Japonic
Geographic distribution:	Japan
Linguistic classification:	isolate or Altaic (see Japanese language classification)
Subdivisions:	Japanese Ryukyuan ? Gaya (Kara)
The Japonic languages

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The Japonic language family includes the Japanese language spoken on the main islands of Japan as well as the Ryukyuan languages spoken in the Ryukyu Islands. The family is widely accepted by linguists, and the term "Japonic languages" was coined by Leon Serafim.^[1] The common ancestral language is known as "Proto-Japonic".^[2] The essential feature of this classification is that the first split in the family resulted in the separation of all dialects of Japanese from all varieties of Ryukyuan. According to Shiro Hattori, this separation occurred during the Yamato period (250–710).^[3]

Scholarly discussions about the origin of Japonic languages present an unresolved set of related issues.^[4] The clearest connections seem to be with toponyms in southern Korea which may be in Gaya (Kara) or other scarcely attested languages.^[5]

Members[link]

The Japonic (or Japanese–Ryukyuan) languages are:

• Japanese (日本語)
  • Hachijō (conservative dialects of the Hachijōjima and Daitō Islands, including Aogashima)
  • Mainland Japanese
    • Eastern Japanese, most dialects from Nagoya east
    • Western Japanese, most dialects west of Nagoya
    • Kyūshū, Kyūshū
      • Satsugū, southern Kyūshū, around Satsuma, sometimes separated from Kyushu dialect
• Ryukyuan (琉球語)
  • Amami–Okinawan
    • Amami (奄美語)
      • Northern Amami Oshima dialect
      • Southern Amami Oshima dialect
      • Kikai dialect
      • Tokunoshima dialect
    • Okinawan
      • Okinoerabu dialect
      • Yoron dialect
      • Kunigami (Northern Okinawan)(国頭語)
      • Shuri (Central Okinawan) (沖縄語)
  • Miyako (宮古語)
    • Miyako dialect
    • Irabu dialect
  • Yaeyama (八重山語)
    • Ishigaki dialect
    • Iriomote dialect
    • Taketomi dialect
  • Yonaguni (与那国語)

Classification[link]

The relationship of the Japonic (or Japanese-Ryukyuan) languages to other languages and language families is controversial. There are numerous hypotheses, none of which is generally accepted.

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Miyake, Marc Hideo. (2008). Old Japanese: a Phonetic Reconstruction. London: RoutldegeCurzon. 10-ISBN 0415305756/13-ISBN 9780415305754; OCLC 51163755
• Shimabukuro, Moriyo. (2007). The Accentual History of the Japanese and Ryukyuan Languages: a Reconstruction. London: Global Oriental. 10-ISBN 190190363X/13-ISBN 9781901903638; OCLC 149189163

External links[link]

	Japan portal
	Languages portal

• Ethnologue report for the Japanese language family
• The LINGUIST List MultiTree Project: Japonic Family Trees

Turkic
Geographic distribution:	Originally from Western China to Siberia and Eastern Europe
Linguistic classification:	Altaic (controversial) Turkic
Proto-language:	Proto-Turkic
Subdivisions:	Southwestern (Oghuz Turkic) Northwestern (Kipchak Turkic) Southeastern (Uyghur Turkic) Northeastern (Siberian Turkic) Oghur (Lir-, r-) Turkic "Arghu" (also subsumed under Oghuz)
ISO 639-5:	trk
Countries and autonomous subdivisions where a Turkic language has official status and/or is spoken by a majority

The Turkic languages constitute a language family of at least thirty-five^[1] languages, spoken by Turkic peoples across a vast area from Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean to Siberia and Western China, and are considered to be part of the proposed Altaic language family.^[2][3]

Turkic languages are spoken as a native language by some 165^[4] to 200 million people;^[5] and the total number of Turkic speakers is over 300 million, including speakers of a second language. The Turkic language with the greatest number of speakers is Turkish proper, or Anatolian [and Balkan] Turkish, the speakers of which account for about 40% of all Turkic speakers.^[3]

Characteristic features of Turkish, such as vowel harmony, agglutination, and lack of grammatical gender, are universal within the Turkic family.^[3] There is also a high degree of mutual intelligibility between the various Oghuz languages, which include Turkish, Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Qashqai, Gagauz, Balkan Gagauz Turkish and Oghuz influenced Crimean Tatar.^[6]

Characteristics[link]

The characteristic features of the Turkic languages are vowel harmony, extensive agglutination by means of suffixes and other affixes, and lack of noun classes or grammatical gender. Subject–object–verb word order is universal within the family. All of these distinguishing characteristics are shared with the Mongolic, Tungusic, and Korean language families, as well as (with the exception of vowel harmony) with Japonic, which are considered by some linguists to be genetically linked with the Turkic languages in an Altaic language family.^[7][8]

History[link]

The geographical distribution of Turkic-speaking peoples across Eurasia ranges from the North-East of Siberia to Turkey in the West (see picture in the box on the right above).^[9]

Early written records[link]

The first established records of the Turkic languages are the eighth century Orkhon inscriptions by the Göktürks, recording the Old Turkic language, which were discovered in 1889 in the Orkhon Valley in Mongolia. The Compendium of the Turkic Dialects (Divânü Lügati't-Türk), written during the 11th century by Kaşgarlı Mahmud of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, constitutes an early linguistic treatment of the family. The Compendium is the first comprehensive dictionary of the Turkic languages and also includes the first known map of the Turkic speakers' geographical distribution. It mainly pertains to the Southwestern branch of the family.^[10]

The Codex Cumanicus (12th–13th centuries) concerning the Northwestern branch is another early linguistic manual, between the Kipchak language and Latin, used by the Catholic missionaries sent to the Western Cumans inhabiting a region corresponding to present-day Hungary and Romania. The earliest records of the language spoken by Volga Bulgars, the parent to today's Chuvash language, are dated to the 13th–14th centuries.

Geographical expansion and development[link]

With the Turkic expansion during Early Middle Ages (c. 6th–11th centuries), Turkic languages, in the course of just a few centuries, spread across Central Asia, stretching from Siberia (the Sakha Republic) to the Mediterranean (Seljuk Turks). Various elements from the Turkic languages have passed into Hungarian, Persian, Hindustani, Russian, Chinese and to a lesser extent, Arabic.^[11]

This section requires expansion.

Classification[link]

For centuries, the Turkic speaking peoples have migrated extensively and intermingled continuously, and their languages have been influenced mutually and through contact with the surrounding languages, especially the Iranian, Slavic, and Mongolic languages.^[12] This has obscured the historical developments within each language and/or language group, and as a result, there exist several systems to classify the Turkic languages. The modern genetic classification schemes for Turkic are still largely indebted to Samoilovich (1922)^[13] and are mainly based on the development of *d. However, there are still many questions for which ongoing research has not yet found an adequate solution.

The Turkic languages may be divided into six branches (Johanson 1998):^[14]

1. Southwestern (Oghuz Turkic)
2. Northwestern (Kipchak Turkic)
3. Southeastern (Uyghur Turkic)^[15]
4. Northeastern (Siberian Turkic)
5. Oghur Turkic
6. Arghu Turkic

In this classification, Oghur Turkic is also referred to as Lir-Turkic and the other branches are subsumed under the title of Shaz-Turkic or Common Turkic. It is not clear when these two major types of Turkic can be assumed to have actually diverged.^[16]

With less certainty, the Southwestern, Northwestern, Southeastern and Oghur groups may further be summarized as West Turkic, the Northeastern, Kyrgyz-Kipchak and Arghu (Khalaj) groups as East Turkic.^[17]

Geographically and linguistically, the languages of the Northwestern and Southeastern subgroups belong to the central Turkic languages, while the Northeastern and Khalaj languages are the so-called peripheral languages.

Schema[link]

The following isoglosses are traditionally used in the classification of the Turkic languages:^[14]

• Rhoticisation, e.g. in the last consonant of the word for "nine" *toqqız. This separates the Oghur branch, which exhibits /r/, from the rest of Turkic, which exhibits /z/. In this case, rhoticisation refers to the development of *-/r/, *-/z/, and *-/d/ to /r/ in this branch.^[18]
• Intervocalic *d, e.g. the second consonant in the word for "foot" *hadaq
• Word-final -G, e.g. in the word for "mountain" *tāğ
• Suffix-final -G, e.g. in the suffix *lIG, in e.g. *tāğlığ

Additional isoglosses include:

• Preservation of word initial *h, e.g. in the word for "foot" *hadaq. This separates Khalaj as a peripheral language.
• Denasalisation of palatal *ń, e.g. in the word for "moon", *ań

*In the standard Istanbul dialect of Turkish, the ğ in dağ and dağlık is not realized as a consonant, but as a slight lengthening of the preceding vowel.

Members[link]

The following table is based upon the classification scheme presented by Lars Johanson (1998)^[19]

Vocabulary comparison[link]

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The following is a brief comparison of cognates among the basic vocabulary across the Turkic language family (about 60 words).

Empty cells do not necessarily imply that a particular language is lacking a word to describe the concept, but rather that the word for the concept in that language may be formed from another stem and is not a cognate with the other words in the row or that the equivalent was unknown to contributors to this article.

Also, there may be shifts in the meaning from one language to another, and so the "Common meaning" given is only approximate. In some cases the form given is found only in some dialects of the language. Forms are given in native Latin orthographies unless otherwise noted.

See also[link]

• Altaic languages
• Proto-Turkic language
• Old Turkic alphabet
• Old Turkic language
• Middle Turkic

References[link]