The provinces and dioceses of the Roman Empire after the death of Theodosius I in ca. 400AD

Province of Noricum highlighted

History of Austria
This article is part of a series
Early History
Hallstatt culture
Noricum
Marcomanni
Samo's Realm
Carantania
March of Austria
Babenberger
Privilegium Minus
Habsburg era
House of Habsburg
Holy Roman Empire
Archduchy of Austria
Habsburg Monarchy
Austrian Empire
German Confederation
Austria-Hungary
World War I
Assassination of Franz Ferdinand
World War I
Interwar Years
German Austria
First Republic of Austria
Austrofascism/Federal State of Austria
Anschluss
World War II
National Socialism
World War II
Post-war Austria
Allied-occupied Austria
Second Austrian Republic
Austria Portal v t e

History of Slovenia
This article is part of a series
Italy/Noricum/Pannonia
Slavic settlement of the Eastern Alps
Eurasian Avars
Samo's Realm
Carantania
Carniola
Holy Roman Empire
March of Carniola
Windic March
Illyrian Provinces
Kingdom of Illyria
Inner Austria
Drava Banovina
World War II in the Slovene Lands
Socialist Republic of Slovenia
Republic of Slovenia
Slovenia Portal v t e

Noricum, in ancient geography, was a Celtic kingdom (perhaps better described as a federation of, by tradition, twelve tribes) stretching over the area of today's Austria and a part of Slovenia. It became a province of the Roman Empire. It was bounded on the north by the Danube, on the west by Raetia and Vindelicia, on the east and southeast by Pannonia, on the south by Region 10, Venetia et Histria, of Roman Italy.^[1]

Area[link]

Noricum roughly corresponded to the greater part of modern Styria and Carinthia, Austria west of Vienna, Salzburg, a part of Bavaria, and a part of Slovenia. It may be thus seen as the beginning of Austrian history, and in 1919 there was the concrete idea aired by Heinrich Lammasch, who had been Imperial Austria's last prime minister, to give the young republic the name of "Norische Republik" or "Noric Republic",^[2] because the ancient borders were similar to those of the new state which, at that time, did not wish to be considered the heir of the Habsburg monarchy but an independent, neutral and peaceful state.^[3]

Characteristics[link]

The original population appears to have consisted of Pannonians (a people kin to the Illyrians), who, after the great migration of the Gauls, became subordinate to various Celto-Ligurians tribes, chief amongst them being the Taurisci, who were probably identical with the Norici of Roman sources, so called after their capital Noreia, whose location is, as yet, unknown.

The country is mountainous and the soil relatively poor except in the southeastern parts, but it proved rich in iron and supplied material for the manufacturing of arms in Pannonia, Moesia and northern Italy. The famous Noric steel was largely used in the making of Roman weapons ("Noricus ensis," Horace, Odes, i. 16. o). Gold and salt were found in considerable quantities. From a statement of Polybius we learn that in his own time in consequence of the great output of gold from a mine in Noricum gold went down one-third in value.^[4] The plant called saliunca (the wild or Celtic nard, a relative of the lavender) grew in abundance and was used as a perfume according to Pliny the Elder.^[5]

The inhabitants were a warlike people, who paid more attention to cattle-breeding than to agriculture, although it is probable that when the area became a Roman province the Romans increased the fertility of the soil by draining the marshes and cutting down timber. Noric steel was famous for its quality and hardness.

When the Celts had superseded the Illyrians, Noricum was the southern outpost of the northern Celtic peoples and, during the later period of the Iron Age, the starting point of their attacks upon Italy. It is in Noricum that we first learn of almost all those Celtic invaders. Archaeological research, particularly in the cemeteries of Hallstatt, has shown that there was a vigorous civilization in the area centuries before recorded history, but the Hallstatt civilization was a cultural manifestation prior to the Celtic invasions and close to the earlier Illyrians. The Hallstatt graves contained weapons and ornaments from the Bronze age, through the period of transition, up to the "Hallstatt culture", i.e., the fully developed older period of the Iron age. William Ridgeway made a strong case for the theory that the cradle of the Homeric Achaeans was in Noricum and neighbouring areas.^[6][7]

Language[link]

The Noric language, a supposedly continental Celtic language, is attested in only two fragmentary inscriptions, which do not provide enough information for any conclusions about the nature of the language.

Roman rule[link]

Noricum was incorporated into the Roman Empire in 16 BC. For a long time the Noricans had enjoyed independence under princes of their own and carried on commerce with the Romans. In 48 BC they took the side of Julius Caesar in the civil war against Pompey. In 16 BC, having joined with the Pannonians in invading Histria, they were defeated by Publius Silius, proconsul of Illyricum. Thereafter, Noricum was called a province, although it was not organized as such and remained a kingdom with the title of regnum Noricum, yet under the control of an imperial procurator. Under the reign of Emperor Claudius (41–54) the Noricum Kingdom was ultimately incorporated into the Roman Empire apparently without offering resistance. It was not until the reign of Antoninus Pius that the Second Legion, Pia (later renamed Italica) was stationed in Noricum, and the commander of the legion became the governor of the province.

Under Diocletian (245–313), Noricum was divided into Noricum ripense ("Noricum along the river", the northern part southward from the Danube), and Noricum mediterraneum ("landlocked Noricum", the southern, more mountainous district). The dividing line ran along the central part of the eastern Alps. Each division was under a praeses, and both belonged to the diocese of Illyria in the Praetorian prefecture of Italy. It was in this time that a Christian serving as a military officer in the province suffered martyrdom for the sake of his faith, later canonised as Saint Florian.

The Roman colonies and chief towns were Virunum (near Maria Saal to the north of Klagenfurt), Teurnia (near Spittal an der Drau), Flavia Solva (near Leibnitz), Celeia (Celje) in today's Slovenia, Juvavum (Salzburg), Ovilava (Wels), Lauriacum (Lorch at the mouth of the Enns, the ancient Anisus).

Our knowledge of Roman Noricum has been decisively expanded by the work of Richard Knabl, an Austrian epigrapher of the 19th century.

References[link]

1. ^ see detailed map
2. ^ Anna Maria Drabek, Der Österreichbegriff und sein Wandel im Lauf der Geschichte, in: Marktgemeinde Neuhofen/Ybbs (ed.): Ostarrichi Gedenkstätte Neuhofen/Ybbs, no date (1980), pp. 32–41
3. ^ Dieter Köberl, Zum Wohle Österreichs. Vor 90 Jahren starb Heinrich Lammasch, in: Die Furche , 18 February 2010
4. ^ William Ridgeway, The Origin of Metallic Currency and Weight Standards, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1892, p., 139
5. ^ Naturalis Historia xxi. 20.43)
6. ^ William Ridgeway, The Early Age of Greece, vol. I, chapter 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1901
7. ^ Stephen Lincoln Goodale, James Ramsey Speer: Chronology of iron and steel, Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh iron & steel foundries company, 1920, p.21

Literature[link]

•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Noricum

External links[link]

• Noricum
• Noricum, its cities and traffic routes in the 2nd century

v t e Provinces of the Roman Empire at its greatest extent (117 AD) Achaea Aegyptus Africa Alpes Cottiae Alpes Maritimae Alpes Poeninae Arabia Petraea Armenia Asia Assyria Bithynia et Pontus Britannia Cappadocia Cilicia Corsica et Sardinia Creta et Cyrenaica Cyprus Dacia Dalmatia Epirus Galatia Gallia Aquitania Gallia Belgica Gallia Lugdunensis Gallia Narbonensis Germania Inferior Germania Superior Hispania Baetica Hispania Tarraconensis Italia Iudaea Lusitania Lycia et Pamphylia Macedonia Mauretania Caesariensis Mauretania Tingitana Mesopotamia Moesia Inferior Moesia Superior Noricum Pannonia Inferior Pannonia Superior Raetia Sicilia Syria Thracia

The history of Celtic warfare spans from c. 10th century BC up to the first few centuries AD and it concerns the distinct styles of warfare of the peoples known as Celts. It concerns the armed conflicts of the Celtic tribes and their kingdoms. Apart from conflicts between Celts and neighboring nations and tribes, numerous inter-tribal conflicts were recorded among Celtic tribes also.This includes the Celtic peoples of Ireland, Britain, Gaul, Iberia, and Anatolia. The scope of this article does not extend to the Britons and Gaels of the Sub-Roman to Medieval period (for which see Welsh warfare, Gaelic warfare).

The Dying Gaul exemplifies the traditional image of the courageous but doomed Celtic warrior.

Mythological[link]

The Irish heroic cycles were committed to writing in the Mediaeval period, some time after the pre-Christian era they are supposed to depict. The Welsh Mabinogion dates from roughly the same era. The Táin Bó Cúailnge, chiefly the story of the Ulster hero Cú Chulainn describes individual combats centred on the use of the spear (gae) and javelin (gá-ín) with no mention of helmets or metal armour, in keeping with archaeological evidence. Chariots also play an important role, but there have so far been no finds of chariots resembling those of the Britons, leading to speculation that this may be an element added later under the influence of Homeric literature and/or that the chariots of the Irish were of the four wheeled variety, more accurately described as waggons, used purely for transportation. No remains of these vehicles from the period have yet been discovered.^[1]

Tribal warfare[link]

Celtic sword and scabbard circa 60 BCE.

Celtic tribes fought amongst each other and sometimes they allied themselves with the Romans, the Greeks and other peoples against other Celtic tribes. Tribal warfare appears to have been a regular feature of Celtic societies. While epic literature depicts this as more of a sport focused on raids and hunting rather than organised territorial conquest, the historical record is more of tribes using warfare to exert political control and harass rivals, for economic advantage, and in some instances to conquer territory.

Archaeology provides much information regarding the material culture of the Celts, but the significance of these finds in determining how the ancient Celts actually fought is the subject of much speculation. It was long thought, for instance, that the Celts were headhunters but recent research from France has indicated that it may have been the heads of slain allies that were collected to be placed in porticos, while the defeated were dumped in mass graves, their weapons ritually broken.^[2]

Hallstatt period 12th–6th centuries BCE[link]

The Hallstatt Culture is the earliest to be identified as associated with Celtic culture, spreading from north of the Alps West into France, Southern Britain and the Iberian Peninsula. The earlier phases of the Hallstatt era fall into the Bronze Age. Swords seem to have been the primary weapon from this period, perhaps indicating that warfare was a relatively small scale affair, possibly between groups of élite warriors. In the latter phases of the Hallstatt era, iron began to replace bronze in the manufacture of weapons and the classic "Celtic longsword" with its leaf-bladed design made its appearance. Chariot burials are also characteristic of the period; it is possible that they also served some function in the warfare of this age, but the chariots are four-wheeled vehicles and they do not occur at all in Britain.^[3] At the very end of the Hallstatt era, the longsword seemed to fall out of favour, ousted by short, thrusting daggers which are found in greater numbers among grave goods in high status burials.^[4]

La Tène period 6th–1st centuries BCE[link]

The La Tène Period saw changing patterns of warfare. At the beginning of the La Tène period warfare was likely conducted on a small scale between élite warriors, perhaps in chariots, wielding a new type of Celtic longsword. During the succeeding centuries the design of the sword changed, characteristically becoming shorter, single-edged and lacking a thrusting point, designed purely to make a cut (although the Hallstatt era sword had also been primarily a slashing weapon)^[5] and greater regional variation in swords appeared: in Britain and Ireland even the longer sword designs were shorter and thinner than their Continental counterparts.^[6] It is possible that in the later La Tène era, an increasing population would have led to larger armies organised in ranks of spearmen, leading to a decline in the importance of the champion with his sword and hence a decline in sword functionality.

The La Tène era also saw the development of armour in the form of mail (chainmail), the familiar form in which a garment is constructed of linked metal rings. The earliest precursor to mail is so-called ringmail, in which the rings, instead of being linked together, are sewn directly onto a fabric backing. Finds of mail are rare, suggesting that it was a luxury restricted to high status warriors. A wide variety of crested helmets also belong to this period and occur in greater numbers than is the case with mail, but overall the picture is of Celtic armies being made up largely of lighty armoured or unarmoured fighters.

Chariot burials continue well into the La Tène period, suggesting their continued importance in warfare. The La Tène chariot was a light, two-wheeled vehicle, unlike the heavier chariot of earlier times. The arrangement of the chariot poles in a reconstruction of the Wetwang Chariot suggests they were drawn by small ponies only 11 or 12 hands high^[7] and thus seem unlikely to be used in a frontal charge. Because chariot burials were never practised in Ireland, the nature or existence of chariot warfare in that country remains unclear.

Continuation in Ireland[link]

Roman Conquest eventually extinguished the independence of all the Celtic peoples except in Ireland and the far North of Britain. After the Roman era, only in the British Isles, therefore, could there be said to still exist a distinctly Celtic style of warfare. Ireland was the last region to adopt the La Tène mode of Celtic technology and with a smaller and less dense population than that of the British or Continental Celts, may have sustained the era of small scale elite combat for longer.^{[citation needed]} Traditional patterns of warfare seem to have continued all the way to the Viking and Norman invasions, conducted by foot soldiers, lacking any metal armour including helmets, fighting with spears and javelins, occasionally axes and in the case of higher status warriors, swords, protected by a round shield.^[8] The Viking invasions saw the adoption of the bow in addition, but never in great numbers.^[8] The Norman invasion in the 12th century and the ineffectiveness of traditional tactics in resisting it led to the Irish moving towards a more typically mediaeval style of warfare exemplified by the Gallowglass infantry soldier.

Gallic Wars[link]

The Gallic Wars were a series of military campaigns waged by the Roman proconsul Julius Caesar against several Gallic tribes, lasting from 58 BC to 51 BC. The Romans would also raid Britannia and Germania, but these expeditions never developed into full-scale invasions. The Gallic Wars culminated in the decisive Battle of Alesia in 52 BC, in which a complete Roman victory resulted in the expansion of the Roman Republic over the whole of Gaul. The wars paved the way for Caesar to become the sole ruler of the Roman Republic.

Sculpture of an armoured torc-wearing Celtic warrior, Vacheres France.

The best known Roman source for descriptions of Celtic warfare is Julius Caesar in his Commentaries on the Gallic Wars (Commentarii de Bello Gallico) in which he describes the methods of warfare of both the Gauls and the Britons.

In describing battles against various tribes of Gauls, in contrast to the popular picture of the wild Celtic berserker, Caesar talks of the Helvetii fighting in close order, forming a phalanx as a defence against cavalry and advancing in a close formation.^[9] He also speaks of arrows being used against his troops crossing rivers and against the besiegers of Gergovia, capital of the Arverni^[10] - one of the few engagements in which Vercingetorix outmanoeuvred Caesar. He mentions the use of javelins by the Belgic Nervii,^[11] but despite Roman writers frequently referring to the use of swords by the Celts in battle, Caesar never mentions Gaulish troops fighting en masse with swords. By the mid-1st century BCE, Celtic tribes in Gaul may have had a core of properly trained and equipped professional soldiers, drawn from the traditional warrior caste, in addition and in contrast to the general tribal levy of lightly armed and armoured freemen.^{[citation needed]}

It is perhaps the descriptions of the Britons which have most influenced the popular image of the wild Celtic warrior. Caesar emphasises the "barbarian" aspect of the Britons, possibly for political reasons since his expedition there was of necessity brief, describing how they wore animal skins, had wives in common, did not grow crops and dyed their skin blue: although this description does not mention the plant, subsequent commentators have supposed that woad was the source of this blue dye and though later experimentation suggests that woad is not very well suited as a skin dye nor as tattoo ink,^[12] this image, conflated with the descriptions of the Gaesatae, has nevertheless helped paint the picture of the woad-daubed ancient Briton charging into battle naked and blue.

Outside Britain, small pots of orange paste have been found in the vicinity of Cerro del Castillo, which has led to the proposition that if the Celtiberians used it in a similar manner to Caesar's description, they would have painted themselves orange rather than blue.^[13]

The other popular image of pre-Roman Britain, the scythed chariot, is not mentioned by Caesar either but alluded to by later commentators, such as Pomponius Mela, during and after the Roman conquest.

Celtic troop types and organization[link]

No Celtic group employed a regular military as we would understand it. Organisation was according to clan grouping and social class. The Celtiberian term Uiros Uiramos may denote a war leader, while their immediate companions were known in Gaulish as *ambaxtoi ("those who accompany") a term which passed into Latin and from which our own word ambassador ultimately derives.

The earliest encounter with the Romans in 387 BC resulted in all of Rome apart from the Capitoline Hill falling to a confederacy of Gaulish tribes led by Brennus of the Senones. Little or no detail is given of the methods of warfare of these Gauls except that according to Plutarch some were armed with swords and some were mounted.^[14] In 280 BC another Brennus led a formidable Celtic army South to attack Greece and Thrace. According to Pausanias this force included large numbers of cavalry, organised in a system called Trimarchisia (*tri- *marko- "three horse") dividing them into teams of three, only two of which would be mounted at one time. Brennus' expedition would have originated in Pannonia and Noricum, a region which later became famous for producing high quality steel for weaponry.

Infantry and cavalry[link]

Tacitus wrote that the strength of the Celts lies in their infantry^[15] but some had a strong cavalry arm and others continued to use chariots.

The famous Celtic shield found at Battersea.

In earlier times, the Celts would employ the chariot.^[16] Despite the fact that from the end of the 3rd century BC chariots had fallen out of use in continental Europe, Caesar found that they still were a major component in the patterns warfare among the Britons. If his descriptions are to be believed, he encountered in Britain an army in transition, possessing cavalry but still with an elite fighting from chariots. He describes how these warriors would throw javelins from their vehicles before abandoning them to fight on foot and returning to them in order to retreat or redeploy.^[17] Cavalry proper is described as used for skirmishing. Gauls are said to have commented that they themselves had formerly used chariots but had abandoned them by this time.

"Their mode of fighting with their chariots is this: firstly, they drive about in all directions and throw their weapons and generally break the ranks of the enemy with the very dread of their horses and the noise of their wheels; and when they have worked themselves in between the troops of horse, leap from their chariots and engage on foot. The charioteers in the mean time withdraw some little distance from the battle, and so place themselves with the chariots that, if their masters are overpowered by the number of the enemy, they may have a ready retreat to their own troops. Thus they display in battle the speed of horse, [together with] the firmness of infantry."^[18]

The carnyx was a wind instrument of the Iron Age Celts, attested for ca. 300 BC to 200 AD. It is a kind of bronze trumpet, held vertically, the mouth styled in the shape of a boar's head. It was used in warfare, probably to incite troops to battle and intimidate opponents.^[19] The instrument's upright carriage allowed its notes to carry over the heads of the participants in battles and ceremonies.

Mercenaries[link]

Celtic warriors served as mercenaries in many armies of the classical period. The best known^[20] were those who joined Hannibal in his invasion of Italy during the Second Punic war and who contributed to his victories in Lake Trasimene and in Cannae. Celtic mercenaries fought on the sides of Ancient Greeks and Romans as well. When a branch of Brennus' invasion force turned East and crossed the Hellespont, they founded a Celtic-ruled state in Asia Minor known as Galatia. Galatia became well-known as a source of mercenaries throughout the Eastern Mediterranean region. Illustrations showing troops armed with long, straight swords and oval shields have generally been taken to depict Galatians.

The Greek historian Polybius gives an account of the Battle of Telamon 225 BC in which the Romans defeated an invasion by the Boii, Insubres, Taurisci and Gaesatae. The Gaesatae were said to be a group of warriors who fought for hire and it is they who are described in the most detail. Whereas the Boii and Insubres wore trousers and cloaks which were thick enough to afford some protection from the Roman javelins, the Gaesatae removed their clothes to fight naked, standing in front of their allies and seeking to intimidate the Romans with shouting and gesturing. However, this lack of protection caused their defeat since they apparently carried relatively small shields which did not adequately protect them against the missile fire of the Roman skirmishers. Suffering heavy casualties, the Gaesatae either fled the battlefield or desperately charged headlong into the Roman lines where, outmatched for both numbers and equipment, they were defeated. What position the Gaesatae occupied in Celtic society has been much debated. Early writers assumed that they were a tribe, but later authors have inclined to the view that they may have been groups of unattached young warriors who lived by raiding and mercenary activities like the early Roman iuventes or the semi-legendary Irish fiana.^[21]

There are accounts of Celtic soldiers in the bodyguards of Cleopatra VII of Egypt and Herod of Judea. Josephus in his Antiquities of the Jews mentions Gallic or Galatian soldiers present at the funeral of King Herod the Great.^{[citation needed]}

Navy[link]

While relatively little has been written about Celtic warfare at sea, the Gaulish Veneti, a tribe occupying the South of Brittany fiercely resisted Caesar's Romans both on land and at sea. They were said to have constructed ships of oak with tough leather sails, well adapted for plying the rough Atlantic seas. Their capital, Darioritum, was extremely difficult to attack from land. At first the Roman galleys, fighting in unfamiliar conditions, were at a great disadvantage until new tactics were developed by the Roman admiral Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus which resulted in a decisive victory for Caesar's men. The Veneti were subject to savage reprisals for their defiance.

This section requires expansion.

Fortifications[link]

Large stores of slingstones aerodynamically shaped by adding clay have been found in the Southern British hillfort of Maiden Castle^[22] which indicates that slings must also have played some role in the conflicts between Celtic tribes there, probably in sieges. The La Tène period also saw the development of multivallate fortresses, protected by formidable earthworks as well as the Murus Gallicus and Pfostenschlitzmauer constructions. The larger settlements in Gaul were described by Julius Caesar as oppida and the term is now used to designate the large pre-Roman towns that existed all across Western and Central Europe, many of which grew from hill forts. There are over 2000 of these forts known in Britain alone.^[23]

The Celtic circular wall of Otzenhausen is one of the biggest fortifications the Celts ever constructed. It was built by Celts of the Treveri tribe, who lived in the region north of the fort. The fort is located on top of the Dollberg, a hill near Otzenhausen in Germany, about 695 m above sea level. The only visible remains are two circular earth ramparts, covered with stones.

This section requires expansion.

External influence[link]

Celts were influenced by other peoples but influenced themselves the warfare of their enemies.

Thracians[link]

Thracian warfare was affected by Celts in a variety of ways, such as the adoption of certain long swords, though this was not universal among them: the Triballi, for example, did adopt Celtic equipment. Another weapon, the sica, was called Thracian sword^[24] (Ancient Greek,Θρακικον ξίφος) though it did not originate there, despite its popular usage.^[25] Considered Thrace's national weapon, the sword's ultimate origin was the Hallstatt culture^[26] and the Thracians may have or adopted or inherited it.

Dacians[link]

The Celtic-Germanic Bastarnae^[27] were an important part of the Dacian army. Celtic-type weapons were in use, such long swords and round shields.^[28] The Celts played a very active role in Dacia^[29] and the Celtic Scordisci were among the tribes allied to the Dacians.^[30]

Illyrians[link]

Celts affected the Illyrians in many cultural and material aspects and some of them were Celticized, especially the tribes in Dalmatia^[31] and the Pannonians.^[32] A type of wooden oblong shield with an iron boss was introduced to Illyria from the Celts. Hallstatt culture influences abounded as the Illyrians were also its descendants.^[33]

Greeks[link]

This section is empty. You can help by adding to it.

Romans[link]

The Iberian peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal, was a place of diverse cultures in classical times with various tribes who cannot always be placed firmly as Celts, Celtic influenced (such as the Lusitani) or non-Celts. Some of the Iberian Celts fought for Hannibal against the Romans in the Second Punic War. The best known of their weapons is the falcata, a short curved sword with the edge innermost and closed hilt. The Roman legionary's gladius was originally called the gladius Hispaniensis and was based on another Celtiberian sword type. The name, too, may derive from the Celtic root *kledo-, meaning "sword". The Latin word lancea used for the javelins of auxiliary troops, is also supposedly derived from an Iberian or Celtiberian word, but one whose original form is not recorded. The Romans described the spear of the Gauls with the word gaesum, a Latinisation of the Gaulish *gaisos.

It is likely that two Latin words for chariot, carrus and covinnus, were adopted from the Gaulish language, although the Romans at no point seem to have employed chariots in warfare.

Celts as barbarians[link]

Later Greek and early Roman civilization faced major threats from Celtic invaders. Later, the situation was reversed as the expanding Roman Empire gradually conquered most of the Celts. Greek and Roman writers tend to focus much on the savage ferocity of the Celtic warrior, creating an image which has persisted ever since. To the Ancient Greeks and Romans the Celtic warrior was the archetypal barbarian,^[34] stereotypically presented as massive, powerful, and malicious. In the 5th century BC a Greek writer Ephoros described the Celts as one of the four great barbarian peoples, along with the Persians, the Scythians and the Libyans. They were called Keltoi or Galatae by the Greeks and Celtae or Galli by the Romans. Aristotle comments that their courage had an element of passion^[35] like that of all barbarians. Diodorus Siculus writes that they were extremely addicted to wine^[36] and that one could exchange a mere jar of wine for a slave.

The Celts were described by classical writers such as Strabo, Livy, Pausanias, and Florus as fighting like "wild beasts", and as hordes. Dionysius said that their "manner of fighting, being in large measure that of wild beasts and frenzied, was an erratic procedure, quite lacking in military science. Thus, at one moment they would raise their swords aloft and smite after the manner of wild boars, throwing the whole weight of their bodies into the blow like hewers of wood or men digging with mattocks, and again they would deliver crosswise blows aimed at no target, as if they intended to cut to pieces the entire bodies of their adversaries, protective armour and all".^[37] Such descriptions have been challenged by contemporary historians.^[38]

This section requires expansion.

List of Celtic battles[link]

Replicas of Celtic warrior`s garments

This is a list of battles or conflicts that Celts had a leading or crucial role in, sometimes as mercenaries.

• 284 BC, Battle of Arretium,
• 283 BC, Battle of Lake Vadimo,
• 225 BC, Battle of Telamon,
• 225 BC, Battle of Faesulae,
• 222 BC, Battle of Clastidium,
• 200 BC, Battle of Cremona,
• 194 BC, Battle of Mutina,
• 105 BC, Battle of Arausio
• 102 BC, Battle of Aquae Sextiae
• 101 BC, Battle of Vercellae
• 58 BC, Battle of the Arar
• 58 BC, Battle of Vosges
• 58 BC, Battle of Bibracte
• 57 BC, Battle of the Axona
• 57 BC, Battle of the Sabis
• 52 BC, Battle of Alesia
• 52 BC, Battle of Gergovia
• 52 BC, Battle of Lutetia

See also[link]

• Gaelic warfare
• Ancient warfare
• Thracian warfare
• Illyrian warfare
• Dacian warfare

External links[link]

• Ancient Celtic Warfare
• Celtic Warriors
• Ancient Celtic Warriors in History

References[link]