This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2010)

The historic taboo associated with the examination of female genitalia has long inhibited the science of gynaecology. This 1822 drawing by Jacques-Pierre Maygnier shows a "compromise" procedure, in which the physician is kneeling before the woman but cannot see her genitalia. Modern gynaecology has shed these inhibitions.

Gynaecology or gynecology^[1] is the medical practice dealing with the health of the female reproductive system (uterus, vagina, and ovaries). Literally, outside medicine, it means "the science of women". Its counterpart is andrology, which deals with medical issues specific to the male reproductive system.

Almost all modern gynaecologists are also obstetricians (see obstetrics and gynaecology). In many areas, the specialties of gynaecology and obstetrics overlap. Gynaecology has been considered to end at 28 weeks gestation, but practically there is no clear cut-off. Since 1st October 1992, this cut-off may be considered to occur at 24 weeks gestation in the United States, since the law and definition of abortion changed to bring it closer to the gestation at which a fetus becomes viable.

Etymology[link]

The word "gynaecology" comes from the Greek ancient Greek gyne, γυνή, modern Greek gynaika, γυναίκα, meaning woman + logia meaning study, so gynaecology literally is the study of women.

History[link]

The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus is the oldest known medical text of any kind. Dated to about 1800 B.C., it deals with women's complaints—gynaecological diseases, fertility, pregnancy, contraception, etc. The text is divided into thirty-four sections, each section dealing with a specific problem and containing diagnosis and treatment, no prognosis is suggested. Treatments are non surgical, comprising applying medicines to the affected body part or swallowing them. The womb is at times seen as the source of complaints manifesting themselves in other body parts.^[2]

The Hippocratic Corpus contains several gynaecological treatises dating to the 5th/4th centuries BC. The gynaecological treatise Gynaikeia by Soranus of Ephesus (1st/2nd century AD) is extant (together with a 6th-century Latin paraphrase by Muscio, a physician of the same school). He was the chief representative of the school of physicians known as the "Methodists".

J. Marion Sims is considered the father of American gynaecology. He developed many of his techniques by operating on slaves, many of whom were not given anesthesia.

Examination[link]

Gynaecology is typically considered a consultant specialty. In some countries, women must first see a general practitioner (GP; also known as a family practitioner (FP)) prior to seeing a gynaecologist. If their condition requires training, knowledge, surgical technique, or equipment unavailable to the GP, the patient is then referred to a gynaecologist. In the United States, however, law and many health insurance plans allow gynaecologists to provide primary care in addition to aspects of their own specialty. With this option available, some women opt to see a gynaecological surgeon for non-gynaecological problems without another physician's referral.

As in all of medicine, the main tools of diagnosis are clinical history and examination. Gynaecological examination is quite intimate, more so than a routine physical exam. It also requires unique instrumentation such as the speculum. The speculum consists of two hinged blades of concave metal or plastic which are used to retract the tissues of the vagina and permit examination of the cervix, the lower part of the uterus located within the upper portion of the vagina. Gynaecologists typically do a bimanual examination (one hand on the abdomen and one or two fingers in the vagina) to palpate the cervix, uterus, ovaries and bony pelvis. It is not uncommon to do a rectovaginal examination for complete evaluation of the pelvis, particularly if any suspicious masses are appreciated. Male gynaecologists may have a female chaperone for their examination. An abdominal and/or vaginal ultrasound can be used to confirm any abnormalities appreciated with the bimanual examination or when indicated by the patient's history.

Diseases[link]

The main conditions dealt with by a gynaecologist are:

1. Cancer and pre-cancerous diseases of the reproductive organs including ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina, and vulva
2. Incontinence of urine.
3. Amenorrhoea (absent menstrual periods)
4. Dysmenorrhoea (painful menstrual periods)
5. Infertility
6. Menorrhagia (heavy menstrual periods). This is a common indication for hysterectomy.
7. Prolapse of pelvic organs
8. Infections of the vagina, cervix and uterus (including fungal, bacterial, viral, and protozoal)

There is some crossover in these areas. For example, a woman with urinary incontinence may be referred to a urologist.

Therapies[link]

As with all surgical specialties, gynaecologists may employ medical or surgical therapies (or many times, both), depending on the exact nature of the problem that they are treating. Pre- and post-operative medical management will often employ many standard drug therapies, such as antibiotics, diuretics, antihypertensives, and antiemetics. Additionally, gynaecologists make frequent use of specialized hormone-modulating therapies (such as Clomifene citrate and hormonal contraception) to treat disorders of the female genital tract that are responsive to pituitary and/or gonadal signals.

Surgery, however, is the mainstay of gynaecological therapy. For historical and political reasons, gynaecologists were previously not considered "surgeons", although this point has always been the source of some controversy. Modern advancements in both general surgery and gynaecology, however, have blurred many of the once rigid lines of distinction. The rise of sub-specialties within gynaecology which are primarily surgical in nature (for example urogynaecology and gynaecological oncology) have strengthened the reputations of gynaecologists as surgical practitioners, and many surgeons and surgical societies have come to view gynaecologists as comrades of sorts. As proof of this changing attitude, gynaecologists are now eligible for fellowship in both the American College of Surgeons and Royal Colleges of Surgeons, and many newer surgical textbooks include chapters on (at least basic) gynaecological surgery.

Some of the more common operations that gynaecologists perform include:

1. Dilation and curettage (removal of the uterine contents for various reasons, including completing a partial miscarriage and diagnostic sampling for dysfunctional uterine bleeding refractive to medical therapy)
2. Hysterectomy (removal of the uterus)
3. Oophorectomy (removal of the ovaries)
4. Tubal ligation
5. Hysteroscopy
6. Diagnostic laparoscopy – used to diagnose and treat sources of pelvic and abdominal pain; perhaps most famously used to provide definitive diagnosis of endometriosis.
7. Exploratory laparotomy – may be used to investigate the level of progression of benign or malignant disease, or to assess and repair damage to the pelvic organs.
8. Various surgical treatments for urinary incontinence, including cystoscopy and sub-urethral slings.
9. Surgical treatment of pelvic organ prolapse, including correction of cystocele and rectocele.
10. Appendectomy – often performed to remove site of painful endometriosis implantation and/or prophylactically (against future acute appendicitis) at the time of hysterectomy or Caesarean section. May also be performed as part of a staging operation for ovarian cancer.
11. Cervical Excision Procedures (including cryosurgery) – removal of the surface of the cervix containing pre-cancerous cells which have been previously identified on Pap smear.

Specialist training[link]

In the UK the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists, based in London, encourages the study and advancement of the science and practice of obstetrics and gynaecology. This is done through postgraduate medical education and training development, and the publication of clinical guidelines and reports on aspects of the specialty and service provision. The RCOG International Office works with other international organisations to help lower maternal morbidity and mortality in under-resourced countries.

Gynaecologic oncology is a subspecialty of gynaecology, dealing with gynaecology-related cancer.

See also[link]

• Childbirth and obstetrics in antiquity
• Genital schistosomiasis
• Hydatiform mole
• Gynography

References[link]

External links[link]

• Ingenious: archive of historical images related to obstetrics, gynaecology, and contraception.
• U.S. Federal Government Website for Women's Health Information.
• World Congress on Controversies in Obstetrics, Gynecology & Infertility (COGI).

Da Vinci usually refers to Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), Italian Renaissance polymath. It may also refer to:

Places[link]

• Leonardo da Vinci Airport - the main international airport in Fiumicino, Rome, Italy
• Leonardo da Vinci High School - a New Technology High School in Davis, California
• Leonardo da Vinci High School Buffalo, New York - a college prep school in Buffalo, New York.
• Da Vinci (lunar crater) - a crater on the Moon
• Da Vinci Research Park - a science park located in Brussels

Ships[link]

• Leonardo da Vinci - a Conte di Cavour class battleship of the Italian navy
• Leonardo da Vinci - a Marconi class submarine of the Italian Navy.
• SS Leonardo da Vinci - an ocean liner in service for Italian Line between 1960 and 1978.
• GTS Da Vinci - a cruise ship owned by Club Cruise

Television[link]

• Da Vinci's Inquest - a 1998 Canadian dramatic television series
  • Da Vinci's City Hall - a 2005 spinoff of Da Vinci's Inquest

Technology[link]

• Da Vinci Surgical System - a robotic surgery system
• da Vinci Systems - Color Correctors
• The da Vinci Project - a planned suborbital manned spacecraft
• Texas Instruments DaVinci - a system-on-a-chip for digital video
• Da Vinci Machine - a Sun Microsystems project aiming to prototype the extension of the Java Virtual Machine to add support for dynamic languages

Music[link]

• Da Vinci (band) - a Portuguese pop rock band
• Da Vinci's Notebook - an American a cappella group.

Other[link]

• Pierino da Vinci, sculptor, Leonardo's nephew
• Giulietta da Vinci - fictional character from the 1999 James Bond film The World Is Not Enough
• Da Vinci Tower - a proposed 420-metre (1,378 ft), 80-floor tower in Dubai, United Arab Emirates
• Davinci Academy of Science and the Arts - a charter high school in Ogden, Utah.
• Leonardo da Vinci programme
• Da Vinci's Challenge - a board game
• Da Vinci (restaurant) - Michelin starred restaurant in Maasbracht, Netherlands

See also[link]

• Vinci (disambiguation)
• The Da Vinci Code (disambiguation) - the novel by Dan Brown and related items

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.