Hebron glass (, zajaj al-Khalili or azaz al-Khalili) refers to glass produced in Hebron as part of a flourishing art industry established in the city during Roman rule in Palestine. For centuries, Hebron has been associated with glass production in the same way as Nablus has been associated with the production of soap. Hebron's Old City still contains a quarter named the "Glass-Blower Quarter" and Hebron glass continues to serve as a tourist attraction for the city.

Traditionally, the glass was melted using local raw materials, including sand from neighbouring villages, sodium carbonate (from the Dead Sea), and coloring additives such as iron oxide and copper oxide. Nowadays, recycled glass is often used instead. Glass production in Hebron is a family trade, the secrets of which have been preserved and passed down by a few Palestinian families who operate the glass factories located just outside the city. The products made include glass jewellery, such as beads, bracelets, and rings, as well as stained glass windows, and glass lamps. However, due to the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, glass production has suffered a decline and could face the challenge of survival.

History

The glass industry in Hebron ("al-Khalil") was established during Roman rule in Palestine (63 BCE-330 CE). As the ancient Phoenician glass industry shrank from the exposed cities along the eastern Mediterranean coastline, the industry migrated inland, to Hebron in particular. Glass artifacts from Hebron dating to the 1st and 2nd centuries have been found, and are on exhibit as part of the Drake Collection. Stained glass windows which are made of Hebron glass, dating to the 12th century, are found in the structure built over the Cave of Machpelah, which served as a church during the Crusader era in Palestine. Another example of stained glass windows produced in Hebron are those at the Dome of the Rock in Old Jerusalem.

While acknowledging that glass production in Palestine dates back to Roman period, Nazmi Ju'beh, director of RIWAQ: Centre for Architectural Conservation, contends that the practices of today's glass industry in Hebron most likely began in the 13th century CE. He notes that one theory claims that the techniques used today were imported from Venice, while other researchers claim that the Crusaders carried this tradition from Hebron with them to Europe, and that its origins may be Syrian. Historical references from the 14th century indicate that Hebron glass factories flourished at this time with no less than fourteen factories, all located in the Old City. The industry ended up occupying a distinct quarter in the Old City which today still carries the name of the "Glass-Blower Quarter" or Harat al-Zajajeen.

With such a large number of factories, Hebron glass was exported to Egypt, Syria, and the Transjordan. Camel caravans carried Hebron glass in specially designed wooden boxes that were guarded by both official armies and private guards. Glass merchants in Hebron managed to develop mercantile networks with al-Karak (Crac) in southern Jordan and Cairo in Egypt, which further helped to market the products. Since at least the 16th century, communities of Hebron expatriates became established in these two cities, and a whole social network emerged around the glass industry, which became a major employer, contributing greatly to the wealth of factory owners. Traditionally, the items produced were functional: cups, bottles, bowls, jugs, dishes, olive oil lamps, and later, various forms of petrol lamps. Jewellery and accessories, mainly for Bedouins, were also produced and sold in the Naqab, the Arabian Desert, and the Sinai.

Hebron was well known for glass production throughout the Arab world, and Western travellers to Palestine in the 19th century described its glass industry. For example, Ulrich Jasper Seetzen noted during his travels in Palestine in 1808-09 that 150 persons were employed in the glass industry in Hebron, while later, in A New and Complete History of the Holy Bible as Contained in the Old and New Testaments (1844), Robert Sears writes, "The population of Hebron is considerable: the inhabitants manufacture glass lamps, which are exported to Egypt. Provisions are abundant, and there is a considerable number of shops."

Later in the century, the production declined due to competition from imported European glass-ware. However, the products of Hebron continued to be sold, particularly among the poorer populace, not least of all by travelling Jewish traders from the city. Even at the World Fair of 1873 in Vienna, Hebron was represented with glass ornaments. A report from the French consul in 1886 suggests that glass-making remained an important source of income for Hebron: Four factories were making 60,000 francs yearly.

Today

The tradition of glassblowing continues today in three factories just north of the city, a short distance between the town of Halhul and Hebron. Two of the factories are owned by the Natsheh family. They produce primarily souvenirs, most of which are also used as household items. A large hall close to each of the factories displays wine glasses, dishes, bowls, flower pots, and other products. Although most objects are not decorated, some have artistically applied glass strings. Metallic decoration is a recent innovation of the industry.

Hebron glass serves as a tourist attraction for both Palestinians and international visitors. Today, however, due to the current export problems, the decrease in the number of tourists, and the restrictions on the movement of Palestinians in the aftermath of the Second Intifada, glass production has been considerably reduced. According to Nazmi al-Ju'bah, the director of RIWAQ: Centre for Architectural Conservation, if the present situation continues, the Hebron glass-blowing industry's main challenge could be survival.

Production

Hebron glass was traditionally produced using sand from the village of Bani Na'im, east of Hebron, and sodium carbonate taken from the Dead Sea. Traditionally, the intense colours of Hebron glass included dark and light blue, turquoise, dark red (Bordeaux), and light and dark green. These colours were produced by adding metal oxides, such as those from iron and copper. Copper oxide is still used today to colour Hebron glass. Instead of sand, the raw material used to make Hebron glass today is primarily recycled glass, which is gathered from local houses, brought to the factory to be smashed, and re-melted.

The precise production process is a trade secret, which is maintained by the few Palestinian families who run the factories which continue to produce Hebron glass today. Glassmaking at Hebron is an art that is based on apprenticeship. The apprentices are trained under a master from childhood and essentially grow up in the factory. Masters generally believe that adults are unsuited to learning the craft of glass production, and one master has said, "You can learn to play the 'oud at any age, but unless you begin [glasswork] as a child, you will never become a master."

According to the Holy Land Handicraft Cooperative Society, the blowing technique employed is the same as was used by the ancient Phoenicians, though archaeologists and historians of glass agree that glassblowing was not common until the last few centuries BCE. The craftsman holds a long, thin iron pipe (80–100 cm) in one hand, and dips it into the molten glass inside the furnace, which is heated to 700° celsius. After withdrawing the pipe with some semi-liquid glass attached, he blows through the pipe, continuing the shaping process using a metal instrument called a kammasha. The pipe is then reentered into the furnace, reblown to further shape the object, and the kammasha is used for final shaping once again. Finally, the glass is set aside into a small chamber next to the furnace where it is cooled.

Jewellery

Glass beads for jewellery have traditionally been made in Hebron. Blue beads and glass beads with 'eyes' (owayneh) were made and used as amulets since they were considered particularly effective against the evil-eye. In the Museum of Mankind collections, there exist several glass necklaces that were made in Hebron during the Mandate period or earlier. Besides necklaces made of blue and green beads, and 'eyes' beads, there are examples of beads of small hands, representing the hand of Fatimah, the daughter of the prophet Muhammad. Most of a woman's jewellery was given to her at marriage; in the early 1920s, in Bayt Dajan, a glass bracelet (ghwayshat) made in Hebron would be considered a necessary part of the jewellery of a bride's trousseau.

Hebron trade beads

In 1799, English traveller William George Browne mentioned the production of "Coarse glass beads...called Hersh and Munjir" in Palestine; The "Munjir" (Mongur) were large beads, while the Hersh (Harish) were smaller. These Hebron glass beads were used for trade, and export primarily to Africa from the early to mid-19th century. Spread throughout West Africa, in Kano, Nigeria, they were grounded on the edges to make round beads fit together on a strand more suitably. There, they picked up the name "Kano Beads", although they were not originally produced in Kano. By the 1930s, their value had decreased; in 1937, A. J. Arkell recorded the beads being sold "for a song" by Sudanese women to Hausa traders in Dafur.

See also

Mother-of-Pearl carving in Bethlehem

Nabulsi soap

Palestinian handicrafts

Hebron

Roman glass

Glass art

References

Bibliography

Browne, W. G. (1799), Travels in Africa, Egypt and Syria From the year 1792 to 1798.

External links

Glassblowing in Hebron by Toine Van Teeffelen, 04.06.2006, Palestine-Family.net

Hebron Glass, gallery, Palestine Today

Naomi Shihab Nye and Hebron Glass: A poem on Hebron glass

Category:History of glass Category:Glass types Category:Hebron Category:Beadwork Category:Palestinian handicrafts Category:History of Palestine Category:Economy of the Palestinian territories

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