (He also liked to play Bezique, which he learned while serving in the Boer War.)
During this trip he gave his Iron Curtain speech about the USSR and the creation of the Eastern Bloc. Speaking on 5 March 1946 at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, he declared:
From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an Iron Curtain has descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere.[199]
Churchill also argued strongly for British independence from the European Coal and Steel Community, which he saw as a Franco-German project. He saw Britain's place as separate from the continent, much more in-line with the countries of the Commonwealth and the Empire, and with the United States, the so-called Anglosphere.[200][201]
Churchill held the office of Deputy Lieutenant (DL) of Kent in 1949.[202]
Second term as prime minister[link]
Return to government and the decline of the British Empire[link]
After the General Election of 1951, Churchill again held the office of Minister of Defence between October 1951 and January 1952. He also became prime minister in October 1951, and his third government—after the wartime national government and the brief caretaker government of 1945—lasted until his resignation in April 1955. In domestic affairs, various reforms were introduced such as the Mines and Quarries Act of 1954 and the Housing Repairs and Rent Act of 1955. The former measure consolidated legislation dealing with the employment of young persons and women in mines and quarries, together with safety, health, and welfare. The latter measure extended previous housing Acts, and set out details in defining housing units as “unfit for human habitation.”[203] In addition, tax allowances were raised,[204] construction of council housing was accelerated, and pensions and national assistance benefits were increased.[205] Controversially, however, charges for prescription medicines were introduced.[206]
Housing was an issue the Conservatives were widely recognised to have made their own, after the Churchill government of the early 1950s, with Harold Macmillan as Minister for Housing, gave housing construction far higher political priority than it had received under the Attlee administration (where housing had been attached to the portfolio of Health Minister Aneurin Bevan, whose attention was concentrated on his responsibilities for the National Health Service). Macmillan had accepted Churchill's challenge to meet the latter's ambitious public commitment to build 300,000 new homes a year, and achieved the target a year ahead schedule.[citation needed]
Churchill's domestic priorities in his last government were overshadowed by a series of foreign policy crises, which were partly the result of the continued decline of British military and imperial prestige and power. Being a strong proponent of Britain as an international power, Churchill would often meet such moments with direct action. One example was his dispatch of British troops to Kenya to deal with the Mau Mau rebellion.[207] Trying to retain what he could of the Empire, he once stated that, "I will not preside over a dismemberment."[207]
War in Malaya[link]
This was followed by events which became known as the Malayan Emergency. In Malaya, a rebellion against British rule had been in progress since 1948.[208] Once again, Churchill's government inherited a crisis, and Churchill chose to use direct military action against those in rebellion while attempting to build an alliance with those who were not.[52][209] While the rebellion was slowly being defeated, it was equally clear that colonial rule from Britain was no longer sustainable.[208][210]
Relations with the United States[link]
Churchill also devoted much of his time in office to Anglo-American relations and, although Churchill did not always agree with President Dwight D. Eisenhower,[211] Churchill attempted to maintain the Special Relationship with the United States. He made four official transatlantic visits to America during his second term as prime minister.[212]
The series of strokes[link]
Churchill had suffered a mild stroke while on holiday in the south of France in the summer of 1949. In June 1953, when he was 78, Churchill suffered a more severe stroke at 10 Downing Street. News of this was kept from the public and from Parliament, who were told that Churchill was suffering from exhaustion. He went to his country home, Chartwell, to recuperate from the effects of the stroke which had affected his speech and ability to walk.[52] He returned to public life in October to make a speech at a Conservative Party conference at Margate.[52][213] However, aware that he was slowing down both physically and mentally, Churchill retired as prime minister in 1955 and was succeeded by Anthony Eden. He suffered another mild stroke in December 1956.
Retirement and death[link]
Elizabeth II offered to create Churchill Duke of London, but this was declined due to the objections of his son Randolph, who would have inherited the title on his father's death.[214] After leaving the premiership, Churchill spent less time in parliament until he stood down at the 1964 General Election. As a mere "back-bencher," Churchill spent most of his retirement at Chartwell and at his home in Hyde Park Gate, in London.[52]
In the 1959 General Election Churchill's majority fell by more than a thousand, since many young voters in his constituency did not support an 85-year-old who could only enter the House of Commons in a wheelchair. As his mental and physical faculties decayed, he began to lose the battle he had fought for so long against the "black dog" of depression.[52]
There was speculation that Churchill may have had Alzheimer's disease in his last years, although others maintain that his reduced mental capacity was merely the result of a series of strokes. In 1963, US President John F. Kennedy, acting under authorisation granted by an Act of Congress, proclaimed him an Honorary Citizen of the United States,[215] but he was unable to attend the White House ceremony.[216]
Despite poor health, Churchill still tried to remain active in public life, and on St George's Day 1964, sent a message of congratulations to the surviving veterans of the 1918 Zeebrugge Raid who were attending a service of commemoration in Deal, Kent, where two casualties of the raid were buried in the Hamilton Road Cemetery. On 15 January 1965, Churchill suffered a severe stroke that left him gravely ill. He died at his London home nine days later, at age 90, on the morning of Sunday 24 January 1965, 70 years to the day after his father's death.[216]
Funeral[link]
By decree of the Queen, his body lay in state for three days and a state funeral service was held at St Paul's Cathedral on 30 January 1965.[217] Unusually, the Queen attended the funeral.[218] As his lead-lined coffin passed up the River Thames from Tower Pier to Festival Pier on the MV Havengore, dockers lowered their crane jibs in a salute.[219]
The Royal Artillery fired the 19-gun salute due a head of government, and the RAF staged a fly-by of sixteen English Electric Lightning fighters. The coffin was then taken the short distance to Waterloo station where it was loaded onto a specially prepared and painted carriage as part of the funeral train for its rail journey to Handborough,[220] seven miles north-west of Oxford. The funeral also saw one of the largest assemblages of statesmen in the world.[1]
The funeral train of Pullman coaches carrying his family mourners was hauled by Battle of Britain class steam locomotive No. 34051 Winston Churchill. In the fields along the route, and at the stations through which the train passed, thousands stood in silence to pay their last respects. At Churchill's request, he was buried in the family plot at St Martin's Church, Bladon, near Woodstock, not far from his birthplace at Blenheim Palace. Churchill's funeral van—Southern Railway van S2464S—is now part of a preservation project with the Swanage Railway, having been repatriated to the UK in 2007 from the US, to where it had been exported in 1965.[221]
Later in 1965 a memorial to Churchill, cut by the engraver Reynolds Stone, was placed in Westminster Abbey.
Churchill as artist, historian, and writer[link]
Main articles: Winston Churchill as historian and Winston Churchill as writer
Winston Churchill was an accomplished artist and took great pleasure in painting, especially after his resignation as First Lord of the Admiralty in 1915.[222] He found a haven in art to overcome the spells of depression which he suffered throughout his life. As William Rees-Mogg has stated, "In his own life, he had to suffer the 'black dog' of depression. In his landscapes and still lives there is no sign of depression."[223] Churchill was persuaded and taught to paint by his artist friend, Paul Maze, whom he met during the First World War. Maze was a great influence on Churchill's painting and became a lifelong painting companion.[224]
Churchill is best known for his impressionist scenes of landscape, many of which were painted while on holiday in the South of France, Egypt or Morocco.[223] He continued his hobby throughout his life and painted hundreds of paintings, many of which are on show in the studio at Chartwell as well as private collections.[225] Most of his paintings are oil-based and feature landscapes, but he also did a number of interior scenes and portraits. In 1925 Lord Duveen, Kenneth Clark, and Oswald Birley selected his Winter Sunshine as the prize winner in a contest for anonymous amateur artists.[33]:46–47 Due to obvious time constraints, Churchill attempted only one painting during the Second World War. He completed the painting from the tower of the Villa Taylor in Marrakesh.[226]
Some of his paintings can today be seen in the Wendy and Emery Reves Collection at the Dallas Museum of Art. Emery Reves and Winston Churchill indeed were close friends[227] and Churchill often visited Emery and his wife in their villa in the South of France (villa La Pausa, originally built in 1927 for Gabrielle "Coco" Chanel). The villa was rebuilt within the museum in 1985 with a gallery of Churchill paintings and memorabilia.[228][229]
Despite his lifelong fame and upper-class origins, Churchill always struggled to keep his income at a level that would fund his extravagant lifestyle. MPs before 1946 received only a nominal salary (and in fact did not receive anything at all until the Parliament Act 1911) so many had secondary professions from which to earn a living.[230] From his first book in 1898 until his second stint as Prime Minister, Churchill's income was almost entirely made from writing books and opinion pieces for newspapers and magazines. The most famous of his newspaper articles are those that appeared in the Evening Standard from 1936 warning of the rise of Hitler and the danger of the policy of appeasement.
Churchill was also a prolific writer of books, writing a novel, two biographies, three volumes of memoirs, and several histories in addition to his many newspaper articles. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953 "for his mastery of historical and biographical description as well as for brilliant oratory in defending exalted human values".[231] Two of his most famous works, published after his first premiership brought his international fame to new heights, were his six-volume memoir The Second World War and A History of the English-Speaking Peoples; a four-volume history covering the period from Caesar's invasions of Britain (55 BC) to the beginning of the First World War (1914).[232]
He was also an amateur bricklayer, building garden walls and even a cottage at Chartwell. As part of this hobby he joined the Amalgamated Union of Building Trade Workers.[233]
Honours[link]
Main article: Honours of Winston Churchill
In addition to the honour of a state funeral, Churchill received a wide range of awards and other honours. For example, he was the first person to become an Honorary Citizen of the United States.[234]
In 1945, while Churchill was mentioned by Halvdan Koht as one of seven appropriate candidates for the Nobel Prize in Peace, the nomination went to Cordell Hull.[235]
Churchill received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953 for his numerous published works, especially his six-volume set The Second World War. In a 2002 BBC poll of the "100 Greatest Britons", he was proclaimed "The Greatest of Them All" based on approximately a million votes from BBC viewers.[236] Churchill was also rated as one of the most influential leaders in history by TIME.[237] Churchill College, Cambridge was founded in 1958 to memorialise him.
Honorary degrees[link]
- University of Rochester (LLD) in 1941[238]
- Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts (LLD) in 1943
- McGill University in Montreal, Canada (LLD) in 1944
- Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri 5 March 1946
- Leiden University in Leiden, Netherlands, honorary doctorate in 1946[239]
- University of Miami in Miami, Florida in 1947
- University of Copenhagen in Copenhagen, Denmark (PhD) in 1950
Ancestors[link]
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Portrayal in film and television[link]
Churchill has been portrayed in film and television on more than 100 occasions. Portrayals of Churchill include Dudley Field Malone (An American in Paris, 1951), Peter Sellers (The Man Who Never Was, 1956), Richard Burton (Winston Churchill: The Valiant Years, 1961), Simon Ward ("Young Winston", 1972), Warren Clarke (Jennie: Lady Randolph Churchill, 1974), Wensley Pithey (Edward and Mrs Simpson, 1978), William Hootkins (The Life and Times of David Lloyd George, 1981), Robert Hardy (War and Remembrance, 1989), Albert Finney ("The Gathering Storm", 2002), Ian Mune ("Ike: Countdown to D-Day", 2004), Rod Taylor (Inglourious Basterds, 2009), Brendan Gleeson (Into the Storm, 2009), Ian McNeice (Doctor Who "Victory of the Daleks", "The Pandorica Opens", and "The Wedding of River Song" in 2010 and 2011), and Timothy Spall (The King's Speech, 2010).[240]
See also[link]
- Cultural depictions of Winston Churchill
- List of people on the cover of Time Magazine: 1920s – 14 April 1923, 11 May 1925
- Politics of the United Kingdom
- Winston Churchill Memorial Trusts
References[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ a b Gould, Peter (8 April 2005). "Largest Assemblage of Statesmen at funeral since Churchill". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4421081.stm.
- ^ Darryl Lundy. "Rt. Hon. Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill". thePeerage.com. http://www.thepeerage.com/p10620.htm#i106196. Retrieved 20 December 2007.
- ^ Jenkins, pp. 1–20
- ^ Jenkins, p. 7
- ^ "Introduction to Civil Defence in Ireland – Background". Civil Defence College (Ireland). http://www.civildefence.ie/cdweb.nsf/documents/AEEB06284977F81C80256E8A003C631F. Retrieved 28 October 2011.
- ^ O’Farrell, Padraic (2000). Down Ratra Road: Fifty Years of Civil Defence in Ireland. Dublin: Stationery Office. ISBN 978-0-7076-6506-1.
- ^ Jenkins, p. 10
- ^ Jordan, Anthony (1995). Churchill: A Founder of Modern Ireland. Dublin: Westport Books. pp. 11–12. ISBN 978-0-9524447-0-1.
- ^ Prendeville, Tom (19 January 2012). "Secret history of the Phoenix Park". Irish Independent. http://www.independent.ie/lifestyle/secret-history-of-the-phoenix-park-2993645.html.
- ^ a b c "Sir Winston Churchill Biography". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/117269/Sir-Winston-Churchill.
- ^ a b c d Lt Churchill: 4th Queen's Own Hussars, The Churchill Centre. Retrieved 28 August 2009.
- ^ Jenkins, pp. 10–11
- ^ Haffner, p. 32
- ^ "Churchill's teeth sell for almost $24,000". http://www.thehistoryblog.com/archives/6954.
- ^ Oliver, Robert Tarbell (1987-10). Public speaking in the reshaping of.... Google books. ISBN 978-0-87413-315-8. http://books.google.com/?id=Fb3PKOd6A2cC&pg=PA162. Retrieved 12 April 2010.
- ^ "Personal Life". FAQ. The Churchill Centre. http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/reference/frequently-asked-questions-faq/personal-life. Retrieved 28 August 2009.
- ^ Jenkins, p. 73, quoting HW Massingham in the Daily News
- ^ Soames, Mary: Speaking for Themselves: The Personal Letters of Winston and Clementine Churchill. p. 1
- ^ Soames p. 6
- ^ Soames pp. 14–15
- ^ Soames p. 17
- ^ Edwards 1987, p.12
- ^ Soames pp. 18, 22, 25
- ^ Soames pp. 40, 44
- ^ Soames p. 105
- ^ Soames p. 217
- ^ Soames pp. 239, 241
- ^ Soames p. 262
- ^ Crowhurst, Richard (2006). "Chartwell: Churchill's House of Refuge". Moira Allen. http://www.timetravel-britain.com/06/Oct/chartwell.shtml. Retrieved 9 January 2008.
- ^ Jenkins, pp. 20–21
- ^ Jenkins, pp. 21–45
- ^ G. K. Lewis. "On the character and achievement of Sir Winston Churchill". The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, Vol 23, No. 2 May 1957 (May, 1957): 173–194.
- ^ a b Johnson, Paul (2009). Churchill. Viking. ISBN 978-1-101-14929-4.
- ^ Churchill, Winston S. 1951 The Second World War, Volume 5: Closing the Ring. Houghton Miffin Edition. Bantam Books, New York No ISBN or other number provided. p. 606. "Prime Minister to Foreign Secretary 5. Feb (19)44. Your minute about raising certain legations to the status of embassy. I must say that Cuba has as good a claim as some other places–'la perla de Las Antillas'. Great offence will be given if all the others have it and this large, rich, beautiful island, the home of the cigar, is denied. Surely Cuba has much more claim than Venezuela. You will make a bitter enemy if you leave them out, and after a bit you will be forced to give them what you have given to the others."
- ^ Jenkins p. 29
- ^ T. E. C. Jr. M.D. (5 November 1977). "Winston Churchill's Poignant Description of the Death of his Nanny". PEDIATRICS Vol. 60 No.: 752.
- ^ Jones, R. V. (1966). "Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill. 1874-1965". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 12: 34–26. DOI:10.1098/rsbm.1966.0003. edit
- ^ Sir Winston S. Churchill. "The Story Of The Malakand Field Force – An Episode of Frontier War". arthursclassicnovels.com. Archived from the original on 14 July 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070714183801/http://arthursclassicnovels.com/arthurs/churchill/mkdff10.html. Retrieved 17 March 2007.
- ^ a b "Two opposition views of Afghanistan: British activist and Dutch MP want to know why their countries are participating in a dangerous adventure". Spectrazine. 20 March 2006.
- ^ Churchill, Winston (October 2002). My Early Life. Eland Publishing Ltd. p. 143. ISBN 0-907871-62-3.
- ^ "Churchill On The Frontier – Mamund Valley III". UK Commentators. 11 December 2004.
- ^ Jenkins, pp. 29–31
- ^ "Youth: 1874–1900". Sir Winston Churchill. http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/biography/timelines/youth-1874-19006. Retrieved 28 August 2009. [dead link]
- ^ Jenkins, p. 40
- ^ Brighton, Terry, The Last Charge: the 21st Lancers and the Battle of Omdurman. Marlborough: Crowood, 1998. ISBN 1-86126-189-6
- ^ Jenkins, pp. 55–62
- ^ Jenkins, pp. 61–62
- ^ Jenkins, pp. 62–64
- ^ "FinestHour" (PDF). Journal of the Churchill Center and Societies, Summer 2005. Archived from the original on 27 April 2009. http://www.webcitation.org/5gLRyppkK. Retrieved 2 August 2007.
- ^ "FinestHour" (PDF). Journal of the Churchill Center and Societies, Summer 2005. http://www.winstonchurchill.org/images/finesthour/Vol.01%20No.127.pdf. Retrieved 28 August 2009. [dead link]
- ^ Jenkins, pp. 45–50
- ^ a b c d e f g h Gilbert, Martin (2001). Churchill: A Study in Greatness (one volume edition). London: Pimlico. ISBN 978-0-7126-6725-8.
- ^ Jenkins, p. 69
- ^ "Churchill's Commissions and Military Attachments, The Churchill Centre". Winstonchurchill.org. http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/reference/commissions-and-military-attachments. Retrieved 12 April 2010.
- ^ a b "Sir Winston Churchill: Biography: Chronological Summary, Churchill College". Chu.cam.ac.uk. 6 March 2009. http://www.chu.cam.ac.uk/archives/churchill_papers/biography/churchill_chronology.php. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ http://www.epmag.com/archives/digitalOilField/5911.htm
- ^ http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/winston_churchill.htm
- ^ Jenkins pp. 301–02
- ^ T Benn et al. (2001). "Churchill Remembered: Recollections by Tony Benn MP, Lord Carrington, Lord Deedes and Mary Soames". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 11 (11): 393–414 [404]. DOI:10.1017/S0080440101000202. JSTOR 3679430.
- ^ London Gazette: no. 27244. p. 6772. 6 November 1900. Retrieved 2012-05-31.
- ^ UK CPI inflation numbers based on data available from Lawrence H. Officer (2010) "What Were the UK Earnings and Prices Then?" MeasuringWorth.
- ^ Jenkins, pp. 74–76
- ^ Jenkins, p. 101
- ^ a b c Hall, Douglas J.. "Churchill's Elections". The Churchill Centre. http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/reference/churchills-elections. Retrieved 28 August 2009.
- ^ a b Toye, Richard (2007). Lloyd George and Churchill: Rivals for Greatness. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4050-4896-5.
- ^ Churchill, Randolph. Winston S. Churchill: Young Statesman. (c) 1967 C & T Publications: pp. 287–89
- ^ Jenkins, pp. 150–51
- ^ Jenkins, p. 152
- ^ Martin Gilbert, Churchill and Eugenics, 2009. online text
- ^ Jenkins, pp. 157–66
- ^ Jenkins, p. 161
- ^ Churchill, Randolph. Winston S. Churchill: Young Statesman. (c) 1967 C & T Publications pp. 359–65
- ^ Churchill, Randolph. Winston S. Churchill: Young Statesman. (c) 1967 C & T Publications: p. 395
- ^ Jenkins, p. 194
- ^ Campbell, Duncan (9 August 2011). "What next to tackle the riots? Curfew? Water cannon? The army?". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2011/aug/09/riots-curfew-water-cannon?INTCMP=SRCH. Retrieved 28 October 2011.
- ^ Jenkins, p. 186
- ^ Churchill took flying lessons, 1911, The Aerodrome.com
- ^ Naval innovation: from coal to oil, Erik J. Dahl, Joint Force Quarterly, 2000
- ^ The World Crisis (new edition), Odhams 1938, p. 323
- ^ Robert Rhode James. Churchill: A Study in Failure. Pelican, 1973, p. 80
- ^ a b "The First World War, The development of the Tank, sponsored by Winston Churchill". http://www.firstworldwar.com/weaponry/tanks.htm. Retrieved 16 December 2007.
- ^ Callwell, C.E. (2005). Dardanelles, a study of the strategical and certain tactical aspects of the Dardanelles campaign. London: Naval & Military Press Ltd. ISBN 978-1-84574-273-7.
- ^ Jenkins, pp. 282–88
- ^ Jenkins, p. 287
- ^ Jenkins, p. 301
- ^ a b "20th and early 21st Century – British Army Website". Army.mod.uk. http://www.army.mod.uk/infantry/regiments/4598.aspx. Retrieved 3 April 2011.
- ^ Jenkins, p. 309
- ^ "The greatest 20th century beneficiary of popular mythology has been the cad Churchill", Kevin Myers, Independent.ie
- ^ Ferris, John. Treasury Control, the Ten Year Rule and British Service Policies, 1919–1924. The Historical Journal, Vol. 30, No. 4. (Dec., 1987), pp. 859–83
- ^ Jeffrey Wallin with Juan Williams (4 September 2001). "Cover Story: Churchill's Greatness". Churchill Centre. Archived from the original on 16 December 2003. http://web.archive.org/web/20031216033237/http://www.winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageid=282. Retrieved 26 February 2007.
- ^ Anthony J. Jordan (April 1995). Churchill, a founder of modern Ireland. Westport Books. pp. 70–75. ISBN 978-0-9524447-0-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=OfmFAAAAIAAJ. Retrieved 21 September 2011.
- ^ Jenkins, pp. 361–65
- ^ See Jonathan Glancey Glancey, Jonathan (19 April 2003). "Gas, chemicals, bombs: Britain has used them all before in Iraq". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2003/apr/19/iraq.arts. Retrieved 3 February 2009. and Johann Hari "Our Infantile Search for Heroic Leaders". The Independent (London). 26 June 2008. http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/johann-hari/johann-hari-our-infantile-search-for-heroic-leaders-854278.html. Retrieved 3 February 2009.
- ^ Bhattacharya, Sutapas (1999). The oneness/otherness mystery. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 244. ISBN 978-81-208-1654-1. http://books.google.com/?id=_JnQWzQlMN8C&pg=RA4-PA244&dq=churchill+kurds+gas&q=churchill%20kurds%20gas.
- ^ "The greatest 20th century beneficiary of popular mythology has been the cad Churchill – Kevin Myers, Columnists". The Irish Independent. 3 September 2009. http://www.independent.ie/opinion/columnists/kevin-myers/the-greatest-20th-century-beneficiary-of-popular-mythology-has-been-the-cad-churchill-1876680.html. Retrieved 9 August 2011.
- ^ "Winston Churchill and Parliamentary Democracy". Churchill Society for the Advancement of Parliamentary Democracy. http://www.churchillsociety.org/CMS%20-%20Parliamentary%20Democracy.htm. Retrieved 4 May 2008.
- ^ Budget Blunders: Mr Churchill and the Gold Standard (1925), BBC News. Retrieved 2 12 2007.
- ^ James p. 207
- ^ James p. 206
- ^ "Speeches – Gold Standard Bill". The Churchill Centre. 4 May 1925. http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/speeches/speeches-of-winston-churchill/115-gold-standard-bill. Retrieved 28 August 2009.
- ^ Jenkins, p. 405
- ^ Picknett, Lynn, Prince, Clive, Prior, Stephen and Brydon, Robert (2002). War of the Windsors: A Century of Unconstitutional Monarchy, p. 78. Mainstream Publishing. ISBN 1-84018-631-3.
- ^ H Henderson The Interwar Years and other papers. Clarendon Press
- ^ James p 22 212
- ^ a b c Gilbert, Martin (2004). Winston Churchill: The Wilderness Years. London: Pimlico. ISBN 978-1-84413-418-2.
- ^ Books Written by Winston Churchill (see Amid these Storms), The Churchill Centre, 2007
- ^ 247 House of Commons Debates 5s col 755
- ^ "Churchill took hardline on Gandhi". BBC News. 1 January 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4573152.stm. Retrieved 12 April 2010.
- ^ a b Kevin Myers (6 August 2010). "Seventy years on and the soundtrack to the summer of 1940 is filling Britain's airwaves". The Irish Independent. http://www.independent.ie/opinion/columnists/kevin-myers/kevin-myers-seventy-years-on-and-the-soundtrack-to-the-summer-of-1940-is-filling-britains-airwaves-2286560.html. Retrieved 7 November 2010.
- ^ James, p. 260
- ^ Gilbert, Martin. Winston S. Churchill: The Prophet of Truth *1922–1939. (c) 1976 by C&T Publications, Ltd: p. 618
- ^ Guha, Ramachandra. "Churchill and Gandhi". http://www.hindu.com/mag/2005/06/19/stories/2005061900060300.htm.
- ^ speech on 18 March 1931 quoted in James, p. 254
- ^ James, p. 262
- ^ Rhode James, pp. 269–72
- ^ James, p. 258
- ^ Leonard A. Gordon, Review of Prosperity and Misery in Modern Bengal: The Famine of 1943–1944 by Greenough, Paul R., American Historical Review, Vol. 88, No. 4 (October 1983), p. 1051
- ^ JSTOR profile
- ^ Mukerjee, Madhusree. "History News Network | Because the Past is the Present, and the Future too". Hnn.us. http://www.hnn.us/articles/129891.html. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
- ^ Gordon, American Historical Review, p. 1051
- ^ "The Bengali Famine". Winstonchurchill.org. http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/in-the-media/churchill-in-the-news/575-the-bengali-famine. Retrieved 10 August 2009.
- ^ Exit Wounds, by Pankaj Mishra, The New Yorker, 13 August 2007.
- ^ James pp. 285–86
- ^ Picknett, et al., p. 75
- ^ Lord Lloyd and the decline of the British Empire J Charmley pp. 1, 2, 213ff
- ^ James p. 329 quoting Churchill's speech in the Commons
- ^ James p. 408
- ^ A J P Taylor Beaverbrook Hamish Hamilton 1972 p. 375
- ^ Richard Holmes (2005). In the footsteps of Churchill. Basic Books. p. 185. ISBN 978-0-465-03082-8. http://books.google.com/?id=Kyd945KSiQwC&pg=PA185&dq=%22I+would+choose+communism%22.
- ^ Churchill, Winston. Great Contemporaries. (c) 1937 GP Putnam Sons, Inc. New York, NY: p. 225
- ^ for a history of The Focus see E Spier Focus Wolff 1963
- ^ Harold Nicholson's letter to his wife on 13 March summed up the situation: "If we send an ultimatum to Germany she ought in all reason to climb down. But then she will not climb down and we shall have war.... The people of this country absolutely refuse to have a war. We would be faced with a general strike if we suggested such a thing. We shall therefore have to climb down ignominiously", Diaries and Letters 1930–1939 p. 249
- ^ James pp. 333–37
- ^ The Origins of the Second World War p. 153
- ^ The Gathering Storm p. 276
- ^ James p. 343
- ^ Frederick Smith, 2nd Earl of Birkenhead Walter Monckton Weidenfield and Nicholson 1969 p. 129
- ^ Middlemas K R and Barnes J Stanley Baldwin Weidenfield and Nicholson 1969 p. 999
- ^ The Gathering Storm pp. 170–71. Others including Citrine who chaired the meeting wrote that Churchill did not make such a speech. Citrine Men and Work Hutchinson 1964 p. 357
- ^ James pp. 349–51 where the text of the statement is given
- ^ Beaverbrook, Lord; Edited by A J P Taylor (1966). The Abdication of King Edward VIII. London: Hamish Hamilton.
- ^ Alistair Cook 'Edward VIII' in Six Men Bodley Head 1977
- ^ H Macmillan The Blast of War Macmillan 1970
- ^ The Gathering Storm p. 171
- ^ A J P Taylor English History (1914–1945) Hamish Hamilton 1961 p. 404
- ^ James p. 353
- ^ These factions were headed by Anthony Eden and Leo Amery Rhode James p. 428
- ^ he was so consulted and so regarded during the Abdication Crisis see footnotes above
- ^ James p. 302
- ^ Rhode James pp. 316–18
- ^ Picknett, et al., pp. 149–50
- ^ Current Biography 1942, p. 155
- ^ Churchill, Winston: "The Second World War" (abridged edition), p. 163. Pimlico, 2002. ISBN 0-7126-6702-4
- ^ Brendon, Piers. "The Churchill Papers: Biographical History". Churchill Archives Centre, Churchill College, Cambridge. http://www.chu.cam.ac.uk/archives/churchill_papers/biography/. Retrieved 26 February 2007.
- ^ Self, Robert (2006). Neville Chamberlain: A Biography, p. 431. Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-7546-5615-9.
- ^ Bungay 2000, p. 11
- ^ Jenkins, pp. 616–46
- ^ Jenkins, p. 621
- ^ Allen, Hubert Raymond. Who Won the Battle of Britain? London: Arthur Barker, 1974. ISBN 0-213-16489-2.
- ^ "We Shall Fight on the Beaches, 4 June 1940". Churchill Centre. http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/speeches/speeches-of-winston-churchill/128-we-shall-fight-on-the-beaches. Retrieved 20 December 2007.
- ^ "Their Finest Hour, 18 June 1940". Churchill Centre. http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/speeches/speeches-of-winston-churchill/122-their-finest-hour. Retrieved 20 December 2007.
- ^ Speech to the House of Commons on 20 August 1940
- ^ "Famous Quotations and Stories". Churchill Centre. http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/speeches/quotations. Retrieved 28 August 2009.
- ^ Menzies, Robert. "Menzies; 1941 War Diary – Churchill and the War Cabinet". Archived from the original on 28 December 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071228111033/http://www.oph.gov.au/menzies/churchillandthewarcabinet.htm. Retrieved 23 December 2007.
- ^ Denson, John (1997). The Costs of War: America's Pyrrhic Victories. New York: Prentice Hall, Inc.. p. 259. ISBN 1-56000-319-7.
- ^ John Lucaks[dead link] "Churchill Offers Toil and Tears to FDR," American Heritage, Spring/Summer 2008
- ^ Stokesbury, James L. (1980). A Short History of WWII. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc.. p. 171. ISBN 0-688-03587-6.
- ^ Prime Minister Winston Churchill's Address to the Congress of the United States 1941, IBiblio.org
- ^ Pawle, Gerald (1963). "Flight to Cairo". The War and Colonel Warden. George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd. ISBN 0-85617-637-0. http://books.google.com/?id=1Ok4AAAAIAAJ&q=colonel+warden&dq=colonel+warden. "Colonel Warden was his favourite pseudonym"
- ^ Michael R. Beschloss, (2002) The Conquerors: p. 131
- ^ Jenkins, p. 849
- ^ "The Churchill Papers: Biography". Chu.cam.ac.uk. http://www.chu.cam.ac.uk/archives/collections/churchill_papers/biography/. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ Stokesbury, James L. (1980). A Short History of WWII. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc.. p. 159. ISBN 0-688-03587-6.
- ^ Clare Murphy WWII expulsions spectre lives on BBC.co.uk 2 August 2004
- ^ De Zayas, Alfred M. (1979) Nemesis at Potsdam: The Anglo-Americans and the Expulsion of the Germans, Routledge ISBN 0-7100-0458-3. Chapter I, p. 1 citing Churchill, Parliamentary Debates, House of Commons, vol. 406, col. 1484
- ^ Jenkins, pp. 759–63
- ^ a b Churchill, Winston (1989). The Second World War. London: Penguin. p. 852. ISBN 0-14-012836-0.
- ^ a b Resis, Albert. The Churchill-Stalin Secret "Percentages" Agreement on the Balkans, Moscow, October 1944. The American Historical Review, Vol. 83, No. 2. (Apr. 1978), pp. 368–87 in JSTOR
- ^ A Footnote to Yalta by Jeremy Murray-Brown, Documentary at Boston University
- ^ Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr I. The Gulag Archipelago, vol. 1. Translated by Thomas P. Whitney. New York: Harper and Row, 1974, p. 85
- ^ Jacob Hornberger Repatriation—The Dark Side of World War II. The Future of Freedom Foundation, 1995. fff.org
- ^ Taylor, Frederick; Dresden: Tuesday, 13 February 1945; US Review[dead link], New York:HarperCollins, ISBN 0-06-000676-5; UK Review, London: Bloomsbury, ISBN 0-7475-7078-7. pp. 262–64[dead link] There were an unknown number of refugees in Dresden, so the historians Matthias Neutzner, Götz Bergander and Frederick Taylor have used historical sources and deductive reasoning to estimate that the number of refugees in the city and surrounding suburbs was around 200,000 or less on the first night of the bombing.
- ^ After the devastation of Dresden by aerial bombing, and the resulting fire storm (February 1945); quoted in Where the Right Went Wrong (2004) by Patrick J. Buchanan, p. 119
- ^ a b Longmate, Norman (1983). "The Bombers", Hutchins & Co. p. 346. Harris quote as source: Public Records Office ATH/DO/4B quoted by Lord Zuckerman "From Apes to Warlords" p. 352
- ^ a b *Taylor, Frederick (2004). Dresden: Tuesday, 13 February 1945, London: Bloomsbury, ISBN 0-7475-7078-7; pp. 432–33
- ^ Luke Harding German historian provokes row over war photos in The Guardian, 21 October 2003
- ^ Grayling, A.C. (2006). Among the Dead Cities. New York: Walker Publishing Company Inc.. ISBN 0-8027-1471-4. pp. 237–38
- ^ Charles Hawley. "Dresden Bombing Is To Be Regretted Enormously", Der Spiegel online, 11 February 2005
- ^ coming home BBC Four, 9am to 9.45 am, 9–13 May 2005.
- ^ On this day 8 May 1945 BBC. Retrieved 26 December 2007.
- ^ The UK was on double summer time which was 1 hour in front of 2301 hours CET that the surrender document specified (RAF Site Diary 7/8 May).
- ^ The secret strategy to launch attack on Red Army[dead link]. Bob Fenton. Telegraph, Issue 1124. 1 October 1998.
- ^ British War Cabinet, Joint Planning Staff, Public Record Office, CAB 120/691/109040 / 002 (11 August 1945). "Operation Unthinkable: 'Russia: Threat to Western Civilization'" (online photocopy). Department of History, Northeastern University. Archived from the original on 6 July 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080706093010/http://www.history.neu.edu/PRO2/. Retrieved 28 June 2008.
- ^ Picknett, et al., p. 190
- ^ Jenkins, pp. 789–94
- ^ "WWII Behind Closed Doors: Stalin, the Nazis and the West . Biographies . Anthony Eden". PBS. http://www.pbs.org/behindcloseddoors/biographies/eden.html. Retrieved 9 August 2011.
- ^ Churchill On Vacation, 1946/01/21 (1946). Universal Newsreel. 1946. http://www.archive.org/details/1946-01-21_Churchill_On_Vacation. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
- ^ Interview: Clark Clifford. Retrieved 23 March 2009.
- ^ Churchill, Winston. "Sinews of Peace (Iron Curtain)". Churchill Centre. http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/speeches/speeches-of-winston-churchill/120-the-sinews-of-peace. Retrieved 26 February 2007.
- ^ Jenkins, p. 810 and pp. 819–14
- ^ "Remembrance Day 2003". Churchill Society London. http://www.churchill-society-london.org.uk. Retrieved 25 April 2007.
- ^ Biography Rt. Hon. Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill – website thePeerage.com
- ^ Poverty, inequality and health in Britain, 1800–2000: a reader edited by George Davey Smith, Daniel Dorling, Mary Shaw, P.LXXIX
- ^ "Speak for Britain!: A New History of the Labour Party - Martin Pugh - Google Books". Books.google.co.uk. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=69EJz1ewsLIC&pg=PA306&dq=martin+pugh+rab+butler+tax+allowances&hl=en&sa=X&ei=aUxJT6GnLuPQ0QXzitWjDg&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 2012-05-07.
- ^ "OCR A Level History B: The End of Consensus: Britain 1945-90 - Pearson Education - Google Books". Books.google.co.uk. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2XEZbswz2JIC&pg=PA1952&dq=Churchill+1951-55+government+expanded+national+assistance&hl=en&sa=X&ei=3iVIT6DiNJOR8gOdtO2aDg&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Churchill%201951-55%20government%20expanded%20national%20assistance&f=false. Retrieved 2012-05-07.
- ^ "The Textbook of Pharmaceutical Medicine - John P. Griffin - Google Books". Books.google.co.uk. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=JeXT0dW6kr4C&pg=PA676&dq=UK+prescription+charges+medicines+introduced+1952&hl=en&sa=X&ei=CkhJT6KFGsGi0QWPs9n8DQ&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=UK%20prescription%20charges%20medicines%20introduced%201952&f=false. Retrieved 2012-05-07.
- ^ a b Jenkins pp. 843–61
- ^ a b Harper, T.N. (2001). The End of Empire and the Making of Malaya. London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-00465-7.
- ^ Stubbs, Richard (2001). Hearts and Minds in Guerilla Warfare: The Malayan Emergency 1948–1960. New York: Eastern University. 981210352X.
- ^ Ferguson, Niall (2000). Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World. London: Penguin Books Ltd. ISBN 978-0-14-100754-0.
- ^ Robert Blake; William Roger Louis (1993). Churchill. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 405. ISBN 978-0-393-03409-7. http://books.google.com/?id=pVEWPfBLNxkC&pg=PA405.
- ^ Jenkins p. 847
- ^ Jenkins, pp. 868–71
- ^ Rasor, p. 205
- ^ "Winston Churchill". Pub.L. 86-6. U.S. Senate. 9 April 1963. http://www.senate.gov/reference/resources/pdf/pl8806.pdf. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
- ^ a b Jenkins, p. 911
- ^ Picknett, et al., p. 252
- ^ Remembering Winston Churchill: The State Funeral of Sir Winston Churchill, part 2, BBC Archive, accessed 5 March 2011
- ^ "Winston Churchill (1874–1965)". PortCities London. http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConFactFile.29/Winston-Churchill.html. Retrieved 12 January 2008.
- ^ Winston Churchill's funeral van project Swanage Railway News 2006
- ^ Winston Churchill's funeral van denied Lottery funding Swanage Railway News 2008
- ^ Jenkins p. 279
- ^ a b ReesMogg, William (22 May 2007). "Portrait of the artist with his black dog". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/william_rees_mogg/article1824692.ece. Retrieved 6 March 2008.
- ^ "Paul Maze Biography". Albanyfineart.co.uk. http://www.albanyfineart.co.uk/maze/biog.html. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
- ^ Lady Soames. "Winston Churchill the Painter". http://winstonchurchill.org/i4a/pages/index.cfm?pageID=576. Retrieved 9 January 2008. [dead link]
- ^ Churchill, Winston S., "The Hinge of Fate". New York: Houghton Mifflin Company 1950 p. 622
- ^ "Churchill and Reves". Winstonchurchill.org. http://www.winstonchurchill.org/support/the-churchill-centre/publications/chartwell-bulletin/28-oct-2010/988-churchill-and-reves. Retrieved 7 November 2010.
- ^ "25th Anniversary of Reves Collection at the Dallas Museum of Art". Dallas Art News. http://www.dallasartnews.com/2010/10/dallas-museum-of-art-celebrates-the-25th-anniversary-of-the-wendy-and-emery-reves-collection/. Retrieved 7 November 2010.
- ^ Mohr, Philip. "Reves Collection Inventory". The Emery and Wendy Reves Memorial Collection, Winston Churchill Memorial and Library in the United States, Westminster College. http://www.churchillmemorial.org/resources/Documents/RevesCollectionInventory.pdf. Retrieved 28 October 2011.
- ^ "FAQ about Parliament". Parliament.uk. http://www.parliament.uk/faq/members_faq_page2.cfm. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ "Official Nobel Page". Nobelprize.org. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1953/. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ Jenkins, pp. 819–23 and pp. 525–26
- ^ Radio Times, 2011-3-12, pp. 130–131
- ^ Russell, Douglas (2002). The Orders, Decorations and Medals of Sir Winston Churchill. Churchill Centre.
- ^ "Record from The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Peace, 1901–1956". Nobel Foundation. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/nomination/nomination.php?action=show&showid=3319. Retrieved 8 June 2010.
- ^ "Poll of the 100 Greatest Britons". BBC. Archived from the original on 14 May 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060514084331/www.bbc.co.uk/history/programmes/greatbritons.shtml. Retrieved 22 December 2007.
- ^ "The Most Influential People of the 20th Century". Time Magazine. Archived from the original on 15 December 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071215051008/http://www.time.com/time/time100/time100poll.html. Retrieved 22 December 2007.
- ^ "The Birth Throes of a Sublime Resolve". The Churchill Centre. http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/speeches/speeches-of-winston-churchill/568-the-birth-throes-of-a-sublime-resolve-the-old-lion-. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ Leiden University Honorary Doctrates
- ^ IMDb.com
Primary sources[link]
- Churchill, Winston. The World Crisis. 6 vols. (1923–31); one-vol. ed. (2005). [On World War I.]
- –––. The Second World War. 6 vols. (1948–53)
- Coombs, David, ed., with Minnie Churchill. Sir Winston Churchill: His Life through His Paintings. Fwd. by Mary Soames. Pegasus, 2003. ISBN 0-7624-2731-0. [Other editions entitled Sir Winston Churchill's Life and His Paintings and Sir Winston Churchill: His Life and His Paintings. Includes illustrations of approx. 500–534 paintings by Churchill.]
- Edwards, Ron. Eastcote: From Village to Suburb (1987). Uxbridge: London Borough of Hillingdon ISBN 0-907869-09-2
- Gilbert, Martin. In Search of Churchill: A Historian's Journey (1994). [Memoir about editing the following multi-volume work.]
- –––, ed. Winston S. Churchill. An 8 volume biography begun by Randolph Churchill, supported by 15 companion vols. of official and unofficial documents relating to Churchill. 1966–
- I. Youth, 1874–1900 (2 vols., 1966);
- II. Young Statesman, 1901–1914 (3 vols., 1967);
- III. The Challenge of War, 1914–1916 (3 vols., 1973). ISBN 0-395-16974-7 (10) and ISBN 978-0-395-16974-2 (13);
- IV. The Stricken World, 1916–1922 (2 vols., 1975);
- V. The Prophet of Truth, 1923–1939 (3 vols., 1977);
- VI. Finest Hour, 1939–1941: The Churchill War Papers (2 vols., 1983);
- VII. Road to Victory, 1941–1945 (4 vols., 1986);
- VIII. Never Despair, 1945–1965 (3 vols., 1988).
- James, Robert Rhodes, ed. Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, 1897–1963. 8 vols. London: Chelsea, 1974.
- Knowles, Elizabeth. The Oxford Dictionary of Twentieth Century Quotations. Oxford, Eng.: Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-19-860103-4. ISBN 978-0-19-860103-6. ISBN 0-19-866250-5. ISBN 978-0-19-866250-1.
- Loewenheim, Francis L. and Harold D. Langley, eds; Roosevelt and Churchill: Their Secret Wartime Correspondence (1975).
Secondary sources[link]
- Beschloss, Michael R. (2002). The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman and the Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941–1945. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-81027-0. OCLC 50315054.
- Best, Geoffrey (2003) [First published 2001]. Churchill: A Study in Greatness. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1-85285-253-5. OCLC 50339762.
- Blake, Robert (1997). Winston Churchill. Pocket Biographies. Stroud: Sutton Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7509-1507-6. OCLC 59586004.
- Blake, Robert; Louis, William Roger, eds. (1992). Churchill: A Major New Reassessment of His Life in Peace and War. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-282317-5. OCLC 30029512.
- Browne, Anthony Montague (1995). Long sunset : memoirs of Winston Churchill's last private secretary. London: Cassell. ISBN 978-0-304-34478-9. OCLC 32547047.
- Charmley, John (1993). Churchill, The End of Glory: A Political Biography. London: Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 978-0-15-117881-0. OCLC 440131865.
- Charmley, John (1996). Churchill's Grand Alliance: The Anglo-American Special Relationship 1940–57. London: Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 978-0-340-59760-6. OCLC 247165348.
- Davis, Richard Harding. Real Soldiers of Fortune (1906). Early biography. Project Gutenberg etext, wikisource here "Real Soldiers of Fortune/Chapter 3 – Wikisource". En.wikisource.org. 20 October 2007. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Real_Soldiers_of_Fortune/Chapter_3. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- D'Este, Carlo (2008). Warlord : a life of Winston Churchill at war, 1874–1945 (1st ed.). New York: Harper. ISBN 978-0-06-057573-1. http://lccn.loc.gov/2008009272. Retrieved 26 November 2008.
- Gilbert, Martin. Churchill: A Life (1992). ISBN 0-8050-2396-8. [One-volume version of 8-volume biography.]
- Haffner, Sebastian. Winston Churchill (1967).
- Hastings, Max. Finest Years: Churchill as Warlord, 1940–45. London, HarperPress, 2009. ISBN 978-0-00-726367-7
- Hennessy, P. Prime minister: the office and its holders since 1945 (2001).
- Hitchens, Christopher. "The Medals of His Defeats", The Atlantic Monthly (April 2002).
- James, Robert Rhodes. Churchill: A Study in Failure, 1900–1939 (1970).
- Jenkins, Roy. Churchill: A Biography (2001).
- Jordan Anthony J. 'Churchill – A Founder of Modern Ireland' Westport Books 1995. ISBN 978-0-9524447-0-1.
- Kersaudy, François. Churchill and De Gaulle (1981). ISBN 0-00-216328-4.
- Krockow, Christian. Churchill: Man of the Century. [1900–1999]. ISBN 1-902809-43-2.
- Lukacs, John. Churchill : Visionary, Statesman, Historian. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002.
- Manchester, William. The Last Lion: Winston Spencer Churchill: Alone, 1932–1940 (1988). ISBN 0-316-54512-0.
- –––. The Last Lion: Winston Spencer Churchill: Defender of the Realm, 1940-1965 (2010).
- –––. The Last Lion: Winston Spencer Churchill: Visions of Glory, 1874–1932 (1983). ISBN 0-316-54503-1.
- Massie, Robert. Dreadnought: Britain, Germany and the Coming of the Great War. ISBN 1-84413-528-4). [Chapters 40–41 concern Churchill at Admiralty.]
- Pelling, Henry. Winston Churchill (1974). ISBN 1-84022-218-2. [Comprehensive biography.]
- Rasor, Eugene L. Winston S. Churchill, 1874–1965: A Comprehensive Historiography and Annotated Bibliography. Greenwood Press, 2000. ISBN 0-313-30546-3 [Entries include several thousand books and scholarly articles.]
- Soames, Mary, ed. Speaking for Themselves: The Personal Letters of Winston and Clementine Churchill (1998).
- Stansky, Peter, ed. Churchill: A Profile (1973) [Perspectives on Churchill by leading scholars]
- Storr, Anthony. Churchill's Black Dog and Other Phenomena of the Human Mind. HarperCollins Publishers Ltd. New Edition ed., 1997. ISBN 978-0-00-637566-1
- Toye, Richard. Churchill's Empire: The World that Made Him and the World He Made. Macmillan. 2010. ISBN 978-0-230-70384-1
External links[link]
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- Works by Winston Churchill at Project Gutenberg
- Winston Churchill Memorial and Library at Westminster College, Missouri
- Churchill College Biography of Winston Churchill
- FBI files on Winston Churchill
- The Real Churchill (critical) and a rebuttal
- A Rebuttal to "The Real Churchill"
- Online bibliography of books on Churchill
- Online gallery of Churchill's numerous oil paintings
- Archival material relating to Winston Churchill listed at the UK National Register of Archives
- Collected Churchill Podcasts and speeches
- The Churchill Centre website
- Churchill and the Great Republic Exhibition explores Churchill's relationship with the US
- War Cabinet Minutes (1942), (1942–43), (1945–46), (1946)
- Locations of correspondence and papers of Churchill at The National Archives of the UK
- The History Channel: Winston Churchill
- EarthStation1: Winston Churchill Speech Audio Archive
- Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by Winston Churchill
- Imperial War Museum: Churchill War Rooms. Comprising the original underground War Rooms preserved since 1945, including the Cabinet Room, the Map Room and Churchill's bedroom, and the new Museum dedicated to Churchill's life.
- Portraits of Winston Churchill at the National Portrait Gallery, London
| Political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by The Duke of Marlborough |
Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies 1905–1908 |
Succeeded by Jack Seely |
| Preceded by David Lloyd George |
President of the Board of Trade 1908–1910 |
Succeeded by Sydney Buxton |
| Preceded by Herbert Gladstone |
Home Secretary 1910–1911 |
Succeeded by Reginald McKenna |
| Preceded by Reginald McKenna |
First Lord of the Admiralty 1911–1915 |
Succeeded by Arthur Balfour |
| Preceded by Edwin Samuel Montagu |
Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster 1915 |
Succeeded by Herbert Samuel |
| Preceded by Christopher Addison |
Minister of Munitions 1917–1919 |
Succeeded by The Lord Inverforth |
| Preceded by The Viscount Milner |
Secretary of State for War 1919–1921 |
Succeeded by Sir Laming Worthington-Evans |
| Preceded by The Lord Weir |
Secretary of State for Air 1919–1921 |
Succeeded by Frederick Edward Guest |
| Preceded by The Viscount Milner |
Secretary of State for the Colonies 1921–1922 |
Succeeded by The Duke of Devonshire |
| Preceded by Philip Snowden |
Chancellor of the Exchequer 1924–1929 |
Succeeded by Philip Snowden |
| Preceded by The Earl Stanhope |
First Lord of the Admiralty 1939–1940 |
Succeeded by A. V. Alexander |
| Preceded by Neville Chamberlain |
Leader of the House of Commons 1940–1942 |
Succeeded by Sir Stafford Cripps |
| Prime Minister of the United Kingdom 10 May 1940 – 27 July 1945 |
Succeeded by Clement Attlee |
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| New title | Minister of Defence 1940–1945 |
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| Preceded by Clement Attlee |
Leader of the Opposition 1945–1951 |
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| Prime Minister of the United Kingdom 26 October 1951 – 7 April 1955 |
Succeeded by Sir Anthony Eden |
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| Preceded by Emanuel Shinwell |
Minister of Defence 1951–1952 |
Succeeded by The Earl Alexander of Tunis |
| Parliament of the United Kingdom | ||
| Preceded by Walter Runciman Alfred Emmott |
Member of Parliament for Oldham with Alfred Emmott 1900–1906 |
Succeeded by John Bright Alfred Emmott |
| Preceded by Sir William Houldsworth |
Member of Parliament for Manchester North West 1906–1908 |
Succeeded by William Joynson-Hicks |
| Preceded by Alexander Wilkie Edmund Robertson |
Member of Parliament for Dundee with Alexander Wilkie 1908–1922 |
Succeeded by Edmund Morel Edwin Scrymgeour |
| Preceded by Sir Leonard Lyle |
Member of Parliament for Epping 1924–1945 |
Succeeded by Leah Manning |
| New constituency | Member of Parliament for Woodford 1945–1964 |
Succeeded by Patrick Jenkin |
| Military offices | ||
| Preceded by J H Dutton |
Officer Commanding the 6th Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers 1915–1916 |
Succeeded by A D Gibb |
| Party political offices | ||
| Preceded by Neville Chamberlain |
Leader of the British Conservative Party 1940–1955 |
Succeeded by Sir Anthony Eden |
| Academic offices | ||
| Unknown
Last known title holder:
Herbert Henry Asquith |
Rector of the University of Aberdeen 1914–1918 |
Succeeded by The Viscount Cowdray |
| Preceded by Sir John Gilmour |
Rector of the University of Edinburgh 1929–1932 |
Succeeded by Ian Standish Monteith Hamilton |
| Preceded by The Viscount Haldane |
Chancellor of the University of Bristol 1929–1965 |
Succeeded by The Duke of Beaufort |
| Honorary titles | ||
| Preceded by The Marquess of Willingdon |
Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports 1941–1965 |
Succeeded by Sir Robert Menzies |
| Preceded by David Grenfell |
Father of the House 1959–1964 |
Succeeded by Rab Butler |
| Preceded by David Logan |
Oldest sitting Member of Parliament February 1964 – October 1964 |
Succeeded by Manny Shinwell |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Churchill, Winston |
| Alternative names | Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill, The Rt Hon. Sir Winston Churchill |
| Short description | English statesman and author, best known as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom |
| Date of birth | 30 November 1874 |
| Place of birth | Blenheim Palace, Woodstock, Oxfordshire, England, United Kingdom |
| Date of death | 24 January 1965 |
| Place of death | Hyde Park Gate, London, England, United Kingdom |
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Clement Richard Attlee, 1st Earl Attlee, KG, OM, CH, PC, FRS (3 January 1883 – 8 October 1967) was a British Labour politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951, and as the Leader of the Labour Party from 1935 to 1955. He was also the first person to hold the office of Deputy Prime Minister, under Winston Churchill in the wartime coalition government, before leading the Labour Party to a landslide election victory over Churchill's Conservative Party in 1945. He was the first Labour Prime Minister to serve a full Parliamentary term, and the first to command a Labour majority in Parliament.
The government he led put in place the post-war settlement, based upon the assumption that full employment would be maintained by Keynesian policies, and that a greatly enlarged system of social services would be created – aspirations that had been outlined in the wartime Beveridge Report. Within this context, his government undertook the nationalisation of major industries and public utilities as well as the creation of the National Health Service. After initial Conservative opposition to Keynesian fiscal policy, this settlement was broadly accepted by all parties until Margaret Thatcher became Prime Minister in 1979.
