- published: 17 Jan 2008
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Audiencia Nacional
The Audiencia Nacional (English: National Court) is a special and exceptional high court in Spain. It has jurisdiction over all of the Spanish territory, as well as over international crimes which come under the competence of Spanish courts. In 1977 the Audiencia Nacional replaced the Public Order Tribunal (Tribunal de Orden Público), a Francoist institution. Its seat is in Madrid.
In most cases the rulings and decisions of these different divisions of the Audiencia Nacional can be appealed before the Supreme Court of Spain.
The Audiencia is composed of its President, the Presidents of the Chambers, and the magistrates that the law specifies for each one of its courts and divisions.
The Audiencia includes the following chambers:
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Baden-Württemberg
Baden-Württemberg (German pronunciation: [ˈbaːdən ˈvʏɐ̯təmˌbɛɐ̯k]) is one of the 16 states of Germany. Baden-Württemberg is in the southwestern part of the country to the east of the Upper Rhine, and is the third largest in both area and population of Germany's sixteen states, with an area of 35,742 square kilometres (13,800 sq mi) and 10.7 million inhabitants. The state capital is Stuttgart.
The sobriquet Ländle (dialect form for "small land") is sometimes used as a synonym for the Swabian part of Baden-Württemberg.[citation needed]
The area used to be covered by the historical states of Baden, including the former Prussian Hohenzollern, and Württemberg, part of the region of Swabia.
Württemberg was occupied by the Romans in the first century AD who defended their position there by constructing a (limes) rampart. Early on in the third century, the Alemanni drove the Romans beyond the Rhine and the Danube, but in their turn they succumbed to the Franks under Clovis I, the decisive battle taking place in 496. It later became part of the Holy Roman Empire.
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Camden, New Jersey
The city of Camden is the county seat of Camden County, New Jersey, and is a direct suburb of Philadelphia. Located across the Delaware River from Philadelphia, the city had a total population of 77,344 as of the 2010 United States Census. The 2010 population represents a decline of 2,560 (3.2%) from the 79,904 residents enumerated during the 2000 Census, with Camden ranking as the 12th-largest municipality in the state in 2010 after having been ranked 10th in 2000.
Camden was originally incorporated as a city on February 13, 1828, from portions of the now-defunct Newton Township, while the area was still part of Gloucester County. On March 13, 1844, Camden became part of the newly formed Camden County.
Although once a thriving center for manufacturing and industry, Camden is perhaps best known for its struggles with urban dysfunction. Three Camden mayors have been jailed for corruption, the most recent being Milton Milan in 2000. Since 2005 the school system and police department have been operated by the State of New Jersey; the takeover will expire in 2012. In 2008, Camden had the highest crime rate in the U.S. with 2,333 violent crimes per 100,000 people while the national average was 455 per 100,000. Camden public schools spend $17,000 per student per year and two thirds of the students graduate. Two out of every five residents are below the national poverty line.
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Clearwater, Florida
Clearwater is a city located in Pinellas County, Florida, United States, nearly due west of Tampa and northwest of St. Petersburg. To the west of Clearwater lies the Gulf of Mexico and to the east lies Tampa Bay. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 107,685. It is the county seat of Pinellas County. Clearwater is the smallest of the three principal cities in the Tampa-St. Petersburg-Clearwater metropolitan area, most commonly referred to as the Tampa Bay Area.
Present-day Clearwater was originally the home of the Tocobaga people. Around 1835, the United States Army began construction of Fort Harrison, named after William Henry Harrison, as an outpost during the Seminole Wars. The fort was located on a bluff overlooking Clearwater Harbor, which later became part of an early 20th century residential development called Harbor Oaks. University of South Florida archaeologists excavated the site in 1977 after Alfred C. Wyllie discovered an underground ammunition bunker while digging a swimming pool on his estate.
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Copenhagen
Copenhagen (
/ˈkoʊpənheɪɡən/ or /ˈkoʊpənhɑːɡən/; Danish: København pronounced [kʰøb̥m̩ˈhɑʊ̯ˀn] (
listen), Latin: Hafnia) is the capital of Denmark and its most populous city, with an urban population of 1,213,822 (as of 1 January 2012 (2012 -01-01)[update]) and a metropolitan population of 1,935,746 (as of 1 April 2012 (2012 -04-01)[update]). With the completion of the transnational Øresund Bridge in 2000, Copenhagen has become the centre of the increasingly integrating Øresund Region. Within this region, Copenhagen and the Swedish city of Malmö are growing into a combined metropolitan area. Copenhagen is situated on the islands of Zealand and Amager.
First documented in the 11th century, Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark in the beginning of the 15th century. During the 17th century, under the reign of Christian IV, it became a significant regional centre.
Copenhagen is a major regional centre of culture, business, media, and science, as indicated by several international surveys and rankings (see International rankings below). Life science, information technology and shipping are important sectors, and research & development plays a major role in the city's economy. Its strategic location and excellent infrastructure, with the largest airport in Scandinavia,Kastrup, located 14 minutes by train from the city centre, have made it a regional hub and a popular location for regional headquarters and conventions.
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Croatia
Croatia (
i/kroʊˈeɪʃə/ kroh-AY-shə; Croatian: Hrvatska pronounced [xř̩ʋaːtskaː]), officially the Republic of Croatia (Croatian: Republika Hrvatska listen (help·info)), is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic in Europe at the crossroads of Central Europe, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. The country is divided into 20 counties and the city of Zagreb. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres (21,851 square miles) and has diverse, mostly continental and Mediterranean climates. Croatia's Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands. The country's population is 4.29 million, most of whom are Croats, with the most common religious denomination being Roman Catholicism.
In the early 7th century the Croats arrived in area of present-day Croatia. They organised the state into two dukedoms by the 9th century. Tomislav became the first king by 925 AD, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Peter Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir. Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, after World War I, Croatia was included in the short-lived State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs that declared independence from Austria–Hungary and co-founded the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. A Croatian state briefly existed during World War II as a fascist puppet state. After the war, Croatia became a founding member and a federal constituent of the Second Yugoslavia, a socialist state. In June 1991, Croatia declared independence, which came into effect on 8 October of the same year. The Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration.
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Department of State
The United States Department of State (DoS), often referred to as the State Department, is the United States federal executive department responsible for international relations of the United States, equivalent to the foreign ministries of other countries. The Department was created in 1789 and was the first executive department established.
The Department is headquartered in the Harry S. Truman Building located at 2201 C Street, NW, a few blocks from the White House in the Foggy Bottom neighborhood of Washington, D.C. The Department operates the diplomatic missions of the United States abroad and is responsible for implementing the foreign policy of the United States and U.S. diplomacy efforts.
The Department is led by the Secretary of State, who is nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate and is a member of the Cabinet. The current Secretary of State is Hillary Clinton. The Secretary of State is the first Cabinet official in the order of precedence and in the presidential line of succession.
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East Grinstead
Coordinates: 51°07′44″N 0°00′25″W / 51.129°N 0.007°W / 51.129; -0.007
East Grinstead is a town and civil parish in the northeastern corner of Mid Sussex, West Sussex in England near the East Sussex, Surrey, and Kent borders. It lies 27 miles (43 km) south of London, 21 miles (34 km) north northeast of Brighton, and 38 miles (61 km) east northeast of the county town of Chichester. The civil parish covers an area of 2443.45 hectares (6,035 acres) and had a population of 23,942 persons in the 2001 census. Nearby towns include Crawley to the west, Tunbridge Wells to the east and Redhill and Reigate to the northwest. The town is continuous with the village of Felbridge to the northwest. Until 1974 East Grinstead was the centre for local government - East Grinstead Urban District Council - and was located in the county of East Sussex. East Grinstead, along with Haywards Heath and Burgess Hill, as part of the former Cuckfield Rural District Council, came together as Mid-Sussex; moving to the jurisdiction of West Sussex County Council. The town has many historic buildings and is located on the Greenwich Meridian. It is located in the Weald and Ashdown Forest lies to the south of the town.
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France
France (Englishi/ˈfræns/ FRANSS or /ˈfrɑːns/ FRAHNSS; French: [fʁɑ̃s] ( listen)), officially the French Republic (French: République française [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is often referred to as l’Hexagone ("The Hexagon") because of the geometric shape of its territory. It is the largest western European country and it possesses the second-largest exclusive economic zone in the world, covering 11,035,000 km2 (4,260,000 sq mi), just behind that of the United States (11,351,000 km2 / 4,383,000 sq mi).
Over the past 500 years, France has been a major power with strong cultural, economic, military and political influence in Europe and around the world. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonised great parts of North America and Southeast Asia; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built the second largest colonial empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Caribbean and Pacific Islands.
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Germany
Germany (i/ˈdʒɜrməni/), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, pronounced [ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant] ( listen)), is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state and the largest economy in the European Union. It is one of the major political powers of the European continent and a technological leader in many fields.
A region named Germania, inhabited by several Germanic peoples, was documented before AD 100. During the Migration Period, the Germanic tribes expanded southward, and established successor kingdoms throughout much of Europe. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation while southern and western parts remained dominated by Roman Catholic denominations, with the two factions clashing in the Thirty Years' War, marking the beginning of the Catholic–Protestant divide that has characterized German society ever since. Occupied during the Napoleonic Wars, the rise of Pan-Germanism inside the German Confederation resulted in the unification of most of the German states into the German Empire in 1871 which was Prussian dominated. After the German Revolution of 1918–1919 and the subsequent military surrender in World War I, the Empire was replaced by the Weimar Republic in 1918, and partitioned in the Treaty of Versailles. Amidst the Great Depression, the Third Reich was proclaimed in 1933. The latter period was marked by Fascism and World War II. After 1945, Germany was divided by allied occupation, and evolved into two states, East Germany and West Germany. In 1990 Germany was reunified.
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Gold Base
Coordinates: 33°50′3.25″N 116°59′5.85″W / 33.8342361°N 116.9849583°W / 33.8342361; -116.9849583 The Gold Base is the international headquarters of the Church of Scientology on a 700-acre (2.8 km2) parcel of land in unincorporated Riverside County, California, outside of San Jacinto, and north of Hemet.
It is at or near 19625 Gilman Springs Road, Gilman Hot Springs, California, 92583. The area is the home of Golden Era Productions, the media and publications division of the church, which is the largest of the many organizational units there. David Miscavige and other top leaders of the church live and work on the Base.
The Church of Scientology bought a former resort, which had been popular with Hollywood figures, in 1978. For several decades, the location was not disclosed to many members of the church, even church insiders. Until the mid-2000s the location of the base and the presence of international management there were kept secret, even to Scientologists at lower organizations.
The 700 acre (2.83 km²) compound, surrounded by hills, is home to all of the highest level management units of the Church of Scientology, all of which are staffed by Sea Organization members. Among the organizations there are the Religious Technology Center, the Commodore's Messenger Organization International and Golden Era Productions. Golden Era Productions manufactures the E-Meter and produces and distributes all church audio-visual materials, both internal and promotional. The two-lane Gilman Springs Road bisects the Gold Base. The on-site film studio, with conical turrets and a sky blue tiled roof, was designed in the likeness of a castle in Scotland. All of the other buildings share the same motif.
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Hollywood
Hollywood is a district in Los Angeles, California, United States situated west-northwest of downtown Los Angeles. Due to its fame and cultural identity as the historical center of movie studios and movie stars, the word Hollywood is often used as a metonym of American cinema. Today, much of the movie industry has dispersed into surrounding areas such as the Westside neighborhood, and the San Fernando and Santa Clarita Valleys, but significant auxiliary industries, such as editing, effects, props, post-production, and lighting companies remain in Hollywood, as does the backlot of Paramount Pictures.
On February 16, 2005, California Assembly Members Jackie Goldberg and Paul Koretz introduced a bill to require California to keep specific records on Hollywood as if it were independent, although it is not the typical practice of the City of Los Angeles to establish specific boundaries for districts or neighborhoods. For this to be done, the boundaries were defined. The bill was unanimously supported by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce and the Los Angeles City Council. Assembly Bill 588 was approved by the Governor of California on August 28, 2006, and now the district of Hollywood has official borders. The border can be loosely described as the area east of West Hollywood, south of Mulholland Drive, Laurel Canyon, Cahuenga Boulevard, and Barham Boulevard, and the cities of Burbank and Glendale, north of Melrose Avenue and west of the Golden State Freeway and Hyperion Avenue. This includes all of Griffith Park and Los Feliz[citation needed] – two areas that were hitherto considered separate from Hollywood by most Angelenos. The population of the district, including Los Feliz, as of the 2000 census was 123,436 and the median household income was $33,409 in 1999.
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Hungary
Hungaryi/ˈhʌŋɡəri/ (Hungarian: Magyarország [ˈmɒɟɒrorsaːɡ] ( listen)) is a country, which is located in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The country's capital, and largest city, is Budapest. Hungary is a member of the European Union, NATO, the OECD, the Visegrád Group, and is a Schengen state. The official language is Hungarian, also known as Magyar, which is part of the Finno-Ugric group and is the most widely spoken non-Indo-European language in Europe.
Following a Celt (after c. 450 BC) and a Roman (AD 9 - c. 430) period, the foundation of Hungary was laid in the late 9th century by the Hungarian prince Árpád, whose great-grandson Saint Stephen I was crowned with a crown sent by the pope from Rome in 1000 AD. The Kingdom of Hungary lasted for 946 years, and at various points was regarded as one of the cultural centres of the Western world. After about 150 years of partial Ottoman occupation (1541–1699), Hungary was integrated into the Habsburg Monarchy, and later constituted half of the Austro-Hungarian dual monarchy (1867–1918).
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Interpol
Coordinates: 45°46′56″N 4°50′54″E / 45.78219°N 4.84838°E / 45.78219; 4.84838 The International Criminal Police Organization (ICPO), widely known as INTERPOL or Interpol, is an organization facilitating international police cooperation. It was established as the International Criminal Police Commission (ICPC) in 1923 and adopted its telegraphic address as its common name in 1956.
Its membership of 190 countries provides finance of around €59 million through annual contributions. The organization's headquarters is in Lyon, France. It is the second largest intergovernmental organization after the United Nations, in terms of number of member states.
Its current Secretary-General is Ronald Noble, a former United States Under Secretary of the Treasury for Enforcement. Its current President is Singapore's Senior Deputy Secretary of the Ministry of Home Affairs and former Commissioner of Police Khoo Boon Hui; the President before that, Jackie Selebi, National Commissioner of the South African Police Service, held his term from 2004 till his resignation on 13 January 2008, after which he was charged in South Africa on three counts of corruption and one of defeating the course of justice, and replaced by Arturo Herrera Verdugo, current National Commissioner of Investigations Police of Chile and former vice president for the American Zone, who remained acting president until the organization meeting in October 2008.
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Israel
Coordinates: 31°N 35°E / 31°N 35°E / 31; 35
Israel, officially the State of Israel ( /ˈɪzriːəl/ or /ˈɪzreɪəl/; Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, Medīnat Yisrā'el, IPA: [me̞diˈnät jisʁäˈʔe̞l] ( listen); Arabic: دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل, Dawlat Isrāʼīl, IPA: [dawlat ʔisraːˈʔiːl]), is a parliamentary republic in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank in the east, Egypt and the Gaza Strip on the southwest, and the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea to the south, and it contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area. Israel is defined as a Jewish and Democratic State in its Basic Laws and is the world's only Jewish-majority state.
Following the adoption of a resolution by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 29 November 1947 recommending the adoption and implementation of the United Nations plan to partition Palestine, on 14 May 1948 David Ben-Gurion, the Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization and president of the Jewish Agency for Palestine, declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel, a state independent from the British Mandate for Palestine. Neighboring Arab states invaded the next day in support of the Palestinian Arabs. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied the West Bank, Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights. Portions of these territories, including east Jerusalem, have been annexed by Israel, but the border with the neighboring West Bank has not yet been permanently defined.[neutrality is disputed] Israel has signed peace treaties with Egypt and Jordan, but efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have so far not resulted in peace.
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L. Ron Hubbard House
The L. Ron Hubbard House, also known as the Original Founding Church of Scientology, is a historic house museum and former Scientology church located at 1812 19th Street, NW in the Dupont Circle neighborhood of Washington, D.C., United States. The home served as the residence of Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard from 1955 until 1959, during which time he incorporated the Founding Church of Scientology and performed the first Scientology wedding. The building is a contributing property to the Dupont Circle Historic District, a neighborhood listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
The row of buildings located at 1810-1820 19th Street, NW was designed by local architectural firm Wood, Donn, & Deming in 1904. Notable owners of the home during the early 20th century included United States Senators James K. Jones and Claude A. Swanson.
Hubbard purchased the home in 1955, the same year he organized the Founding Church which met at 1826 R Street, NW from July 21, 1955 until 1959. The building later served as the home of the Academy of Scientology, previously located at 1845 R Street, NW and known as The Academy of Religious Arts and Sciences. In January 1963, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) ordered a raid against the Academy's 19th Street location, seizing more than 100 e-meters (electronic devices used by Scientologists) and 200 pieces of literature. The raid resulted in a lawsuit filed by the FDA against the Founding Church. In 1971, the Church and FDA reached a settlement which included a ruling that all e-meters bear a prominent warning label. The seized items were returned to the Founding Church in October 1973.
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Luxembourg
Luxembourg (i/ˈlʌksəmbɜrɡ/ LUKS-əm-burg), officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (Luxembourgish: Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg, French: Grand-Duché de Luxembourg, German: Großherzogtum Luxemburg, Dutch: Groothertogdom Luxemburg), is a landlocked country in western Europe, bordered by Belgium, France, and Germany. It has two principal regions: the Oesling in the North as part of the Ardennes massif, and the Gutland ("good country") in the south. Luxembourg has a population of over half a million people in an area of approximately 2,586 square kilometres (998 sq mi). A representative democracy with a constitutional monarch, it is ruled by a grand duke. It is now the world's only remaining sovereign grand duchy. The country has a highly developed economy, with the world's highest GDP (nominal) per capita according to the IMF. Its historic and strategic importance dates back to its founding as a Roman era fortress site and Frankish count's castle site in the Early Middle Ages. It was an important bastion along the Spanish Road when Spain was the principal European power influencing the whole western hemisphere and beyond in the 16th–17th centuries.
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Malaysia
Malaysia (i/məˈleɪʒə/ mə-LAY-zhə or i/məˈleɪsiə/ mə-LAY-see-ə) is a federal constitutional monarchy in Southeast Asia. It consists of thirteen states and three federal territories and has a total landmass of 329,847 square kilometres (127,350 sq mi) separated by the South China Sea into two similarly sized regions, Peninsular Malaysia and Malaysian Borneo. Land borders are shared with Thailand, Indonesia, and Brunei, and maritime borders exist with Singapore, Vietnam, and the Philippines. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government. In 2010 the population exceeded 27.5 million, with over 20 million living on the Peninsula.
Malaysia has its origins in the Malay Kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, became subject to the British Empire. The first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946. Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. Malaya united with Sabah, Sarawak, and Singapore on 16 September 1963, with si being added to give the new country the name Malaysia. However, less than two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation. Since independence, Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with GDP growing an average 6.5% for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its natural resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce and medical tourism.
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Mexico
Mexico (i/ˈmɛksɨkoʊ/; Spanish: México, IPA: [ˈmexiko] ( listen)), officially the United Mexican States (Spanish: Estados Unidos Mexicanos (help·info)), is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States of America; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometres (over 760,000 sq mi), Mexico is the fifth largest country in the Americas by total area and the thirteenth largest independent nation in the world. With an estimated population of over 113 million, it is the eleventh most populous country and the most populous Spanish-speaking country. Mexico is a federation comprising thirty-one states and a Federal District, the capital city.
In Pre-Columbian Mexico many cultures matured into advanced civilizations such as the Olmec, the Toltec, the Teotihuacan, the Zapotec, the Maya and the Aztec before the first contact with Europeans. In 1521, Spain conquered and colonized the territory from its base in México-Tenochtitlan, which was administered as the Viceroyalty of New Spain. This territory would eventually become Mexico as the colony's independence was recognized in 1821. The post-independence period was characterized by economic instability, the Mexican-American War and territorial cession to the United States, a civil war, two empires and a domestic dictatorship. The latter led to the Mexican Revolution in 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the country's current political system. Elections held in July 2000 marked the first time that an opposition party won the presidency from the Institutional Revolutionary Party.
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Potsdamer Platz
Potsdamer Platz (German: [potsdamaː plats] ( listen), literally Potsdam Square) is an important public square and traffic intersection in the centre of Berlin, Germany, lying about one kilometre south of the Brandenburg Gate and the Reichstag (German Parliament Building), and close to the southeast corner of the Tiergarten park. It is named after the city of Potsdam, some 25 km to the south west, and marks the point where the old road from Potsdam passed through the city wall of Berlin at the Potsdam Gate. After developing within the space of little over a century from an intersection of rural thoroughfares into the most bustling traffic intersection in Europe, it was totally laid waste during World War II and then left desolate during the Cold War era when the Berlin Wall bisected its former location. Since German reunification, Potsdamer Platz has been the site of major redevelopment projects.
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Republic of China
Taiwan (i/ˌtaɪˈwɑːn/ TY-WAHN; Chinese: 臺灣 or 台灣; pinyin: Táiwān; see below), officially the Republic of China (ROC; Chinese: 中華民國; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Mínguó), is a state in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China now governs the island of Taiwan (formerly known as Formosa), which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, and other minor islands. Neighboring states include the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east and northeast, and the Philippines to the south. Taipei is the capital city and economic and cultural centre of the country, and New Taipei is the most populous city.
The earliest evidence of inhabitation of Taiwan dates back to the late Paleolithic era. The island of Taiwan was mainly inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before being colonized in the 17th century by the Dutch and the Spanish Empire. The first Han Chinese polity on Taiwan began when Koxinga's troops defeated Dutch forces and established the Kingdom of Tungning. The island was subsequently ruled by the Qing Dynasty after the kingdom's defeat in the Battle of Penghu in 1683, a period that lasted for over 200 years. Following Japan's victory over the Qing Dynasty in the first Sino-Japanese war, Taiwan was ceded to Japan under the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895.
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Republic of Ireland
Ireland (/ˈaɪərlənd/ or /ˈɑrlənd/; Irish: Éire, pronounced [ˈeːɾʲə] ( listen)) is a sovereign state in Europe occupying about five-sixths of the island of Ireland. Its capital is Dublin. The population of the state was 4.59 million in 2011. It is a constitutional republic governed as a parliamentary democracy, with an elected president serving as head of state. In the 1937 constitution, the name of the state is given as simply "Ireland". The Constitution of Ireland (Article 4) and the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 provides that the "Republic of Ireland" (Irish: Poblacht na hÉireann) is "the description of the state".
Ireland is a member of the European Union, the Council of Europe, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organisation and the United Nations. A developed country with the seventh highest Human Development Index, Ireland is also highly ranked for press freedom, economic freedom and democracy and political freedom.
The modern Irish state was established in 1922 as the Irish Free State, a dominion within the British Empire, following the Anglo-Irish Treaty which brought an end to the Irish War of Independence. The partition of Ireland had already been provided for in previous British legislation in 1921 in response to opposition to Irish Home Rule or independence by Unionists, who formed a majority in the north-eastern part of the country. Six of the nine counties in the northern province of Ulster were established under that legislation as Northern Ireland, part of the United Kingdom, with which the Irish state shares its only land border. The state is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the Celtic Sea to the south, St George's Channel to the south east, and the Irish Sea to the east.
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Slovenia
Slovenia (i/sloʊˈviːniə/ sloh-VEE-nee-ə, Slovene: Slovenija), officially the Republic of Slovenia (Republika Slovenija, [reˈpublika sloˈveːnija]) is a Slavic nation state, situated in South-Central Europe, at the crossroad of main European cultural and trade routes. It borders Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Croatia to the south and southeast, and Hungary to the northeast. It covers 20,273 square kilometres (7,827 sq mi) and has a population of 2.05 million. It is a parliamentary republic, member of the European Union and NATO. Relative to its geography, history, economy, culture, and language, it is a very diverse country distinguished by a transitional character. It is characterised by a high economic and social level. Its capital and largest city is Ljubljana.
The territory of Slovenia is mainly hilly or mountainous and has an exceptionally high landscape and biological diversity and a mosaic structure, which are a result of natural attributes and the long-lasting presence of humans. Four major European geographic units interweave here: the Alps, the Dinaric Alps, the Mediterranean, with a small portion of coastline along the Adriatic Sea, and the Pannonian Plain. The climate is temperate and significantly influenced by the variety of territory, with a strong interaction of the continental climate, the sub-Mediterranean climate and Alpine climate across most of the country. The country is one of the water-richest in Europe, with a dense river network, a rich aquifer system, and significant karstic underground watercourses. Over half of the territory is covered by forest.
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Super Power Building
Scientology's Super Power Building
The Super Power Building is an edifice in Clearwater, Florida, the Church of Scientology's largest property in the city. Due to a work stoppage of several years, it was left only partially built, resulting in criticism of the structure as an "eyesore" by ranking city officials. The high-rise complex, which occupies an entire block at 215 South Fort Harrison Avenue, was planned to be topped with a 15-story tower surmounted by a bronze Scientology cross to be visible over a wide area of Clearwater. Construction began in 1998, was halted in 2003, and was ultimately resumed to reach substantial completion during 2011.
At 127,000 square feet (11,800 m2), the building is the largest building in Clearwater. It was originally budgeted to cost $24 million, but the cost has more than doubled to an estimated $50 million after repeated redesign of the interior. According to the building plans, the Super Power Building will feature a grand lobby lined with sculptures depicting aspects of Scientology; theaters for training and introductory films; a museum honoring the Sea Org; and a separate museum honoring Scientology's founder, L. Ron Hubbard. The sixth floor will house an indoor running track for Scientologists undergoing the controversial Purification Rundown detoxification program. The Mediterranean Revival-style building will also contain a bookstore, a library, and hundreds of course and study rooms; with a total of 889 rooms, 447 windows, and 42 bathrooms, plus an 1,140-seat dining room and two kitchens. A 124-foot (38 m) bridge connects the Super Power Building to the Scientology-owned Fort Harrison Hotel on the other side of S. Fort Harrison Avenue.
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Tampa, Florida
Tampa (pronunciation: /ˈtæmpə/) is a city in the U.S. state of Florida. It serves as the county seat for Hillsborough County and is located on the west coast of Florida, on the Gulf of Mexico. The population of Tampa in 2010 was 335,709.
The current location of Tampa was once inhabited by indigenous peoples of the Safety Harbor culture, most notably the Tocobaga and the Pohoy, who lived along the shores of Tampa Bay. It was briefly explored by Spanish explorers in the early 16th century, but there were no permanent American or European settlements within today's city limits until after the United States had acquired Florida from Spain in 1819.
In 1824, the United States Army established a frontier outpost called Fort Brooke at the mouth of the Hillsborough River, near the site of today's Tampa Convention Center. The first civilian residents were pioneers who settled near the fort for protection from the nearby Seminole population. The town grew slowly until the 1880s, when railroad links, the discovery of phosphate, and the arrival of the cigar industry jump-started Tampa's development and helped it to grow into an important city by the early 1900s.
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Trademark
A trademark, trade mark, or trade-mark is a distinctive sign or indicator used by an individual, business organization, or other legal entity to identify that the products or services to consumers with which the trademark appears originate from a unique source, and to distinguish its products or services from those of other entities.
A trademark may be designated by the following symbols:
A trademark is typically a name, word, phrase, logo, symbol, design, image, or a combination of these elements. There is also a range of non-conventional trademarks comprising marks which do not fall into these standard categories, such as those based on color, smell, or sound.
The owner of a trademark may initiate legal proceedings for trademark infringement to prevent unauthorized use of that trademark. Most countries require formal registration of a trademark in order to pursue this type of action. A few countries, including the United States, recognize common law trademark rights, which means action can be taken for trademark that is in use but not registered. In the United States, registration is not required, but it increases the legal protections offered to the trademark holder.
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Trementina Base
Coordinates: 35°31′28.56″N 104°34′20.20″W / 35.5246°N 104.572278°W / 35.5246; -104.572278
Trementina Base is the popular designation for a property of the Church of Spiritual Technology (CST) near Trementina, New Mexico.
According to the CST, an entity formed to manage the Church of Scientology's copyright affairs, the purpose of the base is to provide storage space for an archiving project to preserve Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard's writings, films and recordings for future generations. Hubbard's texts have been engraved on stainless steel tablets and encased in titanium capsules underground. The project began in the late 1980s.
The base includes a number of dwellings and the archives themselves, the latter in a network of underground tunnels. The base also has its own private, concrete airstrip, the San Miguel Ranch Airport (NM53).
The property history of Trementina Base is complex. The Federal Register shows that CST has owned two properties in the same area at different times. The one they originally built the underground vault on, between 1986 to 1992, was traded to the U.S. government on 24 August 1992:[cite this quote]
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United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a sovereign state located off the north-western coast of continental Europe. The country includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea.
The United Kingdom is a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system, with its seat of government in the capital city of London. It is a country in its own right and consists of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There are three devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in Belfast, Edinburgh and Cardiff, the capitals of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Associated with the UK, but not constitutionally part of it, are three Crown Dependencies. The United Kingdom has fourteen overseas territories. These are remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in 1922, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's land surface and was the largest empire in history. British influence can still be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former territories.
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University of Mainz
The Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz (German: Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz) is a university in Mainz, Rhineland Palatinate, Germany, named after the printer Johannes Gutenberg. With approximately 36,000 students (2010) in about 150 schools and clinics, it is among the ten largest universities in Germany. Starting on 1 January 2005 the university was reorganized into 11 faculties of study.
The first University of Mainz goes back to the Archbishop of Mainz, Prince-elector and Reichserzkanzler Adolf II von Nassau. At the time, establishing a university required papal approval and Adolf II initiated the approval process during his time in office. The university, however, was first opened in 1477 by Adolf's successor to the bishopric, Diether von Isenburg. In 1784 the University was opened up for Protestants and Jews (curator Anselm Franz von Betzel). It fast became one of the largest Catholic universities in Europe with ten chairs in theology alone. In the confusion after the establishment of the Mainz Republic of 1792 and its subsequent recapture by the Prussians, academic activity came to a gradual standstill. In 1798 the university became active again under French governance, and lectures in the department of medicine took place until 1823. Only the faculty of theology continued teaching during the 19th century, albeit as a theological Seminary (since 1877 "College of Philosophy and Theology").
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Victoria (Australia)
Coordinates: 37°0′S 144°0′E / 37°S 144°E / -37; 144
Victoria is a state of Australia, in the south-east of the country. Geographically the smallest mainland state, Victoria is bordered by New South Wales, South Australia, and Tasmania on Boundary Islet to the north, west and south respectively.
Victoria is Australia's most densely populated state, and has a highly centralised population, with almost 75% of Victorians living in Melbourne, the state capital and largest city.
Victoria, like Queensland, was named after Queen Victoria, the monarch at the time.
After the founding of the colony of New South Wales in 1788, Australia was divided into an eastern half named New South Wales and a western half named New Holland, under the administration of the colonial government in Sydney. The first European settlement in the area later known as Victoria was established in October 1803 under Lieutenant-Governor David Collins at Sullivan Bay, Victoria on Port Phillip. It consisted of 402 people (5 Government officials, 9 officers of marines, 2 drummers, and 39 privates, 5 soldiers' wives, and a child, 307 convicts, 17 convicts' wives, and 7 children). They had been sent from England in HMS Calcutta under the command of Captain Daniel Woodriff, principally out of fear that the French, who had been exploring the area, might establish their own settlement and thereby challenge British rights to the continent.
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Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, "the District", or simply D.C., is the capital of the United States. On July 16, 1790, the United States Congress approved the creation of a federal district to become the national capital as permitted by the U.S. Constitution. The District is therefore not a part of any U.S. state. It was formed from land along the Potomac River donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia; however, the Virginia portion was returned by Congress in 1846.
A new capital city named after George Washington was founded in 1791 to the east of the preexisting port of Georgetown. Congress consolidated the City of Washington, Georgetown, and the remaining unincorporated area within the District under a single municipal government in 1871. The city shares its name with the U.S. state of Washington, located on the country's Pacific coast.
Washington, D.C., had an estimated population of 617,996 in 2011. The city was the 24th most populous place in the United States as of 2010. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the city's population to over one million during the workweek. The Washington Metropolitan Area, of which the District is a part, has a population of nearly 5.6 million, the seventh-largest metropolitan area in the country.
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Xinhua News Agency
The Xinhua News Agency (simplified Chinese: 新华通讯社; traditional Chinese: 新華通訊社; pinyin: Xīnhuá tōngxùnshè, IPA: [ɕínxwǎ]; /ˈʃiːnhwɑː/; literally "New China News Agency") is the official press agency of the People's Republic of China and the biggest center for collecting information and press conferences in China. It is the largest news agency in China, ahead of the China News Service. Xinhua is subordinate to the State Council and reports to the Communist Party of China's Publicity and Public Information Departments. Xinhua's headquarters complex, the "pencil building", is at No. 57 Xuanwumenxi Street, Beijing. Its website Xinhua.org or Xinhuanet.com is headquartered on the twentieth floor of the Dacheng Plaza (大成大厦 Dàchéng Dàshà) in Xicheng District, Beijing.
Xinhua employs more than 10,000 people, operates 107 foreign bureaus worldwide, and maintains 31 bureaus in China—one for each province, plus a military bureau. As most of the newspapers in China cannot afford to station correspondents abroad, or even in every Chinese province, they rely on Xinhua feeds to fill their pages. People's Daily, for example, uses Xinhua material for approximately 25 percent of its stories. Xinhua is a publisher as well as a news agency—it owns more than 20 newspapers and a dozen magazines, and it prints in eight languages: Chinese, English, Spanish, French, Russian, Portuguese, Arabic and Japanese.
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A. E. van Vogt
Alfred Elton van Vogt (April 26, 1912 – January 26, 2000) was a Canadian-born science fiction author regarded as one of the most popular and complex science fiction writers of the mid-twentieth century: the "Golden Age" of the genre.
Van Vogt was born on a farm in Edenburg, a Russian Mennonite community east of Gretna, Manitoba, Canada. Until he was four years old, van Vogt and his family spoke only a dialect of Low German in the home. Van Vogt's father, a lawyer, moved his family several times and his son found these moves difficult, remarking in later life:
After starting his writing career by writing for "true confession" style pulp magazines like True Story, van Vogt decided to switch to writing something he enjoyed, science fiction.
Van Vogt's first published SF story, "Black Destroyer" (Astounding Science Fiction, July 1939), was inspired by Voyage of the Beagle by Charles Darwin. The story depicted a fierce, carnivorous alien, the coeurl, stalking the crew of an exploration spaceship. It was the cover story of the issue of Astounding that is sometimes described as having ushered in the "Golden Age" of science fiction. The story served as the inspiration for a number of science fiction movies. In 1950 it was combined with "War of Nerves" (1950), "Discord in Scarlet" (1939) and "M33 in Andromeda" (1943) to form the novel The Voyage of the Space Beagle (1950).
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Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler (German: [ˈadɔlf ˈhɪtlɐ] ( listen); 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP), commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 and dictator of Nazi Germany (as Führer und Reichskanzler) from 1934 to 1945. Hitler is commonly associated with the rise of fascism in Europe, World War II, and the Holocaust.
A decorated veteran of World War I, Hitler joined the German Workers' Party, precursor of the Nazi Party, in 1919, and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923, he attempted a coup d'état, known as the Beer Hall Putsch, in Munich. The failed coup resulted in Hitler's imprisonment, during which time he wrote his memoir, Mein Kampf (My Struggle). After his release in 1924, Hitler gained popular support by attacking the Treaty of Versailles and promoting Pan-Germanism, antisemitism, and anticommunism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda. After his appointment as chancellor in 1933, he transformed the Weimar Republic into the Third Reich, a single-party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideology of Nazism. His aim was to establish a New Order of absolute Nazi German hegemony in continental Europe.
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Ahl-e Haqq
The Ahl-e Haqq or Yârsân (Kurdish: یارسان Yâresân,Persian: اهل حق Ahl-e Haqq "People of Truth"), are members of a religion founded by Sultan Sahak in the late 14th century in western Iran. The total number of members is estimated at around 1,000,000, primarily found in western Iran and Iraq, mostly ethnic Kurds, though there are also smaller groups of Persian, Luri, Azeri and Arab adherents. Some Yârsânî in Iraq are called Kaka'i.
The Yârsân have a distinct religious literature primarily written in Gorani and partly in Persian, although few modern Yâresânî can speak or read Gorani, as their mother tongues are Gorani and Soranî. The Sarl living near Eski Kalak are adherents, as Edmonds (1957: 195) surmised and Moosa (1988: 168) observed. Their central religious book is called as Kalâm-e Saranjâm, written in the 15th century based on the teachings of Sultan Sahak.
Up to the 20th century, the Yârsânî faith was strictly for Kurds who were born into it, called checkedea ("a drop of"), as opposed to individuals who married into a Yârsânî family, called chasbedea ("attached"). Adherents today are mainly found among the Kurdish tribes of the Guran, Qalkhani, Bajalani and Sanjabi, located in western Iran, forming approximately a third of the population in the religiously diverse province of Kermanshah. There are some groups located around Kirkuk in Iraq. The Arabic-speaking adherents are based in the Iraqi cities of Mandali, Baquba, and Khanaqin. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, "The chief source of information about the Ahl-e Haqq is the Firqan al-Akhbar, written in... early 20th century by Hajj Nematollah"
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Aleister Crowley
Aleister Crowley (/ˈkroʊli/ KROH-lee; 12 October 1875–1 December 1947), born Edward Alexander Crowley, and also known as both Frater Perdurabo and The Great Beast, was an influential English occultist, mystic, ceremonial magician, poet and mountaineer, who was responsible for founding the religious philosophy of Thelema. In his role as the founder of the Thelemite philosophy, he came to see himself as the prophet who was entrusted with informing humanity that it was entering the new Aeon of Horus in the early 20th century.
Born into a wealthy upper class family, as a young man he became an influential member of the esoteric Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn after befriending the order's leader, Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers. Subsequently believing that he was being contacted by his Holy Guardian Angel, an entity known as Aiwass, while staying in Egypt in 1904, he "received" a text known as The Book of the Law from what he believed was a divine source, and around which he would come to develop his new philosophy of Thelema. He would go on to found his own occult society, the A∴A∴ and eventually rose to become a leader of Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.), before founding a religious commune in Cefalù known as the Abbey of Thelema, which he led from 1920 through till 1923. After abandoning the Abbey amid widespread opposition, Crowley returned to Britain, where he continued to promote Thelema until his death.
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Alfred Korzybski
Alfred Habdank Skarbek Korzybski ([kɔˈʐɨpski]) (July 3, 1879 – March 1, 1950) was a Polish-American philosopher and scientist. He is remembered for developing the theory of general semantics. Korzybski's work argued that human knowledge of the world is limited both by the human nervous system and by the structure of language.
Korzybski thought that people do not have access to direct knowledge of reality; rather they have access to perceptions and to a set of beliefs which human society has confused with direct knowledge of reality. Korzybski is remembered as the author of the dictum: "The map is not the territory".
(List of Polish coats of arms Abdank coat of arms)
Korzybski was born in Warsaw, Poland which at that time was part of the Russian Empire. He was part of an aristocratic Polish family whose members had worked as mathematicians, scientists, and engineers for generations. He learned the Polish language at home and the Russian language in schools; and having a French governess and a German governess, he became fluent in these four languages as a child.
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Allen Upward
Allen Upward (1863–1926) was a poet, lawyer, politician and teacher. His work was included in the first anthology of Imagist poetry, Des Imagistes, which was edited by Ezra Pound and published in 1914.
Upward was brought up as a member of the Plymouth Brethren and trained as a lawyer at the Royal University of Dublin (now University College Dublin). While living in Dublin, he wrote a pamphlet in favour of Irish Home Rule.
Upward later worked for the British Foreign Office in Kenya as a judge. Back in Britain, he defended Havelock Wilson and other labour leaders and ran for election as a Lib/Lab candidate in the 1890s.
He wrote two books of poetry, Songs of Ziklag (1888) and Scented Leaves from a Chinese Jar. He also published a translation Sayings of Confucious and a volume of autobiography, Some Personalities (1921).
Upward wrote a number of now-forgotten novels: The Prince of Balkistan (1895), A Crown of Straw (1896), A Bride's Madness (1897), The Accused Princess (1900) (source: Duncan, p. xii), "''The International Spy: Being a Secret History of the Russo-Japanese War" (1905), and Athelstane Ford.
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Anaxagoras
Anaxagoras (Greek: Ἀναξαγόρας, Anaxagoras, "lord of the assembly"; c. 500 BC – 428 BC) was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. Born in Clazomenae in Asia Minor, Anaxagoras was the first philosopher to bring philosophy from Ionia to Athens. He attempted to give a scientific account of eclipses, meteors, rainbows, and the sun, which he described as a fiery mass larger than the Peloponnese. According to Diogenes Laertius and Plutarch he fled to Lampsacus due to a backlash against his pupil Pericles.
Anaxagoras is famous for introducing the cosmological concept of Nous (mind), as an ordering force. He regarded material substance as an infinite multitude of imperishable primary elements, referring all generation and disappearance to mixture and separation respectively.
Anaxagoras appears to have had some amount of property and prospects of political influence in his native town of Clazomenae in Asia Minor. However, he supposedly surrendered both of these out of a fear that they would hinder his search for knowledge. Valerius Maximus preserves a different tradition: Anaxagoras, coming home from a long voyage, found his property in ruin, and said: "If this had not perished, I would have." A sentence, denoted by Maximus, as being "possessed of sought-after wisdom!". Although a Greek, he may have been a soldier of the Persian army when Clazomenae was suppressed during the Ionian Revolt.
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Aristotle
Aristotle (Ancient Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης, Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. Aristotle's writings were the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality, aesthetics, logic, science, politics, and metaphysics.
Aristotle's views on the physical sciences profoundly shaped medieval scholarship, and their influence extended well into the Renaissance, although they were ultimately replaced by Newtonian physics. In the zoological sciences, some of his observations were confirmed to be accurate only in the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. In metaphysics, Aristotelianism had a profound influence on philosophical and theological thinking in the Islamic and Jewish traditions in the Middle Ages, and it continues to influence Christian theology, especially the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues (Cicero described his literary style as "a river of gold"), it is thought that the majority of his writings are now lost and only about one-third of the original works have survived.
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Bob Minton
Robert Schenk Minton (October 1946 – January 20, 2010) was a retired banker who helped Nigeria manage its debt and a former critic of Scientology.
Minton became a critic of Scientology after reading about its attacks on critics and internet free speech. He appeared on several news programs discussing his criticism of Scientology and the harassment from the church. This included a feature appearance on the June 16, 1998 broadcast of the television news program Dateline NBC. Later that year, he appeared in an A&E "Investigative Reports" installment called "Inside Scientology" which aired in December.
Minton spent over $10 million fighting Scientology. He also participated in demonstrations in front of the Boston Headquarters of the Church of Scientology near his Beacon Hill home.
After reports by Scientology alleging fraud in his Nigerian businesses, Minton successfully sued two German Scientology entities and a spokeswoman for a permanent injunction preventing them from repeating the libel. The decision was confirmed on appeal.
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Buddha
Gautama Buddha or Siddhārtha Gautama Buddha (Sanskrit: सिद्धार्थ गौतम बुद्ध; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual teacher from the Indian subcontinent, on whose teachings Buddhism was founded. The word Buddha is a title for the first awakened being in an era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as the Supreme Buddha (P. sammāsambuddha, S. samyaksaṃbuddha) of our age, "Buddha" meaning "awakened one" or "the enlightened one." Gautama Buddha may also be referred to as Śākyamuni (Sanskrit: शाक्यमुनि "Sage of the Śākyas"). The Buddha found a Middle Way that ameliorated the extreme asceticism found in the Sramana religions.
The time of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain: most early 20th-century historians dated his lifetime as c. 563 BCE to 483 BCE, but more recent opinion dates his death to between 486 and 483 BCE or, according to some, between 411 and 400 BCE. UNESCO lists Lumbini, Nepal, as a world heritage site and birthplace of Gautama Buddha. There are also claims about birth place of Gautama Buddha to be Kapileswara, Orissa or Kapilavastu at Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh He later taught throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kośala.
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Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy indigenous to the Indian subcontinent and encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs, and practices largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, who is commonly known as the Buddha (meaning "the awakened one" in Sanskrit and Pāli). The Buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. He is recognized by Buddhists as an awakened or enlightened teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end ignorance (avidyā), craving (taṇhā), and suffering (dukkha), by recognizing dependent origination and sunyata, and attain Nirvana.
Two major branches of Buddhism are recognized: Theravada ("The School of the Elders") and Mahayana ("The Great Vehicle"). Theravada has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana is found throughout East Asia and includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Shingon, Tiantai (Tendai) and Shinnyo-en. In some classifications, Vajrayana—practiced mainly in Tibet and Mongolia, and adjacent parts of China and Russia—is recognized as a third branch, while others classify it as a part of Mahayana. There are other categorisations of these three Vehicles or Yanas.
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Chick Corea
Armando Anthony "Chick" Corea (born June 12, 1941) is an American jazz pianist, keyboardist, and composer.
Many of his compositions are considered jazz standards. As a member of Miles Davis' band in the 1960s, he participated in the birth of the electric jazz fusion movement. In the 1970s he formed Return to Forever. Along with Herbie Hancock, McCoy Tyner and Keith Jarrett, he has been described as one of the major jazz piano voices to emerge in the post-John Coltrane era.
His career has been driven by his will to operate as a free agent and compulsively explore different avenues of music making. This hunger has positioned him as an important catalyst in the world of serious, mainstream acoustic jazz, and he is one of the most influential and widely studied figures in the last 40 years.
Corea continued to pursue other collaborations and to explore various musical styles throughout the 1980s and 1990s. He is also known for promoting and fundraising for a number of social issues, such as eradicating social illiteracy, and is a Scientologist.
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Confucius
Confucius (551–479 BC) was a Chinese teacher, editor, politician, and philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period of Chinese history.
The philosophy of Confucius emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice, and sincerity. His followers competed successfully with many other schools during the Hundred Schools of Thought era only to be suppressed in favor of the Legalists during the Qin Dynasty. Following the victory of Han over Chu after the collapse of Qin, Confucius's thoughts received official sanction and were further developed into a system known as Confucianism.
Confucius is traditionally credited with having authored or edited many of the Chinese classic texts including all of the Five Classics, but modern scholars are cautious of attributing specific assertions to Confucius himself. Aphorisms concerning his teachings were compiled in the Analects, but only many years after his death.
Confucius's principles had a basis in common Chinese tradition and belief. He championed strong family loyalty, ancestor worship, respect of elders by their children (and in traditional interpretations of husbands by their wives), and family as a basis for ideal government. He espoused the well-known principle "Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself", an early version of the Golden Rule.
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Dave Brubeck
David Warren "Dave" Brubeck (born December 6, 1920) is an American jazz pianist. He has written a number of jazz standards, including "In Your Own Sweet Way" and "The Duke". Brubeck's style ranges from refined to bombastic, reflecting his mother's attempts at classical training and his improvisational skills. His music is known for employing unusual time signatures, and superimposing contrasting rhythms, meters, and tonalities.
His long-time musical partner, alto saxophonist Paul Desmond, wrote the Dave Brubeck Quartet's best remembered piece, "Take Five", which is in 5/4 time and has endured as a jazz classic on the top-selling jazz album, Time Out. Brubeck experimented with time signatures throughout his career, recording "Pick Up Sticks" in 6/4, "Unsquare Dance" in 7/4, and "Blue Rondo à la Turk" in 9/8. He is also a respected composer of orchestral and sacred music, and wrote soundtracks for television such as Mr. Broadway and the animated mini-series This Is America, Charlie Brown.
Brubeck was born in Concord, California and grew up in Ione. He is of English (maternal), Swiss and possibly Native American Modoc Tribe multi-ethnic (paternal) ancestry His father, Howard "Pete" Brubeck, was a cattle rancher, and his mother, Elizabeth (née Ivey), who had studied piano in England under Myra Hess and intended to become a concert pianist, taught piano for extra money. Brubeck originally did not intend to become a musician (his two older brothers, Henry and Howard, were already on that track), but took lessons from his mother. He could not read sheet music during these early lessons, attributing this difficulty to poor eyesight, but "faked" his way through, well enough that this deficiency went mostly unnoticed.
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David G. Bromley
David G. Bromley (born 1941) is a professor of sociology at Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA and the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA. He has written extensively about "cults", new religious movements, apostasy, and the anti-cult movement.
Bromley received his B.A. in sociology (1963) from Colby College. He then obtained his M.A. (1966) and Ph.D. (1971) from Duke University.
He began his professional teaching career at the University of Virginia where he taught from 1968-1974. He then taught at the University of Texas at Austin (1976–1980), and Hartford University (1980–1983). Since 1983 he has held his professorial post at the University of Virginia and also at Virginia Commonwealth University.
His primary area of teaching and research is sociology of religion, with a specialization in religious movements especially new religious movements. He was also director of the Institute for Social Research at the University of Hartford and chairman of Department of Sociology and Anthropology at the University of Virginia.
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David Gaiman
David Bernard Gaiman (1933 – 7 March 2009) was head of the UK branch of Church of Scientology. He and his wife Sheila joined Scientology in the early 1960s and Gaiman served as public relations director and was commonly in the media during the British controversies over Scientology in the 1960s and 1970s.
Gaiman's family is of Polish Jewish origins; after emigrating from the Netherlands in 1916, his father eventually settled in the Hampshire city of Portsmouth on the south coast of England and established a chain of grocery stores. Born in 1933, Gaiman was educated at The Portsmouth Grammar School, though he did not excel academically. He subsequently joined the British Army where he rose to the rank of sergeant. He returned to Portsmouth on leaving the army to work for his father in the grocery stores, though he detested this job.
He married Sheila on March 1, 1959. He eventually decided to go into business for himself, much to his father's displeasure, and the family moved away from their home in Portchester in 1962.
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David Miscavige
David Miscavige (born April 30, 1960) is the leader of the Church of Scientology and affiliated organizations. His title is Chairman of the Board of Religious Technology Center (RTC), a corporation that controls the trademarked names and symbols of Dianetics and Scientology. Miscavige was an assistant to Hubbard (a "Commodore's messenger") while a teenager. He rose to a leadership position within the organization by the early 1980s and was named Chairman of the Board of RTC. Miscavige's mandate is to protect the works of L. Ron Hubbard from distortion or misuse, and to serve as ecclesiastical head of Scientology.
Since assuming his leadership position, Miscavige has been faced with press accounts alleging illegal and unethical practices, both personally and through his organizational management. These include reports of forced separation of family members, coercive fundraising practices, harassment of journalists and church critics, and public humiliation of church staff members, including physical assaults by Miscavige. Miscavige and church spokespeople have consistently denied these charges, often raising counter-charges that attack the credibility of the journalists and sources responsible for the critical accounts.
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Death of Kaja Ballo
Kaja Bordevich Ballo (1988 – March 28, 2008) was a university student in the French town of Nice; her father was Olav Gunnar Ballo, a member of the Norwegian Parliament. On March 28, 2008 Kaja Ballo took the personality test run by the Church of Scientology, and subsequently committed suicide. Family and friends stated that Ballo was happy prior to taking the test, and that her mood dramatically shifted after receiving the results. She committed suicide hours after getting the results of the test back; Ballo jumped from the fourth floor of her dorm room. In addition to a note, her family found the Scientology personality test among her belongings. French police investigated connections between Scientology and Ballo's death, and interviewed two leaders of the organization in France. Prosecutors stated in December 2008 that they were unable to establish a causative link between the Scientology test and Ballo's death.
A Scientology representative in France asserted that the Scientology personality test was not created by the Church of Scientology, and that it was not related to Ballo's death. The Church of Scientology's information chief in Norway, Matthias Fosse stated that the test was not dangerous and that the organization did not bear any responsibility for Ballo's death. Ballo's father retained a lawyer to investigate his daughter's death, and the family considered filing a lawsuit against Scientology. 500 people attended Ballo's funeral on April 11, 2008 at Grefsen Church in Oslo, Norway.
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Douglas E. Cowan
Douglas E. Cowan is a Canadian academic in religious studies and the sociology of religion and currently holds a teaching position at Renison College, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. Prior to this appointment he was Assistant Professor of Sociology & Religious Studies at the University of Missouri–Kansas City.
Cowan was born in Canada and received his undergraduate tertiary education at the University of Victoria where he was awarded the B.A. degree in English literature. He then proceeded to theological studies and received the M.Div (Honours) from St. Andrews Theological College. His doctoral work, which involved an examination of the Christian countercult movement through the prism of the sociology of knowledge and propaganda theory, was undertaken through the University of Calgary. His dissertation supervisor was Professor Irving Hexham, who in turn was a student of the eminent British scholar Ninian Smart, the founder of the first Religious Studies Department in Britain.
While Cowan currently describes himself as a methodological agnostic, he was ordained to the Christian ministry in the United Church of Canada, and held pastoral positions during his doctoral studies. After graduating with the Ph.D in 1999 Cowan received a joint appointment in the Department of Sociology/CJC and the UMKC Center for Religious Studies. During 2005 he relocated from the USA to his current teaching post at the University of Waterloo in Ontario, Canada.
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Dustin Hoffman
Dustin Lee Hoffman (born August 8, 1937) is an American actor with a career in film, television, and theatre since 1960. He has been known for his versatile portrayals of antiheroes and vulnerable characters.
He first drew critical praise for the play Eh?, for which he won a Theatre World Award and a Drama Desk Award. This was soon followed by his breakthrough movie role as the good-looking but troubled Benjamin Braddock in The Graduate (1967). Since then Hoffman's career has largely been focused on cinema, with only sporadic returns to television and the stage. Some of his most notable films are Papillon, Marathon Man, Midnight Cowboy, Little Big Man, Lenny, All the President's Men, Kramer vs. Kramer, Tootsie, Rain Man, Wag the Dog, and Meet the Fockers.
Hoffman has won two Academy Awards (for his performances in Kramer vs. Kramer and Rain Man), five Golden Globes, four BAFTAs, three Drama Desk Awards, a Genie Award, and an Emmy Award. Dustin Hoffman received the AFI Life Achievement Award in 1999.
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Edgar Winter
Edgar Holland Winter (born December 28, 1946) is an American musician. He is famous for being a multi-instrumentalist. He is a highly skilled keyboardist, saxophonist and percussionist. He often plays an instrument while singing. He was most successful in the 1970s with his band, The Edgar Winter Group, notably with their popular songs "Frankenstein" and "Free Ride". He has albinism.
Winter was born to John Winter II and Edith Winter on December 28, 1946, in Beaumont, Texas. Both he and his brother Johnny have albinism, and both were required to take special education classes in high school. Winter states, "In school I had a lot of friends. I wore a lot of white shirts to, like, blend in I guess. No one really gave me a hard time about being albino or taking special education classes. Then again, I wasn't really popular."
By the time Edgar Winter left his hometown of Beaumont, Texas, in the 1960s, he was already a proficient musician. A child prodigy who achieved international success early on, Edgar has found an audience in a number of major entertainment media, including music, film and television.
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Eric Blair
Eric Arthur Blair (25 June 1903 – 21 January 1950), better known by his pen name George Orwell, was an English novelist and journalist. His work is marked by keen intelligence and wit, a profound awareness of social injustice, an intense opposition to totalitarianism, a passion for clarity in language and a belief in democratic socialism.
Considered perhaps the 20th century's best chronicler of English culture, Orwell wrote literary criticism, poetry, fiction and polemical journalism. He is best known for the dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949) and the allegorical novella Animal Farm (1945), which together have sold more copies than any two books by any other 20th-century author. His book Homage to Catalonia (1938), an account of his experiences in the Spanish Civil War, is widely acclaimed, as are his numerous essays on politics, literature, language and culture. In 2008, The Times ranked him second on a list of "The 50 greatest British writers since 1945".
Orwell's influence on popular and political culture endures, and several of his neologisms, along with the term Orwellian—a byword for totalitarian or manipulative social practices—have entered the vernacular.
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Euclid
Euclid ( /ˈjuːklɪd/ EWK-lid; Ancient Greek: Εὐκλείδης Eukleidēs), fl. 300 BC, also known as Euclid of Alexandria, was a Greek mathematician, often referred to as the "Father of Geometry". He was active in Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy I (323–283 BC). His Elements is one of the most influential works in the history of mathematics, serving as the main textbook for teaching mathematics (especially geometry) from the time of its publication until the late 19th or early 20th century. In the Elements, Euclid deduced the principles of what is now called Euclidean geometry from a small set of axioms. Euclid also wrote works on perspective, conic sections, spherical geometry, number theory and rigor.
"Euclid" is the anglicized version of the Greek name Εὐκλείδης, meaning "Good Glory".
Little is known about Euclid's life, as there are only a handful of references to him. The date and place of Euclid's birth and the date and circumstances of his death are unknown, and only roughly estimated in proximity to contemporary figures mentioned in references. No likeness or description of Euclid's physical appearance made during his lifetime survived antiquity. Therefore, Euclid's depiction in works of art is the product of the artist's imagination.
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Forrest Ackerman
Forrest J Ackerman (born Forrest James Ackerman; November 24, 1916 – December 4, 2008) was an American collector of science fiction books and movie memorabilia and a science fiction fan. He was, for over seven decades, one of science fiction's staunchest spokesmen and promoters.
Ackerman was a Los Angeles, California-based magazine editor, science fiction writer and literary agent, a founder of science fiction fandom and possibly the world's most avid collector of genre books and movie memorabilia. He was the editor and principal writer of the American magazine Famous Monsters of Filmland, as well as an actor and producer (Vampirella).
Also called "Forry," "The Ackermonster," "4e" and "4SJ," Ackerman was central to the formation, organization, and spread of science fiction fandom, and a key figure in the wider cultural perception of science fiction as a literary, art and film genre. Famous for his word play and neologisms, he coined the genre nickname "sci-fi". In 1953, he was voted "#1 Fan Personality" by the members of the World Science Fiction Society, a unique Hugo Award never granted to anyone else.
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Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan (/ˈɡɛŋɡɪs ˈkɑːn/ or /ˈdʒɛŋɡɪs ˈkɑːn/,Mongol: [tʃiŋɡɪs xaːŋ] ( listen); 1162? – August 1227), born Temujin, was the founder and Great Khan (emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death.
He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia. After founding the Mongol Empire and being proclaimed "Genghis Khan", he started the Mongol invasions that resulted in the conquest of most of Eurasia. These included raids or invasions of the Kara-Khitan Khanate, Caucasus, Khwarezmid Empire, Western Xia and Jin dynasties. These campaigns were often accompanied by wholesale massacres of the civilian populations – especially in Khwarezmia. By the end of his life, the Mongol Empire occupied a substantial portion of Central Asia and China.
Before Genghis Khan died, he assigned Ögedei Khan as his successor and split his empire into khanates among his sons and grandsons. He died in 1227 after defeating the Western Xia. He was buried in an unmarked grave somewhere in Mongolia at an unknown location. His descendants went on to stretch the Mongol Empire across most of Eurasia by conquering or creating vassal states out of all of modern-day China, Korea, the Caucasus, Central Asian countries, and substantial portions of modern Eastern Europe, Russia and the Middle East. Many of these invasions resulted in the large-scale slaughter of local populations, which have given Genghis Khan and his empire a fearsome reputation in local histories.
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George D. Chryssides
Dr George D. Chryssides (born 1945) was a senior lecturer and Head of Religious Studies at the School of Humanities, Languages and Social Sciences of the University of Wolverhampton now working for Birmingham University.
Chryssides holds a M.A. in Philosophy and a B.D. in Systematic Theology from the University of Glasgow and a D.Phil. in Philosophy of Religion from the University of Oxford. He has a particular interest in new religious movements, on which he has published extensively.
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George Orwell
Eric Arthur Blair (25 June 1903 – 21 January 1950), better known by his pen name George Orwell, was an English novelist and journalist. His work is marked by keen intelligence and wit, a profound awareness of social injustice, an intense opposition to totalitarianism, a passion for clarity in language and a belief in democratic socialism.
Considered perhaps the 20th century's best chronicler of English culture, Orwell wrote literary criticism, poetry, fiction and polemical journalism. He is best known for the dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949) and the allegorical novella Animal Farm (1945), which together have sold more copies than any two books by any other 20th-century author. His book Homage to Catalonia (1938), an account of his experiences in the Spanish Civil War, is widely acclaimed, as are his numerous essays on politics, literature, language and culture. In 2008, The Times ranked him second on a list of "The 50 greatest British writers since 1945".
Orwell's influence on popular and political culture endures, and several of his neologisms, along with the term Orwellian—a byword for totalitarian or manipulative social practices—have entered the vernacular.
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Goldie Hawn
Goldie Jeanne Hawn (born November 21, 1945) is an American actress, film director, producer, and occasional singer. Hawn is known for her roles in Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In, Private Benjamin, Foul Play, Shampoo, Overboard, Bird on a Wire, Death Becomes Her, The First Wives Club, and Cactus Flower, for which she won the 1969 Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. She is the mother of actors Oliver and Kate Hudson. Hawn has maintained a relationship with actor Kurt Russell since 1983.
Hawn was born in Washington, D.C., the daughter of Laura (née Steinhoff), a jewelry shop/dance school owner, and Edward Rutledge Hawn, a band musician who played at major events in Washington. She was named after her mother's aunt. She has a sister, Patricia; her brother, Edward, died before she was born. Through her father, Hawn is a direct descendant of Edward Rutledge, the youngest signatory of the Declaration of Independence. Hawn was raised in Silver Spring, Maryland, where she went to Montgomery Blair High School. Her father was Presbyterian and her mother was Jewish, the daughter of immigrants from Hungary; Hawn had a Jewish upbringing.
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Guy Fawkes
Guy Fawkes (13 April 1570 – 31 January 1606), also known as Guido Fawkes, the name he adopted while fighting for the Spanish in the Low Countries, belonged to a group of provincial English Catholics who planned the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605.
Fawkes was born and educated in York. His father died when Fawkes was eight years old, after which his mother married a recusant Catholic. Fawkes later converted to Catholicism and left for the continent, where he fought in the Eighty Years' War on the side of Catholic Spain against Protestant Dutch reformers. He travelled to Spain to seek support for a Catholic rebellion in England but was unsuccessful. He later met Thomas Wintour, with whom he returned to England.
Wintour introduced Fawkes to Robert Catesby, who planned to assassinate King James I and restore a Catholic monarch to the throne. The plotters secured the lease to an undercroft beneath the House of Lords, and Fawkes was placed in charge of the gunpowder they stockpiled there. Prompted by the receipt of an anonymous letter, the authorities searched Westminster Palace during the early hours of 5 November, and found Fawkes guarding the explosives. Over the next few days, he was questioned and tortured, and eventually he broke. Immediately before his execution on 31 January, Fawkes jumped from the scaffold where he was to be hanged and broke his neck, thus avoiding the agony of the mutilation that followed.
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Heber Jentzsch
Heber Carl Jentzsch (born 1935) has served as president of the Church of Scientology International since 1982.
Heber Jentzsch grew up in a Mormon family, and identified himself as a "believing Mormon". He is the son of polygamist Carl Jentzsch (who was excommunicated from The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) and Carl's third wife Pauline; Heber has 42 siblings. While Heber Jentzsch was never baptized into The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, his first name was inspired by the Latter-day Saint apostle Heber C. Kimball.
Jentzsch was educated at Weber College in Ogden, Utah and the University of Utah, where he graduated in 1959 with a degree in communications. He also studied Eastern religions.
Before his involvement with Scientology, which he joined in 1967, Jentzsch was a journalist with the Los Angeles Free Press and an actor, having a bit part in the movie Paint Your Wagon. The Internet Movie Database lists Jentzsch with one credited acting appearance, a small part playing a Nazi in one episode of the 1960s television series Combat!, and with an uncredited role in the movie 1776.
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Helmut Kohl
Helmut Josef Michael Kohl (German pronunciation: [ˈhɛlmuːt ˈkoːl]; born 3 April 1930) is a German conservative politician and statesman. He was Chancellor of Germany from 1982 to 1998 (of West Germany between 1982 and 1990 and of the reunited Germany between 1990 and 1998) and the chairman of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) from 1973 to 1998. His 16-year tenure was the longest of any German chancellor since Otto von Bismarck and oversaw the end of the Cold War and the German reunification. Kohl is widely regarded as one of the main architects of the German reunification and, together with French President François Mitterrand, the Maastricht Treaty, which contributed to the creation of the European Union.
Kohl and Mitterrand were the joint recipients of the Karlspreis in 1988. In 1998, Kohl was named Honorary Citizen of Europe by the European heads of state or government for his extraordinary work for European integration and cooperation, an honour previously only bestowed on Jean Monnet. In 1996, he won the prestigious Prince of Asturias Award in International Cooperation.
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Herbert Spencer
Herbert Spencer (27 April 1820 – 8 December 1903) was an English philosopher, biologist, sociologist, and prominent classical liberal political theorist of the Victorian era.
Spencer developed an all-embracing conception of evolution as the progressive development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, and human culture and societies. He was "an enthusiastic exponent of evolution" and even "wrote about evolution before Darwin did." As a polymath, he contributed to a wide range of subjects, including ethics, religion, anthropology, economics, political theory, philosophy, biology, sociology, and psychology. During his lifetime he achieved tremendous authority, mainly in English-speaking academia. "The only other English philosopher to have achieved anything like such widespread popularity was Bertrand Russell, and that was in the 20th century." Spencer was "the single most famous European intellectual in the closing decades of the nineteenth century" but his influence declined sharply after 1900; "Who now reads Spencer?" asked Talcott Parsons in 1937.
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Interpol
Coordinates: 45°46′56″N 4°50′54″E / 45.78219°N 4.84838°E / 45.78219; 4.84838 The International Criminal Police Organization (ICPO), widely known as INTERPOL or Interpol, is an organization facilitating international police cooperation. It was established as the International Criminal Police Commission (ICPC) in 1923 and adopted its telegraphic address as its common name in 1956.
Its membership of 190 countries provides finance of around €59 million through annual contributions. The organization's headquarters is in Lyon, France. It is the second largest intergovernmental organization after the United Nations, in terms of number of member states.
Its current Secretary-General is Ronald Noble, a former United States Under Secretary of the Treasury for Enforcement. Its current President is Singapore's Senior Deputy Secretary of the Ministry of Home Affairs and former Commissioner of Police Khoo Boon Hui; the President before that, Jackie Selebi, National Commissioner of the South African Police Service, held his term from 2004 till his resignation on 13 January 2008, after which he was charged in South Africa on three counts of corruption and one of defeating the course of justice, and replaced by Arturo Herrera Verdugo, current National Commissioner of Investigations Police of Chile and former vice president for the American Zone, who remained acting president until the organization meeting in October 2008.
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Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton PRS MP (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727 [NS: 4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727]) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian, who has been "considered by many to be the greatest and most influential scientist who ever lived." His monograph Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, lays the foundations for most of classical mechanics. In this work, Newton described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, which dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. Newton showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws, by demonstrating the consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his theory of gravitation, thus removing the last doubts about heliocentrism and advancing the Scientific Revolution.
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J. Gordon Melton
John Gordon Melton (born September 19, 1942) is an American religious scholar who was the founding director of the Institute for the Study of American Religion and is currently a research specialist in religion and New Religious Movements with the Department of Religious Studies at the University of California, Santa Barbara. He is a Distinguished Senior Fellow at Baylor University's Institute for Studies of Religion.
He is the author of more than twenty-five books, including several encyclopedias, handbooks, and almanacs on American religion and new religious movements. He lives in Santa Barbara, California.
His areas of research include major religious traditions, new religions and alternative religions, Occultism and Parapsychology, New Age, and vampirology.
Some religious skeptics and orthodox believers have criticized Melton as an advocate for religious groups they strongly disapprove of.[who?]
Melton was born in Birmingham, Alabama, the son of Burnum Edgar Melton and Inez Parker. In 1964 he graduated from Birmingham Southern College with the B.A. degree and then proceeded to theological studies at Garrett Theological Seminary (M.Div., 1968). He married Dorothea Dudley in 1966, with one daughter born. The marriage ended in divorce in 1979.
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Jacob Neusner
Jacob Neusner (born July 28, 1932) is an American academic scholar of Judaism who lives in Rhinebeck, New York.
Born in Hartford, Connecticut, Neusner was educated at Harvard University, the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (where he received rabbinic ordination), the University of Oxford, and Columbia University.
Neusner is often celebrated as one of the most published authors in history (he has written or edited more than 950 books.) Since 1994, he has taught at Bard College. He has also taught at Columbia University, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Brandeis University, Dartmouth College, Brown University, and the University of South Florida.
Neusner is a member of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, and a life member of Clare Hall, Cambridge University. He is the only scholar to have served on both the National Endowment for the Humanities and the National Endowment for the Arts.[citation needed] He also has received scores of academic awards, honorific and otherwise.
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James A. Herrick
James A. Herrick (born October 6, 1954) is Professor of Communication at Hope College and author of books on rhetoric and on the history of religious ideas.
Herrick graduated with his BA from California State University in 1976. He then studied for his MA at University of California until 1979. His PhD was awarded by the University of Wisconsin in 1984. Since then he has taught at Hope College. He specialises in the areas of rhetoric and argumentation. Herrick is a Christian.
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James T. Richardson
James T. Richardson is a Professor of Sociology and Judicial Studies, and the Director of the Master of Judicial Studies Degree Program at the University of Nevada, Reno. Richardson specializes in social and behavioral science evidence, Sociology of Religions and New Religious Movements, Sociology of law, and Social movements. He is notably outspoken on high-profile cases such as Elizabeth Smart and Patty Hearst. He is a scientific critic of brainwashing theories.
Richardson received his BA in Sociology from Texas Tech University in 1965, MA in Sociology (Literature minor) from Texas Tech University in 1966, Ph.D. in Sociology (Computer Science minor) from Washington State University in 1968, and J.D. from Old College, Nevada School of Law in 1986. He has been an active teacher for 30 years, with most of the time being spent at the University of Nevada, Reno, where he is currently Professor of Sociology and Judicial Studies. He directs the Master of Judicial Studies Degree Program, which has nearly 100 trial judges working on degrees, and some 75 graduates. He also is the director or of the Justice Management Degree Program. He is on the faculty for the large Interdisciplinary Social Psychology Doctoral Program, and also teaches in the undergraduate and masters programs in Sociology.
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Jason Lee (actor)
Jason Michael Lee (born April 25, 1970) is an American actor and skateboarder known for his role as the title character on the NBC television series My Name is Earl, his portrayal of Syndrome in the film The Incredibles, his role as Dave Seville in the Alvin and the Chipmunks films, and his work with director Kevin Smith.
Lee was born in Orange County, California, the son of Carol and Greg Lee. He was raised in Huntington Beach, and attended Ocean View High School.[citation needed]
Lee was a prominent professional skateboarder in the late 1980s and early 1990s. He co-founded Stereo Skateboards with Chris Pastras in 1992, and the pair revived the company in 2003 after it had been defunct for several years. Lee and Tony Hawk were the first two skateboarders to receive a signature shoe with Airwalk. Lee later worked with Hawk when he lent his voice and likeness to the skateboarding video-game Tony Hawk's Project 8. Lee later appeared in another skateboarding video game in 2010 with Skate 3 as 'Coach Frank', a character created during development for Stereo.
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Jessica Feshbach
Jessica Feshbach (also known as Jessica Feshbach Rodriguez) is an American official within the Scientology organization. The daughter of an influential family within Scientology which gave millions of dollars to the organization, she attended The Delphian School in Oregon which uses techniques developed by the movement's founder L. Ron Hubbard. Her father, Joseph Feshbach, was an investor in Palo Alto, California who was profiled in a 1991 article in Time magazine about Scientology.
Feshbach joined the Scientology division Sea Org in 1994, an elite group described by the organization as occupying "the most essential and trusted positions in the senior churches in the Scientology hierarchy". She was characterized in 2005 by MSNBC as a "Senior Scientologist", and by Fox News Channel as "a high-level Scientologist"; in 2006 MSNBC described her as "a high-level Scientology practitioner and member of the church's influential Feshbach family".
In April 2005, Feshbach was transferred from her duties within the Sea Org in order to serve as an assistant to Tom Cruise in the capacity of attending to Katie Holmes. In this role she traveled with Holmes during publicity for the actresses's film roles, sat in on interviews, and responded to questions about Holmes from journalists. The cinema production studio Warner Bros. made special accommodations for Feshbach to accompany Holmes during promotion of the film Batman Begins. The two became best friends, and Feshbach later attended the wedding of Holmes to Cruise in Italy in 2006. Feshbach with Cruise and Holmes was a guest of honor at a Scientology function the Patron Ball held at Saint Hill Manor, the organization's headquarters in Britain.
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Jesus
Jesus ( /ˈdʒiːzəs/; Greek: Ἰησοῦς; 7–2 BC/BCE to 30–36 AD/CE), also referred to as Jesus Christ or simply Christ, is the central figure of Christianity and most Christian denominations venerate him as God the Son incarnated. In Islam, Jesus (in Arabic: عيسى in Islamic usage, commonly transliterated as Isa) is considered one of God's important prophets.
Most modern historians agree that Jesus existed and was a Jewish teacher from Galilee in Roman Judaea, who was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified in Jerusalem on the orders of the Roman Prefect, Pontius Pilate. Scholars have offered competing descriptions and portraits of Jesus, which at times share a number of overlapping attributes, such as a rabbi, a charismatic healer, the leader of an apocalyptic movement, a self-described Messiah, a sage and philosopher, or a social reformer who preached of the "Kingdom of God" as a means for personal and egalitarian social transformation. Scholars have correlated the New Testament accounts with non-Christian historical records to arrive at an estimated chronology of Jesus' life.
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Jews
The Jews (Hebrew: יְהוּדִים ISO 259-3 Yhudim Israeli pronunciation [jehuˈdim]), also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and an ethnoreligious group, originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation.Converts to Judaism, whose status as Jews within the Jewish ethnos is equal to those born into it, have been absorbed into the Jewish people throughout the millennia.
In Jewish tradition, Jewish ancestry is traced to the Biblical patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the second millennium BCE. The modern State of Israel defines itself as a Jewish state in its Basic Laws, and Israel's Law of Return states: "Every Jew has the right to come to this country as an oleh." Israel is the only country where Jews are a majority of the population. Jews achieved political autonomy twice before in ancient history. The first of these periods lasted from 1350 to 586 BCE, and encompassed the periods of the Judges, the United Monarchy, and the Divided Monarchy of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah, ending with the destruction of the First Temple. The second was the period of the Hasmonean Kingdom spanning from 140 to 37 BCE. Since the destruction of the First Temple, most Jews have lived in diaspora. A minority in every country in which they live (except Israel), they have frequently experienced persecution throughout history, resulting in a population that has fluctuated both in numbers and distribution over the centuries.
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John Travolta
John Joseph Travolta (born February 18, 1954) is an American actor, dancer, and singer. Travolta first became known in the 1970s, after appearing on the television series Welcome Back, Kotter and starring in the box office successes Saturday Night Fever and Grease. Travolta's acting career declined in the early 1980s and continued to deteriorate for the rest of the decade. His career enjoyed a resurgence in the 1990s with his role in Pulp Fiction, and he has since continued starring in Hollywood films, including Face/Off, Ladder 49, and Wild Hogs. Travolta was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actor for Saturday Night Fever and Pulp Fiction. He won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy for his performance in Get Shorty.
Travolta, the youngest of six children, was born and raised in Englewood, New Jersey, an inner-ring suburb of New York City. His father, Salvatore Travolta (November 1912 – May 1995), was a semi-professional American football player turned tire salesman and partner in a tire company. His mother, Helen Cecilia (née Burke, January 1912 – December 1978), was an actress and singer who had appeared in The Sunshine Sisters, a radio vocal group, and acted and directed before becoming a high school drama and English teacher. His siblings, Joey, Ellen, Ann, Margaret, and Sam Travolta, have all acted. His father was a second-generation Italian American and his mother was Irish American; he grew up in an Irish-American neighborhood and has said that his household was predominantly Irish in culture. He was raised Roman Catholic, but converted to Scientology in 1975.
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Karin Pouw
Karin Pouw is an American spokeswoman for the Church of Scientology, and currently the Director of Public Affairs for Church of Scientology International. In 2000 the Los Angeles Times reported that she was a member of the Church of Scientology's Office of Special Affairs (OSA).
Pouw is a spokeswoman for the Church of Scientology, and the Director of Public Affairs for Church of Scientology International. In 2000 the Los Angeles Times reported that she was a member of the Church of Scientology's Office of Special Affairs (OSA), which she said functions as a "public affairs office". In 1997 she was a public affairs officer for the Church of Scientology. She resides in Los Angeles, California.
Pouw has spoken out against activists and former Scientologists who publicly criticize Scientology. When Carnegie Mellon University professor David S. Touretzky spoke to the press about the Scientology-affiliated organization Applied Scholastics, Pouw said: "He is discredited in the field that he's trying to comment on. He is a specialist in rat brains." Scientology critic Arnaldo Lerma told The Washington Post that he left the Church of Scientology because he fell in love with one of Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard's daughters, but Pouw said Lerma "left the Church because he could not maintain the ethical standards required of Scientologists". She has also questioned why former Scientologist Lawrence Wollersheim's organization Fight Against Coercive Tactics Network (FACTnet) should have non-profit, tax-exempt status. "Wollersheim has been trying to con the church and the general public for 20 years. We recognized him for what he is and expelled him from the church. Now the law has finally caught up with him," she said after United States Marshals seized computers and documents critical of Scientology from Wollersheim's home after Scientology officials alleged that he was posting copyrighted material to the Internet.
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Katie Holmes
Kate Noelle "Katie" Holmes (born December 18, 1978) is an American actress who first achieved fame for her role as Joey Potter on The WB television teen drama Dawson's Creek from 1998 to 2003. Her movie roles have included the blockbuster Batman Begins along with art house films such as The Ice Storm and thrillers including Abandon. She has also played on Broadway in a production of Arthur Miller's All My Sons. She achieved worldwide celebrity for her marriage to Tom Cruise, with whom she has a daughter, Suri.
Holmes was born in Toledo, Ohio. She is the fourth daughter and youngest child of five children born to Kathleen (née Stothers), a homemaker and philanthropist, and Martin Joseph Holmes, Sr., an attorney specializing in divorces, She has three older sisters and one older brother: Tamera, Holly Ann, Martin Joseph, Jr., and Nancy Kay.
Holmes is of Russian, German, English and Irish ancestry and was baptized a Roman Catholic. She attended Christ the King Church and parochial schools in Toledo. She graduated from the all-female Notre Dame Academy (also her mother's alma mater), where Katie was a 4.0 student. At St. John's Jesuit, a nearby all-male high school, Holmes appeared in school musicals, playing a waitress in Hello, Dolly! and Lola in Damn Yankees. She scored 1310 out of 1600 on her SAT and was accepted to Columbia University (and attended for a summer session); her father wanted her to be a doctor.
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Keith Henson
Howard Keith Henson (born 1942) is an American electrical engineer and writer on life extension, cryonics, memetics and evolutionary psychology.
In 1975, he and his then-wife Carolyn Meinel founded the L5 Society, which promoted space colonization and which was eventually folded into the National Space Society. More recently, Henson's outspoken criticism of the Church of Scientology and subsequent criminal proceedings have gained him headlines.
Keith Henson was raised as an "army brat” attending seven schools before 7th grade. His father, Lt. Col. Howard W. Henson (1909–2001), was a decorated US Army officer who spent much of his career in Army Intelligence. The science-fiction author Robert A. Heinlein played a major role in influencing his early life. Henson graduated from Prescott High School shortly after his father retired, before attending the University of Arizona and receiving a degree in Electrical Engineering.
Henson was known at the University of Arizona as one of the founders of the Druid Student Center, where a campus humor newspaper, The Frumious Bandersnatch was published in the late 1960s. He later cited an incident that occurred in his student days as a good example of memetic replication. When asked to fill in a form that required him to disclose his religious affiliations he wrote Druid. His prank was soon noticed by other students and before long almost 20% of the student body had registered themselves as Reform Druids, Orthodox Druids, Members of the Church of the nth Druid, Zen Druids, Latter-Day Druids and so on. The university was forced to remove the religious affiliation question, breaking the chain of replication and variation.
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Kendrick Moxon
Kendrick Lichty Moxon is a Scientology official and an attorney with the law firm Moxon & Kobrin. He practices in Los Angeles, California, and is a lead counsel for the Church of Scientology. Moxon received a B.A. from American University in 1972, and a J.D. degree from George Mason University in 1981. He was admitted to the Washington, D.C. bar association in 1984, and the State Bar of California in 1987. Moxon's early work for the Church of Scientology involved legal affairs, and he also held the title of "reverend". He worked out of the Scientology intelligence agency known as the Guardian's Office (GO), and was named as an unindicted co-conspirator after the Federal Bureau of Investigation's investigation into criminal activities by Scientology operatives called "Operation Snow White". An evidence stipulation in the case signed by both parties stated he had provided false handwriting samples to the FBI; Moxon has since said that he did not "knowingly supply" false handwriting samples.
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Kirstie Alley
Kirstie Louise Alley (born January 12, 1951) is an American actress known for her role in the TV show Cheers, in which she played Rebecca Howe from 1987–1993, winning an Emmy Award and a Golden Globe Award as the Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series in 1991. She is also known for her role in the thriller Shoot to Kill and the Look Who's Talking film series as Mollie Ubriacco. More recently, Alley has appeared in reality shows revolving around her life.
Kirstie Alley was born in Wichita, Kansas, the daughter of Lillian Mickie (née Heaton), a homemaker, and Robert Deal Alley, who owned a lumber company. She has two siblings, Colette and Craig. Alley attended Wichita Southeast High School, graduating in 1969. She attended college at Kansas State University in 1969. In 1981, a car accident caused by a drunk driver killed her mother and left her father seriously injured. Her father eventually recovered. Kirstie came to Los Angeles to work as an interior designer and appeared as a contestant on the popular game show Match Game, where she won multiple games. She also appeared on the game show Password Plus in 1980.
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Kurt Weiland
Kurt Weiland is a native of Austria and an executive in the Church of Scientology International. He is director of external affairs for the Church of Scientology's Office of Special Affairs, and Scientology's vice president of communications. He is a member of the organization's board of directors, and handles government, legal and public affairs for Scientology. He has often represented Scientology to the press as a media spokesman. Weiland works out of the Church of Scientology's offices in Los Angeles, California.
In 1984 Weiland was a member of the Church of Scientology's Religious Technology Center, and performed work for the organization in Santa Barbara, California. Weiland was executive director of Scientology's Office of Special Affairs in 1994, and was responsible for its international legal affairs and public relations. In December 1994 he prevented Richard Leiby, a reporter for The Washington Post, from attending a luncheon at the National Press Club sponsored by the Church of Scientology International. Weiland did not allow Leiby to enter the First Amendment Lounge, and told him: "You seem to make a living by writing falsehoods." "We know that you used to work in Clearwater, and we know exactly what you wrote," Weiland said to Leiby.
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L. Ron Hubbard
Lafayette Ronald Hubbard (March 13, 1911 – January 24, 1986), better known as L. Ron Hubbard (and often referred to by his initials, LRH or as Elron), was an American pulp fiction author and the founder of the Church of Scientology. After establishing a career as a writer, becoming best known for his science fiction and fantasy stories, he developed a self-help system called Dianetics which was first published in May 1950. He subsequently developed his ideas into a wide-ranging set of doctrines and rituals as part of a new religious movement that he called Scientology. His writings became the guiding texts for the Church of Scientology and a number of affiliated organizations that address such diverse topics as business administration, literacy and drug rehabilitation.
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Lawrence Wollersheim
Lawrence Dominick Wollersheim is a former Scientologist. He sued the Church of Scientology in 1980. The story of Xenu was made public when Church materials detailing the Operating Thetan Level 3 were used as exhibits.
In 1986, a jury awarded Wollersheim $5 million in compensatory damages and $25 million in punitive damages for what jurors called intentional and negligent "infliction of emotional distress." On appeal this was reduced to $2.5 million. Scientology officials vowed never to pay, and the phrase "not one thin dime for Wollersheim," was chanted by Scientologists at court hearings. The church challenged the $2.5 million award, but the case was dismissed and Wollersheim was awarded an additional $130,506.71 in attorney's fees.
In their 1991 appeal, the Church of Scientology said that "Fair Game" was a "core practice of Scientology", and protected as "religious expression". This was also stated by Scientology attorneys in the case against Gerald Armstrong, in 1984, by religious expert Frank K. Flinn.
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Leah Remini
Leah Marie Remini (born June 15, 1970) is an American actress and model. She is best known for her role as Carrie Heffernan on the CBS sitcom The King of Queens and as Stacey Carosi on the NBC sitcom Saved by the Bell. She was also one of the co-hosts on daytime CBS network talk show/series, The Talk, before being released in 2011.
Leah Remini was born in Bensonhurst, Brooklyn, New York City, the daughter of Vicki Marshall, a private school teacher, and George Remini, who owned an asbestos removal company. Her mother is of Austrian Jewish background and her father was Sicilian. Remini has an older sister, Nicole Remini (born 1969), who was her assistant on The King of Queens. She also has four half-sisters, including Christina (born 1969).
Remini moved to Los Angeles at the age of 13 with her mother. When Remini was 14, she left school and worked as a hostess at a restaurant while auditioning for acting jobs.
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Leisa Goodman
Leisa Goodman, as of 2005, served as the Human Rights Director for the Church of Scientology International. She had previously served as a spokesperson for the Church of Scientology, and as its media relations director.
In her capacity as media relations director she managed Church of Scientology websites, presented the church's viewpoints about its conflict with critics on the Internet to the media, and traveled to Germany on a six-month fact finding mission to investigate the country's treatment of Scientologists. She went to Clearwater, Florida with Scientology's general counsel Elliot Abelson and then-head of the Church of Scientology's Office of Special Affairs, Mike Rinder, to attend a counter-protest against critics protesting outside the Fort Harrison Hotel. She works out of Los Angeles, California, and has served as Scientology's Human Rights Director since 1997.
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Lisa Marie Presley
Lisa Marie Presley (born February 1, 1968) is an American singer and songwriter, also known as the "Princess of Rock and Roll". She is the only child of Elvis Presley, and daughter of Priscilla Presley.
Lisa Marie Presley was born at Baptist Memorial Hospital in Memphis, Tennessee, exactly nine months after her parents' wedding. She lived at Graceland, Elvis' Memphis estate, until her parents separated in 1972. Following their separation and subsequent divorce, she divided her time between living at Graceland with her father and in Beverly Hills with her mother. This arrangement continued until her father died on August 16, 1977, after which she lived exclusively in Beverly Hills.
When her father died, Lisa Marie became joint-heir to his estate with her grandfather Vernon Presley, and her great grandmother Minnie Mae Presley. Following the deaths of Vernon in 1979 and Minnie Mae in 1980, Lisa became the sole heir and inherited Graceland. In 1993, on her 25th birthday, she inherited the estate, which had grown to an estimated $100 million.
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Lisa McPherson
Lisa McPherson (February 10, 1959 – December 5, 1995) was a member of the Church of Scientology who died of a pulmonary embolism while under the care of the Flag Service Organization (FSO), a branch of the Church of Scientology. Following the report of the state's medical examiner that indicated that Lisa was a victim of negligent homicide, the Church of Scientology was indicted on two felony charges, "abuse and/or neglect of a disabled adult" and "practising medicine without a license."
The charges against the Church of Scientology were dropped after the state's medical examiner changed the cause of death from "undetermined" to an "accident" on June 13, 2000. A civil suit brought by her family against the Church was settled on May 28, 2004.
In 1994, Lisa McPherson, who became a Scientology adherent at age 18, moved from Dallas, Texas, to Clearwater, Florida, with her employer, AMC Publishing, which was at that time owned by Bennetta Slaughter and operated and staffed primarily by Scientologists. During June 1995, the church placed Lisa in an "introspection rundown" due to perceived mental instability. Lisa completed the rundown, and she attested to the state of Clear in September.
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Lloyd Eshbach
Lloyd Arthur Eshbach (June 20, 1910-October 29, 2003) was an American science fiction fan, publisher and writer, secular and religious publisher, and minister.
Born in Palm, Pennsylvania, Eshbach grew up in Reading. He discovered science fiction at age 15 and began writing letters to the professional magazines, then started to write his own stories. The third story he wrote sold to Science Wonder Stories in 1929. While still writing his own stories and articles, he published two short-lived magazines in the early 1930s, Marvel Tales and The Galleon. He founded Fantasy Press, a small press which published the work of authors such as E. E. Smith, Jack Williamson, Robert A. Heinlein and John W. Campbell, Jr.. Fantasy Press published 32 books between 1946 and 1950, in limited print runs averaging 3,750 copies each. These constituted the first hardcover editions of many of these works, previously available only in used copies of magazines. Eschbach later formed Polaris Press in 1952 to publish 2 more books.
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Mandaeism
Mandaeism or Mandaeanism (Modern Mandaic: Mandaʻiūtā (מנדעיותא); Arabic: مندائية Mandāʼīyah/Mandāʾiyyah; Persian: مندائیان Mandâ'iyân) is a gnostic religion[citation needed] (Aramaic manda means "knowledge", as does Greek gnosis) with a strongly dualistic worldview.
Its adherents, the Mandaeans, revere Adam, Abel, Seth, Enosh, Noah, Shem, Aram and especially John the Baptist, but reject Jesus of Nazareth and are hostile to Christianity. They are sometimes identified with mentions in the Quran of the Sabian religion, particularly in an Arabian context, but the Sabian religious community is extinct today.
According to most scholars, Mandaeans migrated from the Southern Levant to Mesopotamia in the first centuries CE and are certainly of pre-Arab and pre-Islamic origin. They are Semites and speak a dialect of Eastern Aramaic known as Mandaic. They may well be related to the "Nabateans of Iraq" who were pagan, Aramaic speaking indigenous pre-Arab and pre-Islamic inhabitants of southern Iraq.
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Manichaeism
Manichaeism ( /ˈmænɨkiːɪzəm/; in Modern Persian آیین مانی Āyin e Māni; Chinese: 摩尼教; pinyin: Móní Jiào) was a major gnostic religion, originating in Sassanid era Babylonia. Although most of the original writings of the founding prophet Mani (in Persian: مانی, Syriac: ܡܐܢܝ, Latin: Manichaeus or Manes) (c. 216–276 CE) have been lost, numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived.
Manichaeism taught an elaborate cosmology describing the struggle between a good, spiritual world of light, and an evil, material world of darkness. Through an ongoing process which takes place in human history, light is gradually removed from the world of matter and returned to the world of light from which it came. Its beliefs, based on local Mesopotamian gnostic and religious movements, contained elements of Christianity, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism.
Manichaeism thrived between the third and seventh centuries, and at its height was one of the most widespread religions in the world. Manichaean churches and scriptures existed as far east as China and as far west as the Roman Empire. It was widespread among the legions of the Roman Empire, who considered it a soldier's religion, and it was briefly the main rival to Christianity in the competition to replace classical paganism. Manichaeism survived longer in the East than in the West, and it appears to have finally faded away after the 14th century in southern China, contemporary to the decline in China of the Church of the East – see Ming Dynasty.
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Mark Rathbun
Mark "Marty" C. Rathbun was Inspector General of the Religious Technology Center (RTC), the organization that controls the copyrights and trademarks of the materials relating to Dianetics and Scientology. His role was to head the Inspector General Network, described by the Church of Scientology as "an independent investigatory and policing body whose function is to keep Scientology working by ensuring the pure and ethical use of Dianetics and Scientology technology." The post is one of the most senior management functions in the Church and its related organizations. Rathbun left the Church of Scientology in 2004 and is now an independent Scientologist.
According to his official biography, Rathbun became a Church staff member in 1978, and joined the RTC board in 1987. The biography also credits him with having played a major role in various Church victories, including the negotiation of the Church's tax exemption agreement with the Internal Revenue Service in 1993. In 1998, Florida newspaper the St. Petersburg Times described Rathbun as "top lieutenant" to Scientology leader David Miscavige.
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Mazdak
Mazdak (in Persian مزدک) (died c. 524 or 528) was a proto-socialistPersian reformer and religious activist who gained influence under the reign of the Sassanian Shahanshah Kavadh I. He claimed to be a prophet of God, and instituted communal possessions and social welfare programs.
Mazdak was the chief representative of a religious and philosophical teaching called Mazdakism, which he viewed as a reformed and purified version of Zoroastrianism, although his teaching has been argued to display influences from Manichaeism as well. Zoroastrianism was the dominant religion of Sassanid Persia, and Mazdak himself was a Zoroastrian priest, or mobed, but most of the Zoroastrian clergy regarded his teaching as a heresy. Information about it is scarce and little is known beyond what is listed below; some further details may be inferred from the later doctrine of Khurramism, which has been seen as a continuation of Mazdakism.
Some sources claim that the original founders of this sect lived earlier than Mazdak. These were another mobed named Zardusht (of the same name, but not the same person as the founder of Zoroastrianism) and/or a Zoroastrian philosopher known as Mazdak the Elder, who taught a combination of altruism and hedonism: "he directed his followers to enjoy the pleasures of life and satisfy their appetite in the highest degree with regard to eating and drinking in the spirit of equality,to aim at good deeds; to abstain from shedding blood and inflicting harm on others; and to practice hospitality without reservation". This doctrine was further developed by the best known Mazdak, Mazdak the Younger, son of Bāmdād. At later stages the opposition to Mazdak blamed them for heresy and sharing women etc. which is not true. They are considered to be the first real socialists of human history who emphasized the community work and benefits for all.
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Michelle Stith
Michelle Stith, née Henderson, also known as Chel Stith, is as of August 6, 2005 President of the Church of Scientology of Los Angeles branch of the Church of Scientology in the U.S. state of California. Stith has been quoted in the press answering questions about Scientology and its practices. According to Scientology publications, Stith has attained the Operating Thetan level of "OT III Expanded". In 2005, she stated that she had been a member of Scientology for thirty-four years.
Stith commented on the 2004 production of A Very Merry Unauthorized Children's Scientology Pageant, stating that Scientology did not want to protest the theatre production, and was quoted as saying "This is not litigation material."
In July 2005, Stith defended Scientology in media sources, after the Tom Cruise incident with Matt Lauer on The Today Show where Brooke Shields' use of medication for postpartum depression was discussed. Stith called criticism by the media "hogwash", and stated "This is a very practical religion." In August 2005, Stith was quoted as asserting that Scientology has 40,000 members in the Los Angeles area alone. In 2005, Stith has asserted that Scientology has grown more internationally in the past five years, than in all previous years combined, and that its current membership numbered 10 million.
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Mike Rinder
Michael "Mike" Rinder (born 1955) is an Australian Scientologist who was a former chief spokesman of the Church of Scientology. Rinder served as Executive Director of the Office of Special Affairs and was a director of the Church of Scientology International. However, after becoming dissatisfied with how he believed the Church was propagating Scientology, and believing that they had become excessively authoritarian, he left the Church in 2007, instead becoming an independent Scientologist.
Rinder is an Australian national who joined the Sea Org on the Apollo at 18. In a 2006 interview with Rolling Stone, Rinder said he had experienced discrimination in Australia during the period when the Australian state of Victoria had banned Scientology: "You couldn't own Scientology books ... If you did, you had to hide them because if the police came and found them, they'd take them away." During his time as Executive Director, he served as Church spokesman in countless interviews with newspapers and television outlets.
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Mohammed
Muhammad (c. 26 April 570 – 8 June 632; also transliterated as Mohammad, Mohammed, or Muhammed; Arabic: محمد), full name: Muhammad Ibn `Abd Allāh Ibn `Abd al-Muttalib (Arabic: محمد بن عبدالله بن عبد المطلب ) was a leader from Mecca who unified the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity under Islam. He is believed by Muslims and Bahá'ís to be a messenger and prophet of God. Muslims believe that Islam was not his own invention but was revealed by God, and most consider him to be the last prophet of God Muslims thus consider him the restorer of an uncorrupted original monotheistic faith (islām) of Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and other prophets.
Born in 570 CE in the Arabian city of Mecca, he was orphaned at an early age and brought up under the care of his uncle Abu Talib. He later worked mostly as a merchant, as well as a shepherd, and was first married by age 25. Being in the habit of periodically retreating to a cave in the surrounding mountains for several nights of meditation and prayer, he later reported that it was there, at age 40, that he received his first revelation from God. Three years after this event Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly, proclaiming that "God is One", that complete "surrender" to Him (lit. islām) is the only way (dīn) acceptable to God, and that he himself was a prophet and messenger of God, in the same vein as other Islamic prophets.
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Nancy Cartwright
Nancy Cartwright (born October 25, 1957) is an American film and television actress, comedian and voice artist. She is best known for her long-running role as Bart Simpson on the animated television series The Simpsons. Cartwright voices other characters for the show, including Nelson Muntz, Ralph Wiggum, Todd Flanders, Kearney, and Database.
Born in Dayton, Ohio, Cartwright moved to Hollywood in 1978 and trained alongside voice actor Daws Butler. Her first professional role was voicing Gloria in the animated series Richie Rich, which she followed with a starring role in the television movie Marian Rose White (1982) and her first feature film, Twilight Zone: The Movie (1983).
After continuing to search for acting work, in 1987 Cartwright auditioned for a role in a series of animated shorts about a dysfunctional family that was to appear on The Tracey Ullman Show. Cartwright intended to audition for the role of Lisa Simpson, the middle child; when she arrived at the audition, she found the role of Bart—Lisa's brother—to be more interesting. Matt Groening, the series' creator, allowed her to audition for Bart and offered her the role on the spot. She voiced Bart for three seasons on The Tracey Ullman Show, and in 1989, the shorts were spun off into a half-hour show called The Simpsons. For her subsequent work as Bart, Cartwright received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice-Over Performance in 1992 and an Annie Award for Best Voice Acting in the Field of Animation in 1995.
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Nick Xenophon
Nicholas "Nick" Xenophon (born Nicholas Xenophou 29 January 1959) is a South Australian barrister, anti-gambling campaigner and politician. He attended Prince Alfred College, and studied law at the University of Adelaide, attaining his Bachelor of Laws in 1981. Xenophon established and became principal of his own law firm, Xenophon & Co. in 1984. Between 1994 and 1997 he served as president of the South Australian branch of the Australian Plaintiff Lawyers' Association.
No Pokies, the name of his independent ticket in the South Australian Legislative Council, garnered 2.9 percent of the statewide vote at the 1997 state election electing himself on preferences, and 20.5 percent at the 2006 election (or 2.5 quotas), which was unexpected by political commentators. He was elected to the Australian Senate at the 2007 federal election, receiving 14.8 percent. This was still over one full Senate quota, gaining election without the need for preferences. Xenophon shared the balance of power with the Greens and Family First during the 2008–11 Senate parliamentary session, with the Greens holding the sole balance of power since July 2011. Whilst his original 1997 platform centred on anti-pokies, he has since become an advocate in many other areas. Xenophon has been reported in the media as "left-of-centre", while Hansard reveals that Xenophon and the Greens have found common ground on a number of issues.
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Olav Hammer
Olav Hammer, (born 1958), is a Swedish professor at the University of Southern Denmark in Odense working in the field of history of religion. He has written four books in Swedish and one monograph Claiming Knowledge: Strategies of Epistemology from Theosophy to the New Age (2001) in English. This volume which was also Hammer's doctoral dissertation (in the year 2000 at Lund University) investigates the rhetorical strategies of legitimization of a number of related new religious movements. He is also editor of several books, including Polemical Encounters (with Kocku von Stuckrad, Brill 2007), The Invention of Sacred Tradition (with James R. Lewis, Cambridge UP 2007) and Alternative Christs (Cambridge UP 2009). Since January 2009, he is also the editor of the journal Numen.
In 2002 the title of årets folkbildare in Sweden was bestowed on Hammer (an honor which could best be translated as "Public educator of the year"), by the society Föreningen Vetenskap och Folkbildning "for his balanced and pedagogical books about the history of new religions and the causes behind people's beliefs in pseudoscience."
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Paul Finkelman
Paul Finkelman (born 15 November 1949 in Brooklyn, New York) is an American historian and legal scholar. He is the President William McKinley Distinguished Professor of Law and Public Policy, and Senior Fellow in the Government Law Center at Albany Law School in Albany, NY. Finkelman lives in Slingerlands, New York.
Called an "excellent legal historian", Finkelman has served as an expert witness against Alabama Supreme Court Chief Justice Roy Moore in Glassroth v. Moore (Al. 2002), the "Ten Commandments" case. He was an expert witness for the plaintiff in Popov v. Hayashi (S.F. Sup. Ct. CA, 2002), to determine who owned Barry Bonds's 73rd home run ball. Professor Finkelman has also been part of amicus curie briefs for cases related to Guantanamo Bay detainment camp and gay marriage in New York State.
Finkelman has published more than 20 books and hundreds of scholarly articles. His interests include slavery, race, civil rights, civil liberties, the United States Constitution, Constitutional Law, and baseball. In 2007 Finkelman was listed as one the ten most-cited legal historians in Brian Leiter's Survey of "Most Cited Law Professors by Specialty, 2000-2007".
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Robert Vaughn Young
Robert Vaughn Young (April 23, 1938 - June 15, 2003) commonly known by his initials RVY, was a whistleblower against the Church of Scientology after working high inside their organization for over twenty years.
Of his years with the Church, RVY said:
I have held nearly every type of position at every echelon. I have worked at the local, the regional, the national and the international levels. I have been a Scientology representative and spokesman before governmental bodies, the media and the courts. I have trained others on how to handle the media and governmental agencies. I have been the most senior public relations executive for Scientology world wide. I worked for years at the echelon that handles critics, "enemies," the media, judges, the courts and the government. I have been privy to documents and tactics of the most secret nature, including illegalities committed by Scientology executives and the means of cover-up.
He was a national spokesman for the church.
RVY edited L. Ron Hubbard's ten-volume Mission Earth series. Young said that Hubbard had written the main text of the series, but that he had ghostwritten the introduction of each volume, as well as other writings in Hubbard's name.
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Roland Robertson
Roland Robertson( born 1938-) is a sociologist and theorist of globalization, who lectures at the University of Aberdeen in Scotland, United Kingdom. President, Association for the Sociology of Religion, 1988.
Robertson's theories have focused significantly on a more phenomenological and psycho-social approach than that of more materialist oriented theorists such as Immanuel Wallerstein or Fredric Jameson. For Robertson, the most interesting aspect of our modern (or postmodern) era is the way in which a global consciousness has developed. He lays down a progression of "phases" that capture the central aspects of different eras in global history, asserting that we have entered the fifth phase, that of Global Uncertainty.
Robertson's main works are Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture (1992) and the edited volume Global Modernities. In Globalization... he was the first sociologist to define the term globalization (as “the compression of the world and the intensification of the consciousness of the world as a whole”). His definition was based on the Japanese business term glocalization, which he introduced into Western social science discourse.
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Samaritan
The Samaritans (Hebrew: שומרונים Shomronim, Arabic: السامريون as-Sāmariyyūn) are an ethnoreligious group of the Levant. Religiously the Samaritans are adherents of Samaritanism, an Abrahamic religion closely related to Judaism. Based on the Samaritan Torah, Samaritans claim their worship is the true religion of the ancient Israelites prior to the Babylonian Exile, preserved by those who remained in the Land of Israel, as opposed to Judaism, which they assert is a related but altered and amended religion brought back by those returning from exile.
Ancestrally, Samaritans claim descent from a group of Israelite inhabitants from the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh (the two sons of Joseph) as well as some descendants from the priestly tribe of Levi, who have connections to ancient Samaria from the period of their entry into the land of Canaan, while some suggest that it was from the beginning of the Babylonian Exile up to the Samaritan Kingdom of Baba Rabba. The Samaritans, however, derive their name not from this geographical designation, but rather from the Hebrew term Shamerim שַמֶרִים, "Keepers [of the Law]".
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Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud (German pronunciation: [ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt]), born Sigismund Schlomo Freud (6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939), was an Austrian neurologist who founded the discipline of psychoanalysis. Freud's family and ancestry were Jewish. Freud always considered himself a Jew even though he rejected Judaism and had a critical view of religion. Freud's parents were poor, but ensured his education. Freud was an outstanding pupil in high school, and graduated the Matura with honors in 1873. Interested in philosophy as a student, Freud later turned away from it and became a neurological researcher into cerebral palsy, Aphasia and microscopic neuroanatomy.
Freud went on to develop theories about the unconscious mind and the mechanism of repression, and established the field of verbal psychotherapy by creating psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient (or "analysand") and a psychoanalyst. Though psychoanalysis has declined as a therapeutic practice, it has helped inspire the development of many other forms of psychotherapy, some diverging from Freud's original ideas and approach. Freud postulated the existence of libido (an energy with which mental process and structures are invested), developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association (in which patients report their thoughts without reservation and make no attempt to concentrate while doing so), discovered the transference (the process by which patients displace on to their analysts feelings based on their experience of earlier figures in their lives) and established its central role in the analytic process, and proposed that dreams help to preserve sleep by representing as fulfilled wishes that would otherwise awake the dreamer. He was also a prolific essayist, drawing on psychoanalysis to contribute to the interpretation and critique of culture.
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Spinoza
Baruch Spinoza and later Benedict de Spinoza (24 November 1632 – 21 February 1677) was a Dutch philosopher. Revealing considerable scientific aptitude, the breadth and importance of Spinoza's work was not fully realized until years after his death. By laying the groundwork for the 18th century Enlightenment[citation needed] and modern biblical criticism, he came to be considered one of the great rationalists of 17th-century philosophy. His magnum opus, the posthumous Ethics, in which he opposed Descartes's mind–body dualism, has earned him recognition as one of Western philosophy's most important contributors. In the Ethics, "Spinoza wrote the last indisputable Latin masterpiece, and one in which the refined conceptions of medieval philosophy are finally turned against themselves and destroyed entirely." Philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel said of all contemporary philosophers, "You are either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all."
Spinoza's name in different languages is Hebrew: ברוך שפינוזה Baruch Spinoza, Portuguese: Benedito or Bento de Espinosa and Latin: Benedictus de Spinoza; in all these languages, the given name means "the Blessed". Spinoza was raised in the Portuguese Jewish community in Amsterdam. He developed highly controversial ideas regarding the authenticity of the Hebrew Bible and the nature of the Divine. The Jewish religious authorities issued a cherem (Hebrew: חרם, a kind of ban, shunning, ostracism, expulsion, or excommunication) against him, effectively excluding him from Jewish society at age 23. His books were also later put on the Catholic Church's Index of Forbidden Books.
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Susan J. Palmer
Susan Jean Palmer is a Canadian sociologist and author with a primary research interest new religious movements. She is a professor of Religious Studies at Dawson College in Montreal, Quebec, and an adjunct professor at Concordia University, teaching sociology of religion courses.
Palmer received her Masters and PhD in Religion from Concordia University. She is best known for her 1994 book on gender issues, Moon Sisters, Krishna Mothers, Rajneesh Lovers: Women's Roles in New Religions. She has engaged in field research with at least 30 different groups, and is considered to be a leading authority on the Twelve Tribes communities, United Nuwaubian Nation and the Raelian Movement. Her topics range from apocalyptic activity, prophecy, charisma, communalism, childrearing, racialist religions, to research ethics and methods in studying new religions. Her article, “Caught Up in the Cult Wars: Confessions of a Canadian Researcher” has reappeared in several anthologies.
Her most recent work has focused on religious freedom issues. The New Heretics of France explores the state-sponsored persecution of religious minorities, and The Nuwaubian Nation argues that Black Nationalist prophets in the U.S. are targeted by networks of interest groups and rarely receive a fair trial.
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Thomas W. Davis
Thomas W. "Tommy" Davis (born August 18, 1972) is the head of the Church of Scientology's Celebrity Centre International in Los Angeles, California.
Davis works for the Sea Org as a non-uniformed member. According to a Church of Scientology press release, in 2001 Davis was the Celebrity Centre's Vice President. He is the head of the Church of Scientology's Celebrity Centre International in Los Angeles, California.
On June 13, 2003, Davis went with actor and Scientologist Tom Cruise and Kurt Weiland, director of external affairs for Scientology's Office of Special Affairs and Scientology vice president of communications, to meet with then-United States Deputy Secretary of State Richard Armitage. In the half-hour long private meeting, they raised concerns with Armitage about the treatment of Scientologists in Germany and other countries.
Davis is a senior-level Scientologist, spokesman for the Church of Scientology, and a member of the Church of Scientology's Sea Organization or "Sea Org". He is a member of the International Association of Scientologists, and was listed as a Patron of the organization in 2006 in their publication Impact Magazine.
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Tom Cruise
Thomas Cruise Mapother IV ( /ˈtɒməs ˈkruːz ˈmeɪpɒθər/; born July 3, 1962), widely known as Tom Cruise, is an American film actor and producer. He has been nominated for three Academy Awards and has won three Golden Globe Awards for the same movies: Born on the Fourth of July (1989), Jerry Maguire (1996), Magnolia (1999). He started his career with the movie Endless Love. Cruise's first appearance in a major film was in 1981's Taps. His first leading role was in the film Risky Business, released in August 1983. Cruise played the role of a heroic naval pilot in the popular and successful 1986 film Top Gun, and also secret agent Ethan Hunt in the series of Mission: Impossible action films.
He has starred in a variety of other successful films, including: Rain Man (1988), Days of Thunder (1990), A Few Good Men (1992), Vanilla Sky (2001), Minority Report (2002), The Last Samurai (2003), Collateral (2004), and War of the Worlds (2005).
Since 2005, Cruise and Paula Wagner have been in charge of the United Artists film studio, with Cruise as producer and star and Wagner as the chief executive. Cruise is also known for his support of and adherence to the Church of Scientology.
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Tory Christman
Tory Christman (formerly Tory Bezazian) is a prominent American critic of Scientology and former member of the organization. Originally brought up to believe in Catholicism, Christman turned to Scientology after being introduced to the book Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health authored by Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard while staying with her parents in Chicago, Illinois. She identified with concepts described in the book including the idea of attaining the Scientology state of clear, and became a member of the organization in 1969. She hitchhiked from Chicago to Los Angeles, California in order to begin the process of studying Scientology, and initially felt that it helped improve her life. In 1972, she joined the elite division within Scientology called the Sea Org. After being a member of the Scientology organization for ten years, Christman reached the spiritual Operating Thetan level of OT III, and learned the story of Xenu. She subsequently rose to a higher Operating Thetan level of OT VII, the second-highest within the organization. Her medical condition of epilepsy caused difficulty while in Scientology, as the organization did not approve of taking medication in order to manage her condition.
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V (comics)
V is a title character from the comic book series V for Vendetta, created by Alan Moore and David Lloyd. He is a mysterious anarchist, vigilante, and freedom fighter (easily recognizable by his Guy Fawkes mask, long hair, and dark clothing). According to Moore, he was designed to be both the protagonist and antagonist at the same time, so that readers could decide for themselves whether he was a hero fighting for a cause or simply insane, thus the character is depicted as somewhat of an enigma.
The background and identity of V is largely unknown. He is at one point an inmate at "Larkhill Resettlement Camp"—one of many concentration camps where political prisoners, homosexuals, Black people, Jews, Muslims, Indians and Pakistanis are exterminated by Britain's new fascist regime. While there, he is part of a group of prisoners who are subjected to horrific medical experimentation, conducted by Dr. Delia Surridge, involving artificially-designed hormone injection. Lewis Prothero is the camp's commandant, and a paedophile vicar, Father Lilliman, is at the camp to lend "spiritual support". All prisoners so injected soon die under gruesome circumstances, with the sole exception of "the man in room five" ("V" in Roman numerals). During that time, the man had some level of communication with Valerie Page, a former actress imprisoned for being a lesbian, kept in "room four", who wrote her autobiography on toilet paper and then pushed it through a hole in the wall.
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Voltaire
François-Marie Arouet de Voltaire (French pronunciation: [fʁɑ̃.swa ma.ʁi aʁ.wɛ]; 21 November 1694 – 30 May 1778), known by the pen name Voltaire (pronounced: [vɔl.tɛːʁ]), was a French Enlightenment writer, historian and philosopher famous for his wit and for his advocacy of civil liberties, including freedom of religion, freedom of expression, free trade and separation of church and state. Voltaire was a prolific writer, producing works in almost every literary form, including plays, poetry, novels, essays, and historical and scientific works. He wrote more than 20,000 letters and more than 2,000 books and pamphlets. He was an outspoken supporter of social reform, despite strict censorship laws with harsh penalties for those who broke them. As a satirical polemicist, he frequently made use of his works to criticize intolerance, religious dogma and the French institutions of his day.
Voltaire was one of several Enlightenment figures (along with Montesquieu, John Locke, Richard Price, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Émilie du Châtelet) whose works and ideas influenced important thinkers of both the American and French Revolutions.
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Will Durant
William James Durant (November 5, 1885 – November 7, 1981) was a prolific American writer, historian, and philosopher. He is best known for The Story of Civilization, 11 volumes written in collaboration with his wife Ariel Durant and published between 1935 and 1975. He was earlier noted for The Story of Philosophy, written in 1926, which one observer described as "a groundbreaking work that helped to popularize philosophy."
He conceived of philosophy as total perspective, or, seeing things "sub specie totius," a phrase inspired by Spinoza's "sub specie aeternitatis." He sought to unify and humanize the great body of historical knowledge, which had grown too voluminous and become fragmented into esoteric specialties, and to vitalize it for contemporary application. Durant was a gifted prose stylist and storyteller who won a large readership in great part because of the nature and excellence of his writing, which, in contrast to formal academic language, is lively, witty, charismatic, colourful, ornate, epigrammatic, in short, "humanized." Max Schuster, co-founder of the publisher Simon & Schuster (which also published Durant's works), and himself an admirer of Durant's writings for their beauty, remarked that Durant's prose "begs to be read aloud."John Little, who founded and heads the Will Durant foundation and has devoted much effort towards popularizing Durant's works in the 21st century, echoes Schuster's admiration for Durant's works in words which Durant himself sometimes used to describe a few of the finest works of Classical Antiquity: "prose so beautiful it rivals poetry."
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Xinhua News Agency
The Xinhua News Agency (simplified Chinese: 新华通讯社; traditional Chinese: 新華通訊社; pinyin: Xīnhuá tōngxùnshè, IPA: [ɕínxwǎ]; /ˈʃiːnhwɑː/; literally "New China News Agency") is the official press agency of the People's Republic of China and the biggest center for collecting information and press conferences in China. It is the largest news agency in China, ahead of the China News Service. Xinhua is subordinate to the State Council and reports to the Communist Party of China's Publicity and Public Information Departments. Xinhua's headquarters complex, the "pencil building", is at No. 57 Xuanwumenxi Street, Beijing. Its website Xinhua.org or Xinhuanet.com is headquartered on the twentieth floor of the Dacheng Plaza (大成大厦 Dàchéng Dàshà) in Xicheng District, Beijing.
Xinhua employs more than 10,000 people, operates 107 foreign bureaus worldwide, and maintains 31 bureaus in China—one for each province, plus a military bureau. As most of the newspapers in China cannot afford to station correspondents abroad, or even in every Chinese province, they rely on Xinhua feeds to fill their pages. People's Daily, for example, uses Xinhua material for approximately 25 percent of its stories. Xinhua is a publisher as well as a news agency—it owns more than 20 newspapers and a dozen magazines, and it prints in eight languages: Chinese, English, Spanish, French, Russian, Portuguese, Arabic and Japanese.
wn.com/Xinhua_News_Agency
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Tom Cruise Scientology Video - ( Original UNCUT )
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:34
- Updated: 26 Nov 2012
VOTE 5 STARS TO VOTE AGAINST SCIENTOLOGY ! _________________________________________ In the near future you will read: "This video is no longer available due to a copyright claim by Church of Scientology International" Tom Cruise informs on the "authorities on the mind". - long version (9:34 min) Scientology front group that tries to recruit through the prisons. * SP: Suppressive Person. Anyone that doesn't like Scientology and/or criticizes Scientology. Scientology mini dictionary: *KSW (short for Keeping Scientology Working): A policy written by Hubbard in the 1960's that requires all Scientologists to follow his words and his rules exactly. 'Orgs: Orgs is an abbreviation for 'organizations' and describes all churches of Scientology throughout the world. *David Miscavige: He is the current leader of Scientology. He's the equivalent of the Pope to the Catholics. *Out-ethics: any behavior that violates any of Hubbard's rules of conduct. *Put ethics in on someone else: make others conform to Hubbard's rules of behavior. *Criminon: Scientology front group that tries to recruit through the prisons. * SP: Suppressive Person. Anyone that doesn't like Scientology and/or criticizes Scientology. *PTS/SP: another Hubbard term to define behavior that goes against Scientology rules. *LRH technology or 'tech': all the Scientology policies, rules, mandates, procedures.
http://wn.com/Tom_Cruise_Scientology_Video_Original_UNCUT_
Scientology: Inside the Cult
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 24:51
- Updated: 26 Nov 2012
1995 - Hidden cameras go inside the London Scientology Org.
http://wn.com/Scientology_Inside_the_Cult
Panorama The Secrets of Scientology
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 59:01
- Updated: 21 Nov 2012
Reporter John Sweeney's last investigation into the Church of Scientology resulted in an explosive confrontation with church officials. This time, in a Panorama Special, one of those officials has turned whistleblower to help him reveal the dark secrets of the church, which boasts Hollywood A-listers Tom Cruise and John Travolta among its devotees
http://wn.com/Panorama_The_Secrets_of_Scientology
BBC Panorama The Secrets of Scientology (Complete)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 59:09
- Updated: 26 Nov 2012
ORIGIN OF SCIENTOLOGY EARLY HISTORY The first official Church of Scientology was founded in 1953 by science fiction writer L. Ron Hubbard, in the city of Camden, New Jersey. Hubbard was assisted by his wife and several disciples. The organization promotes a set of beliefs about mind, body, and spirit that are referred to collectively as Scientology. This belief system includes substantial material from the self-help regimen prescribed in Hubbard's commercially successful book Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health, published in 1950. WHO WAS L. RON HUBBARD? Born in Nebraska, L. Ron Hubbard studied civil engineering at George Washington University for one year before being discharged for poor academic performance. During his service as a naval officer during World War II he was three times removed from leadership positions and was the subject of a disciplinary hearing, but was discharged honorably in 1950. Until the publication of Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health, Hubbard was primarily known as a science fiction writer. He spent most of his adult life promoting Dianetics and Scientology. He returned only briefly to writing science fiction during the latter years of his life. L. Ron Hubbard died in 1986. SCIENTOLOGY BELIEFS Scientology is based on a self-help regimen described in Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health, by L. Ron Hubbard. Dianetics is known within the scientology organization as "Book 1″; however, all of Hubbard's written and ...
http://wn.com/BBC_Panorama_The_Secrets_of_Scientology_Complete
Scientology: The OT Panel
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 82:08
- Updated: 26 Nov 2012
Four ex-Scientologists who reached the upper levels of the group speak out about their experiences in Scientology. Featuring Peter Alexander, Tory Christman and Greg & Debra Barnes.
http://wn.com/Scientology_The_OT_Panel
Scientology, the CIA, and MIVILUDES: Cults of Abuse
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 54:29
- Updated: 26 Nov 2012
NOTE: This video contains information that many viewers will find extremely disturbing, involving the ritual abuse of children. This documentary provides compelling evidence of deep and disturbing connections between intelligence agencies, abusive cults, and the failure of government anti-cult organizations like MIVILUDES to investigate the widespread reports of ritual child abuse around the world. Understanding these connections is key to understanding the psycho-political control of human beings around the world. If you would like to be free, we urge you to study the situation yourself and draw your own conclusions. Below are links to much of the source material used in this documentary to help you in your own search for the truth. Ritual Child Abuse in France www.youtube.com Jersey: Island of Secrets video.google.com Marc Dutroux: Monster of Belgium www.youtube.com Les faits Karl Zéro: Zandvoort Child Abuse case www.youtube.com Conspiracy of Silence www.youtube.com The Secrets of Scientology www.youtube.com Is Scientology Above the Law? www.youtube.com Scientology: Inside the Cult www.youtube.com Ex Scientologists speaking out www.youtube.com www.youtube.com
http://wn.com/Scientology,_the_CIA,_and_MIVILUDES_Cults_of_Abuse
Knowledge Report: Scientology Corrupts Legal System
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 16:38
- Updated: 26 Nov 2012
In this raw footage interview, the former second-in-command of Scientology, Marty Rathbun, explains how Scientology coerced medical examiner Joan Wood to change her opinion on the cause of Lisa McPherson's death which then derailed the criminal charges against Scientology. www.wtsp.com ortegaunderground.wordpress.com www.indiegogo.com/knowledgereport
http://wn.com/Knowledge_Report_Scientology_Corrupts_Legal_System
Scientology Scandal — Where in the world is Tommy Davis?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:38
- Updated: 24 Nov 2012
(More info at markrathbun.wordpress.com It's the celebrity scandal that would have the Scientology founder turning in his grave. A Current Affair's Ben McCormack investigates a scandal involving two of the church's biggest names - superstar Tom Cruise and ex-wife Katie Holmes.
http://wn.com/Scientology_Scandal_—_Where_in_the_world_is_Tommy_Davis?
Raid on scientology, 17th November 2012
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:45
- Updated: 22 Nov 2012
The deceptive cult of scientology, who promise their members immortality and god-like powers, completely fail when confronted by anonymous. ...and, Cathy Sproule herself has been RPF'ed: www.holysmoke.org
http://wn.com/Raid_on_scientology,_17th_November_2012
The Secrets of Scientology: TomKat Divorce Spotlights Controversial Religion
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:38
- Updated: 09 Nov 2012
Richard French Live is joined by Scientology expert and Editor-in-Chief of the Village Voice, Tony Ortega. Scientology has often been the center of controversy most recently as a backdrop of the divorce between Tom Cruise and Katie Holmes. Debbi Cook, former Clearwater Scientology leader, also recently settled a lawsuit after testifying that she and other workers were abused within the church. Ortega and the panel discuss the beliefs of the religion, treatment of members by its leaders and high profile celebrities who have defected from the church.
http://wn.com/The_Secrets_of_Scientology_TomKat_Divorce_Spotlights_Controversial_Religion
Former Scientology Exec Speaks Out
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:35
- Updated: 24 Nov 2012
Debbie Cook claims she was physically mistreated inside the church.
http://wn.com/Former_Scientology_Exec_Speaks_Out
Gruen Planet - The Master, Scientology, and Tom Cruise (2012/10/10)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 15:02
- Updated: 22 Nov 2012
In tonight's episode, Scientology, Movies and Spin -- The Master, a movie with Oscar buzz based on the life of L Ron Hubbard, is heading to our shores. The panel looks at Scientology's public image and its PR strategy. www.abc.net.au
http://wn.com/Gruen_Planet_The_Master,_Scientology,_and_Tom_Cruise_2012_10_10
Protest, Scientology Celebrity Centre Gala, Hollywood, Part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 13:19
- Updated: 26 Nov 2012
08/25/12 - Protesters converge on the Church of Scientology's Celebrity Center, 43rd Anniversary Gala; cult guards run amok applying curtain tech; Tory tests the LAPD's interpretation of the street permit; a police officer defines protesters as an "emergency situation" denying them access to public sidewalks.
http://wn.com/Protest,_Scientology_Celebrity_Centre_Gala,_Hollywood,_Part_1
Scientology's 'child labour camp'
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:33
- Updated: 15 Nov 2012
In the middle of a suburban Australia is a secret compound that's labelled 'degrading' and 'inhumane', with allegations of keeping children prisoner.
http://wn.com/Scientology's_'child_labour_camp'
Media Mayhem - Tom Cruise & Scientology Divorce with Mark Ebner
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 58:55
- Updated: 21 Nov 2012
Scientology investigator Mark Ebner opens his mouth and doesn't hold back when discussing the Tom Cruise/Katie Holmes divorce and the sordid details of Scientology. After spending years following the Church--and being followed by them--Mark has amassed a scary amount of information on the group he calls a 'cult.' De-mystifying and scandalous, the talk sheds light on the shadowy corners of the group and Mark fills in the blanks on the group's hold on it's converts, John Travolta's recent troubles, and the Celebrity Poker Ring. GUEST BIO: Mark Ebner is an investigative journalist who has covered celebrity and crime culture for such publications as Rolling Stone, Maxim, Details and Spy. Mark has investigated such controversial subjects as Scientology, dog fighting and the Ku Klux Klan. A published author, Mark co-wrote the New York Times bestseller "Hollywood, Interrupted" with Andrew Breitbart and Six Degrees of Paris Hilton. Most recently he co-authored "We Have Your Husband," a story about a kidnapping in Mexico. In addition to writing, he has served as a commentator on NBC, CBS, ABC, MSNBC, NPR, Court TV and E! Entertainment Television to name a few. Mark was a consultant on the Emmy nominated episode of South Park's "Trapped in the Closet" and also consulted for NBC/Dateline on the Paris Hilton Tapes report. Ebner runs a blog at hollywoodinterrupted.com where he reports on breaking news from Hollywood. ADD'L LINKS: www.hollywoodinterrupted.com twitter.com www.facebook ...
http://wn.com/Media_Mayhem_Tom_Cruise_Scientology_Divorce_with_Mark_Ebner
THE SECRETS OF SCIENTOLOGY (FULL DOCUMENTARY)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 59:08
- Updated: 26 Nov 2012
Video uploaded for educational purposes protected by S.107 of the USC The Secrets of Scientology is a documentary which was broadcast on 28 September 2010 as part of the BBC's Panorama documentary strand. Presented by John Sweeney it is a follow up of his 2007 investigation into the Church of Scientology and features interviews with former high-ranking members of the organization. Video uploaded for educational purposes protected by S.107 of the USC
http://wn.com/THE_SECRETS_OF_SCIENTOLOGY_FULL_DOCUMENTARY
I think scientology is a pretty cool guy
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:09
- Updated: 17 Nov 2012
Church of Scientology spokesperson, Tommy Davis walks out in the middle of an interview instead of answering a simple 'yes' or 'no' question.
http://wn.com/I_think_scientology_is_a_pretty_cool_guy
Today Tonight - Scientology RPF Child Labour Camp (2012-02-14)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:33
- Updated: 24 Nov 2012
In the middle of a suburban Australia is a secret compound that's labelled 'degrading' and 'inhumane', with allegations of keeping children prisoner. Men, women and children are being kept as virtual prisoners, working full-time and living in appalling conditions. Now those who've escaped are speaking out. BRYAN SEYMOUR REPORTING au.news.yahoo.com
http://wn.com/Today_Tonight_Scientology_RPF_Child_Labour_Camp_2012-02-14
Scientology: Steven Fishman Deposition - Part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 28:14
- Updated: 24 Nov 2012
Former Scientologist Steven Fishman and his psychologist Dr. Uwe Geertz were sued by Scientology after they were interviewed by Time magazine for a cover story about Scientology, "The Cult of Greed and Power." www.cs.cmu.edu It was in this trial that the formerly secret upper levels of Scientology were entered into evidence and thus released to the public. XENU TV
http://wn.com/Scientology_Steven_Fishman_Deposition_Part_1
A Current Affair - Scientology E-meter - Science or a Scam? (2012/07/30)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:07
- Updated: 26 Nov 2012
The church of Scientology has long had a secret weapon - the controversial 'e-meter' used daily by celebrity devotees like Tom Cruise to supposedly measure stress levels. So what happened when we tested the e-meter with the help of science experts? aca.ninemsn.com.au
http://wn.com/A_Current_Affair_Scientology_E-meter_Science_or_a_Scam?_2012_07_30
Anne Robinson (victim of the Scientology Disconnection Policy) speaks about her Experiences
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 15:12
- Updated: 10 Nov 2012
Anne works as a school teacher, and has been speaking out on the subject of Scientology for over decade. She and her family were featured on the Late Late Show in 1995 where she spoke about how her brother, Tony Phelan, had disconnected from the family. Since 2002 the family have had no contact with Tony. She Says: I have spoken out and will continue to speak out about the impact that this organisation has had on our family. If even one person hears that, and it saves them from experiencing what our family has, then it will have been worth it.
http://wn.com/Anne_Robinson_victim_of_the_Scientology_Disconnection_Policy_speaks_about_her_Experiences
How to be a Scientologist
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:21
- Updated: 26 Nov 2012
I love being a Scientologist! Scientology has offered me ultimate reward and fulfillment, from the moment I audited out my first engram. Let me educate you on my religion and also show you how you too can discover the joys of Scientology. (Slightly off topic, but I happen to have a good lawyer, not to mention massive connections with Anonymous.) Please subscribe! From the series "How to Make it in Hollywood" by Amy Davy Tweet me your thoughts @IamAmyDavy
http://wn.com/How_to_be_a_Scientologist
Scientology What IS an SP or Suppressive Person
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:29
- Updated: 18 Nov 2012
Someone recently asked me a very good question: "What is an SP"? Because it is far too long to type out, and I believe this is a question more than one person has on their minds, I have made this video about it. Please pass it on, as it is KEY people know this information. It is KEY to how the "church" of $cientology can and does continue. Here is "Magoo Dancing in Boston" which shows my transformation from "in" C of $, to out ...2 weeks later. video.google.com www.xenu.net and www.xenutv.com and this is Steven Hassan's web site: www.freedomofmind.com
http://wn.com/Scientology_What_IS_an_SP_or_Suppressive_Person
photo: AP / Jerome Delay
25 Nov 2012
Joseph Kabila, president of the Democratic Republic of Congo, has held direct talks with the leader of the M23 rebels in Uganda, hours after a regional summit called on them to end their offensive in the east of the country. Jean-Marie Runiga Lugerero, the political leader of the eastern DR Congo rebel group, said on Sunday he had an initial meeting with Kabila after the summit in the Ugandan capital, Kampala, ended on Saturday....(size: 20.0Kb)
photo: AP
26 Nov 2012
This town of 19,000 nestled in an idyllic mountain pass of impossibly green pastures and golden autumn trees is on the front lines of Turkey's rapidly escalating guerrilla war. In a struggle for autonomy as well as independent language and education rights, the outlawed Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) has waged a low-grade conflict in Turkey for decades. ... 4 just as a Turkish army tank rolled by. ... "The violence is getting worse....(size: 8.8Kb)
photo: AP / Henry Griffin
26 Nov 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling "In our opinion and from our experience," declared John Kerry in 1971, "there is nothing in South Vietnam which could happen that realistically threatens the United States of America. And to attempt to justify the loss of one American life in Vietnam, Cambodia or Laos by linking such loss to the preservation of freedom..is to us the height of criminal hypocrisy..." ... The U.S....(size: 6.4Kb)
photo: AP / Ahmed Gomaa
26 Nov 2012
Egyptian President Mohammed Mursi is due to meet meet senior judges to try and ease a crisis over the extent of his powers. A decree giving him sweeping new powers was announced on Thursday, sparking violent nationwide protests and leading to a 9% drop in Egypt's stock market. Mr Mursi said on Sunday the decree was temporary and not intended to concentrate power in his hands. ... ....(size: 2.8Kb)
Yahoo Daily News
26 Nov 2012
The Church of Scientology partners with the Maori Wardens of New Zealand to help slash drug use and possession offenses as much as 22 percent over two years. Los Angeles, CA (PRWEB) November 26, 2012 Alarmed by soaring drug use in New Zealand, Rita Peters, Public Affairs Officer of the Church of Scientology of Auckland and coordinator of the Truth About Drugs drug education initiative, teamed with Maori Wardens to take action....(size: 4.3Kb)
The Examiner
26 Nov 2012
The reason is simple and straightforward; despite the moronic headlines, Kabbalah is not now, and has never been a religion. Therefore it is impossible to convert to it. ... It is an absurd and bizarre fascination the media has with celebs; and if and when they set foot in a Kabbalah center or scientology church. Nonetheless, Scientology is a religion; a controversial religion but a religion. Kabbalah is not now nor ever was one. ... ....(size: 2.2Kb)
Chicago Sun-Times
26 Nov 2012
SPRINGFIELD — A book on Scientology by L. Ron Hubbard. An Italian fountain pen worth $500. A compendium of state songs. And a chocolate foot. Those are a few of the hundreds of trinkets, T-shirts and other garage sale-worthy gifts that Gov. Pat Quinn says he has amassed since becoming governor in 2009. ... The items carried a declared value of nearly $15,000. ... The log, a tradition started under former Gov. ... Blagojevich or Gov. Quinn,” Pickren said. ... ....(size: 4.4Kb)
Houston Chronicle
26 Nov 2012
A teenager purportedly working with the hacker group Anonymous said in an online statement that he took the site down because the Northside school district "is stripping away the privacy of students in your school." ... Anonymous is a collection of Internet enthusiasts, pranksters and activists whose targets have included financial institutions such as Visa and MasterCard, the Church of Scientology and law enforcement agencies....(size: 13.5Kb)
The Times of India
25 Nov 2012
Tom Cruise and Katie Holmes have called their marriage quits. ... The high profile marriage has always grabbed much attention. Reports maintain that Katie Holmes wants sole custody for their six year old daughter Surie. According to a website, Katie Holmes filed for divorce mainly over Tom Cruise's ties to Scientology. There have been earlier reports on Cruise's strong allegiance to Scientology and its impact on his life and relationships. ... ....(size: 2.5Kb)
NBC Washington
25 Nov 2012
Gone is the forced smile she seemed to constantly wear during her six years with Cruise, and the shy awkwardness she appeared to adopt while being married to the Church of Scientology's greatest celebrity asset....(size: 11.7Kb)
The Guardian
25 Nov 2012
Never mind that Cohen – poet, singer, 78 – is also an ordained Buddhist; had attained the grade of Senior Dianetic, Grade IV Release in the Church of Scientology in 1969 before falling out with the organisation; and knows a hell of a ......(size: 1.2Kb)
The Hollywood Reporter
25 Nov 2012
Tom Cruise has shut down London's Trafalgar Square -- temporarily.our editor recommends 'Breaking Dawn's' Taylor Lautner on Tom Cruise Comparisons: 'That's Quite the Honor' (Video) Scientology Book About Tom Cruise and John Travolta Sets Release Date The actor is filming his latest project, the sci-fi thriller All You Need Is Kill, and on ......(size: 4.8Kb)
The Examiner
24 Nov 2012
It appears that he skipped out on a Thanksgiving Scientology Begin-A-Boom Bookathon and spent the holiday with his little Princess. ... But the curious news is that while devoting the holiday to Suri, we didn’t hear anything about his involvement with Scientology’s bookathon. ... Ron Hubbard’s masterpiece! Thanksgiving? Pshaw! The Scientology Begin-A-Boom Bookathon begins TODAY....(size: 8.9Kb)
Yahoo Daily News
24 Nov 2012
Press Contact: Karin Pouw Tel: (323) 960-3500 eMail: MediaRelations (At) ChurchofScientology (Dot) net Karin Pouw Church of Scientology International (323) 960-3500 Email Information prevnext Play Video 4 arrested after police seize drugs, … WLKY - Louisville Videos Demonstrators sing during a vigil calling … World Champion ......(size: 9.4Kb)
The Examiner
24 Nov 2012
Tweet 0 Email Report Advertisement Photo 1 of 7 Kelly Preston and John Travolta host Narconon Hawaii fundraiser Credit: Getty Kelly Preston and John Travolta host Narconon Hawaii fundraiserKelly Preston and John Travolta host Narconon Hawaii fundraiserKelly Preston and John Travolta host Narconon Hawaii fundraiserChurch of Scientology ......(size: 4.3Kb)
The Examiner
23 Nov 2012
Related topics HomeschoolingKatie HolmesScientologyTom CruiseKatie Holmes divorceEducation
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According to a new report by Celebitchy on July 9, 2012, Katie Holmes will stop the Scientology-based homeschooling instruction her daughter Suri has received and plans to send her to first grade this fall. ... Ex-Scientology Kids uses the tagline “I was born....(size: 8.2Kb)
Screen Daily
23 Nov 2012
Prior to its world premiere in Venice — and a handful of preview screenings — speculation was rife that Paul Thomas Anderson’s The Master was a controversial reflection on the Church of Scientology. ... ‘People got the wrong end of the stick and labelled it the Paul Thomas Anderson Scientology movie’ JoAnne Sellar “The film wasn’t originally conceived in 70mm [the print size],” he admits....(size: 17.0Kb)
Not to be confused with Religious Science or Christian Science.
| Scientology | |
|---|---|
| 120px The Scientology cross has eight corners representing the eight dynamics of existence.[1] |
|
| Formation | 1953 |
| Type | Religious / Commercial[2] |
| Headquarters | Gold Base Riverside County, California[3] |
| Chairman of Religious Technology Center | David Miscavige |
| Website | scientology.org |
| Remarks | Flagship facility: Church of Scientology International, Los Angeles, California, USA |
Scientology is a body of beliefs and related practices created by L. Ron Hubbard (1911–1986), starting in 1952, as a successor to his earlier self-help system, Dianetics.[4] Hubbard characterized Scientology as a religion, and in 1953 incorporated the Church of Scientology in Camden, New Jersey.[5][6]
Scientology teaches that people are immortal beings who have forgotten their true nature.[7] Its method of spiritual rehabilitation is a type of counselling known as auditing, in which practitioners aim to consciously re-experience painful or traumatic events in their past in order to free themselves of their limiting effects.[8] Study materials and auditing courses are made available to members in return for specified donations.[9] Scientology is legally recognized as a tax-exempt religion in the United States and some other countries,[10][11][12][13] and the Church of Scientology emphasizes this as proof that it is a bona fide religion.[14] In other countries, notably France, Germany, and the United Kingdom, Scientology does not have comparable religious status.[citation needed]
A large number of organizations overseeing the application of Scientology have been established,[15] the most notable of these being the Church of Scientology. Scientology sponsors a variety of social-service programs.[15][16] These include the Narconon anti-drug program, the Criminon prison rehabilitation program, the Study Tech education methodology, a volunteer organization, a business-management method, and a set of moral guidelines expressed in a booklet called The Way to Happiness.[17]
The Church of Scientology is one of the most controversial new religious movements to have arisen in the 20th century. It has often been described as a cult that financially defrauds and abuses its members, charging exorbitant fees for its spiritual services.[9][18][19] The Church of Scientology has consistently used litigation against such critics, and its aggressiveness in pursuing its foes has been condemned as harassment.[20][21] Further controversy has focused on Scientology's belief that souls ("thetans") reincarnate and have lived on other planets before living on Earth,[22] and that some of the related teachings are not revealed to practitioners until they have paid thousands of dollars to the Church of Scientology.[23][24] Another controversial belief held by Scientologists is that the practice of psychiatry is destructive and abusive and must be abolished.[25][26]
Contents |
Etymology and earlier usage[link]
The word Scientology is a pairing of the Latin word scientia ("knowledge", "skill"), which comes from the verb scīre ("to know"), and the Greek λόγος lógos ("word" or "account [of]").[27][28]
Scientology, as coined by L. Ron Hubbard, comes from the Latin scio, which means "knowing, in the fullest meaning of the word" and the Greek word logos, which means "study of." Scientology is further defined as "the study and handling of the spirit in relationship to itself, universes, and other life." [29]
In 1901, Allen Upward coined Scientology "as a disparaging term, to indicate a blind, unthinking acceptance of scientific doctrine" according to the Internet Sacred Text Archive as quoted in the preface to Forgotten Books' recent edition of Upward's book, The New Word: On the meaning of the word Idealist.[30] Continuing to quote, the publisher writes "I'm not aware of any evidence that Hubbard knew of this fairly obscure book."[31]
In 1934, philosopher Anastasius Nordenholz published a book that used the term to mean "science of science".[32] It is also uncertain whether Hubbard was aware of this prior usage of the word.[33]
History[link]
See also: Timeline of Scientology
Dianetics[link]
Main article: Dianetics
Scientology was developed by L. Ron Hubbard as a successor to his earlier self-help system, Dianetics. Dianetics uses a counseling technique known as auditing, developed by Hubbard to enable conscious recall of traumatic events in an individual's past.[8] It was originally intended to be a new psychotherapy and was not expected to become the foundation for a new religion.[34][35]
Hubbard, an American writer of pulp fiction, especially science fiction,[36] first published his ideas on the human mind in the Explorers Club Journal and the May 1950 issue of Astounding Science Fiction magazine.[37] Two of Hubbard's key supporters at the time were John W. Campbell Jr., the editor of Astounding Science Fiction, and Dr. Joseph A. Winter. Winter, hoping to have Dianetics accepted in the medical community, submitted papers outlining the principles and methodology of Dianetic therapy to the Journal of the American Medical Association and the American Journal of Psychiatry in 1949, but these were rejected.[38][39]
May 1950 saw the publication of Hubbard's Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health. His book entered the New York Times best-seller list on June 18 and stayed there until December 24 of that year.[40] Dianetics appealed to a broad range of people who used instructions from the book and applied the method to each other, becoming practitioners themselves.[37][41] Hubbard found himself the leader of a growing Dianetics movement.[37] He became a popular lecturer and established the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation in Elizabeth, New Jersey, where he trained his first Dianetics counselors or auditors.[37][41]
Dianetics soon met with criticism. Morris Fishbein, the editor of the Journal of the American Medical Association and well-known at the time as a debunker of quack medicine, dismissed Hubbard's book.[42] An article in Newsweek stated that "the dianetics concept is unscientific and unworthy of discussion or review".[43] In January 1951, the New Jersey Board of Medical Examiners instituted proceedings against the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation for teaching medicine without a license, which eventually led to that foundation's bankruptcy.[44][45][46]
Some practitioners of Dianetics reported experiences which they believed had occurred in past lives, or previous incarnations.[41] In early 1951, reincarnation became a subject of intense debate within Dianetics.[47] Campbell and Winter, who was still hopeful of winning support for Dianetics from the medical community, championed a resolution to ban the topic.[47] But Hubbard decided to take the reports of past life events seriously and postulated the existence of the thetan, a concept similar to the soul.[41] This was an important factor in the transition from secular Dianetics to the religion of Scientology.[41]
Also in 1951, Hubbard introduced the electropsychometer (E-meter for short), a kind of galvanometer, as an auditing aid.[47] Based on a design by Hubbard, the device is held by Scientologists to be a useful tool in detecting changes in a person's state of mind.[47]
The Church of Scientology[link]
Main article: Church of Scientology
In 1952, Hubbard built on the existing framework set forth in Dianetics, and published a new set of teachings as Scientology, a religious philosophy.[48] In December 1953, Hubbard incorporated three churches – a "Church of American Science", a "Church of Scientology" and a "Church of Spiritual Engineering" – in Camden, New Jersey.[49] On February 18, 1954, with Hubbard's blessing, some of his followers set up the first local Church of Scientology, the Church of Scientology of California, adopting the "aims, purposes, principles and creed of the Church of American Science, as founded by L. Ron Hubbard."[49][50] The movement spread quickly through the United States and to other English-speaking countries such as Britain, Ireland, South Africa and Australia.[51] The second local Church of Scientology to be set up, after the one in California, was in Auckland, New Zealand.[51] In 1955, Hubbard established the Founding Church of Scientology in Washington, D.C.[41] In 1957, the Church of Scientology of California was granted tax-exempt status by the United States Internal Revenue Service (IRS), and so, for a time, were other local churches.[42][52] In 1958 however, the IRS started a review of the appropriateness of this status.[42] In 1959, Hubbard moved to England, remaining there until the mid-1960s.[41]
The Church experienced further challenges. The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) began an investigation concerning the claims the Church of Scientology made in connection with its E-meters.[42] On January 4, 1963, they raided offices of the Church of Scientology and seized hundreds of E-meters as illegal medical devices. The devices have since been required to carry a disclaimer saying that they are a purely religious artifact.[53]
In the mid-sixties, the Church of Scientology was banned in several Australian states, starting with Victoria in 1965.[54] The ban was based on the Anderson Report, which found that the auditing process involved "command" hypnosis, in which the hypnotist assumes "positive authoritative control" over the patient. On this point the report stated,
It is the firm conclusion of this Board that most scientology and dianetic techniques are those of authoritative hypnosis and as such are dangerous ... the scientific evidence which the Board heard from several expert witnesses of the highest repute ... leads to the inescapable conclusion that it is only in name that there is any difference between authoritative hypnosis and most of the techniques of scientology. Many scientology techniques are in fact hypnotic techniques, and Hubbard has not changed their nature by changing their names.[55]
The Australian Church was forced to operate under the name of the "Church of the New Faith" as a result, the name and practice of Scientology having become illegal in the relevant states.[54] Several years of court proceedings aimed at overturning the ban followed.[54]
In the course of developing Scientology, Hubbard presented rapidly changing teachings that were often self-contradictory.[56][57] For the inner cadre of Scientologists in that period, involvement depended not so much on belief in a particular doctrine but on unquestioning faith in Hubbard.[56] In 1966, Hubbard stepped down as executive director of Scientology to devote himself to research and writing.[41][58] The following year, he formed the Sea Organization or Sea Org, which was to develop into an elite group within Scientology.[41][59] The Sea Org was based on three ships, the Diana, the Athena, and the Apollo, which served as the flag ship.[59] One month after the establishment of the Sea Org, Hubbard announced that he had made a breakthrough discovery, the result of which were the "OT III" materials purporting to provide a method for overcoming factors inhibiting spiritual progress.[59] These materials were first disseminated on the ships, and then propagated by Sea Org members reassigned to staff Advanced Organizations on land.[59]
In 1967, the IRS removed Scientology's tax-exempt status, asserting that its activities were commercial and operated for the benefit of Hubbard, rather than for charitable or religious purposes.[52] The decision resulted in a process of litigation that would be settled in the Church's favour a quarter of a century later, the longest case of litigation in IRS history.[42]
In 1979, as a result of FBI raids during Operation Snow White, eleven senior people in the church's Guardian's Office were convicted of obstructing justice, burglary of government offices, and theft of documents and government property. In 1981, Scientology took the German government to court for the first time.[60]
On January 1, 1982, Scientology established the Religious Technology Center (RTC) to oversee and ensure the standard application of Scientology technology.[61]
On November 11, 1982, the Free Zone was established by former top Scientologists in disagreement with RTC.[62] The Free Zone Association was founded and registered under the laws of Germany, and believes that the Church of Scientology has departed from its original philosophy. .[63]
In 1983, in a unanimous decision, the High Court of Australia recognized Scientology as a religion in Australia, overturning restrictions that had limited activities of the church after the Anderson Report.[64]
On January 24, 1986, L. Ron Hubbard died at his ranch near San Luis Obispo, California, and David Miscavige became the head of the organization.
Starting in 1991, persons connected with Scientology filed fifty lawsuits against the Cult Awareness Network (CAN), a group that had been critical of Scientology.[65] Although many of the suits were dismissed, one of the suits filed against the Cult Awareness Network resulted in $2 million in losses for the network.[65] Consequently, the organization was forced to go bankrupt.[65] In 1996, Steven L. Hayes, a Scientologist, purchased the bankrupt Cult Awareness Network's logo and appurtenances.[65][66] A new Cult Awareness Network was set up with Scientology backing, which operates as an information and networking center for non-traditional religions, referring callers to academics and other experts.[67][68]
In a 1993 U.S. lawsuit brought by the Church of Scientology against Steven Fishman, a former member of the Church, Fishman made a court declaration which included several dozen pages of formerly secret esoterica detailing aspects of Scientologist cosmogony.[69] As a result of the litigation, this material, normally strictly safeguarded and only used in Scientology's more advanced "OT levels", found its way onto the Internet.[69] This resulted in a battle between the Church of Scientology and its online critics over the right to disclose this material, or safeguard its confidentiality.[69] The Church of Scientology was forced to issue a press release acknowledging the existence of this cosmogony, rather than allow its critics "to distort and misuse this information for their own purposes."[69] Even so, the material, notably the story of Xenu, has since been widely disseminated and used to caricature Scientology, despite the Church's vigorous program of copyright litigation.[69]
Recognition as a religion[link]
For more details on this topic, see #Dispute of religion status.
In December 1993, the Church of Scientology experienced a major breakthrough in its ongoing legal battles when the IRS granted full tax exemption to all Scientology Churches, missions and organizations.[70][71] Based on the IRS exemptions, the U.S. State Department formally criticized Germany for discriminating against Scientologists and began to note Scientologists' complaints of harassment in its annual human rights reports,[52] as well as the annual International Religious Freedom Reports it has released from 1999 onwards.[72]
In 1997, an open letter to then-German Chancellor Helmut Kohl, published as a newspaper advertisement in the International Herald Tribune, drew parallels between the "organized oppression" of Scientologists in Germany, and the treatment of Jews in 1930s' Nazi Germany.[73][74] The letter was signed by Dustin Hoffman, Goldie Hawn and a number of other Hollywood celebrities and executives.[74][75] Commenting on the matter, a spokesman for the U.S. Department of State said that Scientologists were discriminated against in Germany, but condemned the comparisons to the Nazis' treatment of Jews as extremely inappropriate, as did a United Nations Special Rapporteur.[75][76]
In 2000, the Italian Supreme Court ruled that Scientology is a religion for legal purposes.[77][78] In recent years, religious recognition has also been obtained in other countries, including Sweden,[11][79] Spain,[79][80] Portugal,[81] Slovenia,[79] Croatia[79] and Hungary,[79] as well as Kyrgyzstan[82] and the Republic of China (Taiwan).[11] Other countries, notably Canada, France, Germany, Greece, Belgium and the United Kingdom, refuse to grant Scientology religious recognition.
Membership statistics[link]
In 2005, the Church of Scientology stated its worldwide membership to be eight million, although that number included people who took only the introductory course and did not continue on.[83] In 2007 a Church official claimed 3.5 million members in the United States,[84] but a 2001 survey conducted by the City University of New York found only 55,000 people in the United States who claimed to be Scientologists. Worldwide, some observers believe a reasonable estimate of Scientology's core practicing membership ranges between 100,000 and 200,000, mostly in the U.S., Europe, South Africa and Australia.[85] In 2008, the American Religious Identification Survey found that the number of American Scientologists had dropped to 25,000.[86]
Scientologists tend to disparage general religious surveys on the grounds that many members maintaining cultural and social ties to other religious groups will, when asked their religion, answer with their traditional and more socially acceptable affiliation. On the other hand, religious scholar J. Gordon Melton has said that the church's estimates of its membership numbers are significantly exaggerated.[87]
Beliefs and practices[link]
Main article: Scientology beliefs and practices
According to Scientology, its beliefs and practices are based on rigorous research, and its doctrines are accorded a significance equivalent to that of scientific laws.[88] "Scientology works 100 percent of the time when it is properly applied to a person who sincerely desires to improve his life", the Church of Scientology says.[88] Conversion is held to be of lesser significance than the practical application of Scientologist methods.[88] Adherents are encouraged to validate the value of the methods they apply through their personal experience.[88] Hubbard himself put it this way: "For a Scientologist, the final test of any knowledge he has gained is, 'did the data and the use of it in life actually improve conditions or didn't it?'"[88]
Body and Spirit[link]
Scientology beliefs revolve around the thetan, the individualized expression of the cosmic source, or life force, named after the Greek letter theta (θ).[89][90][91] The thetan is the true identity of a person – an intrinsically good, omniscient, non-material core capable of unlimited creativity.[89][90]
In the primordial past, thetans brought the material universe into being largely for their own pleasure.[89] The universe has no independent reality, but derives its apparent reality from the fact that most thetans agree it exists.[90] Thetans fell from grace when they began to identify with their creation, rather than their original state of spiritual purity.[89] Eventually they lost their memory of their true nature, along with the associated spiritual and creative powers. As a result, thetans came to think of themselves as nothing but embodied beings.[90][92]
Thetans are reborn time and time again in new bodies through a process called "assumption" which is analogous to reincarnation.[89] Like Hinduism, Scientology posits a causal relationship between the experiences of earlier incarnations and one's present life, and with each rebirth, the effects of the MEST universe (MEST here stands for matter, energy, space, and time) on the thetan become stronger.[89]
Emotions and the mind[link]
See also: Tone scale
Scientology presents two major divisions of the mind.[93] The reactive mind is thought to absorb all pain and emotional trauma, while the analytical mind is a rational mechanism which is responsible for consciousness.[90][94] The reactive mind stores mental images which are not readily available to the analytical (conscious) mind; these are referred to as engrams.[95] Engrams are painful and debilitating; as they accumulate, people move further away from their true identity.[89] To avoid this fate is Scientology's basic goal.[89] Dianetic auditing is one way by which the Scientologist may progress toward the Clear state, winning gradual freedom from the reactive mind's engrams, and acquiring certainty of his or her reality as a thetan.[92]
Scientology uses an emotional classification system called the tone scale.[96] The tone scale is a tool used in counseling; Scientologists maintain that knowing a person's place on the scale makes it easier to predict his or her actions and assists in bettering her or his condition.[97]
Survival and ethics[link]
File:Scientology Symbol Logo.png
The Scientology symbol is composed of the letter S, which stands for Scientology, and the ARC and KRC triangles, two important concepts in Scientology.
Scientology emphasizes the importance of survival, which it subdivides into eight classifications that are referred to as dynamics.[98][99] An individual's desire to survive is considered to be the first dynamic, while the second dynamic relates to procreation and family.[98][100] The remaining dynamics encompass wider fields of action, involving groups, mankind, all life, the physical universe, the spirit, and the Supreme Being.[98] The optimum solution to any problem is held to be the one that brings the greatest benefit to the greatest number of dynamics.[98]
Scientology teaches that spiritual progress requires and enables the attainment of high ethical standards.[101] In Scientology, rationality is stressed over morality.[101] Actions are considered ethical if they promote survival across all eight dynamics, thus benefiting the greatest number of people or things possible while harming the fewest.[102]
ARC and KRC triangles[link]
See also: Scientology terminology
The ARC and KRC triangles are concept maps which show a relationship between three concepts to form another concept. These two triangles are present in the Scientology symbol. The lower triangle, the ARC triangle, is a summary representation of the knowledge the Scientologist strives for.[89] It encompasses Affinity (affection, love or liking), Reality (consensual reality) and Communication (the exchange of ideas).[89] Scientologists believe that improving one of the three aspects of the triangle "increases the level" of the other two, but Communication is held to be the most important.[103] The upper triangle is the KRC triangle, the letters KRC positing a similar relationship between Knowledge, Responsibility and Control.[104]
Among Scientologists, the letters ARC are used as an affectionate greeting in personal communication, for example at the end of a letter.[105] Social problems are ascribed to breakdowns in ARC – in other words, a lack of agreement on reality, a failure to communicate effectively, or a failure to develop affinity.[106] These can take the form of overts – harmful acts against another, either intentionally or by omission – which are usually followed by withholds – efforts to conceal the wrongdoing, which further increase the level of tension in the relationship.[106]
Social and antisocial personalities[link]
While Scientology states that many social problems are the unintentional results of people's imperfections, it asserts that there are also truly malevolent individuals.[106] Hubbard believed that approximately 80 percent of all people are what he called social personalities – people who welcome and contribute to the welfare of others.[106] The remaining 20 percent of the population, Hubbard thought, were suppressive persons.[106] According to Hubbard, only about 2.5 percent of this 20 percent are hopelessly antisocial personalities; these make up the small proportion of truly dangerous individuals in humanity: "the Adolf Hitlers and the Genghis Khans, the unrepentant murderers and the drug lords."[106][107] Scientologists believe that any contact with suppressive or antisocial individuals has an adverse effect on one's spiritual condition, necessitating disconnection.[106][107]
In Scientology, defectors who turn into critics of the movement are declared suppressive persons,[108][109][110][111] and the Church of Scientology has a reputation for moving aggressively against such detractors.[112] A Scientologist who is actively in communication with a suppressive person and as a result shows signs of antisocial behaviour is referred to as a Potential Trouble Source.[113][114]
Auditing[link]
Main article: Auditing (Scientology)
Scientology asserts that people have hidden abilities which have not yet been fully realized.[115] It is believed that increased spiritual awareness and physical benefits are accomplished through counseling sessions referred to as auditing.[116] Through auditing, it is said that people can solve their problems and free themselves of engrams.[85] This restores them to their natural condition as thetans and enables them to be at cause in their daily lives, responding rationally and creatively to life events rather than reacting to them under the direction of stored engrams.[117] Accordingly, those who study Scientology materials and receive auditing sessions advance from a status of Preclear to Clear and Operating Thetan.[118] Scientology's utopian aim is to "clear the planet", a world in which everyone has cleared themselves of their engrams.[119]
Auditing is a one-on-one session with a Scientology counselor or auditor.[120] It bears a superficial similarity to confession or pastoral counseling, but the auditor records and stores all information received and does not dispense forgiveness or advice the way a pastor or priest might do.[120] Instead, the auditor's task is to help a person discover and understand engrams, and their limiting effects, for him- or herself.[120] Most auditing requires an E-meter, a device that measures minute changes in electrical resistance through the body when a person holds electrodes (metal "cans"), and a small current is passed through them.[85][120] Scientology asserts that watching for changes in the E-meter's display helps locate engrams.[120] Once an area of concern has been identified, the auditor asks the individual specific questions about it, in order to help him or her eliminate the engram, and uses the E-meter to confirm that the engram's "charge" has been dissipated and the engram has in fact been cleared.[120] As the individual progresses, the focus of auditing moves from simple engrams to engrams of increasing complexity.[120] At the more advanced OT auditing levels, Scientologists perform solo auditing sessions, acting as their own auditors.[120]
[edit] The Bridge to Total Freedom
Spiritual development within Scientology is accomplished by studying Scientology materials. Scientology materials (called Technology or Tech in Scientology jargon) are structured in sequential levels (or gradients), so that easier steps are taken first and greater complexities are handled at the appropriate time. This process is sometimes referred to as moving along the Bridge to Total Freedom, or simply the Bridge.[103] It has two sides: training and processing.[101] Training means education in the principles and practices of auditing.[101] Processing is personal development through participation in auditing sessions.[101]
The Church of Scientology believes in the principle of reciprocity, involving give-and-take in every human transaction.[9] Accordingly, members are required to make donations for study courses and auditing as they move up the Bridge, the amounts increasing as higher levels are reached.[9] Participation in higher-level courses on the Bridge may cost several thousand dollars, and Scientologists usually move up the Bridge at a rate governed by their income.[9]
Space opera and confidential materials[link]
See also: Operating Thetan and Space opera in Scientology doctrine
The Church of Scientology holds that at the higher levels of initiation (OT levels), mystical teachings are imparted that may be harmful to unprepared readers. These teachings are kept secret from members who have not reached these levels. The Church states that the secrecy is warranted to keep its materials' use in context, and to protect its members from being exposed to materials they are not yet prepared for.[85]
These are the OT levels, the levels above Clear, whose contents are guarded within Scientology. The OT level teachings include accounts of various cosmic catastrophes that befell the thetans.[121] Hubbard described these early events collectively as space opera.
In the OT levels, Hubbard explains how to reverse the effects of past-life trauma patterns that supposedly extend millions of years into the past.[122] Among these advanced teachings is the story of Xenu (sometimes Xemu), introduced as the tyrant ruler of the "Galactic Confederacy." According to this story, 75 million years ago Xenu brought billions of people to Earth in spacecraft resembling Douglas DC-8 airliners, stacked them around volcanoes and detonated hydrogen bombs in the volcanoes. The thetans then clustered together, stuck to the bodies of the living, and continue to do this today. Scientologists at advanced levels place considerable emphasis on isolating body thetans and neutralizing their ill effects.[123]
The material contained in the OT levels has been characterized as bad science fiction by critics, while others claim it bears structural similarities to gnostic thought and ancient Hindu myths of creation and cosmic struggle.[121][124] J. Gordon Melton suggests that these elements of the OT levels may never have been intended as descriptions of historical events, and that, like other religious mythology, they may have their truth in the realities of the body and mind which they symbolize.[121] He adds that on whatever level Scientologists might have received this mythology, they seem to have found it useful in their spiritual quest.[121]
The high-ranking OT levels are made available to Scientologists by invitation only, after a review of the candidate's character and contribution to the aims of Scientology.[citation needed] Individuals who have read these materials may not disclose what they contain without jeopardizing their standing in the Church.[citation needed] Excerpts and descriptions of OT materials were published online by a former member in 1995 and then circulated in mainstream media. This occurred after the teachings were submitted as evidence in court cases involving Scientology, thus becoming a matter of public record.[122][125] There are eight publicly known OT levels, OT I to VIII.[126] The highest level, OT VIII, is disclosed only at sea, on the Scientology cruise ship Freewinds.[126] It has been rumored that additional OT levels, said to be based on material written by Hubbard long ago, will be released at some appropriate point in the future.[127]
A large Church of Spiritual Technology symbol carved into the ground at Scientology's Trementina Base is visible from the air.[128] Washington Post reporter Richard Leiby wrote, "Former Scientologists familiar with Hubbard’s teachings on reincarnation say the symbol marks a 'return point' so loyal staff members know where they can find the founder’s works when they travel here in the future from other places in the universe."[129]
Ceremonies[link]
In Scientology, ceremonies for events such as weddings, child naming, and funerals are observed.[89] Friday services are held to commemorate the completion of a person's religious services during the prior week.[89] Ordained Scientology ministers may perform such rites.[89] However, these services and the clergy who perform them play only a minor role in Scientologists' religious lives.[130]
Influences[link]
The general orientation of Hubbard's philosophy owes much to Will Durant, author of the popular 1926 classic The Story of Philosophy; Dianetics is dedicated to Durant.[131] Hubbard's view of a mechanically functioning mind in particular finds close parallels in Durant's work on Spinoza.[131]
Sigmund Freud's psychology, popularized in the 1930s and 1940s, was a key contributor to the Dianetics therapy model, and was acknowledged unreservedly as such by Hubbard in his early works.[132] Hubbard never forgot meeting Cmdr. Joseph Cheesman Thompson, a U.S. Navy officer who studied with Freud, when he was 12 years old,[133] and when writing to the American Psychological Association in 1949, he stated that he was conducting research based on the "early work of Freud".[134]
Another major influence was Alfred Korzybski's General Semantics.[132] Hubbard was friends with fellow science fiction writer A. E. van Vogt, who explored the implications of Korzybski's non-Aristotelian logic in works such as The World of Null-A, and Hubbard's view of the reactive mind has clear and acknowledged parallels with Korzybski's thought; in fact, Korzybski's "anthropometer" may have been what inspired Hubbard's invention of the E-meter.[132]
Beyond that, Hubbard himself named a great many other influences in his own writing – in Scientology 8-8008, for example, these include philosophers from Anaxagoras and Aristotle to Herbert Spencer and Voltaire, physicists and mathematicians like Euclid and Isaac Newton, as well as founders of religions such as Buddha, Confucius, Jesus and Mohammed – but there is little evidence in Hubbard's writings that he studied these figures to any great depth.[132]
As noted, there are elements of Eastern religions evident in Scientology,[134] in particular the concepts of karma, as present in Hinduism and in Jainism, and dharma.[135][136] In addition to the links to Hindu texts, Hubbard tried to connect Scientology with Taoism and Buddhism.[137] Scientology has been said to share features with Gnosticism as well.[138][139]
In the 1940s, Hubbard was in contact with Jack Parsons, a rocket scientist and member of the Ordo Templi Orientis then led by Aleister Crowley, and there have been suggestions that this connection influenced some of the ideas and symbols of Scientology.[140][141] Religious scholars like Gerald Willms and J. Gordon Melton have pointed out that Crowley's teachings bear little if any resemblance to Scientology doctrine.[140][141]
Organization[link]
Main article: List of Scientology organizations
There are a considerable number of Scientology organizations (or orgs) which generally support one of the following three aims: enabling Scientology practice and training, promoting the wider application of Scientology technology, or campaigning for social change.[142] These organizations are supported by a three-tiered hierarchical structure comprising lay practitioners, staff and, at the top of the hierarchy, members of the so-called Sea Organization or Sea Org.[143] The Sea Org, comprising over 5,000 members, has been compared to the monastic orders found in other religions; it is composed of the most dedicated adherents, who work for nominal compensation and symbolically express their religious commitment by signing a billion-year contract.[143][144]
The internal structure of Scientology organizations is strongly bureaucratic, with detailed coordination of activities and collection of stats - or statistics, to measure organizational and individual performance.[143] Organizational operating budgets are performance-related and subject to frequent reviews.[143] Scientology has an internal justice system (the Ethics system) designed to deal with unethical or antisocial behavior.[143][145] Ethics officers are present in every org; they are tasked with ensuring correct application of Scientology technology and deal with violations such as non-compliance with standard procedures or any other behavior adversely affecting an org's performance, ranging from errors and misdemeanors to crimes and suppressive acts, as defined by internal documents.[146]
A controversial part of the Scientology justice system is the Rehabilitation Project Force (RPF).[146] When a Sea Org member is accused of a violation, such as lying, sexual misconduct, dereliction of duty, or failure to comply with Church policy, a Committee of Evidence examines the case.[146] If the charge is substantiated, the individual may accept expulsion from the Sea Org or participate in the RPF to become eligible to rejoin the Sea Org.[146] The RPF involves a daily regimen of five hours of auditing or studying, eight hours of work, often physical labor, such as building renovation, and at least seven hours of sleep.[146] Douglas E. Cowan and David G. Bromley state that scholars and observers have come to radically different conclusions about the RPF and whether it is "voluntary or coercive, therapeutic or punitive".[146]
Practice and training organizations[link]
Many Scientologists' first contact with Scientology is through local informal groups and field auditors practicing Dianetics counseling.[147] In addition to these, Scientology operates hundreds of Churches and Missions around the world.[148] This is where Scientologists receive introductory training, and it is at this local level that most Scientologists participate.[148] Churches and Missions are licensed franchises; they offer services for a fee, and return a proportion of their income to the mother church.[148] They are also required to adhere to the standards established by the Religious Technology Center (RTC), which supervises the application of Scientology tech, owns the trademarks and service marks of Scientology, and collaborates with the Commodore's Messenger Organization to administer and control the various corporate entities within Scientology.[149][150] The RTC's Chairman is David Miscavige, who, while not the titular head of the Church of Scientology, is believed to be the most powerful person in the Scientology movement.[151]
Once an individual has reached Clear and wishes to proceed further, he or she can take OT auditing and coursework with Advanced Organizations located in Los Angeles, Sydney, East Grinstead and Copenhagen.[152] Beyond OT V, the Flag Service Organization in Clearwater, Florida, offers the auditing and course work for OT levels VI and VII, while OT VIII is offered only by the Flag Ship Service Organization aboard the Scientology ship Freewinds.[153] Since 1981, all of these Churches and organizations have been united under the Church of Scientology International umbrella organization, with the Sea Org providing staff for all levels above the local Churches and Missions.[148][153]
Technology application organizations[link]
A number of Scientology organizations specialize in promoting the use of Scientology technology as a means to solve social problems.
- Narconon is a drug education and rehabilitation program. The program is founded on Hubbard's belief that drugs and poisons stored in the body impede spiritual growth, and was originally conceived by William Benitez, a prison inmate who applied Hubbard's ideas to rid himself of his drug habit.[148][154] Narconon is offered in the United States, Canada and a number of European countries; its Purification Program uses a regimen composed of sauna, physical exercise, vitamins and diet management, combined with auditing and study.[148][154]
- Criminon is a program designed to rehabilitate criminal offenders by teaching them study and communication methods and helping them reform their lives.[148] The program originally grew out of the Narconon effort and today is available in over 200 prisons.[154] It has experienced steady growth, based on a good success rate, with low recidivism.[154]
- Applied Scholastics promotes the use of Hubbard's educational methodology, known as study tech.[155] Originally developed to help Scientologists study course materials, Hubbard's study tech is now used in some private and public schools as well.[156] Applied Scholastics is active across Europe and North America as well as in Australia, Malaysia, China and South Africa.[156] It supports literacy efforts in American cities and Third World countries, and its methodology is sometimes included in management training programs.[157]
- The Way to Happiness Foundation promotes a moral code written by Hubbard, to date translated into more than 40 languages.[155]
- The Association for Better Living and Education (ABLE) acts as an umbrella organization for these efforts.[158]
- The World Institute of Scientology Enterprises (WISE) is a not-for-profit organization which licenses Hubbard's management techniques for use in businesses.[155] The most prominent training supplier to make use of Hubbard's technology is Sterling Management Systems.[155]
The Church of Scientology has also instituted a Volunteer Ministers program to provide disaster relief; for example, Volunteer Ministers were active in the aftermath of 9/11, providing food and water and applying Scientology methods such as "Assists" to people in acute emotional distress.[159][160]The Scientology Volunteer Ministers also used the "assist" to help Haiti quake victims.[161][162]
Social reform organizations[link]
Some Scientology organizations are focused on bringing about social change.[155] One of these is the Citizens Commission on Human Rights (CCHR). Founded in 1969, it has a long history of opposing psychiatric practices such as lobotomy, electric shock treatment and the use of mood-altering drugs.[163][164] The psychiatric establishment rejected Hubbard's theories in the early 1950s.[164] Ever since, Scientology has argued that psychiatry suffers from the fundamental flaw of ignoring humanity's spiritual dimension, and that it fails to take into account Hubbard's insights about the nature of the mind.[163] Scientology holds psychiatry responsible for a great many wrongs in the world, saying it has at various times offered itself as a tool of political suppression and "that psychiatry spawned the ideology which fired Hitler's mania, turned the Nazis into mass murderers, and created the Holocaust."[163][164] In recent years, the CCHR has conducted high-profile campaigns against Ritalin, given to children to control hyperactivity, and Prozac, a commonly used antidepressant.[164] Neither drug was taken off the market as a result of the campaign, but Ritalin sales decreased, and Prozac suffered bad press.[164]
The main other organization in this field is the National Commission on Law Enforcement and Social Justice, devoted to combating what it describes as abusive practices by government and police agencies, especially Interpol.[164][165]
Other entities[link]
Other prominent Scientology-related organizations include:
- International Association of Scientologists, the official Scientology membership organization.
- Church of Spiritual Technology, a non-profit organization that owns the copyrights to Scientology books.
Free Zone and Independent Scientologists[link]
Although Scientology is most often used as shorthand for the Church of Scientology, a number of groups practice Scientology and Dianetics outside of the official Church. These groups, collectively known as the Free Zone or as Independent Scientologists, consist of both former members of the official Church of Scientology, as well as entirely new members. Capt. Bill Robertson, a former Sea Org member, was a primary instigator of the movement in the early 1980s.[166] The Church labels these groups as squirrels in Scientology jargon, and often subjects them to considerable legal and social pressure.[167][168][169] More recently, high-profile defectors Mark Rathbun and Mike Rinder have championed the cause of Independent Scientologists wishing to practice Scientology outside of the Church.[170][171]
Dispute of religion status[link]
Scientology status by country[link]
Main article: Scientology status by country
The Church of Scientology has pursued an extensive public relations campaign for the recognition of Scientology as a religion in the various countries in which it exists.[24][172][173] Opinions around the world still differ on whether Scientology is to be recognized as a religion or not,[174] and Scientology has often encountered opposition due to its strong-arm tactics directed against critics and members wishing to leave the organization.[109] A number of governments now view the Church as a religious organization entitled to protections and tax relief, while others continue to view it as a pseudoreligion or cult.[175][176] The differences between these classifications have become a major problem when discussing religions in general and Scientology specifically.[83]
Scientology is officially recognized as a religion in the United States.[10][11][12][13] Recognition came in 1993, when the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) stated that "[Scientology is] operated exclusively for religious and charitable purposes."[177][178]
The New York Times noted in this connection that the Church of Scientology had funded a campaign which included a whistle-blower organization to publicly attack the IRS, as well as the hiring of private investigators to look into the private lives of IRS officials.[52] In 1991, Mr. Miscavige, the highest-ranking Scientology leader, arranged a meeting with Fred T. Goldberg Jr., the Commissioner of the Internal Revenue Service at the time.[179] The meeting was an "opportunity for the church to offer to end its long dispute with the agency, including the dozens of suits brought against the IRS." The committee met several times with the Scientology legal team and "was persuaded that those involved in the Snow White crimes had been purged, that church money was devoted to tax-exempt purposes and that, with Mr. Hubbard's death, no one was getting rich from Scientology."[52] In August 1993, a settlement was reached; the church would receive its tax-exempt status and end its legal assault on the IRS and its personnel. The church was required only to resubmit new applications for exemption to the IRS exempt organizations division; the division was told "not to consider any substantive matters" because those issues had been resolved by the committee.[52] The secret agreement was announced on Oct 13, 1993, with the IRS refusing to disclose any of the terms or the reasoning behind its decision.[52] Both the IRS and Scientology rejected any allegations of foul play or undue pressure having been brought to bear upon IRS officials, insisting that the decision had been based on the merits of the case.[180] IRS officials "insisted that Scientology's tactics had not affected the decision" and that "ultimately the decision was made on a legal basis".[52]
Elsewhere, Scientology has been able to obtain religious recognition in such countries as Australia,[11][181] Portugal,[182] Spain,[183][184] Slovenia,[79] Sweden,[79][185][186] Croatia,[79] Hungary[79] and Kyrgyzstan.[82] In New Zealand, the Inland Revenue Department classified the Church of Scientology as a charitable organization and stated that its income would be tax exempt.[187] It has gained judicial recognition in Italy,[188] and Scientology officials have won the right to perform marriages in South Africa.[78]
The Church has so far failed to win religious recognition in Canada.[78] In the UK, the Charity Commission for England and Wales ruled in 1999 that Scientology was not a religion and refused to register the Church as a charity, although a year later, it was recognized as a not-for-profit body in a separate proceeding by the UK Revenue and Customs and exempted from UK value added tax.[78][189] After considerable investigation, the German government dropped its attempt to ban Scientology after finding insufficient evidence of illegal activity. Historically, Germany has considered Scientology to be in conflict with the principles of the nation's constitution. Germany will continue to monitor Scientology's activities in the country, despite continued objection from the Church of Scientology which cites such monitoring as abuse of freedom of religion.[190] France and Belgium have not recognized Scientology as a religion, and Stephen A. Kent, writing in 2001, noted that no such recognition had been obtained in Ireland, Luxembourg, Israel or Mexico either.[191] The Belgian State Prosecution Service has recommended that various individuals and organizations associated with Scientology should be prosecuted.[192][193] An administrative court is to decide if charges will be pressed.[192][193] In Greece, Scientology is not recognized as a religion by the Greek government, and multiple applications for religious status have been denied, for example in 2000 and 2003.[194]
Scholarly views on Scientology's status as a religion[link]
While acknowledging that a number of his colleagues accept Scientology as a religion, sociologist and professor Stephen A. Kent wrote: "Rather than struggling over whether or not to label Scientology as a religion, I find it far more helpful to view it as a multifaceted transnational corporation, only one element of which is religious" [emphasis in the original].[195][196] Kent also holds that the US government sees Scientology not as a religion, but as a charitable organization due to its religious claims.[197]
David G. Bromley of Virginia Commonwealth University characterizes Scientology as "a 'quasi-religious therapy' that resembles Freudian 'depth psychology' while also drawing upon Buddhism, Hinduism and Gnosticism."[198]
Dr. Frank K. Flinn, adjunct professor of religious studies at Washington University in St. Louis wrote, "it is abundantly clear that Scientology has both the typical forms of ceremonial and celebratory worship and its own unique form of spiritual life."[199] Flinn further states that religion requires "beliefs in something transcendental or ultimate, practices (rites and codes of behavior) that re-inforce those beliefs and, a community that is sustained by both the beliefs and practices," all of which are present within Scientology.[83]
Using the synonym of alternative religions, Barrett (1998:237) and Hunt (2003:195) place Scientology in the sociological grouping of personal development movements together with the Neurolinguistic Programming, Emin, and Insight. According to Religious Studies professor Mary Farrell Benarowski, Scientology describes itself as drawing on science, religion, psychology and philosophy but "had been claimed by none of them and repudiated, for the most part, by all."[200]
Describing the variety of scholarly opinions in existence, David G. Bromley and Douglas E. Cowan stated in 2006 that "Overall, however, most scholars have concluded that Scientology falls within the category of religion for the purposes of academic study, and a number have defended the Church in judicial and political proceedings on this basis."[130] Bromley and Cowan noted in 2008 that Scientology's attempts "to gain favor with new religion scholars" had often been problematic.[172]
On the cultural significance of Scientology as a religion and providing a different scholarly perspective, Roland Robertson, a sociologist and theorist of globalization says, "New Religious Movements such as Scientology are contributing to globalization at the level or focal point of the self and the newly thematized extra societal aspect of self, humanity."[201]
Religious scholar J. Gordon Melton asserts, “The Church of Scientology is very much a religion in the fullest sense of the word.” [202]
Scientology as a commercial venture[link]
Main article: Scientology as a business
While NRM scholars have generally accepted the religious nature of Scientology, media reports have tended to express the opinion that "Scientology is a business, often given to criminal acts, and sometimes masquerading as a religion."[130][203] During his lifetime, Hubbard was accused of using religion as a façade for Scientology to maintain tax-exempt status and avoid prosecution for false medical claims.[203] According to several of his fellow science fiction writers, Hubbard had on several occasions stated that the way to get rich was to start a religion.[204][205]
Hubbard grew up in a climate that was very critical of organized religion, and frequently quoted anti-religious sentiments in his early lectures.[206] The scholar Marco Frenschkowski (University of Mainz) has stated that it was not easy for Hubbard "to come to terms with the spiritual side of his own movement. Hubbard did not want to found a religion: he discovered that what he was talking about in fact was religion. This mainly happened when he had to deal with apparent memories from former lives. He had to defend himself about this to his friends."[206] Frenschkowski allows that there naturally were practical considerations about "how to present Scientology to the outside world", but dismisses the notion that presentation as a religion was just an expedient pretense, pointing to many passages in Hubbard's works that document his struggle with this issue.[206] Drawing parallels to similar struggles for identity in other religious movements such as Theosophy and Transcendental Meditation, Frenschkowski sees in Hubbard's lectures "the case of a man whose background was non-religious and who nevertheless discovers that his ideas somehow oscillate between 'science' (in a very popular sense), 'religion' and 'philosophy', and that these ideas somehow fascinate so many people that they start to form a separate movement. As in the case of similar movements, it was quite unclear to Hubbard in the beginning what Scientology would become."[206]
The Church of Scientology denounces the idea of Hubbard starting a religion for personal gain as an unfounded rumor.[207] The Church also suggests that the origin of the rumor was a quote by George Orwell which had been misattributed to Hubbard.[208] Robert Vaughn Young, who left the Church in 1989 after being its spokesman for twenty years, suggested that reports of Hubbard making such a statement could be explained as a misattribution of Orwell, despite having encountered three of Hubbard's associates from his science fiction days who remembered Hubbard making statements of that sort in person.[209] It was Young who by a stroke of luck came up with the "Orwell quote": "... but I have always thought there might be a lot of cash in starting a new religion, and we'll talk it over some time..." It appears in a letter by George Orwell (signed Eric Blair) to a friend Jack Common, dated 16-February-38 (February 16, 1938), and was published in Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell, vol. 1.[210] In 2006, Rolling Stone's Janet Reitman writes Hubbard said the same thing to science fiction writer Lloyd Eshbach, a fact quoted in Eshbach's autobiography.[211]
Scientology maintains strict control over the use of its symbols, icons, and names. It claims copyright and trademark over its "Scientology cross", and its lawyers have threatened lawsuits against individuals and organizations who have published the image in books and on Web sites. Because of this, it is very difficult for individual groups to attempt to publicly practice Scientology on their own, independent of the official Church of Scientology. Scientology has filed suit against a number of individuals who have attempted to set up their own auditing practices, using copyright and trademark law to shut these groups down.[212]
The Church of Scientology and its many related organizations have amassed considerable real estate holdings worldwide, likely in the hundreds of millions of dollars.[20] Scientology encourages existing members to "sell" Scientology to others by paying a commission to those who recruit new members.[20] Scientology franchises, or missions, must pay the Church of Scientology roughly 10% of their gross income.[213] On that basis, it is likened to a pyramid selling scheme.[214] While introductory courses do not cost much, courses at the higher levels may cost several thousand dollars each.[215]
In conjunction with the Church of Scientology's request to be officially recognized as a religion in Germany, around 1996 the German state Baden-Württemberg conducted a thorough investigation regarding the group's activities within Germany.[216] The results of this investigation indicated that at the time of publication, Scientology's main sources of revenue ("Haupteinnahmequellen der SO") were from course offerings and sales of their various publications. Course offerings ranged from (German Marks) DM 182.50 to about DM 30,000 – the equivalent today of approximately $119 to $19,560 USD. Revenue from monthly, bi-monthly, and other membership offerings could not be estimated in the report, but was nevertheless placed in the millions. Defending its practices against accusations of profiteering, the Church has countered critics by drawing analogies to other religious groups who have established practices such as tithing, or require members to make donations for specific religious services.[217]
Controversies[link]
Main article: Scientology controversies
See also: Scientology and the legal system
Of the many new religious movements to appear during the 20th century, the Church of Scientology has, from its inception, been one of the most controversial, coming into conflict with the governments and police forces of several countries (including the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada[220], France[221] and Germany).[4][20][209][222][223] It has been one of the most litigious religious movements in history, filing countless lawsuits against governments, organizations and individuals.[224]
Reports and allegations have been made, by journalists, courts, and governmental bodies of several countries, that the Church of Scientology is an unscrupulous commercial enterprise that harasses its critics and brutally exploits its members.[209][222] Time magazine published an article in 1991 which described Scientology as "a hugely profitable global racket that survives by intimidating members and critics in a Mafia-like manner."[20]
The controversies involving the Church and its critics, some of them ongoing, include:
- Scientology's disconnection policy, in which members are encouraged to cut off all contact with friends or family members who are "antagonistic" to Scientology.[225]
- The death of a Scientologist Lisa McPherson while in the care of the Church. (Robert Minton sponsored the multi-million dollar law suit against Scientology for the death of McPherson. In May 2004, McPherson's estate and the Church of Scientology reached a confidential settlement.)[226]
- Criminal activities committed on behalf of the Church or directed by Church officials (Operation Snow White, Operation Freakout).
- Conflicting statements about L. Ron Hubbard's life, in particular accounts of Hubbard discussing his intent to start a religion for profit and of his service in the military.[20]
- Scientology's harassment and litigious actions against its critics encouraged by its Fair Game policy.[20]
- Attempts to legally force search engines such as Google and Yahoo! to omit any webpages critical of Scientology from their search engines (and in Google's case, AdSense), or at least the first few search pages.[227]
- Allegations by former high-ranking Scientologists that David Miscavige beats and demoralizes staff and that physical violence by superiors towards staff working for them is a common occurrence in the church.[228][229] Scientology spokesman Tommy Davis denied these claims and provided witnesses to rebut them.[228]
- In October 2009, a French court found the Church of Scientology guilty of organized fraud. Four officers of the organization were fined and given suspended prison sentences of up to 2 years. The Church of Scientology said it would appeal the judgement. Prosecutors had hoped to achieve a ban of Scientology in France, but due to a temporary change in French law, which "made it impossible to dissolve a legal entity on the grounds of fraud", no ban was pronounced.[230] The sentence was confirmed by appeal court in February 2012.[231]
- In November 2009, Australian Senator Nick Xenophon used a speech in Federal Parliament to allege that the Church of Scientology is a criminal organization. Based on letters from former followers of the religion, he said that there were "allegations of forced imprisonment, coerced abortions, and embezzlement of church funds, of physical violence and intimidation, blackmail and the widespread and deliberate abuse of information obtained by the organization ..."[232]
Due to these allegations, a considerable amount of investigation has been aimed at the Church, by groups ranging from the media to governmental agencies.[209][222]
Scientology social programs such as drug and criminal rehabilitation have likewise drawn both support and criticism.[233][234][235][236]
Professor of sociology Stephen A. Kent says "Scientologists see themselves as possessors of doctrines and skills that can save the world, if not the galaxy."[237] As stated in Scientology doctrine: "The whole agonized future of this planet, every man, woman and child on it, and your own destiny for the next endless trillions of years depend on what you do here and now with and in Scientology."[238] Kent has described Scientology's ethics system as "a peculiar brand of morality that uniquely benefited [the Church of Scientology] ... In plain English, the purpose of Scientology ethics is to eliminate opponents, then eliminate people's interests in things other than Scientology."[239] On the other hand, the sociologist David G. Bromley has noted that "a number of religious groups had radical and confrontational styles early in their history" and that "Scientology is now becoming less controversial."[citation needed]
Scientology and the Internet[link]
See also: Scientology and the Internet and Project Chanology
In the 1990s, Scientology representatives began to take action against increased criticism of Scientology on the Internet. The organization says that the actions taken were to prevent distribution of copyrighted Scientology documents and publications online, fighting what it refers to as "copyright terrorists".[240]
In January 1995, Church lawyer Helena Kobrin attempted to shut down the newsgroup alt.religion.scientology by sending a control message instructing Usenet servers to delete the group.[241] In practice, this rmgroup message had little effect, since most Usenet servers are configured to disregard such messages when sent to groups that receive substantial traffic, and newgroup messages were quickly issued to recreate the group on those servers that did not do so. However, the issuance of the message led to a great deal of public criticism by free-speech advocates.[242][243] Among the criticism raised, one suggestion is that Scientology's true motive is to suppress the free speech of its critics.[244][245]
The Church also began filing lawsuits against those who posted copyrighted texts on the newsgroup and the World Wide Web, and lobbied for tighter restrictions on copyrights in general. The Church supported the controversial Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act as well as the even more controversial Digital Millennium Copyright Act. Some of the DMCA's provisions (notably the Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act) were heavily influenced by Church litigation against US Internet service providers over copyrighted Scientology materials that had been posted or uploaded through their servers.
Beginning in the middle of 1996 and ensuing for several years, the newsgroup was attacked by anonymous parties using a tactic dubbed sporgery by some, in the form of hundreds of thousands of forged spam messages posted on the group. Some investigators said that some spam had been traced to Church members.[247][248] Former Scientologist Tory Christman later asserted that the Office of Special Affairs had undertaken a concerted effort to destroy alt.religion.scientology through these means; the effort failed.[249]
On January 14, 2008, a video produced by the Church of Scientology featuring an interview with Tom Cruise was leaked to the Internet and uploaded to YouTube.[250][251][252] The Church of Scientology issued a copyright violation claim against YouTube requesting the removal of the video.[253] Subsequently, the group Anonymous voiced its criticism of Scientology and began attacking the Church.[254] Calling the action by the Church of Scientology a form of Internet censorship, participants of Anonymous coordinated Project Chanology, which consisted of a series of denial-of-service attacks against Scientology websites, prank calls, and black faxes to Scientology centers.[255][256][257][258][259] On January 21, 2008, Anonymous announced its intentions via a video posted to YouTube entitled "Message to Scientology", and a press release declaring a "war" against both the Church of Scientology and the Religious Technology Center.[258][260] In the press release, the group stated that the attacks against the Church of Scientology would continue in order to protect the freedom of speech, and end what they saw as the financial exploitation of church members.[261]
On January 28, 2008, an Anonymous video appeared on YouTube calling for protests outside Church of Scientology centers on February 10, 2008.[262][263] According to a letter Anonymous e-mailed to the press, about 7,000 people protested in more than 90 cities worldwide.[264] Many protesters wore masks based on the character V from V for Vendetta (who was influenced by Guy Fawkes) or otherwise disguised their identities, in part to protect themselves from reprisals from the Church of Scientology.[265][266] Many further protests have followed since then in cities around the world.[267]
The Arbitration Committee of the Wikipedia internet encyclopedia decided in May 2009 to restrict access to its site from Church of Scientology IP addresses, to prevent self-serving edits by Scientologists.[268][269] A "host of anti-Scientologist editors" were topic-banned as well.[268][269] The committee concluded that both sides had "gamed policy" and resorted to "battlefield tactics", with articles on living persons being the "worst casualties".[268]
Scientology and hypnosis[link]
Main article: Scientology and hypnosis
Scientology literature states that L. Ron Hubbard demonstrated his professional expertise in hypnosis by "discovering" the Dianetic engram. Hubbard was said to be an accomplished hypnotist, and close acquaintances such as Forrest Ackerman (Hubbard's literary agent) and A. E. van Vogt (an early supporter of Dianetics) witnessed repeated demonstrations of his hypnotic skills.[204]
Auditing confidentiality[link]
During the auditing process, the auditor may collect personal information from the person being audited.[270] Auditing records are referred to within Scientology as preclear folders.[271] The Church of Scientology has strict codes designed to protect the confidentiality of the information contained in these folders.[270] However, people leaving Scientology know that the Church is in possession of very personal information about them, and that the Church has a history of attacking and psychologically abusing those who leave it and become critics.[271] On December 16, 1969, an Guardian's Office order (G. O. 121669) by Mary Sue Hubbard authorized the use of auditing records for purposes of "internal security."[272] Some former members have said that while they were still in the Church, they combed through information obtained in auditing sessions to see if it could be used for smear campaigns against critics.[273][274]
Celebrities[link]
See also: Scientology and celebrities and List of Scientologists
Hubbard envisaged that celebrities would have a key role to play in the dissemination of Scientology, and in 1955 launched Project Celebrity, creating a list of 63 famous people that he asked his followers to target for conversion to Scientology.[275] Former silent-screen star Gloria Swanson and jazz pianist Dave Brubeck were among the earliest celebrities attracted to Hubbard's teachings.[275][276]
Today, Scientology operates eight churches that are designated Celebrity Centers, the largest of these being the one in Hollywood.[277] Celebrity Centers are open to the general public, but are primarily designed to minister to celebrity Scientologists.[277] Entertainers such as John Travolta, Kirstie Alley, Lisa Marie Presley, Nancy Cartwright, Jason Lee, Isaac Hayes, Edgar Winter, Tom Cruise, Chick Corea, Leah Remini and Katie Holmes have generated considerable publicity for Scientology.[275]
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ Cusack 2009, p. 400
- ^ Scientology is recognized as a religion in countries such as the United States, Spain and Australia, while the German and French governments, along with others, consider it a profit-making enterprise.
- ^ Associated Press (August 13, 1991). "Rural studio is Scientology headquarters". San Jose Mercury News: p. 6B.
- ^ a b "Remember Venus?". Time Magazine. December 22, 1952. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,889564,00.html. Retrieved 2007-07-20.
- ^ Melton, J. Gordon (1992). Encyclopedic Handbook of Cults in America. New York: Garland Pub. p. 190. ISBN 0-8153-1140-0.
- ^ Guiley, Rosemary (1991). Harper's Encyclopedia of Mystical & Paranormal Experience. [San Francisco]: HarperSanFrancisco. p. 107. ISBN 0-06-250365-0.
- ^ Neusner 2003, p. 227
- ^ a b Melton 2000, pp. 28
- ^ a b c d e Melton 2000, pp. 59–60
- ^ a b Finkelman, Paul (2006). Encyclopedia of American Civil Liberties. CRC Press. p. 287. ISBN 978-0-415-94342-0. http://books.google.com/?id=YoI14vYA8r0C&pg=PA287&lpg=PA287&dq=%22Scientology+has+achieved+full+legal+recognition+as+a+religious+denomination+in+the+United+States%22. "Scientology has achieved full legal recognition as a religious denomination in the United States."
- ^ a b c d e Davis, Derek H. (2004). "The Church of Scientology: In Pursuit of Legal Recognition" (PDF). Zeitdiagnosen: Religion and Conformity. Münster, Germany: Lit Verlag. http://www.umhb.edu/files/academics/crl/publications/articles/the_church_of_scientologypursuit_of_legal_recognition.pdf. Retrieved 2008-05-10. "Many countries, including the United States, now give official recognition to Scientology as a religion [...]"
- ^ a b Lucy Morgan (March 29, 1999). "Abroad: Critics public and private keep pressure on Scientology". St. Petersburg Times. "In the United States, Scientology gained status as a tax-exempt religion in 1993 when the Internal Revenue Service agreed to end a long legal battle over the group's right to the exemption."
- ^ a b Toomey, Shamus (June 26, 2005). "'TomKat' casts spotlight back on Scientology.", Chicago Sun-Times
- ^ Willms 2009, p. 245. "Being a religion is one of the most important issues of Scientology's current self-representation."
- ^ a b Koff, Stephen (December 22, 1988). "Dozens of groups operate under auspices of Church of Scientology". St. Petersburg Times. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sptimes/access/51440809.html?dids=51440809:51440809&FMT=FT&FMTS=ABS:FT. Retrieved 2008-09-30.
- ^ Neusner 2003, p. 222
- ^ Melton 2000, pp. 39–52
- ^ Beit-Hallahmi, Benjamin (2003). "Scientology: Religion or racket?". Marburg Journal of Religion 8 (1): 1–11. http://www.uni-marburg.de/fb03/ivk/mjr/pdfs/2003/articles/breit2003.pdf.
- ^ Marney, Holly (May 20, 2007). "Cult or cure?". Opinion (Edinburgh: Scotsman). http://news.scotsman.com/opinion.cfm?id=782292007. Retrieved 2009-01-04. "Labelled a cult by its critics, defended as a bona fide religion by devotees [...]"
Mallia, Joseph (March 1, 1998). "Powerful church targets fortunes, souls of recruits". Inside the Church of Scientology. Boston Herald. http://www.apologeticsindex.org/s04a01.html. "It is just such tactics that cause critics to call the church – founded in 1953 – a cult and a money-grabbing machine that separates thousands of ordinary church members like Covarrubias from their free will and their money."
Huus, Kari (July 5, 2005). "Scientology courts the stars". MSNBC. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/8333804/print/1/displaymode/1098/. Retrieved 2009-01-04. "[...] Scientology, recognized by the federal government as a religious organization but denounced by critics as a cult that extracts tens of thousands of dollars from its followers." - ^ a b c d e f g Behar, Richard (May 6, 1991). "Scientology: The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power". Time Magazine. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,972865,00.html. Retrieved 2008-11-03.
- ^ Palmer, Richard (April 3, 1994). "Cult Accused of Intimidation". Sunday Times.
"Copyright – or wrong?". Salon Technology. http://www.salon.com/tech/feature/1999/07/22/scientology/index.html. "The Church of Scientology has determinedly fought to dismantle the Web sites that have republished its material all across the Net – using legal threats, filtering software and innumerable pro-Scientology posts in Usenet groups."
Kennedy, Dan (April 19, 1996). "Earle Cooley is chairman of BU's board of trustees. He's also made a career out of keeping L. Ron Hubbard's secrets". BU's Scientology Connection. Boston Phoenix. http://bostonphoenix.com/alt1/archive/specials/scientology/SCIENTOLOGY_1.html. Retrieved 2009-01-04. "The modern version of this scorched-earth policy is a virtual war on church critics who, like Lerma, post copyrighted church documents on the Net in an effort to expose it."
Sumi, Glenn (October 12, 2006). "Managing Anger: Kenneth Anger speaks out on phones, artistic theft and Scientology". NOW Magazine. http://www.nowtoronto.com/movies/story.cfm?content=155930&archive=26,6,2006. Retrieved 2009-01-04. ""The Scientology people are very litigious," he says. "They're bulldogs who bite your ankle and won't give up, harassing people to death with lawsuits that go on and on.""
Welkos, Robert W.; Sappell, Joel (June 29, 1990). "On the Offensive Against an Array of Suspected Foes". Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-scientology062990x,0,138179,full.story. Retrieved 2008-11-02.
Methvin, Eugene H. (May 1990). "Scientology: Anatomy of a Frightening Cult". Reader's Digest. pp. 1–6.
"Oral Questions to the Minister of State for the Home Office, December 17, 1996" Hansard, vol. 760, cols. 1392–1394 quote: "Baroness Sharples: Is my noble friend further aware that a number of those who have left the cult have been both threatened and harassed and many have been made bankrupt by the church?" - ^ Sappell, Joel; Welkos, Robert W. (June 24, 1990). "Defining the Theology". Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-scientologysidea062490,0,7631220,full.story. Retrieved 2008-10-26.
- ^ Ortega, Tony (June 30, 2008). "Scientology's Crushing Defeat". Village Voice. http://www.villagevoice.com/content/printVersion/487758. Retrieved 2009-01-04. "Former members say that today the typical Scientologist must spend several years and about $100,000 in auditing before they find out on OT III that they are filled with alien souls that must be removed by further, even more expensive auditing."
- ^ a b Kennedy, Dominic (June 23, 2007). "'Church' that yearns for respectability". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/faith/article1975105.ece. Retrieved 2009-01-04. "Scientology is probably unique in that it keeps its sacred texts secret until, typically, devotees have paid enough money to learn what they say."
- ^ [1] Kent, Stephen A "Scientology – Is this a Religion?" (1999). Retrieved November 24, 2008.
- ^ Cohen, David (October 23, 2006). "Tom's aliens target City's 'planetary rulers'". Evening Standard.
- ^ Cusack 2009, p. 394
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- ^ http://www.patheos.com/Library/Scientology/Origins/Beginnings.html
- ^ The New Word original version available for download.
- ^ The New Word, Publisher: Forgotten Books (February 7, 2008), ISBN 1-60506-811-X ISBN 978-1-60506-811-4
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- ^ Christian D. Von Dehsen-Scott L. Harris Philosophers and Religious Leaders, p. 90, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999 ISBN 978-1-57356-152-5
- ^ a b Miller, Russell (1987). Bare-faced Messiah, The True Story of L. Ron Hubbard (First American ed.). New York: Henry Holt & Co. pp. 140–142. ISBN 0-8050-0654-0. http://www.xenu.net/archive/books/bfm/bfm13.htm.
- ^ Melton 2000, p. 11
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- ^ Melton 2000, pp. 14–15
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- ^ Russell, Ron (September 9, 1999). "Scientology's Revenge – For years, the Cult Awareness Network was the Church of Scientology's biggest enemy. But the late L. Ron Hubbard's L.A.-based religion cured that–by taking it over". New Times LA.
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- ^ Goodman, Leisa, Human Rights Director, Church of Scientology International (2001). "A Letter from the Church of Scientology". Marburg Journal of Religion: Responses From Religions: pp. Volume 6, No. 2, 4 pages. http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/mjr/goodman.html. Retrieved 2007-10-28.
- ^ a b c d e Dawson, Lorne L.; Cowan, Douglas E. (2004). Religion Online. New York, NY/London, UK: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. pp. 262, 264–265. ISBN 0-415-97022-9. http://books.google.com/?id=88vcFt6rOigC&pg=PA264&dq=Scientology+xenu+internet+OT
- ^ Phillip Lucas New Religious Movements in the 21st Century, p. 235, Routledge, 2004 ISBN 978-0-415-96577-4
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- ^ Schmid, John (January 15, 1997). German Party Replies To Scientology Backers, Herald Tribune
- ^ a b Germany, America and Scientology, Washington Post, February 1, 1997
- ^ a b Bonfante, Jordan; van Voorst, Bruce (February 10, 1997). "Does Germany Have Something Against These Guys?", Time
- ^ Staff (April 2, 1998). "U.N. Derides Scientologists' Charges About German 'Persecution'", New York Times
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- ^ a b c d Cowan & Bromley 2006, p. 185
- ^ a b c d e f g h i La justice espagnole accorde à la Scientologie le statut de religion, 2008-01-09, Le Monde: "L'Eglise de scientologie s'installe peu à peu dans le paysage cultuel européen. Après la Suède, le Portugal, la Slovénie, la Croatie ou la Hongrie, la justice espagnole vient à son tour d'inscrire la scientologie au registre légal des religions. Cette inscription, intervenue le 19 décembre, fait suite à une décision de l'Audience nationale, la plus haute juridiction espagnole." ("The Church of Scientology is slowly establishing itself in the European religious landscape. After Sweden, Portugal, Slovenia, Croatia and Hungary, it was now the turn of the Spanish legal system to add Scientology to the official register of religions. The registration, which took place on 19 December, followed a decision by the Audiencia Nacional, the highest court of Spain.")
- ^ La Audiencia Nacional reconoce a la Cienciología como iglesia, 2007-11-01, El País
- ^ "2007 U.S. Department of State – 2007 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Portugal". State.gov. March 11, 2008. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2007/100579.htm. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
- ^ a b U.S. State Department – 2005 Report on International Religious Freedom: Kyrgyzstan: "In the past year the State Commission on Religious Affairs (SCRA) also registered the Church of Scientology, ..."
- ^ a b c Flinn, Frank K. (July 5, 2005). "Scientology". Live discussion (Washington Post). http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/discussion/2005/06/30/DI2005063001394.html. Retrieved 2008-02-04.
- ^ Kevin Collison, Kevin (March 17, 2007). "Scientology center heads downtown", Kansas City Star
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- ^ Bernstein, Fred (November 9, 2010). "In Pasadena, a Model for Scientology's Growth Plan". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/10/business/10scientology.html. Retrieved July 13, 2011.
- ^ Jarvik, Elaine (September 18, 2004). "Scientology: Church now claims more than 8 million members". Deseret News. http://deseretnews.com/dn/view/0,1249,595091823,00.html. Retrieved 2007-08-01. "Melton, who has been criticized by some for being too easy on Scientology, and has been criticized by the church for being too harsh, says that the church's estimates of its membership numbers – 4 million in the United States, 8 to 9 million worldwide – are exaggerated. "You're talking about anyone who ever bought a Scientology book or took a basic course. Ninety-nine percent of them don't ever darken the door of the church again." If the church indeed had 4 million members in the United States, he says, "they would be like the Lutherans and would show up on a national survey" such as the Harris poll."
- ^ a b c d e Cowan & Bromley 2006, pp. 170–171
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Neusner 2003, pp. 221–236
- ^ a b c d e Chryssides, George D. (1999). Exploring New Religions. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 283. ISBN 0-8264-5959-5.
- ^ Carl G. Liungman Symbols, p. 297, Ionfox AB, 2004 ISBN 978-91-972705-0-2
- ^ a b Melton 2000, p. 32
- ^ Flowers 1984, p. 98
- ^ Bednarowski, Mary Farrell (1995). New Religions and the Theological Imagination in America (Religion in North America). Bloomington: Indiana University Press. p. 60. ISBN 0-253-20952-8.
- ^ Pollock, Robert (2002). The Everything World's Religions Book: Discover the Beliefs, Traditions, and Cultures of Ancient and Modern Religions. Avon, MA: Adams Media Corporation. p. 210. ISBN 1-58062-648-3.
- ^ Malko, George (1970). Scientology: The Now Religion. New York: Delacorte Press. p. 109. ISBN 1-112-96373-1.
- ^ John Corrigan (2008). The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Emotion, page 132. ISBN 978-0-19-517021-4. http://books.google.com/?id=kkj3yBwED2IC&pg=PA132&dq=Scientology+tone+scale.
- ^ a b c d Roy Wallis. "The Road to Total Freedom A Sociological analysis of Scientology, page 1". http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~dst/Library/Shelf/wallis/wallis1.txt.
- ^ Melton 2000, p. 31
- ^ Melton 2000, p. 25
- ^ a b c d e Neusner 2003, p. 228
- ^ Melton 2000, pp. 33–34
- ^ a b Cowan & Bromley 2006, p. 176
- ^ "The KRC Triangle". Religioustolerance.org. http://www.religioustolerance.org/scientol1.htm. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
- ^ Ortega, Tony (January 6, 2012). "Scientology in Turmoil: Debbie Cook's E-Mail, Annotated". The Village Voice. http://blogs.villagevoice.com/runninscared/2012/01/scientology_in_3.php. Retrieved 2012-01-14.
- ^ a b c d e f g Cowan & Bromley 2006, p. 177
- ^ a b Zellner & Petrowsky 1998, pp. 146–147
- ^ Marshall, Gordon (1990). In praise of sociology. Boston: Unwin Hyman. p. 187. ISBN 0-04-445687-5.
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- ^ Colette, Mark. "Former Scientology film crew member describes surveillance activities in Ingleside on the Bay". Caller-Times, Corpus Christi. http://www.caller.com/news/2011/aug/06/former-scientology-film-crew-member-describes-in/. Retrieved September 6, 2011.
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- ^ Richardson 2009, p. 286: "After doing a thorough analysis, the [High] Court [of Australia] stated unequivocally that Scientology met the criteria establishing itself as a religion, and therefore should be granted exempt status for tax purposes. The Court went on to state that a religion did not have to be theistic, and that a religion involved both belief and behavior [...] This case is still the leading case in Australia defining religion, and is cited in other courts and countries as well."
- ^ 2007 U.S. State Department – 2007 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Portugal: "In November the government officially recognized Scientology as a religion."
- ^ Spanish court rules Scientology can be listed as a religion: "A court in Spain has ruled in favour of listing the controversial Church of Scientology among the nation's official register of religions, according to a decision obtained by AFP Thursday. The administrative tribunal of Madrid's High Court ruled that a 2005 justice ministry decision to scrap the church from the register was 'against the law.'"
- ^ Cienciología entre las «entidades religiosas»: "Un tribunal administrativo de la Audiencia Nacional de Madrid, máxima instancia judicial española, aceptó un recurso interpuesto por ese movimiento fundado en 1954 por el autor de ciencia ficción Lafayette Ron Hubbard (1911–1986), para ser inscripto en el registro de los movimientos religiosos del país."
- ^ "Decision of 13 March 2000 registering Scientology as a "religious community" in Sweden". CESNUR. March 13, 2000. http://www.cesnur.org/testi/scient_sweden2000.htm. Retrieved 2007-07-21.
- ^ Bogdan 2009, p. 338: "... on March 13, 2000, the Church of Scientology was registered as a religious community by the National Judicial Board for Public Lands and Funds following a new law, titled the Act on Religious Communities [...], which took on effect on January 1, 2000, with the separation of the Church of Sweden from the state. On June 10, 2000, the first legal Scientology wedding in Europe was celebrated in Stockholm."
- ^ "Scientology gets tax-exempt status". The New Zealand Herald. December 27, 2002. http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=3048935. Retrieved 2011-07-13.
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- ^ Harry Wallop: Scientology tax victory could cost Revenue millions, Daily Telegraph, August 11, 2006
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- ^ Kent 2001
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- ^ "US Dept of State International Religious Freedom Report 2004". State.gov. January 1, 2004. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35458.htm. Retrieved 2010-09-04.
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- ^ Morgan, Lucy (March 29, 1999). "Abroad: Critics public and private keep pressure on Scientology". St. Petersburg Times. http://www.sptimes.com/News/32999/Worldandnation/Abroad__Critics_publi.html. Retrieved 2007-09-07. "Canada's highest court in 1997 upheld the criminal conviction of the Church of Scientology of Toronto and one of its officers for a breach of trust stemming from covert operations in Canadian government offices during the 1970s and 1980s."
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- ^ French court upholds Scientology fraud conviction, AFP, February 2, 2012
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- ^ Wendy Grossman Net.wars, pp. 74–76, NYU Press, 1997 ISBN 978-0-8147-3103-1
- ^ Nordhausen, Frank (in German). Scientology: Wie der Sektenkonzern die Welt erobern will. Links Christoph Verlag. p. 518. ISBN 978-3-86153-470-9.
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- ^ Harrison, James (The State News) (February 12, 2008). "Scientology protestors take action around world". http://www.statenews.com/index.php/blog/entertainment/2008/02/internet_group_. Retrieved 2008-02-14.
- ^ Forrester, John (February 11, 2008). "Dozens of masked protesters blast Scientology church". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2008/02/11/dozens_of_masked_protesters_blast_scientology_church/. Retrieved 2008-02-15.
- ^ Andrew Ramadge (March 17, 2008). "Second round of Anonymous v Scientology". News.com.au (News Limited). http://www.news.com.au/technology/story/0,25642,23389091-5014239,00.html. Retrieved 2008-03-17.
- ^ a b c Shea, Danny (May 29, 2009). "Wikipedia Bans Scientology From Site". The Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/05/29/wikipedia-bans-scientolog_n_208967.html. Retrieved 2009-05-29.
- ^ a b Metz, Cade (May 29, 2009). "Wikipedia bans Church of Scientology". The Register. http://www.theregister.co.uk/2009/05/29/wikipedia_bans_scientology/. Retrieved 2009-05-29.
- ^ a b Melton 2000, p. 29
- ^ a b Donaghy, James (June 9, 2007). "My name is L Ron Hubbard". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2007/jun/09/tvandradio.broadcasting1. Retrieved 2009-01-14.
- ^ Breckenridge, Memorandum of Intended Decision in Church of Scientology of California vs. Gerald Armstrong, Superior Court, Los Angeles County, case no. C420153. quoted in Atack, Jon (1990). A Piece of Blue Sky. Carol Publishing Group. p. 322. ISBN 0-8184-0499-X.
- ^ Koff, Stephen (December 22, 1988). "Scientology church faces new claims of harassment". St. Petersburg Times. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sptimes/access/51440683.html?dids=51440683:51440683&FMT=FT&FMTS=ABS:FT. Retrieved 2008-10-26.
- ^ Steven Girardi (May 9, 1982). "Witnesses Tell of Break-ins, Conspiracy". Clearwater Sun: p. 1A.
- ^ a b c Shaw, William (February 14, 2008). "What do Tom Cruise and John Travolta know about Scientology that we don't?". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/film/3671262/What-do-Tom-Cruise-and-John-Travolta-know-about-Scientology-that-we-dont.html. Retrieved 2009-06-25.
- ^ Cusack 2009, pp. 394–395
- ^ a b Neusner 2003, p. 233
Footnotes[link]
- Barrett, David V. (1998). Sects, ‘Cults’ & Alternative Religions: A World Survey and Sourcebook (Paperback) New Ed. Sterling Pub Co Inc. ISBN 978-0-7137-2756-2
- Behar, Richard (1991). Scientology: The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power, Time Magazine.
- Bogdan, Henrik (2009). The Church of Scientology in Sweden In Lewis, James R. (2009). Scientology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 335–344. ISBN 978-0-19-533149-3
- Bromley, David G. (2009). Making Sense of Scientology In Lewis, James R. (2009). Scientology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 83–101. ISBN 978-0-19-533149-3
- Cowan, Douglas E.; Bromley, David G. (2006). The Church of Scientology In Gallagher, Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael (eds.) (2006). Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America. 5. Westport CT: Greenwood Press. pp. 169–196. ISBN 0-275-98712-4
- Cowan, Douglas E.; Bromley, David G. (2007). Cults and New Religions: A Brief History. Malden, MA / Oxford, UK / Carlton, Victoria, Australia: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-6127-5
- Cusack, Carole M. (2009). Celebrity, the Popular Media, and Scientology: Making Familiar the Unfamiliar In Lewis, James R. (2009). Scientology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 389–409. ISBN 978-0-19-533149-3
- Cusack, Carole M.; Digance, Justine (2009). Pastoral Care and September 11: Scientology's Nontraditional Religious Contribution In Lewis, James R. (2009). Scientology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 435–437. ISBN 978-0-19-533149-3
- Flowers, Ronald B. (1984). Religion in Strange Times: The 1960s and 1970s. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press. ISBN 0-86554-127-2
- Frenschkowski, Marco (1999). "L. Ron Hubbard and Scientology: An annotated bibliographical survey of primary and selected secondary literature". http://www.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/mjr/frenschkowski.html
- Gallagher, Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael (eds.) (2006). Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America. Westport CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-275-98712-4
- Garrison, Omar V. (1974). The Hidden Story of Scientology. Citadel Press. ISBN 0-8065-0440-4
- Hunt, Stephen J. (2003). Alternative Religions: A Sociological Introduction. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0-7546-3410-8
- Kent, Stephen A. (1996). "Scientology's Relationship With Eastern Religious Traditions". Journal of Contemporary Religion 11 (1): 21. DOI:10.1080/13537909608580753. http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/~skent/Linkedfiles/Scientology's%20Relationship%20With%20Eastern%20Religious%20Traditions%20.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-13
- Kent, Stephen A. (2001). "The French and German versus American Debate over 'New Religions', Scientology, and Human Rights". Marburg Journal of Religion 6 (1). http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/mjr/kent2.html#1. Retrieved 2009-03-28
- Lewis, James R. (2009). Scientology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-533149-3
- Lewis, James R.; Hammer, Olav (2007). The Invention of Sacred Tradition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-86479-8
- Melton, J. Gordon (2000). The Church of Scientology. Salt Lake City: Signature Press. ISBN 1-56085-139-2
- Neusner, Jacob (2003). World Religions in America. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-22475-X
- Palmer, Susan J. (2009). The Church of Scientology in France: Legal and Activist Counterattacks in the "War on Sectes" In Lewis, James R. (2009). Scientology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 295–322. ISBN 978-0-19-533149-3
- Richardson, James T. (2009). Scientology in Court: A Look at Some Major Cases from Various Nations In Lewis, James R. (2009). Scientology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 283–294. ISBN 978-0-19-533149-3
- Urban, Hugh B. (2011). The Church of Scientology: A History of a New Religion. Princeton Press. ISBN 0-691-14608-X
- Willms, Gerald (2005). Scientology: Kulturbeobachtungen jenseits der Devianz. Bielefeld, Germany: transcript Verlag. ISBN 3-89942-330-5 (German)
- Willms, Gerald (2009). Scientology: "Modern Religion" or "Religion of Modernity"? In Lewis, James R. (2009). Scientology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 245–265. ISBN 978-0-19-533149-3
- Zellner, William W.; Petrowsky, Marc (1998). Sects, Cults, and Spiritual Communities: a Sociological Analysis. Westport CT: Praeger Publishers. ISBN 0-275-96335-7
External links[link]
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For those of a similar name, see Tom Kruse (disambiguation).
| Tom Cruise | |
|---|---|
 Cruise on MTV Live in December 2008 |
|
| Born | Thomas Cruise Mapother IV (1962-07-03) July 3, 1962 (age 49) Syracuse, New York, U.S. |
| Occupation | Actor, producer, writer, director |
| Years active | 1981–present |
| Height | 5 ft 7 in |
| Religion | Scientology |
| Spouse | Mimi Rogers (1987–1990) Nicole Kidman (1990–2001) Katie Holmes (2006–present) |
| Children | Isabella, Connor Cruise and Suri Cruise |
| Website | |
| TomCruise.com Tom Cruise Facebook Tom Cruise Twitter | |
Thomas Cruise Mapother IV ( /ˈtɒməs ˈkruːz ˈmeɪpɒθər/; born July 3, 1962), widely known as Tom Cruise, is an American film actor and producer. He has been nominated for three Academy Awards and has won three Golden Globe Awards for the same movies: Born on the Fourth of July (1989), Jerry Maguire (1996), Magnolia (1999). He started his career with the movie Endless Love. Cruise's first appearance in a major film was in 1981's Taps. His first leading role was in the film Risky Business,[1] released in August 1983. Cruise played the role of a heroic naval pilot in the popular and successful 1986 film Top Gun, and also secret agent Ethan Hunt in the series of Mission: Impossible action films.
He has starred in a variety of other successful films, including: Rain Man (1988), Days of Thunder (1990), A Few Good Men (1992), Vanilla Sky (2001), Minority Report (2002), The Last Samurai (2003), Collateral (2004), and War of the Worlds (2005).
Since 2005, Cruise and Paula Wagner have been in charge of the United Artists film studio,[2] with Cruise as producer and star and Wagner as the chief executive. Cruise is also known for his support of and adherence to the Church of Scientology.[3]
Contents |
Early life[link]
Cruise was born in Syracuse, New York,[4] the son of Mary Lee (née Pfeiffer), a special education teacher, and Thomas Cruise Mapother III (died 1984),[5] an electrical engineer.[6] Cruise's surname originates from his great-grandfather, Thomas Cruise O'Mara, who was adopted by a Welsh immigrant and renamed "Thomas Cruise Mapother".[7][8][9] Cruise is of German, Irish, and English ancestry.[10] He grew up in near poverty, in a Catholic family dominated by an abusive father whom Cruise has described as "a merchant of chaos".[11] He was beaten by his father, who Cruise has said was a bully and coward.
He was the kind of person where, if something goes wrong, they kick you. It was a great lesson in my life—how he’d lull you in, make you feel safe and then, bang! For me, it was like, 'There's something wrong with this guy. Don't trust him. Be careful around him.'[11]
Cruise's family spent part of his childhood in Canada, and Cruise attended Robert Hopkins Public School in Ottawa, Ontario, for grades three, four, and five. The Mapother family then moved to the suburb of Beacon Hill, so Cruise's father could take a position as a defense consultant with the Canadian Armed Forces.[12] There, Cruise completed grade six at Henry Munro Middle School, part of the Carleton Board of Education,[13] where he was active in athletics, playing floor hockey almost every night, showing himself to be a ruthless player, and eventually chipping his front tooth. In the game British bulldogs, he then lost his newly capped tooth and hurt his knee.[14] Henry Munro was also where Cruise became involved in drama, under the tutelage of George Steinburg.[15] The first play he participated in was called IT, in which Cruise won the co-lead with Michael de Waal, one playing "Evil", the other playing "Good". The play met much acclaim, and toured with five other classmates to various schools around the Ottawa area, even being filmed at the local Ottawa TV station.[16] Cruise was bullied regularly in the 15 different schools he attended in 12 years.[11] When Cruise was twelve, his mother left his father, taking Cruise and his sister Lee Anne with her.[11]
He briefly attended a Franciscan seminary in Cincinnati (on a church scholarship) and aspired to become a Catholic priest.[17] In his senior year, he played football for the varsity team as a linebacker, but he was cut from the squad after getting caught drinking beer before a game.[18] [19]
Career[link]
Acting[link]
1980s[link]
Cruise first appeared in supporting roles the 1981 films Endless Love and Taps, the latter in which he played a crazed military school student. His first starring role was in the 1983 comedy Losin' It. That same year he appeared in All the Right Moves and Risky Business, which has been described as "A Generation-X classic, and a career-maker for Tom Cruise",[20] and which along with 1986's Top Gun, cemented his status as a Superstar.
Cruise followed up Top Gun with The Color of Money, which came out the same year, and which paired him with Academy Award-winner Paul Newman. 1988 saw him star in Cocktail, which earned him a nomination for the Razzie Award for Worst Actor. Later that year he starred with Academy Award-winner Dustin Hoffman in Rain Man, which won the Academy Award for Best Film and Cruise the Kansas City Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor. Cruise finished the decade by portraying real-life paralyzed Vietnam War veteran Ron Kovic in 1989's Born on the Fourth of July, which earned him a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Drama, the Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Actor, the People's Choice Award for Favorite Motion Picture Actor, a nomination for BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role, and Cruise's first Best Actor Academy Award nomination.
1990s[link]
In 1994, Cruise starred along with Brad Pitt, Antonio Banderas and Christian Slater in Neil Jordan's Interview with the Vampire, a gothic drama/horror film that was based on Anne Rice's best-selling novel. The film was well received, although Rice was initially quite outspoken in her criticism of Cruise having been cast in the film, as Julian Sands was her first choice. Upon seeing the film however, she paid $7,740 for a two-page ad in Daily Variety praising his performance and apologizing for her previous doubts about him.[21]
In 1996, Cruise appeared as superspy Ethan Hunt in the reboot of Mission: Impossible, which he produced. In 1996, he took on the title role in Jerry Maguire, for which he earned a Golden Globe and his second nomination for an Academy Award. In 1999, Cruise costarred with wife Nicole Kidman in the erotic Stanley Kubrick film Eyes Wide Shut, and played motivational speaker Frank T.J. Mackey in the ensemble film Magnolia, for which he received another Golden Globe and nomination for an Academy Award.
2000s[link]
In 2000, Cruise returned as Ethan Hunt in the second installment of the Mission Impossible films, releasing Mission: Impossible II. The film was directed by Hong Kong director John Woo and branded with his gun fu style, and it continued the series' blockbuster success at the box office, taking in almost $547M in worldwide figures, like its predecessor, being the third highest grossing film of the year. Cruise received an MTV Movie Award as Best Male Performance for this film.[22] His next five films were major critical and commercial successes.[23] [24] The following year Cruise starred in the romantic thriller Vanilla Sky (2001) with Cameron Diaz and Penélope Cruz. In 2002, Cruise starred in the dystopian science fiction thriller, Minority Report which was directed by Steven Spielberg and based on the science fiction short story by Philip K. Dick.
In 2003, he starred in the Edward Zwick's historical drama The Last Samurai, for which he received a Golden Globe nomination as best actor.[22] In 2005, Cruise worked again with Steven Spielberg in War of the Worlds, which became the fourth highest grossing film of the year with US$591.4 million worldwide. Also in 2005, he won the People's Choice Award for Favorite Male Movie Star, and the MTV Generation Award.[22] Cruise was nominated for seven Saturn Awards between 2002 and 2009, winning once.[22] Nine of the ten films he starred in during the decade made over $100 million at the box office.[23]
In 2006, he reprised his role as Ethan Hunt in the third installment of the Mission Impossible film series, Mission: Impossible III. The film was more positively received by critics than its predecessor, and grossed nearly $400 million at the box office.[25] Cruise's 2007 film Lions for Lambs was a rare commercial disappointment. In 2008, Cruise appeared in the hit comedy Tropic Thunder with Ben Stiller and Jack Black. This performance earned Cruise a Golden Globe nomination. Cruise's role in the historical thriller Valkyrie released on December 25, 2008 to box office success.[26] As of 2009, Cruise's films have grossed over $6.5 billion worldwide.[27]
2010s[link]
In March 2010, Cruise completed filming the action-comedy Knight and Day, in which he re-teamed with former costar Cameron Diaz; the film was released on June 23, 2010.[28] On February 9, 2010, Cruise confirmed that he would star in Mission: Impossible – Ghost Protocol, the fourth Mission:Impossible film, which was released in December 2011.[29]
On May 6, 2011, Cruise was awarded a humanitarian award from the Simon Wiesenthal Centre and Museum of Tolerance for his work as a dedicated philanthropist.[30].
In mid-2011 Cruise started shooting the movie Rock of Ages, in which he plays the character Stacee Jaxx. The film is scheduled to be released in June 2012.[31]
Producing[link]
Cruise partnered with his former talent agent Paula Wagner to form Cruise/Wagner Productions in 1993,[2] and the company has since co-produced several of Cruise's films,[32] the first being Mission: Impossible in 1996 which was also Cruise's first project as a producer.
Cruise is noted as having negotiated some of the most lucrative film deals in Hollywood, and was described in 2005 by Hollywood economist Edward Jay Epstein as "one of the most powerful – and richest – forces in Hollywood". Epstein argues that Cruise is one of the few producers (the others being George Lucas, Steven Spielberg and Jerry Bruckheimer) who are regarded as able to guarantee the success of a billion-dollar film franchise. Epstein also contends that the public obsession with Cruise's tabloid controversies obscures full appreciation of Cruise's exceptional commercial prowess.[33]
Cruise/Wagner Productions, Cruise's film production company, is said to be developing a screenplay based on Erik Larson's New York Times bestseller, The Devil in the White City about a real life serial killer, H. H. Holmes, at Chicago's World's Columbian Exposition. Kathryn Bigelow is attached to the project to produce and helm. Meanwhile, Leonardo DiCaprio's production company, Appian Way, is also developing a film about Holmes and the World's Fair, in which DiCaprio will star.[34]
Breakup with Paramount[link]
On August 22, 2006, Paramount Pictures announced it was ending its 14-year relationship with Cruise. In the Wall Street Journal, chairman of Viacom (Paramount's parent company) Sumner Redstone cited the economic damage to Cruise's value as an actor and producer from his controversial public behavior and views.[35][36] Cruise/Wagner Productions responded that Paramount's announcement was a face-saving move after the production company had successfully sought alternative financing from private equity firms.[37] Industry analysts such as Edward Jay Epstein commented that the real reason for the split was most likely Paramount's discontent over Cruise/Wagner's exceptionally large share of DVD sales from the Mission: Impossible franchise.[38][39]
Management of United Artists[link]
In November 2006, Cruise and Paula Wagner announced that they had taken over United Artists film studio.[2] Cruise acts as a producer and star in films for United Artists, while Wagner serves as UA's chief executive. Production began in 2007 of Valkyrie, a thriller based on the July 20, 1944 assassination attempt against Adolf Hitler. The film was acquired in March 2007 by United Artists. On March 21, 2007 Cruise signed on to play Claus von Stauffenberg, the protagonist. This project marks the second production to be greenlighted since Cruise and Wagner took control of United Artists. The first was its inaugural film, Lions for Lambs, directed by Robert Redford and starring Redford, Meryl Streep and Cruise. Lambs was released on November 9, 2007,[40] opening to unimpressive box office revenue and critical reception. In August 2008, Wagner stepped down from her position at United Artists; she retains her stake in UA, which combined with Cruise's share amounts to 30 percent of the studio.[41]
Relationships and personal life[link]
Cruise had a relationship with his Risky Business co-star Rebecca De Mornay; they cohabited in New York from 1983–85.[42][43][44][45]
Cruise married actress Mimi Rogers on May 9, 1987; they divorced on February 4, 1990.[1] Rogers is generally believed to have introduced Cruise to Scientology.[46] He met his second wife, Nicole Kidman, on the set of their film Days of Thunder. The couple married on December 24, 1990. He and Kidman adopted two children, Isabella Jane (born December 1992) and Connor Antony (born January 1995).[1] They separated in February 2001 when Kidman was three months pregnant; she later miscarried.[47]
Cruise was next romantically linked with Penélope Cruz, his co-star in Vanilla Sky. That relationship ended in 2004.[48] In April 2005, Cruise began dating actress Katie Holmes. On April 27 that year, Cruise and Holmes, dubbed "TomKat" by the media, made their first public appearance together in Rome.[49] A month later, Cruise declared his love for Holmes on The Oprah Winfrey Show famously jumping up and down on Winfrey's couch during the show.[50] On October 6, 2005, Cruise and Holmes announced they were expecting a child,[51] and their daughter, Suri, was born in April 2006. On November 18, 2006, Holmes and Cruise were married at the 15th-century Odescalchi Castle in Bracciano, Italy, in a Scientology ceremony attended by many Hollywood stars.[52][53] The actors' publicist said the couple had "officialized" their marriage in Los Angeles the day before the Italian ceremony.[54] David Miscavige served as Cruise's best man.[55]
Popularity[link]
In 1990, 1991 and 1997, People magazine rated him among the 50 most beautiful people in the world. In 1995, Empire magazine ranked him among the 100 sexiest stars in film history. Two years later, it ranked him among the top 5 film stars of all time. In 2002 and 2003, he was rated by Premiere among the top 20 in its annual Power 100 list.[1]
In 2006, Premiere ranked Cruise as Hollywood's most powerful actor,[56] as Cruise came in at number 13 on the magazine's 2006 Power List, being the highest ranked actor.[57] The same year, Forbes magazine ranked him as the world's most powerful celebrity.[58]
In August 2006, "a USA Today/Gallup poll in which half of those surveyed registered an 'unfavorable' opinion of the actor" was cited as a reason in addition to "unacceptable behavior"[59] for Paramount's non-renewal of their production contract with Cruise. In addition, Marketing Evaluations reports that Cruise's Q score (which is a measure of the popularity of celebrities), had fallen 40 percent. It was also revealed that Cruise is the celebrity people would least like as their best friend.
October 10, 2006 was declared "Tom Cruise Day" in Japan; the Japan Memorial Day Association said that he was awarded with a special day because he has made more trips to Japan than any other Hollywood star.[60]
Controversy[link]
Litigation[link]
During Cruise's marriage to Nicole Kidman, the couple endured public speculation about their sex life and rumors that Cruise was gay. In 1998, he successfully sued the Daily Express, a British tabloid which alleged that his marriage to Kidman was a sham designed to cover up his homosexuality.[61] In May 2001 he filed a lawsuit against gay porn actor Chad Slater. Slater had allegedly told the celebrity magazine Actustar that he had had an affair with Cruise. Both Slater and Cruise denied this[clarification needed], and in August 2001, Slater was ordered to pay $10 million to Cruise in damages after Slater declared he could not afford to defend himself against the suit and would therefore default.[62] Cruise also sued Michael Davis, publisher of Bold Magazine, who alleged but never confirmed that he had video that would prove Cruise was gay. The suit was dropped in exchange for a public statement by Davis that the video was not of Cruise, and that Cruise was heterosexual.[63]
After The Beast's publication of their 50 Most Loathsome People of 2004, which included Cruise, Cruise's lawyer Bertram Fields threatened to sue. Seeing the opportunity for nationwide exposure, The Beast actively encouraged the lawsuit. No lawsuit was ever filed and Cruise was included more prominently in the 2005 list.[64] In 2006, Cruise sued cybersquatter Jeff Burgar to obtain control of the TomCruise.com domain name. When owned by Burgar, the domain redirected to information about Cruise on Celebrity1000.com. The decision to turn TomCruise.com over to Cruise was handed down by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) on July 5, 2006.[65]
[edit] Oprah Winfrey Show
File:Cruiseonoprah.jpg
Cruise jumps on the couch during the taping of an interview on The Oprah Winfrey Show.
Cruise has made several expressions of his feelings for Holmes to the media, most notably the "couch incident" which took place on the popular The Oprah Winfrey Show of May 23, 2005. Cruise "jumped around the set, hopped onto a couch, fell to one knee and repeatedly professed his love for his new girlfriend".[66] The phrase "jumping the couch", fashioned after "jumping the shark", is used to describe someone "going off the deep end" in public in a manner extreme enough to tarnish his or her reputation.[67] It enjoyed a short-lived popularity, being chosen by the editors of the Historical Dictionary of American Slang as the "slang term of the year" in 2005[68] and by the nonprofit group Global Language Monitor as one of its top phrases for the year.[69]
The "couch incident" was voted No.1 of 2005's "Most Surprising Television Moments" on a countdown on E![citation needed] and No.5 at BoxOfficeProphets.com.[70] and was the subject of numerous parodies, including the epilogue of Scary Movie 4, an episode of South Park, a short on Sesame Street,[71] and an episode of Family Guy. Entertainment Weekly put it on its end-of-the-decade, "best-of" list, saying, "Lesson learned: Tell, don't show".[72]
In early May 2008, Cruise reappeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show to celebrate 25 years in the film business. The feature was a two hour special, the first hour was Oprah spending the day with Cruise at his house in Telluride, Colorado on May 2.
Scientology[link]
Cruise is an outspoken advocate for the Church of Scientology. He became involved with Scientology in 1990 through his first wife, Mimi Rogers.[73] He has said that Scientology, specifically the L. Ron Hubbard Study Tech, helped him overcome dyslexia.[74] In addition to promoting various programs that introduce people to Scientology, Cruise has campaigned for Scientology to be recognized as a religion in Europe. In 2005, the Paris city council revealed that Cruise had lobbied officials Nicolas Sarkozy and Jean-Claude Gaudin, described him as a spokesman and militant for Scientology, and barred any further dealings with him.[75][76] Cruise co-founded and raised donations for Downtown Medical to offer New York City 9/11 rescue workers detoxification therapy based on the works of L. Ron Hubbard. This drew criticism from the medical profession,[77] as well as firefighters.[78] For these activities and others, David Miscavige awarded Cruise Scientology's Freedom Medal of Valor in late 2004.[citation needed]
In January 2004, Tom Cruise said: "I think psychiatry should be outlawed."[79] A controversy erupted in 2005 after he openly criticized actress Brooke Shields for using the drug Paxil (paroxetine), an anti-depressant to which Shields attributes her recovery from postpartum depression after the birth of her first daughter in 2003. Cruise asserted that there is no such thing as a chemical imbalance, and that psychiatry is a form of pseudoscience. Shields responded that Cruise "should stick to saving the world from aliens and let women who are experiencing postpartum depression decide what treatment options are best for them".[80] This led to a heated argument between Matt Lauer and Cruise on NBC's Today on June 24, 2005.[81] Medical authorities view Cruise's comments as furthering the social stigma of mental illness.[82][83] Shields herself called Cruise's comments "a disservice to mothers everywhere".[84] In late August 2006, Cruise apologized in person to Shields for his comments.[85] Scientology is well known for its opposition to mainstream psychiatry.
On January 15, 2008, a video produced by the Church of Scientology featuring an interview with Cruise was posted on YouTube, showing Cruise discussing what being a Scientologist means to him.[86][87] The Church of Scientology said the video had been "pirated and edited", and was taken from a three-hour video produced for members of Scientology.[87][88] YouTube removed the Cruise video from their site under threat of litigation.[89]
Cruise's more open attitude to Scientology has been attributed to the March 2004 departure of his publicist of 14 years, Pat Kingsley. He replaced her with his sister, fellow Scientologist Lee Anne DeVette, who served in that role until November 2005.[90] DeVette was replaced with Paul Bloch from the publicity firm Rogers and Cowan.[91] Such restructuring is seen as a move to curtail publicity of his views on Scientology, as well as the hard-sell of his relationship with Katie Holmes backfiring with the public.[92][93]
Filmography[link]
Main article: Tom Cruise filmography
As producer[link]
| Year | Title | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 1996 | Mission Impossible | |
| 2000 | Mission: Impossible II | Became the highest grossing movie of that year |
| 2001 | Vanilla Sky | |
| 2006 | Mission: Impossible III | |
| 2011 | Mission: Impossible – Ghost Protocol | Became the 5th highest grossing movie of 2011 |
| 2012 | One Shot | In production |
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ a b c d Tom Cruise at the Internet Movie Database
- ^ a b c "MGM Partners With Tom Cruise and Paula Wagner to Form New United Artists". PR Newswire. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios. November 2, 2006. Archived from the original on November 16, 2007. http://www.unitedartists.com/popups/pr/release_08.html.
- ^ Scientology News: Tom Cruise Tops List of Scientology Celebrities at Celebrity Centre International 34th Anniversary
- ^ "Cruise's Family Tree Treat". January 13, 2004. http://www.imdb.com/news/wenn/2004-01-13#celeb7. Retrieved October 17, 2007.
- ^ "Being Tom Cruise". TIME. http://www.time.com/time/europe/magazine/2002/0701/cruise/story2.html. Retrieved June 5, 2011.
- ^ "Tom Cruise Biography". http://www.filmreference.com/film/26/Tom-Cruise.html. Retrieved October 17, 2007.
- ^ Stated on Inside the Actors Studio interview with Cruise, January 11, 2004; can be viewed at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2xYsFLyTsDU
- ^ "Genealogy.com: Ancestry of Tom Cruise". Genealogy.com website. Genealogy.com. August 8, 2002. http://www.genealogy.com/famousfolks/tomc/index.htm#toc. Retrieved March 31, 2010.
- ^ "North East Wales: Cruise's Welsh roots uncovered". BBC News website (BBC). January 18, 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/north_east/3407861.stm. Retrieved March 31, 2010.
- ^ "Ancestry of Tom Cruise". Wargs.com. http://www.wargs.com/other/mapother.html. Retrieved August 8, 2009.
- ^ a b c d "I Can Create Who I Am". Parade. April 9, 2006. http://www.parade.com/articles/editions/2006/edition_04-09-2006/Tom_Cruise_cover. Retrieved February 18, 2011.
- ^ http://www.talktalk.co.uk/entertainment/film/biography/artist/tom-cruise/biography/124
- ^ "Tom Cruise's Canadian stay revealed". Jam.canoe.ca. 2008-01-19. http://jam.canoe.ca/Movies/Artists/C/Cruise_Tom/2008/01/19/4781997-sun.html. Retrieved 2012-04-15.
- ^ "Tom Cruise: An Unauthorized Biography". http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20080115/cruise_excerpt_080115/20080115?hub=CanadaAM&pr=showAll.
- ^ Ottawa, The (2008-01-18). "Cruise's time in capital one for books". Canada.com. http://www.canada.com/ottawacitizen/news/story.html?id=170277d7-9fc0-4273-9e0e-848a809a00da. Retrieved 2012-04-15.
- ^ "Excerpt Tom Cruise: An Unauthorized Biography". Beta.bordersstores.com. 2012-03-29. http://beta.bordersstores.com/online/store/ArticleView_tomcruise. Retrieved 2012-04-15.
- ^ Cf. Tom Cruise: An Unauthorized Biography, pp.24-26.
- ^ Cf. Tom Cruise: An Unauthorized Biography, page 47
- ^ http://www.biography.com/people/tom-cruise-9262645
- ^ "Risky Business". Rottentomatoes.com. http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/1017641-risky_business/. Retrieved 2012-04-15.
- ^ Go Figure, Entertainment Weekly, December 30, 1994.
- ^ a b c d Awards for Tom Cruise at the Internet Movie Database
- ^ a b "Tom Cruise". Boxofficemojo.com. http://boxofficemojo.com/people/chart/?view=Actor&id=tomcruise.htm. Retrieved 2012-04-15.
- ^ "Tom Cruise Movies, News, and Pictures on Rotten Tomatoes". Rottentomatoes.com. http://www.rottentomatoes.com/celebrity/tom_cruise/. Retrieved July 31, 2010.
- ^ "Mission: Impossible III (2006)". Boxofficemojo.com. http://boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=mi3.htm. Retrieved August 8, 2009.
- ^ "Valkyrie (2008)". Box Office Mojo. April 16, 2009. http://boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=valkyrie.htm. Retrieved July 31, 2010.
- ^ "Tom Cruise – Box Office Data Movie Star". The-numbers.com. http://www.the-numbers.com/people/TCRUI.php. Retrieved July 31, 2010.
- ^ "Knight and Day". Knightanddaymovie.com. http://www.knightanddaymovie.com/. Retrieved July 31, 2010.
- ^ "Cruise to star in ‘Mission: Impossible 4’ – Entertainment – Access Hollywood". MSNBC. February 9, 2010. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/35321981. Retrieved July 31, 2010.
- ^ "Tom Cruise wins humanitarian award". ITN. May 7, 2011. http://itn.co.uk/home/18258/Cruise. Retrieved May 9, 2011.
- ^ Everett, Christina (May 15, 2012). "Tom Cruise flaunts his abs, fake tattoos in 'Rock of Ages'-inspired photo shoot for W magazine". Daily News) (New York). http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/movies/tom-cruise-flaunts-abs-fake-tattoos-rock-ages-inspired-photo-shoot-w-magazine-article-1.1078665.
- ^ Cruise/Wagner Productions [us] at the Internet Movie Database
- ^ Epstein, Edward Jay. "Tom Cruise Inc. – By Edward Jay Epstein – Slate Magazine". Slate.com. http://www.slate.com/id/2121617/. Retrieved October 31, 2008.
- ^ "The Devil In The White City movie, trailer,review,pics,pictures,poster,news,DVD". Thezreview.co.uk. Archived from the original on July 5, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080705065258/http://www.thezreview.co.uk/comingsoon/d/devilinthewhitecitythe.htm. Retrieved October 31, 2008.
- ^ "CNN: Paramount Pictures cuts ties with Tom Cruise". CNN. August 23, 2006. http://money.cnn.com/2006/08/22/news/newsmakers/cruise_paramount/index.htm?cnn=yes. Retrieved August 8, 2009.
- ^ "Sumner Redstone Rebuke of Tom Cruise: Now What?". National Ledger. http://www.nationalledger.com/artman/publish/article_27267912.shtml. Retrieved August 8, 2009.
- ^ Lieberman, David (August 24, 2006). "Cruise seeks financial backing from hedge funds". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/money/media/2006-08-23-hedge-films-usat_x.htm. Retrieved August 8, 2009.
- ^ The Financial Times: Paramount vs. Cruise: all down the killer cut by Edward Jay Epstein
- ^ Sperling, Nicole (August 24, 2006). "Biz eyeing economics of Cruise-Par breakup: DVD slowdown forcing restraint". The Hollywood Reporter. http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/thr/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1003052563. Retrieved August 8, 2009. [dead link]
- ^ "Tom Cruise Takes on Adolf Hitler". Newsmax.com. 2007-03-21. http://newsmax.com/archives/ic/2007/3/21/73153.shtml?s=en. Retrieved 2012-04-15.
- ^ Paula Wagner plans to step down at United Artists, an August 2008 article from the Los Angeles Times
- ^ "TCM biography of De Mornay". Tcm.com. http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/participant.jsp?spid=46543&apid=0. Retrieved 2012-04-15.
- ^ "Yahoo biography of De Mornay". Sg.movies.yahoo.com. http://sg.movies.yahoo.com/Rebecca+DeMornay/biography/62182/. Retrieved June 5, 2011.
- ^ "Cruise Control". Vh1. May 27, 2005. http://www.vh1.com/news/articles/1502989/20050527/index.jhtml. Retrieved June 5, 2011.
- ^ "MovieMotel biography of De Mornay". Moviemotel.com. http://www.moviemotel.com/people/0018545/Rebecca-de-Mornay. Retrieved June 5, 2011.
- ^ Masters, Kim (September/October 2005). "The Passion of Tom Cruise". Radar. as excerpted by Radar at RadarOnline.com
- ^ "Celebrity News, Entertainment News, Celebrity Gossip - E! Online UK". Eonline.com. http://www.eonline.com/News/Items/0,1,8039,00.html. Retrieved 2012-04-15.
- ^ "Cruise and Cruz end relationship". BBC News. March 26, 2004. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/3570639.stm. Retrieved October 31, 2008.
- ^ Soriano, César G. (May 5, 2005). "Tom, Katie flying high on romance" USA Today.
- ^ Lynch, Jason (June 6, 2005). "Tom & Katie: Truly, Madly, Deeply". People.
- ^ Smith, Ryan E. (October 6, 2005). "Baby frenzy begins: Katie Holmes and Tom Cruise are expecting their first child together". The Blade
- ^ Soriano, César G (November 20, 2006). "Mr. and Mrs. TomKat: Inside their fairy-tale wedding". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/life/people/2006-11-19-tomkat-highlights_x.htm. Retrieved February 12, 2008.
- ^ ""Cruise, Holmes exchange vows in castle: Mr. and Mrs. TomKat depart on their honeymoon"". Toledoblade.com. http://www.toledoblade.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20061119/NEWS08/611190359. Retrieved 2012-04-15.
- ^ Sanminiatelli, Maria (November 19, 2006). "Now they are one: The TomKat is officially united at long last". Orlando Sentinel.
- ^ "Cruise and Holmes go on honeymoon". BBC News. November 19, 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/6160350.stm. Retrieved February 10, 2007.
- ^ "The Power List 2006". Premiere. June 2006. http://www.premiere.com/best/2816/the-power-list-2006.html. Retrieved July 29, 2008.
- ^ [1][dead link]
- ^ "Tom Cruise ranked 1 among The Top 100 Celebrities In 2006". Forbes. May 1, 2007. http://www.forbes.com/lists/2006/53/6YG2.html. Retrieved May 1, 2007.
- ^ "Paramount Drops Cruise". San Diego Union-Tribune. August 23, 2006. http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20060823/news_lz1n23pubeye.html. Retrieved January 20, 2009.
- ^ "Tom Cruise Day". Hollywood.com. http://www.hollywood.com/news/Cruise_Day_Declared_in_Japan/3563377. Retrieved August 8, 2009.
- ^ "Cruise and Kidman win libel case". BBC News. 1998-10-29. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/203779.stm. Retrieved 2012-04-15.
- ^ Ricardo Cestero Tom Cruise's lawyer (2003-01-16). "Cruise wins 'gay' claims legal battle". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/showbiz/2664159.stm. Retrieved 2012-04-15.
- ^ "Cruise gay claims dropped". BBC News. 2001-12-01. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/showbiz/1686039.stm. Retrieved 2012-04-15.
- ^ "Hollywood Egomaniac Threatens Beast Over Alleged 'Need for Speed'". The Beast, Issue #73, April 20 – May 4, 2005. Retrieved July 27, 2009.
- ^ Arbitration and Mediation Center (July 5, 2006). "WIPO Domain Name Decision: D2006-0560". Arbiter.wipo.int. http://arbiter.wipo.int/domains/decisions/html/2006/d2006-0560.html. Retrieved August 8, 2009.
- ^ Waxman, Sharon (June 2, 2005). "How Personal Is Too Personal for a Star Like Tom Cruise?". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/02/movies/02crui.html?ex=1275364800&en=5bee0745ec59eea3&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss. Retrieved August 26, 2006.
- ^ Susie Dent (October 4, 2007). The language report. Oxford University Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-19-923388-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=sVIdAQAAIAAJ&q=jumping+the+couch#search_anchor. Retrieved December 25, 2010.
- ^ "‘Jump the couch’ is top gun of slang in '05 - Entertainment - The Arts - TODAY.com". MSNBC. 2006-01-06. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/10650547/. Retrieved 2012-04-15.
- ^ "The Global Language Monitor » Top Words". Languagemonitor.com. http://www.languagemonitor.com/?page_id=4. Retrieved 2012-04-15.
- ^ "Top 10 Film Industry News Stories of 2005: #5: Tom Cruise's Crazy Year". Boxofficeprophets.com. http://www.boxofficeprophets.com/column/index.cfm?columnID=9334. Retrieved October 31, 2008.
- ^ "The 'O' Show". Sesame Street. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ztq1Kjc7vnw. Retrieved October 3, 2010.
- ^ Geier, Thom; Jensen, Jeff; Jordan, Tina; Lyons, Margaret; Markovitz, Adam; Nashawaty, Chris; Pastorek, Whitney; Rice, Lynette; Rottenberg, Josh; Schwartz, Missy; Slezak, Michael; Snierson, Dan; Stack, Tim; Stroup, Kate; Tucker, Ken; Vary, Adam B.; Vozick-Levinson, Simon; Ward, Kate (December 11, 2009), "The 100 Greatest Movies, TV Shows, Albums, Books, Characters, Scenes, Episodes, Songs, Dresses, Music Videos, and Trends That Entertained Us over the Past 10 Years". Entertainment Weekly. (1079/1080):74–84
- ^ "Cruise lobbies over Scientology". BBC News. 2002-01-30. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/showbiz/1791617.stm. Retrieved 2012-04-15.
- ^ "Cruise credits Scientology for his success". msnbc.com. May 24, 2005. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/7968809/. Retrieved May 11, 2008.
- ^ "Paris snubs Scientology 'militant' Cruise". Irish Examiner. 2005-07-13. http://www.examiner.ie/breaking/story.asp?j=182470131&p=y8z47x994&n=182471074&x=. Retrieved 2012-04-15.
- ^ "Tom Cruise ne sera pas citoyen d'honneur de Paris" (in French). July 12, 2005.
- ^ O'Donnell, Michelle (October 4, 2003). "Scientologist's Treatments Lure Firefighters". The New York Times.
- ^ Friedman, Roger (December 22, 2006). "Tom Cruise Can't Put Out These Fires". Fox News. http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,238238,00.html#2. Retrieved December 30, 2006.
- ^ Desai, Nimesh (Oct-Dec 2005). "Antipsychiatry: Meeting the challenge". Indian Journal of Psychiatry 47 (4): 185–187. DOI:10.4103/0019-5545.43048. PMC 2921130. PMID 20711302. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2921130/. Retrieved 20 March 2012.
- ^ "Brooke Shields Lashes Out at Tom Cruise". People. June 2, 2005. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,1067822,00.html.
- ^ "In tense moment, Cruise calls Lauer 'glib'" msnbc.com. (June 28, 2005)
- ^ Pemberton, Max (April 17, 2006). "Alien soul theory is no cure for depression". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/alternativemedicine/3338404/Alien-soul-theory-is-no-cure-for-depression.html. Retrieved January 20, 2009.
- ^ "Psychotropic drugs: unhelpful and helpful comments". The Lancet 366 (9480): 96. July 9, 2005. DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66841-9. PMID 16010708.
- ^ Shields, Brooke (July 1, 2005). "War of Words". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/01/opinion/01shields.html. Retrieved January 20, 2009.
- ^ "Shields: Cruise apology was 'heartfelt'", USA Today, Associated Press, September 2, 2006, http://www.usatoday.com/life/people/2006-09-02-shields-cruise_x.htm, retrieved June 20, 2011
- ^ Warne, Dan (January 24, 2008). "'Anonymous' threatens to 'dismantle' Church of Scientology via internet". APC Magazine (National Nine News). http://www.apcmag.com/7905/anonymous_threatens_to_dismantle_church_of_scientology_via_internet. Retrieved January 25, 2008.
- ^ a b "Hacker Group Declares War On Scientology: Group Upset Over Church's Handling Of Tom Cruise Video". Los Angeles: KNBC. January 24, 2008. http://www.knbc.com/news/15132759/detail.html. Retrieved January 25, 2008.
- ^ "Report: Church of Scientology Slams German Tabloid for Publishing Comments Comparing Tom Cruise to Nazi Minister". Fox News. January 23, 2008. http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,324885,00.html. Retrieved January 25, 2008.
- ^ Vamosi, Robert (January 24, 2008). "Anonymous hackers take on the Church of Scientology". CNET News (CNET Networks, Inc.). http://www.news.com/8301-10789_3-9857666-57.html. Retrieved January 25, 2008.
- ^ Gardner, Chris (November 6, 2005). "Cruise will go with pro". Variety. http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117932447?categoryid=13&cs=1. Retrieved October 31, 2008.
- ^ "Cruise Control Shifts Gears". Yahoo! Entertainment. November 8, 2005. Archived from the original on May 21, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060521205326/http://entertainment.tv.yahoo.com/entnews/eo/20051108/113151894008.html.
- ^ Helmore, Edward (June 4, 2005). "What's eating Tom Cruise?". The Observer (London). http://film.guardian.co.uk/features/featurepages/0,,1499693,00.html. Retrieved October 31, 2008.
- ^ Oringer, Heidi (May 31, 2005). "Is Tom's Love Life Cruisin' for a Bruisin'?". ABC News. http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/JustSaying/story?id=798031&page=1. Retrieved October 31, 2008.
External links[link]
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Wikinews has news related to: |
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Tom Cruise |
 |
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Tom Cruise |
- Official website
- Tom Cruise at the Internet Movie Database
- Tom Cruise at Yahoo! Movies
- Tom Cruise at the Open Directory Project
- Transcript of the Matt Lauer interview
- Rolling Stone Interview: "The Passion of the Cruise"; 08/11/04
- Tom Cruise at Rotten Tomatoes
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Mapother, IV, Thomas Cruise |
| Alternative names | Cruise, Tom |
| Short description | American actor |
| Date of birth | July 3, 1962 |
| Place of birth | Syracuse, New York, U.S. |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Tom_Cruise
Related pages:
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http://ru.wn.com/Круз, Том
http://nl.wn.com/Tom Cruise
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Cruise
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
For other people named Tommy Davis, see Tommy Davis (disambiguation).
| Tommy Davis | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Left fielder / Designated hitter | |
| Born: (1939-03-21) March 21, 1939 (age 73) Brooklyn, New York |
|
| Batted: Right | Threw: Right |
| MLB debut | |
| September 22, 1959 for the Los Angeles Dodgers | |
| Last MLB appearance | |
| October 2, 1976 for the Kansas City Royals | |
| Career statistics | |
| Batting average | .294 |
| Home runs | 153 |
| Runs batted in | 1,052 |
| Teams | |
| Career highlights and awards | |
|
|
Herman Thomas Davis, Jr. (born March 21, 1939 in Brooklyn, New York) is an American former Major League Baseball left fielder and third baseman. He played from 1959-1976 for ten different teams, but he is best known for his years with the Los Angeles Dodgers. During an 18-year baseball career, Davis batted .294 with 153 home runs, 2,121 hits and 1,052 runs batted in. He was also one of the most proficient pinch-hitters in baseball history with a .320 batting average (63-for-197) – the highest in major league history upon his retirement, breaking the .312 mark of Frenchy Bordagaray. In 1962, he finished third in the MVP voting after leading the major leagues in batting average, hits and runs batted in. Davis' 153 RBIs in that season broke Roy Campanella's team record of 142 in 1953 and remain the franchise record; his 230 hits are the team record for a right-handed batter (second most in franchise history behind only Babe Herman's 241 in 1930), and his .346 average was the highest by a Dodger right-handed hitter in the 20th century until it was broken by Mike Piazza in 1997.
Contents |
Baseball career[link]
Early career[link]
Davis attended Boys High School in Brooklyn, where he was a basketball teammate of future Basketball Hall of Famer Lenny Wilkens, as well as a long jumper on the school's track and field team with record breaker Bernard Lowther. In 1956, he was considering signing with the New York Yankees, but a phone call from Jackie Robinson convinced him to sign with the Brooklyn Dodgers instead.[1] In his minor league career, he won batting titles in the Midwest League and Pacific Coast League.
The Dodger Years[link]
By the time Davis made the majors, the Dodgers had moved to Los Angeles; he debuted with a pinch-hitting appearance on September 22, 1959. He batted .276 in his 1960 rookie season, and .278 in 1961, before enjoying his breakout year in 1962. His .346 batting average edged out Frank Robinson's .342 for the National League batting crown; he also had career bests with 27 home runs, 120 runs and 9 triples as the Dodgers finished the regular schedule tied for first place with the San Francisco Giants, but lost a three-game playoff. He finished third in the MVP balloting, with teammate Maury Wills winning the award and Willie Mays finishing second. In 1963 he won his second batting title, edging Roberto Clemente by 6 points, and finished eighth in the MVP balloting. In the 1963 World Series, the Dodgers swept the New York Yankees; batting cleanup, Davis hit .400 in the Series, tripling twice in Game 2 and driving in the only run of the 1-0 Game 3 victory, his first-inning single off Jim Bouton driving in Jim Gilliam.
To date, Davis' back-to-back batting titles are the only two in the Dodgers' Los Angeles history. Only two right-handed hitters have won multiple National League batting titles since: Bill Madlock with four, and Roberto Clemente with three. Davis' feat is all the more remarkable because he played his home games at Dodger Stadium—a reputed "pitcher's park."
Davis slumped to .275 in 1964 as the Dodgers finished out of contention for the pennant. On May 1, 1965, against the visiting Giants, he broke and dislocated his ankle sliding into second base while trying to break up a double play and was lost for the remainder of the season. Three days later the Dodgers called up Lou Johnson to replace him. They won the World Series that year, defeating the Minnesota Twins in seven games. Davis rebounded in 1966, batting .313 (but with only three home runs and 27 RBIs in 313 at bats). Los Angeles was swept by the Baltimore Orioles in the World Series, with Davis starting only two of the four games and batting .250.
10 teams in 10 years[link]
After the 1966 World Series, Davis was traded to the New York Mets, along with Derrell Griffith, for Ron Hunt and Jim Hickman. After batting .302 with 16 home runs and 73 RBIs in 1967 he was traded again, this time to the Chicago White Sox in a six-player deal, with the Mets acquiring Tommie Agee and Al Weis—two men who would play major roles in the Miracle Mets winning the 1969 World Series. In 1968, in what would become the "Year of the Pitcher," Davis led the White Sox in hitting with a .268 average—27 points higher than the White Sox' co-leaders, Ken Berry and Don Buford, had hit in 1967.
In October 1968 Davis was selected by the Seattle Pilots in the expansion draft. During the 1969 season he batted .271 in 123 games with the Pilots before being traded to the Houston Astros, where he hit .241; his 20 stolen bases that year were a career high. He began 1970 with Houston, hitting .282, before his contract was sold to the Oakland Athletics in June; he hit .290 with the A's before being sent to the Chicago Cubs for the last two weeks of the season. The Cubs released him in December, and he re-signed with the A's as a free agent, rebounding with a .324 campaign in 1971. But Oakland released him at the end of 1972 spring training; he signed with the Cubs again in July, but played only a month before being traded to the Baltimore Orioles, where he would spend the next three seasons. In Baltimore, he served as the designated hitter from 1973–75, finishing third in the 1973 batting race with a .306 mark and placing tenth in the MVP vote; in 1974 he was second in the American League with 181 hits. In 1974 he won the Outstanding Designated Hitter Award (later re-named for Edgar Martínez). He played in two American League Championship Series (both times, in 1973 and 1974, the Orioles lost to the eventual World Series champion Athletics). The Orioles released him in 1976 spring training, and he signed with the Yankees but did not play for them. From June to September he hit .265 with the California Angels before ending the season with the Kansas City Royals. He retired after being released by the Royals on January 17, 1977, having played for ten different teams in eighteen seasons. He occasionally expressed resentment for his numerous moves, remarking late in his career: "I'm very bitter, bitter as hell. Why do I keep getting released? Don't ask me no reason why." But he conceded his reputation as having a casual style of play, noting, "the lazier I felt the better I hit," and admitting that he often went into the clubhouse to read and even to shave between at bats as a DH with Baltimore. After his retirement from baseball as a player, he served as a Seattle Mariners coach in 1981 and published a book called Tales From the Dodgers Dugout [1] in 2005.
"For two years (1962 and 1963), Tommy was the best hitter in baseball. He just didn't get the recognition. He was part of a team that had a lot of good parts to it."'
See also[link]
- List of Major League Baseball batting champions
- List of Major League Baseball players with 1000 RBI
- List of Major League Baseball RBI champions
- List of major league players with 2,000 hits
References[link]
- ^ Dylan Hernandez (2008-02-01). "Dodgers remember Jackie Robinson". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 2008-02-12. http://web.archive.org/web/20080212014627/http://www.latimes.com/sports/baseball/mlb/dodgers/la-sp-dodgers1feb01,1,5842232.story. Retrieved 2008-02-01.
Additional reading[link]
- Baseball: The Biographical Encyclopedia (2000). Kingston, NY: Total/Sports Illustrated. ISBN 1-892129-34-5.
External links[link]
- Career statistics and player information from Baseball-Reference
| Preceded by Orlando Cepeda |
National League RBI Champion 1962 |
Succeeded by Hank Aaron |
| Preceded by Roberto Clemente |
National League Batting Champion 1962-1963 |
Succeeded by Roberto Clemente |
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|||||
|
|||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Davis, Tommy |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | American baseball player |
| Date of birth | March 21, 1939 |
| Place of birth | Brooklyn, New York |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Tommy_Davis
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy_Davis
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Mark Ebner | |
|---|---|
| Born | 1959 Providence, RI |
| Occupation | Writer, blogger, investigative journalist |
| Website | |
| HollywoodInterrupted.com | |
Mark Charles Ebner (born 1959) is an American investigative journalist and the host of TruTV's Rich and Reckless. Ebner writes primarily about issues in the Los Angeles area, including pit bull fighting in South Central, Scientology, and celebrity scandal.[1][2] He has covered celebrity culture for Spy, Rolling Stone, Details, and Salon.com.[3] He has been featured as a guest or contributor on VH1, The Daily Show, South Park, CourtTV, and Fox News.
Contents |
Career[link]
Ebner graduated from Bard College in 1982, where he edited the Bard Times.[4]
In 2002 he co-authored Ain't It Cool?: Hollywood's Redheaded Stepchild Speaks Out with Harry Knowles. With Andrew Breitbart, he wrote the New York Times and Los Angeles Times 2005 best-seller Hollywood, Interrupted.[3] In early 2006, Ebner joined Tucker Max's Rudius Media as a blogger and celebrity journalist.
Ebner was a consultant on South Park's controversial Trapped in the Closet episode that was eventually nominated for an Emmy Award.[5][6]
In mid-2007, Ebner broke that actor and activist Sean Penn was frequenting a Hawaiian resort in the center of a controversial debate between natives and visitors over an ancestral burial ground.[7][8] Ebner also broke an investigative story implicating Bill Cosby on allegations of sexual assault, a story that People Magazine originally planned to publish, but buried.[9][10]
Shortly after the on-campus shooting at Virginia Tech, Ebner reported that Scientology leaders had dispatched "grief counselors" to the scene. According to Ebner and a supposedly sourced document, their intent was to investigate the psychiatric history of killer Seung-Hui Cho.[11][12] This story was later picked up by Boing Boing and made the front page of Digg.com.[13][14]
As of Summer 2008, Ebner was hosting Rich and Reckless, an original true crime series produced by and broadcast on TruTV.[15]
Bibliography[link]
- Ebner, Mark and Andrew Breitbart (2005) Hollywood, Interrupted: Insanity Chic in Babylon - The Case Against Celebrity. John Wiley & Sons Inc. ISBN 0-471-70624-8
- Knowles, Harry, Mark Ebner and Quentin Tarantino (2002). Ain't It Cool?: Hollywood's Redheaded Stepchild Speaks Out. Warner ISBN 0-446-52597-9
- Six Degrees of Paris Hilton: Inside the Sex Tapes, Scandals, and Shakedowns of the New Hollywood, Simon Spotlight Entertainment, Feb. 3, 2009, ISBN 978-1-4169-5934-2
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ Pit Bullies 14 January 2003.
- ^ Ebner Undercover: Scientology, Spy Magazine, 1996 Hollywood Interrupted. 23 March 2006.
- ^ a b Devers, Deirdre Hollywood Interrupted: Fear and Loathing in LA Pop Matters. February 2004.
- ^ Bard Times archive, vol. 1 no. 1, 19 November 1981.
- ^ "Hollywood, Interrupted Basks in the Glow of a South Park Emmy Nod". Hollywood, Interrupted. 6 June 2006. http://www.hollywoodinterrupted.com/2006/07/06/hollywood-interrupted-basks-in-the-glow-of-a-south-park-emmy-nod/. Retrieved 2007-08-27.
- ^ "Tom Cruise's Least Fave 'South Park' Episode Up For Emmy". Access Hollywood. 6 July 2006. Archived from the original on 2007-06-12. http://web.archive.org/web/20070612233335/http://www.accesshollywood.com/news/ah805.shtml. Retrieved 2011-07-15.
- ^ "Sean Penn Dances on Sacred Hawaiian Burial Grounds". Hollywood, Interrupted. 9 April 2007. http://www.hollywoodinterrupted.com/2007/04/09/i-am-sean/. Retrieved 2011-07-15.
- ^ "Oahu Outrage". New York Post. 11 April 2007. http://www.nypost.com/seven/04112007/gossip/pagesix/oahu_outrage_pagesix_.htm. Retrieved 2011-07-15.
- ^ "JELL-O MAN: Actor, Comedian, Educator, Tabloid Bitch and...Serial Rapist?". Hollywood, Interrupted. 3 January 2007. http://www.hollywoodinterrupted.com/2007/01/03/jell-o-man-actor-comedian-educator-tabloid-bitch-and-serial-rapist/. Retrieved 2011-07-15.
- ^ "Ebner vs. Cosby". Hollywood Elsewhere. 3 January 2007. http://www.hollywood-elsewhere.com/2007/01/ebner_vs_cosby.php. Retrieved 2011-07-15.
- ^ "SICK: Celebrity Cult of $cientology Attempts to Capitalize on Virginia Tech Tragedy". Hollywood Interrupted. 16 April 2007. http://www.hollywoodinterrupted.com/2007/04/16/sick-celebrity-cult-of-cientology-attempts-to-capitalize-on-virginia-tech-tragedy/. Retrieved 2011-07-15.
- ^ "First Photos: Scientologists Invade Virginia Tech Campus". Radar Online. 20 April 2007. http://www.radaronline.com/exclusives/2007/04/virginia-tech-scientology-shooting-massacre.php. Retrieved 2011-07-15.
- ^ "VA Tech: Scientologists descend on grieving students". Boing Boing. 18 April 2007. http://www.boingboing.net/2007/04/18/va_tech_scientologis.html. Retrieved 2011-07-15.
- ^ "Digg: Sick: Celebrity cult of Scientology attempts to capitalize on Virginia tech". Digg.com. 18 April 2007. http://digg.com/world_news/SICK_CELEBRITY_CULT_OF_SCIENTOLOGY_ATTEMPTS_TO_CAPITALIZE_ON_VIRGINIA_TECH. Retrieved 2011-07-15.
- ^ "Rich and Reckless" (2008) at the Internet Movie Database
External links[link]
- Hollywood, Interrupted (Ebner's official website)
- Mark Ebner at the Internet Movie Database
- Meeting Mark Ebner, video footage by Mark Bunker
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Ebner, Mark |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | 1959 |
| Place of birth | Providence, RI |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Mark_Ebner
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Ebner
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
Steven Fishman (born 1957) is an American former Scientologist whose inclusion of Scientology's secret Operating Thetan levels in a court filing led to the first public confirmation by the Church of Scientology of its doctrines regarding Xenu and the Wall of Fire.
Contents |
Fraud scheme[link]
The origins of Fishman's dispute with the Church of Scientology lay in a fraud scheme he conducted from 1983 to 1988. Fishman joined dozens of class action lawsuits by presenting stock purchase confirmations he had stolen from his employer and forged. In this manner he made approximately one million dollars, as much as 30 percent of which he spent on Scientology materials and services.[1] Fishman was arrested in July 1988 and charged with several counts of fraud. The FBI also investigated the possibility of church involvement in the scheme.[2]
Fishman's attorney, Marc Nurik, had planned to use an insanity defense, offering false memory syndrome theorist Richard Ofshe and psychologist Margaret Singer as expert witnesses.[3] Fishman sat for a seven-part videotaped interview with Ofshe and Nurik. In the interview, he discussed in detail various aspects of Scientology doctrine, his own Scientology involvement, and the church's response to his arrest. Fishman claimed that church staff had ordered him to murder his psychologist, Uwe Geertz, who had knowledge of his Scientology involvement, and then to commit suicide.[1]
At the same time, according to Fishman, he participated in a conspiracy with church staff to deflect accusations of church involvement, by submitting fake documents and making false statements to his defense team.[4] For these acts he was further charged with obstruction of justice. The court ultimately blocked Nurik's defense strategy by rejecting both expert witnesses, based on the testimony of opposing expert Dick Anthony.[3] Fishman pleaded guilty to one count of mail fraud and one count of obstruction, and the court sentenced him on July 20, 1990 to five years imprisonment in the Butner Federal Correctional Institution. Fishman later claimed that the church hired Scientologist inmate Luis Martinez to kill him in prison.[5] He was paroled in mid-1993.
According to Anthony, who had opposed Ofshe and Singer, Fishman's criminal case was one of several in which they had attempted to introduce their ideas of coercive persuasion by religious groups. The court's admissibility ruling came as a setback to American critics of cults. Ofshe and Singer sued Anthony unsuccessfully, claiming that he mischaracterized the basis of their theories in this and other cases.[3]
Libel case[link]
Main article: Fishman Affidavit
In 1991, while Fishman was still incarcerated, Time magazine published a highly critical cover story on Scientology by Richard Behar. The story mentioned Fishman's fraud conviction and the alleged plot to eliminate him and Geertz.[1] The church responded by filing libel lawsuits against Time Warner, Behar, and Fishman and Geertz jointly.
In support of his contention that he had been brainwashed and ordered to murder Geertz, Fishman attached a series of documents to a motion to reconsider venue. This filing has since become known as the Fishman Affidavit. It included purported Scientology documents describing obstructionist tactics to use in the event of an arrest, as well as versions of Operating Thetan levels I through VII and purported excerpts of OT VIII. Fishman's filing placed the advanced materials on record at the district court, available for viewing by the general public. Despite an unsuccessful church motion to seal the court record and efforts to keep the court files continuously checked out, former Scientologist Arnaldo Lerma obtained the affidavit and posted it on the internet, after which it spread uncontrollably. In the process of suing Lerma for copyright infringement, the church confirmed that the copies of levels I through VII were accurate.
A federal district court summarily dismissed the church's claims against Time Warner and Behar, finding that they had not acted with actual malice insofar as the church was concerned. The church dropped its claims against Fishman and Geertz after Geertz's legal team served subpoenas upon such Scientologist celebrities as Kelly Preston, Juliette Lewis and Isaac Hayes.[6] The court record in the Fishman case remained open to the public.
Wollersheim litigation[link]
Fishman submitted a declaration on behalf of Lawrence Wollersheim in 1993, claiming firsthand knowledge of tactics the church had used to interfere with Wollersheim's lawsuit against the church. The tactics included allegedly drowning the trial judge's dog and making harassing phone calls to Wollersheim at night.[7]
Notes[link]
- ^ a b c Behar, Richard (1991-05-06). "The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power". Time. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,972865,00.html. Retrieved 2008-05-18.
- ^ Dondero, Robert L. Declaration of Assistant US Attorney Robert L. Dondero. US v. Fishman. N. D. Calif. CR-88-0616. Retrieved on 2008-05-18.
- ^ a b c Anthony, Dick (2004). Richardson, James (ed.). ed. Regulating Religion. Reno: University of Nevada.
- ^ Fishman, Steven (1996-09-18). "My History With the Cult". http://www.xs4all.nl/~fishman/history.html. Retrieved 2008-05-17.
- ^ Pietersma, Jeroen (December 1995). "Never Defend, Always Attack". N@T. http://www.xs4all.nl/~felipe/cos/translate.html. Retrieved 2008-05-18.
- ^ Ortega, Tony (1999-12-23). "Double Crossed". Phoenix New Times. http://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/1999-12-23/news/double-crossed/. Retrieved 2008-05-17.
- ^ Appeal. Church of Scientology of California v. Lawrence Wollersheim. 42 Cal.App.4th 628/49 Cal.Rptr.2d 620. Retrieved on 2008-05-18
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Fishman, Steven |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | American fraudster and former Scientologist |
| Date of birth | 1957 |
| Place of birth | |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Steven_Fishman
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Fishman
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
