- published: 13 Aug 2007
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- author: DevDevendra
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![India's Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle [GSLV] - ISRO report](http://web.archive.org./web/20130113023644im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/cuqYLHaLB5M/default.jpg "The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle [GSLV] is currently being developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation [ISRO]. On successful completion of the programme, India would become self-sufficient in launching heavy, commercial, communication satellites from its own soil as well as being able to do the same for other nations. It is also to launch India's second mission to the Moon, Chandrayaan-2. India also operates the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle [PSLV], developed for launching smaller-sized, lighter satellites and placing them in the desired orbit -- sun synchronous or geostationary. It has an extremely high success rate, having performed 17 consecutive successful launches & has placed a total of 41 satellites in orbit, including one in which it put in orbit 10 satellites in a single launch -- a world record. Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle [GSLV] www.isro.org en.wikipedia.org Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle [GSLV] GSLV-Mk III www.isro.org en.wikipedia.org Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle [PSLV] www.isro.org www.isro.org en.wikipedia.org www.thehindu.com www.sify.com www.ndtv.com Chandrayaan Moon Mission Chandrayaan-1 www.isro.gov.in www.isro.org en.wikipedia.org Chandrayaan-2 en.wikipedia.org Indian Space Research Organisation [ISRO] www.isro.org en.wikipedia.org Moi Blog: AA Me www.aame.in")
![ISRO's 100th Mission [PSLV-C21] being readied to launch French & Japanese Satellites](http://web.archive.org./web/20130113023644im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/AMj4fIaAtME/default.jpg "Foreign Satellite Launch & Construction by Indian Space Research Organisation [ISRO] www.aame.in With the dual launch of the French SPOT-6 & Japanese PROITERES satellites, the Indian Space Research Organisation would have completed 100 missions that include 37 launch vehicles & 62 satellites successfully placed into orbit prior to this. Indian Space Research Organisation [ISRO] www.isro.org en.wikipedia.org SPOT-6 Satellite www.astrium-geo.com en.wikipedia.org PROITERES Satellite space.skyrocket.de www.google.com PSLV C-21 mission docs.google.com Moi Blog: AA Me, IN www.aame.in YouTube Channel: Luptonga youtube.com")
![ISRO spy case; high court accept Nambi Narayanan harji [Reporter HD]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130113023644im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/aGM_Asck72E/default.jpg "ഐഎസ്ആർഒ ചാരക്കേസിൽ ഹൈക്കടോതി നമ്പി നാരായണന്റെ ഹർ ജി ഫയലിൽ സ്വീകരിച്ചു. കേസിൽ സംസ്ഥാന സർക്കാരിനും, മൂന്ന് ഉദ്യോഗസ്ഥർക്കും ഹൈക്കോടതി നോട്ടീസ് അയച്ചു. സിബി മാത്യൂസ്, കെ കെ ജോഷ്വാ, എസ് വിജയൻ എന്നിവർക്കും സംസ്ഥാന സർക്കാരിനുമാണ് നോട്ടീസ് അയച്ചത്.")
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Ahmedabad
Ahmedabad (
i/ˈɑːmɨdəbɑːd/ also known as Amdavad 
) is the largest city and former capital of the Indian state of Gujarat. The city is an administrative centre of Ahmedabad district as well as the judicial capital of Gujarat as the Gujarat High Court is in Ahmedabad. It was founded on 26 February 1411 by Sultan Ahmed Shah to serve as the capital of the Gujarat Sultanate, and was named after him. With a city population of more than 5.5 million and an extended population of 6.3 million it is the fifth largest city and seventh largest metropolitan area of India. Ahmedabad is located on the banks of the River Sabarmati, 32 km (20 mi) from the state capital Gandhinagar.
Though incorporated into the Bombay Presidency during British rule, Ahmedabad remained one of the most important cities in the Gujarat region. The city established itself as the home of a developing textile industry, which earned it the nickname the Manchester of the East. The city was at the forefront of the Indian independence movement in the first half of the 20th century and centre of many campaigns of civil disobedience to promote workers' rights, civil rights, and political independence.
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Algeria
Coordinates: 28°N 2°E / 28°N 2°E / 28; 2
Algeriai/ælˈdʒɪəriə/ (Arabic: الجزائر, al-Jazā'ir; Berber: ⴷⵣⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer), officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria (الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية, al-Jumhūriyyah al-Jazāʾiriyyah ad-Dīmuqrāṭiyyah ash-Shaʿbiyyah), also formally referred to as the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria, is a large country in the Maghreb region of Northwest Africa with Algiers as its capital.
When referring to its land area, Algeria is the largest country in Africa, Maghreb and the Arab World. It is also the largest of the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea; it is also the tenth-largest country in the world. The country is bordered in the northeast by Tunisia, in the east by Libya, in the west by Morocco, in the southwest by Western Sahara, Mauritania, and Mali, in the southeast by Niger, and in the north by the Mediterranean Sea. Its size is almost 2,400,000 square kilometres (926,645 sq mi) with an estimated population of 37.1 million as of 2012. Algeria is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, OPEC and the United Nations. The country is also a founding member of the Arab Maghreb Union.
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Arab League
The Arab League (Arabic: الجامعة العربية al-Jāmiʻa al-ʻArabiyya), officially called the League of Arab States (Arabic: جامعة الدول العربية Jāmiʻat ad-Duwal al-ʻArabiyya), is a regional organisation of Arab states in North and Northeast Africa, and Southwest Asia (Middle East). It was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945 with six members: Egypt, Iraq, Transjordan (renamed Jordan in 1949), Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria. Yemen joined as a member on 5 May 1945. The Arab League currently has 22 members (including Syria, whose participation was suspended in November 2011). The main goal of the league is to "draw closer the relations between member States and co-ordinate collaboration between them, to safeguard their independence and sovereignty, and to consider in a general way the affairs and interests of the Arab countries."
Through institutions such as the Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (ALECSO) and the Economic and Social Council of the Arab League's Council of Arab Economic Unity (CAEU), the Arab League facilitates political, economic, cultural, scientific and social programs designed to promote the interests of the Arab world. It has served as a forum for the member states to coordinate their policy positions, to deliberate on matters of common concern, to settle some Arab disputes, and to limit conflicts such as the 1958 Lebanon crisis. The League has served as a platform for the drafting and conclusion of many landmark documents promoting economic integration. One example is the Joint Arab Economic Action Charter which sets out the principles for economic activities in the region.
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Argentina
Argentinai/ˌɑrdʒənˈtiːnə/, officially the Argentine Republic (Spanish: República Argentina [reˈpuβlika aɾxenˈtina]), is a country in South America, the continent's second largest by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires. It is the eighth-largest country in the world by land area and the largest among Spanish-speaking nations.
Argentina's continental area is between the Andes mountain range in the west and the Atlantic Ocean in the east. It borders Paraguay and Bolivia to the north, Brazil and Uruguay to the northeast, and Chile to the west and south. Argentine claims over Antarctica, as well as overlapping claims made by Chile and the United Kingdom, are suspended by the Antarctic Treaty of 1961. Argentina also claims the Falkland Islands (Spanish: Islas Malvinas) and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, which are administered by the United Kingdom as British Overseas Territories.
A recognised middle power, Argentina is Latin America's third-largest economy, with a "very high" rating on the Human development index. Within Latin America, Argentina has the fifth highest nominal GDP per capita and the highest in purchasing power terms. Analysts have argued that the country has a "foundation for future growth due to its market size, levels of foreign direct investment, and percentage of high-tech exports as share of total manufactured goods", and it is classed by investors as middle emerging economy. Argentina is a founding member of the United Nations, Mercosur, the Union of South American Nations, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the World Bank Group and the World Trade Organization, and is one of the G-15 and G-20 major economies.
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Australia
Australia (
/əˈstreɪljə/), officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent as well as the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area. Neighbouring countries include Indonesia, East Timor and Papua New Guinea to the north; the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonia to the north-east; and New Zealand to the south-east.
For at least 40,000 years before European settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who belonged to one or more of roughly 250 language groups. After discovery by Dutch explorers in 1606, Australia's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades; the continent was explored and an additional five self-governing Crown Colonies were established.
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Austria
Austria (i/ˈɒstriə/ or /ˈɔːstriə/; German: Österreich [ˈøːstɐˌʁaɪç] (
listen)), officially the Republic of Austria (German: Republik Österreich (help·info)), is a landlocked country of roughly 8.47 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The territory of Austria covers 83,855 square kilometres (32,377 sq mi) and has a temperate and alpine climate. Austria's terrain is highly mountainous due to the presence of the Alps; only 32% of the country is below 500 metres (1,640 ft), and its highest point is 3,798 metres (12,461 ft). The majority of the population speak local Austro-Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, and German in its standard form is the country's official language. Other local official languages are Burgenland Croatian, Hungarian and Slovene.
The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty when the vast majority of the country was a part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Austria became one of the great powers of Europe and, in response to the coronation of Napoleon I as the Emperor of the French, the Austrian Empire was officially proclaimed in 1804. In 1867, the Austrian Empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary.
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Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan (
i/ˌæzərbaɪˈdʒɑːn/ AZ-ər-by-JAHN; Azerbaijani: Azərbaycan), officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azerbaijani: Azərbaycan Respublikası) is the largest country in the Caucasus region located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bounded by the Caspian Sea to the east, Russia to the north, Georgia to the northwest, Armenia to the west, and Iran to the south. The exclave of Nakhchivan is bounded by Armenia to the north and east, Iran to the south and west, while having a short borderline with Turkey to the northwest.
Azerbaijan has an ancient and historic cultural heritage. Aside from having been the first Muslim-majority country to have operas, theater and plays, Azerbaijan today is among the Muslim-majority countries where support for secularism and tolerance is the highest. The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, the first democratic and secular republic in the Muslim world, was established in 1918, but was incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1920. Azerbaijan regained independence in 1991. Shortly thereafter, during the Nagorno-Karabakh War, neighboring Armenia occupied Nagorno-Karabakh, its surrounding territories and the enclaves of Karki, Yukhary Askipara, Barkhudarly and Sofulu. The Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, which emerged in Nagorno-Karabakh, continues to be not diplomatically recognized by any nation and the region is still considered a de jure part of Azerbaijan, despite being de facto independent since the end of the war. Azerbaijan has come under repeated international criticism for its record on human rights.
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Balasore
Balasore (Oriya: ବାଲେଶ୍ଵର) (also known as Baleshwar) is a strategically located city in the state of Orissa, about 194 kilometres (121 mi) north of the state capital Bhubaneswar, in eastern India. It is the administrative headquarters of Balasore district. It is best known for Chandipur beach. It is also the site of the Indian Ballistic Missile Defense Program's Integrated Test Range, located 18 km. south of Balasore. The Defence Research and Development Organisation developed many different missiles such as Nag, Brahmos, Agni missile among others here. The lingua franca is Oriya.
The English settlement of Balasore, formed in 1642, was an early trading port for British, French and Dutch ships in the early age of Enlightenment and became a colonial part of first Danish India, later British India.
In 1763 Balasore became a Danish possession, governed from Tranquebar, as part of Danish India. Due to the shallowness of its bay, the trading post was abandoned, leaving behind only a small settlement in the area. On 7 November 1845, all Danish India was sold to the British, who made it part of British India. Since the beginning of the 20th century Balasore, as a strategic point, interested revolutionaries[citation needed].
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Bangalore
Bangalore /ˈbæŋɡəlɔər/, also rendered Bengaluru,[needs IPA] is the capital of the Indian state of Karnataka. Bangalore is nicknamed the Garden City for its gardens and parks and was once called a pensioner's paradise. Located on the Deccan Plateau in the south-eastern part of Karnataka, Bangalore is India's third most populous city and fifth-most populous urban agglomeration. Bangalore is well known as a hub for India's information technology sector. It is among the top 10 preferred entrepreneurial locations in the world.
A succession of South Indian dynasties ruled the region of Bangalore until in 1537 AD Kempe Gowda—a feudatory ruler under the Vijayanagara Empire—established a mud fort considered to be the foundation of modern Bangalore. Following transitory occupation by Maratha and Mughal, the city remained under the Mysore kingdom. Bangalore continued to be a cantonment of the British and a major city of the Princely State of Mysore which existed as a nominally sovereign entity of the British Raj. Following the independence of India in 1947, Bangalore became the capital of Mysore state, and later Karnataka.
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Bangladesh
Coordinates: 23°N 90°E / 23°N 90°E / 23; 90
Bangladesh (i/ˈbɑːŋɡlədɛʃ/ or i/bæŋɡləˈdɛʃ/ (Anglicized pronunciation); Bengali: বাংলাদেশ), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh (Bengali: গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ Gônoprojatontri Bangladesh) is a sovereign state located in South Asia. It is bordered by India and Burma and by the Bay of Bengal to the south. The capital (and largest city) is Dhaka, located in central Bangladesh. The official state language is Bengali. The name Bangladesh means "Land of Bengal" or "Country of Bengal" the in the Bengali language, from Bangla "Bengal" and desh holding a dual meaning of "land" and "country" as English "country," German land, French pays, etc.
The borders of present-day Bangladesh were established with the partition of Bengal during the reign and demise of the British India. Its map was chartered by Sir Cyril Radcliffe during the creation of Pakistan and India in 1947, when the region became East Pakistan, part of the newly formed nation of Pakistan. Due to political exclusion and economic exploitation by the politically dominant West Pakistan, popular agitation grew against West Pakistan and led to the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, after the Bangladeshi Declaration of Independence on 26 March 1971. With the intervention of the Indian Army, the war came to an end on 16 December 1971 with the surrender of the Pakistan Army at Ramna Race Course.
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Belarus
Belarus (i/bɛləˈruːs/ bel-ə-ROOSS; Belarusian: Беларусь, Russian pronunciation: [bʲɛlaˈrusʲ] Russian: Беларусь, Белоруссия, Belarus', Belorussiya), officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered clockwise by Russia to the northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Its capital is Minsk; other major cities include Brest, Grodno (Hrodna), Gomel (Homiel), Mogilev (Mahilyow) and Vitebsk (Vitsebsk). Over forty percent of its 207,600 square kilometres (80,200 sq mi) is forested, and its strongest economic sectors are agriculture and manufacturing.
Until the 20th century, the lands of modern-day Belarus belonged to several countries, including the Principality of Polotsk, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Russian Empire. In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution, Belarus became a founding constituent republic of the Soviet Union and was renamed as the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR). The borders of Belarus took their modern shape in 1939 when some lands of the Second Polish Republic were incorporated into it after the Soviet invasion of Poland. The nation and its territory were devastated in World War II, during which Belarus lost about a third of its population and more than half of its economic resources. The republic was redeveloped in the post-war years. In 1945 the Belorussian SSR became a founding member of the United Nations, along with the Soviet Union and the Ukrainian SSR.
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Belgium
Belgium (i/ˈbɛldʒəm/ BEL-jəm), officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO. Belgium covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres (11,787 sq mi), and it has a population of about 11 million people. Straddling the cultural boundary between Germanic and Latin Europe, Belgium is home to two main linguistic groups, the Dutch-speakers, mostly Flemish (about 60%), and the French-speakers, mostly Walloons (about 40%), plus a small group of German-speakers. Belgium's two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region, officially bilingual, is a mostly French-speaking enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia. Belgium's linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in the political history and a complex system of government.
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Bhopal
Bhopal /boʊˈpɑːl/ (Hindustani pronunciation: [bʱoːpaːl] ( listen)) is the capital of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh and the administrative headquarters of Bhopal District and Bhopal Division. The city was the capital of the former Bhopal State. Bhopal is known as the City of Lakes for its various natural as well as artificial lakes and is also one of the greenest cities in India.
A B-1 class city, Bhopal houses various institutions and installations of national importance. Some of these include ISRO's Master Control Facility, the CSIR Advanced Materials and Processes Research Institute (AMPRI), Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER Bhopal), School of Planning and Architecture, Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL), Gandhi Medical College, Bhopal (associated with Hamidia Hospital, Sultania Zanana Hospital & Kamla Nehru Hospital), and the (approved, under-construction) All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhopal.
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Brazil
Brazili/brəˈzɪl/ (Portuguese: Brasil, IPA: [bɾaˈziw]), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: República Federativa do Brasil, listen (help·info)), is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people. It is the only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas and the largest lusophone country in the world.
Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of 7,491 km (4,655 mi). It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and the French overseas region of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos form part of Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz. It borders all other South American countries except Ecuador and Chile.
Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until 1815, when it was elevated to the rank of kingdom and the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves was formed. The colonial bond was in fact broken in 1808, when the capital of the Portuguese colonial empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, after Napoleon invaded Portugal.Independence was achieved in 1822 with the formation of the Empire of Brazil, a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system. The country became a presidential republic in 1889, when a military coup d'état proclaimed the Republic, although the bicameral legislature, now called Congress, dates back to the ratification of the first constitution in 1824. Its current Constitution, formulated in 1988, defines Brazil as a Federal Republic. The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.
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Brunei
Bruneii/bruːˈnaɪ/, officially the Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace (Malay: Negara Brunei Darussalam, Jawi: نڬارا بروني دارالسلام), is a sovereign state located on the north coast of the island of Borneo, in Southeast Asia. Apart from its coastline with the South China Sea, it is completely surrounded by the state of Sarawak, Malaysia, and it is separated into two parts by the Sarawak district of Limbang. It is the only sovereign state completely on the island of Borneo, with the remainder of the island belonging to Malaysia and Indonesia. Brunei's population was 401,890 in July 2011.
The official national history claims that Brunei can trace its beginnings to the 7th century, when it was a subject state of the Srivijayan empire under the name P'o-li. It later became a vassal state of Majapahit empire before converting to Islam in the 15th century. At the peak of its empire, the sultanate had control that extended over the coastal regions of modern-day Sarawak and Sabah, the Sulu archipelago, and the islands off the northwest tip of Borneo. The thalassocracy was visited by Ferdinand Magellan in 1521 and fought the Castille War in 1578 against Spain. Its empire began to decline with the forced ceding of Sarawak to James Brooke and the ceding of Sabah to the British North Borneo Chartered Company. After the loss of Limbang, Brunei finally became a British protectorate in 1888, receiving a resident in 1906. In the years after the Japanese wartime occupation during World War II, it formalised a constitution and fought an armed rebellion. Brunei regained its independence from the United Kingdom on 1 January 1984. Economic growth during the 1970s and 1990s, averaging 56% from 1999 to 2008, has transformed Brunei Darussalam into a newly industrialised country.
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Bulgaria
Coordinates: 42°45′N 25°30′E / 42.75°N 25.5°E / 42.75; 25.5
Bulgariai/bʌlˈɡɛəriə/ (Bulgarian: България, IPA: [bɤ̞ɫˈɡarijɐ]), is a country located in Southeastern Europe. It is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and the Macedonia to the west, Greece and Turkey to the south and the Black Sea to the east. With a territory of 110,994 square kilometres (42,855 sq mi), Bulgaria is Europe's 14th-largest country. Its location has made it a historical crossroad for various civilisations and as such it is the home of some of the earliest metalworking, religious and other cultural artifacts in the world.
Prehistoric cultures began developing on Bulgarian lands during the Neolithic period. Its ancient history was marked by the presence of the Thracians, and later by the Greeks and Romans. The emergence of a unified Bulgarian ethnicity and state dates back to the First Bulgarian Empire, which dominated most of the Balkans and functioned as a cultural hub for Slavic peoples during the Middle Ages. With the downfall of the Second Bulgarian Empire in 1396, its territories came under Ottoman rule for nearly five hundred years. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 resulted in the Third Bulgarian State, recognised in 1908. The following years saw several conflicts with its neighbours, which prompted Bulgaria to align with Germany in both World Wars. In 1946 it became a Communist republic with a single-party system until 1989, when the Communist Party allowed multi-party elections. After 1990 Bulgaria transitioned to democracy and a market-based economy.
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Canada
Canada ( /ˈkænədə/) is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean. Spanning over 9,900,000 km2 (3,800,000 sq mi), Canada is the world's second-largest country by total area, and its common border with the United States is the longest land border in the world.
The land that is now Canada has been inhabited for millennia by various Aboriginal peoples. Beginning in the late 15th century, British and French colonial expeditions explored, and later settled, along the region's Atlantic coast. France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years' War. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy; the Canada Act 1982 severed the vestiges of legal dependence on Britain.
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CERN
Coordinates: 46°14′03″N 6°03′10″E / 46.23417°N 6.05278°E / 46.23417; 6.05278
The European Organization for Nuclear Research (French: Organisation européenne pour la recherche nucléaire), known as CERN ( /ˈsɜrn/; French pronunciation: [sɛʁn]; see History), is an international organization whose purpose is to operate the world's largest particle physics laboratory, which is situated in the northwest suburbs of Geneva on the Franco–Swiss border (46°14′3″N 6°3′19″E / 46.23417°N 6.05528°E / 46.23417; 6.05528). Established in 1954, the organization has twenty European member states.
The term CERN is also used to refer to the laboratory itself, which employs just under 2400 full-time employees and hosts some 10000 visiting scientists and engineers representing 608 universities and research facilities and 113 nationalities.
CERN's main function is to provide the particle accelerators and other infrastructure needed for high-energy physics research. Numerous experiments have been constructed at CERN by international collaborations to make use of them. It is also the birthplace of the World Wide Web. The main site at Meyrin also has a large computer centre containing very powerful data-processing facilities primarily for experimental data analysis and, because of the need to make them available to researchers elsewhere, has historically been a major wide area networking hub.
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Chandigarh
Chandigarh /ˈtʃɑːndɨɡər/ is a city and union territory in India that serves as the capital of two states, Haryana and Punjab. The name Chandigarh translates as "The Fort of Chandi". The name is derived from an ancient temple called Chandi Mandir, devoted to the Hindu goddess Chandi, in the city. It is also referred to as The City Beautiful due to its beautiful surroundings, central grid of gardens, each dedicated to different species of flora.
The city of Chandigarh was the first planned city in India and is known internationally for its architecture and urban design. The city has projects designed by architects such as Le Corbusier, Pierre Jeanneret, Jane Drew, and Maxwell Fry. The city tops the list of Indian States and Union Territories with the highest per capita income in the country at Rs.99,262 at current prices and Rs.70,361 at constant prices (2006–2007). The city was reported in 2010 to be the "cleanest" in India, based on a national government study, and the territory also headed the list of Indian states and territories according to research conducted using 2005 data by Human Development Index.
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Chile
Chile (i/ˈtʃɪliː/ or /ˈtʃɪleɪ/), officially the Republic of Chile (Spanish: República de Chile [reˈpuβlika ðe ˈtʃile] ( listen)), is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far south. Along with Ecuador, it is one of two countries in South America that do not border Brazil. Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas and Easter Island. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres (480,000 sq mi) of Antarctica, although all claims are suspended under the Antarctic Treaty.
Chile's distinctive shape—4,300 kilometres (2,700 mi) long and on average 175 kilometres (109 mi) wide—makes it the longest country in the world, north to south, with the fifth lengthiest coastline at over 78 thousand kilometers. The diverse climate of Chile ranges from the world's driest desert in the north—the Atacama—through a Mediterranean climate in the centre, humid subtropical in Easter Island, to an Oceanic climate, including alpine tundra and glaciers in the east and south. The northern desert contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. The relatively small central area dominates in terms of population and agricultural resources, and is the cultural and political center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century when it incorporated its northern and southern regions. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes. The southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands.
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China
China (i/ˈtʃaɪnə/; Chinese: 中国; pinyin: Zhōngguó; see also Names of China), officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is the world's most-populous country, with a population of over 1.3 billion. Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometres, the East Asian state is the world's second-largest country by land area, and the third- or fourth-largest in total area, depending on the definition of total area.
The People's Republic of China is a single-party state governed by the Communist Party of China. It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four directly controlled municipalities (Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing), and two mostly self-governing special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau). Its capital city is Beijing. The PRC also claims Taiwan—which is controlled by the Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity—as its 23rd province, a claim controversial due to the complex political status of Taiwan and the unresolved Chinese Civil War. The PRC government denies the legitimacy of the ROC.
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Chittoor
Chittoor (Telugu: చిత్తూరు; also known as Chittur) is a City and municipal corporation located in the Chittoor District of Andhra Pradesh, India. It is conveniently located on major highway linking the cities of Bangalore and Chennai.
Chittoor city lies on the banks of Ponnai River at the southernmost part of Andhra Pradesh. The Chittoor district (Area 15,359 km², population 2,267,769–1991 census) is bounded by Anantapur District to the northwest, Cuddapah District to the north, Nellore District to the northeast, Vellore & Tiruvallur districts of Tamil Nadu state to the south, and Karnataka state to the southwest. The city is strategically located at the junction of Bangalore-Chennai national highway 4 and national highway 18. The city is famous for Kanipakam Vinayaka Temple which is located at a distance of 12 km in Irala Mandal, and in addition, the district is known for Tirupati and Sri Kalahasti temples. Chittoor's culture is the combination of Telugu Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Tamil Nadu.
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Colaba
Colaba ([koˈlaːbaː]) is a part of the city of Mumbai, India, and also a Lok Sabha constituency. During Portuguese rule in the 16th century, the island was known as Candil. After the British took over the island in the late 17th century, it was known as Colio.
The name Colaba, comes from Kolabhat, a word in the language of Kolis, the indigenous inhabitants of the islands, before the arrival of Portuguese. The area that is now Colaba was originally a region consisting of two islands: Colaba and Little Colaba (or Old Woman's Island). The island of Colaba was one of the Seven islands of Bombay ruled by the Portuguese.
The Portuguese had acquired these lands from the Sultanate of Cambay by the Treaty of Bassein (1534). The group of islands was gifted by Portugal to Charles II of England as dowry when he married Catherine of Braganza. The cession of Bombay and dependencies was strongly resented by Portuguese officials in Goa and Bombay, who resisted transfer of possession for several years, while the English representatives were confined to the island of Anjediva while negotiations continued. Angered by the backtracking, Charles II leased these lands to the British East India Company for a nominal annual rent. Gerald Aungier, second Governor of Bombay (1672), and the president of the English settlement of Surat, took possession of Colaba and Old Woman's Island on behalf of the Company in 1675.
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Colombia
Colombia (
/kəˈlʌmbiə/ kə-LUM-biə, or /kəˈlɒmbiə/ kə-LOM-biə), officially the Republic of Colombia (Spanish: República de Colombia [reˈpuβlika ðe koˈlombja]), is a unitary constitutional republic comprising thirty-two departments. The country is located in northwestern South America, bordered to the northwest by Panama; to the north by the Caribbean Sea; to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; and to the west by the Pacific Ocean. Colombia has maritime borders with Ecuador, Panama, Venezuela, Jamaica, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Colombia is the 26th largest country by area and the fourth largest in South America after Brazil, Argentina and Peru. With over 46 million people, Colombia is the 27th largest country in the world by population and has the second largest population of any Spanish-speaking country in the world, after Mexico. Colombia is a middle power, with the fourth largest economy in Latin America, and the third largest in South America. Colombia is famous for the production of coffee, flowers, emeralds, coal, and oil. All of these products make up the primary sector of economy.
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Czech Republic
The Czech Republic (i/ˈtʃɛk/ CHEK;Czech: Česká republika, pronounced [ˈtʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka] ( listen), short form Česko Czech pronunciation: [ˈtʃɛskɔ]) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. The country is bordered by Poland to the north, Germany to the west, Austria to the south and Slovakia to the east. Its capital and largest city, with 1.3 million inhabitants, is Prague.
It is a pluralist multi-party parliamentary representative democracy, a member of the European Union, NATO, the OECD, the OSCE, the Council of Europe and the Visegrád Group.
The Czech state, formerly known as Bohemia, was formed in the late 9th century as a small duchy around Prague, at that time under dominance of the powerful Great Moravian Empire (which reached its greatest territorial extent during the reign of Svatopluk I from the House of Mojmír). After the fall of the Empire in 907, the centre of power was transferred from Moravia to Bohemia, under the Přemyslids. During the rule of Přemyslid dukes/kings and their successors, the Luxembourgs, the country reached its greatest territorial extent (13th–14th century). Life in the country was significantly affected by the Hussite wars, during which it faced economic embargo and crusades from all over Europe. Following the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Crown of Bohemia was gradually integrated into the Habsburg monarchy as one of its three principal parts alongside the Archduchy of Austria and the Kingdom of Hungary. The Bohemian Revolt (1618–20) led to the further centralization of the monarchy including forced recatholization and Germanization. During radical reforms in the 18th century the Bohemian Crown was even de facto abolished (1749). In the 19th century the Czech lands became the industrial powerhouse of the monarchy and the core of the Republic of Czechoslovakia which was formed in 1918, following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian empire after World War I.
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Dehradun
Dehra Dun, or Dehradun /ˌdɛrəˈduːn/ (Hindi: देहरादून, Dēharādūn), is the capital city of the State of Uttarakhand in north India. Located in the Garhwal region, it is 255 km north of India's capital New Delhi and consists of 6 tehsils, 6 community development blocks, 17 towns and 764 inhabited villages. The city has been chosen as one of the "Counter Magnets" of the National Capital Region (NCR) and is being developed as an alternative centre of growth to help ease the migration and population explosion in the Delhi metropolitan area.
Dehradun is renowned for its natural resources, publishing services, and for its prestigious educational institutions such as the Forest Research Institute (FRI), Indian Military Academy (IMA) and several day and boarding schools which are highly reputed across the country. It is also home to national foundations such as the Indian Institute of Petroleum, Survey of India, Wildlife Institute of India and the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation.
Located on the foothills of the Himalayas, the Doon Valley is nestled between two of India's mightiest rivers - the Ganges on the east and the Yamuna on the west. Dehradun is famous for its picturesque landscape and pleasant climate and provides a gateway to the surrounding region. It is well connected and in proximity to popular Himalayan tourist destinations such as Mussoorie, Nainital and Auli and the Hindu holy cities of Haridwar and Rishikesh along with the Himalayan pilgrimage circuit of Char Dham.
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Denmark
The Kingdom of Denmark (Danish: Kongeriget Danmark, pronounced [ˈkɔŋəʁiːəð ˈdanmɑɡ̊] ( listen)) is a constitutional monarchy and sovereign state consisting the country of Denmark in northern Europe and two autonomous constituent countries, the Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic and Greenland in North America. The kingdom is a unitary state with some power being devolved from Denmark proper to Greenland and the Faroe Islands; this polity is referred to as the Danish Realm. Denmark proper is the hegemonial area, where judicial, executive, and legislative power resides. The Faroe Islands are defined to be a community of people within the kingdom, and the Greenlandic people are defined as a separate people with the right to self-determination.
Denmark is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, located southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. The country consists of a large peninsula, Jutland and many islands, most notably Zealand, Funen, Lolland, Falster and Bornholm, as well as hundreds of minor islands often referred to as the Danish Archipelago.
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Ecuador
Ecuador (i/ˈɛkwədɔr/ E-kwə-dawr), officially the Republic of Ecuador (Spanish: República del Ecuador [reˈpuβlika ðel ekwaˈðor], which literally translates to the "Republic of the Equator") is a representative democratic republic in South America, bordered by Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and by the Pacific Ocean to the west. It is one of only two countries in South America, (along with Chile), that do not have a border with Brazil. The country also includes the Galápagos Islands in the Pacific, about 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) west of the mainland.
The main spoken language in Ecuador is Spanish. Ecuador straddles the equator, from which it takes its name, and has an area of 275,830 km2 (106,500 sq mi). Its capital city is Quito, which was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in the 1970s for having the best preserved and least altered historic center in Latin America. The country's largest city is Guayaquil. The historic center of Cuenca, the third largest city in the country, was also declared a World Heritage Site in 1999, for being an outstanding example of a planned inland Spanish style colonial city in the Americas. Ecuador is also home—despite its size—to a great variety of species, many of them endemic, like those of the Galápagos islands. This species diversity makes Ecuador one of the 17 megadiverse countries in the world. The new constitution of 2008 is the first in the world to recognize legally enforceable Rights of Nature, or ecosystem rights.
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Egypt
Egypti/ˈiːdʒɪpt/ (Arabic: مصر, Miṣr, Egyptian Arabic: [mɑsˤɾ] ; Coptic: Ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, Kīmi ; Sahidic Coptic: ⲕⲏⲙⲉ, Kēme), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: جمهوريّة مصر العربيّة (help·info), is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Covering an area of about 1,010,000 square kilometers (390,000 sq mi), Egypt is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south and Libya to the west.
Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa and the Middle East. The great majority of its over 81 million people live near the banks of the Nile River, in an area of about 40,000 square kilometers (15,000 sq mi), where the only arable land is found. The large areas of the Sahara Desert are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residents live in urban areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.
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EUMETSAT
EUMETSAT (European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites) is an intergovernmental organisation created through an international convention agreed by a current total of 26 European Member States: Austria, Belgium, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Romania, Italy, Latvia, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. These States fund the EUMETSAT programs and are the principal users of the systems. EUMETSAT also has 5 Cooperating States. Cooperation agreements with Iceland, Lithuania, Bulgaria, Estonia and Serbia have entered into force. The convention establishing EUMETSAT was opened for signature in 1983 and entered into force in 19 June 1986.
EUMETSAT's primary objective is to establish, maintain and exploit European systems of operational meteorological satellites. EUMETSAT is responsible for the launch and operation of the satellites and for delivering satellite data to end-users as well as contributing to the operational monitoring of climate and the detection of global climate changes.
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France
France (Englishi/ˈfræns/ FRANSS or /ˈfrɑːns/ FRAHNSS; French: [fʁɑ̃s] ( listen)), officially the French Republic (French: République française [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is often referred to as l’Hexagone ("The Hexagon") because of the geometric shape of its territory. It is the largest western European country and it possesses the second-largest exclusive economic zone in the world, covering 11,035,000 km2 (4,260,000 sq mi), just behind that of the United States (11,351,000 km2 / 4,383,000 sq mi).
Over the past 500 years, France has been a major power with strong cultural, economic, military and political influence in Europe and around the world. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonised great parts of North America and Southeast Asia; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built the second largest colonial empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Caribbean and Pacific Islands.
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Germany
Germany (i/ˈdʒɜrməni/), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, pronounced [ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant] ( listen)), is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state and the largest economy in the European Union. It is one of the major political powers of the European continent and a technological leader in many fields.
A region named Germania, inhabited by several Germanic peoples, was documented before AD 100. During the Migration Period, the Germanic tribes expanded southward, and established successor kingdoms throughout much of Europe. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation while southern and western parts remained dominated by Roman Catholic denominations, with the two factions clashing in the Thirty Years' War, marking the beginning of the Catholic–Protestant divide that has characterized German society ever since. Occupied during the Napoleonic Wars, the rise of Pan-Germanism inside the German Confederation resulted in the unification of most of the German states into the German Empire in 1871 which was Prussian dominated. After the German Revolution of 1918–1919 and the subsequent military surrender in World War I, the Empire was replaced by the Weimar Republic in 1918, and partitioned in the Treaty of Versailles. Amidst the Great Depression, the Third Reich was proclaimed in 1933. The latter period was marked by Fascism and World War II. After 1945, Germany was divided by allied occupation, and evolved into two states, East Germany and West Germany. In 1990 Germany was reunified.
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Greece
Greecei/ˈɡriːs/ (Greek: Ελλάδα, Ellada, IPA: [eˈlaða] ( listen) historically in Katharevousa and Ancient Greek: Ἑλλάς, Hellas, IPA: [eˈlas] and [helːás] respectively), officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία, Elliniki Dimokratia, IPA: [eliniˈci ðimokraˈtia]), is a country in Southern Europe, politically considered part of Western Europe.Athens is the capital and the largest city in the country (its urban area also including Piraeus). The population of the country is around 11 million.
Greece has land borders with Albania, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of mainland Greece, the Ionian Sea to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km (8,498 mi) in length, featuring a vast number of islands (approximately 1,400, of which 227 are inhabited), including Crete, the Dodecanese, the Cyclades, and the Ionian Islands among others. Eighty percent of Greece consists of mountains, of which Mount Olympus is the highest at 2,917 m (9,570 ft).
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Hungary
Hungaryi/ˈhʌŋɡəri/ (Hungarian: Magyarország [ˈmɒɟɒrorsaːɡ] ( listen)) is a country, which is located in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The country's capital, and largest city, is Budapest. Hungary is a member of the European Union, NATO, the OECD, the Visegrád Group, and is a Schengen state. The official language is Hungarian, also known as Magyar, which is part of the Finno-Ugric group and is the most widely spoken non-Indo-European language in Europe.
Following a Celt (after c. 450 BC) and a Roman (AD 9 - c. 430) period, the foundation of Hungary was laid in the late 9th century by the Hungarian prince Árpád, whose great-grandson Saint Stephen I was crowned with a crown sent by the pope from Rome in 1000 AD. The Kingdom of Hungary lasted for 946 years, and at various points was regarded as one of the cultural centres of the Western world. After about 150 years of partial Ottoman occupation (1541–1699), Hungary was integrated into the Habsburg Monarchy, and later constituted half of the Austro-Hungarian dual monarchy (1867–1918).
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India
India (i/ˈɪndiə/), officially the Republic of India (Bhārat Gaṇarājya), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the south-west, and the Bay of Bengal on the south-east, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west;China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Burma and Bangladesh to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; in addition, India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia.
Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history. Four of the world's major religions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism—originated here, whereas Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived in the 1st millennium CE and also helped shape the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by and brought under the administration of the British East India Company from the early 18th century and administered directly by the United Kingdom from the mid-19th century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by non-violent resistance led by Mahatma Gandhi.
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Indonesia
Indonesia (i/ˌɪndəˈniːʒə/ IN-də-NEE-zhə or /ˌɪndoʊˈniːziə/ IN-doh-NEE-zee-ə), officially the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia Indonesian pronunciation: [rɛpʊblɪk ɪndɔnɛsɪa]), is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 17,508 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected legislature and president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore, Philippines, Australia, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indonesia is a founding member of ASEAN and a member of the G-20 major economies. The Indonesian economy is the world's 17th largest economy by nominal GDP.
The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, and Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Muslim traders brought Islam, and European powers brought Christianity and fought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic change.
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Iran
Coordinates: 32°N 53°E / 32°N 53°E / 32; 53
Iran (i/ɪˈrɑːn/ or /aɪˈræn/;Persian: ایران [ʔiˈɾɒn] ( listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ایران Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān), is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran", which in Persian means "Land of the Aryans", has been in use natively since the Sassanian era. It came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia ( /ˈpɜrʒə/ or /ˈpɜrʃə/). Both "Persia" and "Iran" are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, "Iran" is the name used officially in political contexts.
The 18th-largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi), Iran has a population of around 79 million. It is a country of particular geopolitical significance owing to its location in the Middle East and central Eurasia. Iran is bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan. As Iran is a littoral state of the Caspian Sea, which is an inland sea, Kazakhstan and Russia are also Iran's direct neighbors to the north. Iran is bordered on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by Iraq and on the northwest by Turkey. Tehran is the capital, the country's largest city and the political, cultural, commercial and industrial center of the nation. Iran is a regional power, and holds an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Iran has the second largest proven natural gas reserves in the world and the fourth largest proven petroleum reserves.
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Israel
Coordinates: 31°N 35°E / 31°N 35°E / 31; 35
Israel, officially the State of Israel ( /ˈɪzriːəl/ or /ˈɪzreɪəl/; Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, Medīnat Yisrā'el, IPA: [me̞diˈnät jisʁäˈʔe̞l] ( listen); Arabic: دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل, Dawlat Isrāʼīl, IPA: [dawlat ʔisraːˈʔiːl]), is a parliamentary republic in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank in the east, Egypt and the Gaza Strip on the southwest, and the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea to the south, and it contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area. Israel is defined as a Jewish and Democratic State in its Basic Laws and is the world's only Jewish-majority state.
Following the adoption of a resolution by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 29 November 1947 recommending the adoption and implementation of the United Nations plan to partition Palestine, on 14 May 1948 David Ben-Gurion, the Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization and president of the Jewish Agency for Palestine, declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel, a state independent from the British Mandate for Palestine. Neighboring Arab states invaded the next day in support of the Palestinian Arabs. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied the West Bank, Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights. Portions of these territories, including east Jerusalem, have been annexed by Israel, but the border with the neighboring West Bank has not yet been permanently defined.[neutrality is disputed] Israel has signed peace treaties with Egypt and Jordan, but efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have so far not resulted in peace.
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ISRO Orbital Vehicle
The Indian manned spacecraft temporarily named Orbital Vehicle is intended to be the basis of the indigenous Indian human spaceflight program. The capsule will be designed to carry three people, and a planned upgraded version will be equipped with rendezvous and docking capability. In its maiden manned mission, ISRO's largely autonomous 3-ton capsule will orbit the Earth at 248 miles (400 km) altitude for up to seven days with a two-person crew on board. The crew vehicle would launch on ISRO's GSLV Mk II, currently under development. The GSLV Mk II features a cryogenic upper-stage engine. However, as of April 2012 the future of the project is in doubt due to funding problems and numerous technical challenges faced.
The development of the Orbital Vehicle began in 2006. The plan was to design a simple vessel similar to the Mercury-class spacecraft with an endurance of about a week in space. It was designed to carry two astronauts and to land in water upon re-entry. The design was finalized by March 2008, and was submitted to the Government of India for funding. The funding for the Indian Human Spaceflight program was sanctioned in February 2009. Initially, the first unmanned flight of the Orbital Vehicle was expected to be in 2013.
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Italy
Italyi/ˈɪtəli/ (Italian: Italia [iˈtaːlja]), officially the Italian Republic or the Republic of Italy (Italian: Repubblica italiana), is a unitary parliamentary republic in south-central Europe. To the north, it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia along the Alps. To the south, it consists of the entirety of the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia–the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea–and many other smaller islands. The independent states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italy, while Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland. The territory of Italy covers some 301,338 km2 (116,347 sq mi) and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. With 60.6 million inhabitants, it is the fifth most populous country in Europe, and the 23rd most populous in the world.
Rome, the capital of Italy, was for centuries a political and religious centre of Western civilisation as the capital of the Roman Empire and site of the Holy See. After the decline of the Roman Empire, Italy endured numerous invasions by foreign peoples, from Germanic tribes such as the Lombards and Ostrogoths, to the Byzantines and later, the Normans, among others. Centuries later, Italy became the birthplace of Maritime republics and the Renaissance, an immensely fruitful intellectual movement that would prove to be integral in shaping the subsequent course of European thought.
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Japan
Japani/dʒəˈpæn/ (Japanese: 日本 Nihon or Nippon; formally 日本国 Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku, literally the State of Japan) is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south. The characters that make up Japan's name mean "sun-origin", which is why Japan is sometimes referred to as the "Land of the Rising Sun".
Japan is an archipelago of 6,852 islands. The four largest islands are Honshū, Hokkaidō, Kyūshū and Shikoku, together accounting for ninety-seven percent of Japan's land area. Japan has the world's tenth-largest population, with over 127 million people. The Greater Tokyo Area, which includes the de facto capital city of Tokyo and several surrounding prefectures, is the largest metropolitan area in the world, with over 30 million residents.
Archaeological research indicates that people lived in Japan as early as the Upper Paleolithic period. The first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other nations followed by long periods of isolation has characterized Japan's history. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, victory in the First Sino-Japanese War, the Russo-Japanese War and World War I allowed Japan to expand its empire during a period of increasing militarism. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Since adopting its revised constitution in 1947, Japan has maintained a unitary constitutional monarchy with an emperor and an elected parliament called the Diet.
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Kapustin Yar
Kapustin Yar (Russian: Капустин Яр) is a Russian rocket launch and development site in Astrakhan Oblast, between Volgograd and Astrakhan. Known today as Znamensk (Russian: Знаменск), it was established 13 May 1946 and in the beginning used technology, material, and scientific support from defeated Germany. Numerous launches of test rockets for the Russian military were carried out at the site, as well as satellite and sounding rocket launches.
The 4th Missile Test Range "Kapustin Yar" was established by a decree of the Soviet Government "On Questions of Jet Propelled Weapons" on 13 May 1946. The test range was created under the supervision of General-lieutenant Vasily Voznyuk (commander in chief of the test range 1946-1973) in the desert north end of the Astrakhan region. The first rocket was launched from the site on 18 October 1947; it was one of eleven German A-4s that had been captured.
The State R&D Test Range No 8 (GNIIP-8, "test range S") was established at Kapustin Yar in June 1951.
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Karnataka
Karnataka /kɑrˈnɑːtəkə/ is a state in South West India. It was created on 1 November 1956, with the passing of the States Reorganisation Act and this day is annually celebrated as Karnataka Rajyotsava (Formation Day). Originally known as the State of Mysore /maɪˈsɔər/, it was renamed Karnataka in 1973. It is the land of the Kannadigas, Tuluvas, Konkanis and Kodavas. The capital and largest city is Bangalore.
Karnataka is bordered by the Arabian Sea to the west, Goa to the northwest, Maharashtra to the north, Andhra Pradesh to the east, Tamil Nadu to the southeast, and Kerala to the southwest. The state covers an area of 191,976 square kilometres (74,122 sq mi), or 5.83% of the total geographical area of India. It is the eighth largest Indian state by area. With over 61 million inhabitants (2011), Karnataka is the ninth largest state by population, comprising 30 districts. Kannada is the most widely spoken and official language of the state.
The two main river systems of the state are Krishna and its tributaries (Bhima, Ghataprabha, Vedavati, Malaprabha, and Tungabhadra) in the north, and the Cauvery and its tributaries (Hemavati, Shimsha, Arkavathi, Lakshmana Thirtha and Kabini) in the south. Both these rivers flow eastward and fall into the Bay of Bengal.
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Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan (i/ˌkɑːzəkˈstɑːn/ or /ˌkæzəkˈstæn/) (Kazakh: Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, pronounced [qɑzɑqstɑ́n]; Russian: Казахстан [kəzɐxˈstan]), officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country in Central Asia and Europe. The ninth largest country in the world by land area, it is also the world's largest landlocked country; its territory of 2,727,300 square kilometres (1,053,000 sq mi) is larger than Western Europe. It is neighbored clockwise from the north by Russia, China, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and also borders on a significant part of the Caspian Sea. Although Kazakhstan does not share a border with Mongolia, its most easterly point is only 38 kilometres (24 mi) from Mongolia's western tip. The terrain of Kazakhstan ranges from flatlands, steppes, taigas, rock-canyons, hills, deltas, and snow-capped mountains to deserts. With 16.6 million people (2011 estimate) Kazakhstan has the 62nd largest population in the world, though its population density is less than 6 people per square kilometre (15 per sq. mi.). The capital was moved in 1998 from Almaty, Kazakhstan's largest city, to Astana.
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Lithuania
Lithuania (i/ˌlɪθuːˈeɪniə/ or /ˌlɪθjuːˈeɪniə/; Lithuanian: Lietuva), officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lithuanian: Lietuvos Respublika) is a country in Northern Europe, the largest of the three Baltic states. It is situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, whereby to the west lie Sweden and Denmark. It borders Latvia to the north, Belarus to the east and south, Poland to the south, and a Russian exclave (Kaliningrad Oblast) to the southwest. Lithuania has an estimated population of 3.2 million as of 2011, and its capital and largest city is Vilnius. The Lithuanians are a Baltic people, and the official language, Lithuanian, is one of only two living languages (together with Latvian) in the Baltic branch of the Indo-European language family.
For centuries, the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea was inhabited by various Baltic tribes. In the 1230s the Lithuanian lands were united by Mindaugas, who was crowned as King of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the first Lithuanian state, on 6 July 1253. During the 14th century, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was the largest country in Europe: present-day Belarus, Ukraine, and parts of Poland and Russia were territories of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. With the Lublin Union of 1569, Lithuania and Poland formed a voluntary two-state union, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Commonwealth lasted more than two centuries, until neighboring countries systematically dismantled it from 1772 to 1795, with the Russian Empire annexing most of Lithuania's territory.
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Luxembourg
Luxembourg (i/ˈlʌksəmbɜrɡ/ LUKS-əm-burg), officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (Luxembourgish: Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg, French: Grand-Duché de Luxembourg, German: Großherzogtum Luxemburg, Dutch: Groothertogdom Luxemburg), is a landlocked country in western Europe, bordered by Belgium, France, and Germany. It has two principal regions: the Oesling in the North as part of the Ardennes massif, and the Gutland ("good country") in the south. Luxembourg has a population of over half a million people in an area of approximately 2,586 square kilometres (998 sq mi). A representative democracy with a constitutional monarch, it is ruled by a grand duke. It is now the world's only remaining sovereign grand duchy. The country has a highly developed economy, with the world's highest GDP (nominal) per capita according to the IMF. Its historic and strategic importance dates back to its founding as a Roman era fortress site and Frankish count's castle site in the Early Middle Ages. It was an important bastion along the Spanish Road when Spain was the principal European power influencing the whole western hemisphere and beyond in the 16th–17th centuries.
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Luxinnovation
Coordinates: 49°37′25.51″N 6°8′53.21″E / 49.6237528°N 6.1481139°E / 49.6237528; 6.1481139
Luxinnovation is the National Agency for Innovation and Research of Luxembourg. It offers a wide variety of services to Luxembourg-based bodies from both the private and the public sector (large companies, small and medium enterprises, educational foundations, research centres, scientific & technological institutes etc.) as well as individuals (scientists, researchers, entrepreneurs, students). (See Activities, services & programmes below)
In addition, Luxinnovation is the national agency that manages Luxembourg's space programme (in collaboration with the Ministry of Culture, Higher Education and Research). (See Luxinnovation and ESA below)
Luxinnovation was founded in 1984. It became an Economic Interest Grouping (EIG) in 1998, comprising 6 private and public-sector partners in Luxembourg:
The people employed in Luxinnovation are known as the "Luxinnovation Team". Luxinnovation's administrative body consists of the four top executive officers (Managing Director, Secretary General and Senior Executive Advisors) and is called the "Secretariat". The current members of the Luxinnovation Team are:
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Mahbubnagar district
Mahabubnagar or Mahboobnagar (Telugu: మహబూబ్ నగర్ జిల్లా, formerly known as Nagar Kurnul and Palamooru (Telugu: పాలమూరు) is a district in the Andhra Pradesh state of India in the Telangana region. It is named after its largest city and district headquarters, Mahabubnagar.
It is the second largest district in the state by area, located 100 kilometres (62 mi) from the state capital of Hyderabad.
The largest towns in the district are Mahabubnagar, Narayanpet, Atmakur, Achampet, Gadwal, Wanaparthy, Jadcherla, Kalwakurthy, Shadnagar, Kodangal, Amarchintha, Makhtal, Alampur, Kollapur and Nagarkurnool.
Mahbubnagar was formerly known as "Rukmammapeta", "Palamooru", or "Cholawadi" (the land of the Cholas). The name was changed to Mahabubnagar on 4 December 1890, in honour of Mir Mahbub Ali Khan Asaf Jah VI, the Nizam of Hyderabad (1869–1911 AD).
The area that includes Mahbubnagar district has held significance in various periods throughout history. The Telangana region was at the core of the Satavahana dynasty from 221 BC to 218 AD, and then the Andhra Pradesh state was a large part of the Chalukya dynasty from the 5th to the 11th century AD. The state was later part of the Kingdom of Golkonda (c. 1364 – 1512 AD), with its capital city Golkonda located near Hyderabad.
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Malaysia
Malaysia (i/məˈleɪʒə/ mə-LAY-zhə or i/məˈleɪsiə/ mə-LAY-see-ə) is a federal constitutional monarchy in Southeast Asia. It consists of thirteen states and three federal territories and has a total landmass of 329,847 square kilometres (127,350 sq mi) separated by the South China Sea into two similarly sized regions, Peninsular Malaysia and Malaysian Borneo. Land borders are shared with Thailand, Indonesia, and Brunei, and maritime borders exist with Singapore, Vietnam, and the Philippines. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government. In 2010 the population exceeded 27.5 million, with over 20 million living on the Peninsula.
Malaysia has its origins in the Malay Kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, became subject to the British Empire. The first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946. Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. Malaya united with Sabah, Sarawak, and Singapore on 16 September 1963, with si being added to give the new country the name Malaysia. However, less than two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation. Since independence, Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with GDP growing an average 6.5% for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its natural resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce and medical tourism.
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Mauritius
Coordinates: 20°12′S 57°30′E / 20.2°S 57.5°E / -20.2; 57.5
Mauritiusi/məˈrɪʃəs/ (Mauritian Creole: Moris; French: Maurice, pronounced: [mɔˈʁis]), officially the Republic of Mauritius (Mauritian Creole: Republik Moris; French: République de Maurice) is an island nation off the southeast coast of the African continent in the southwest Indian Ocean, about 870 kilometres (540 mi) east of Madagascar. In addition to the island of Mauritius, the Republic includes the islands of Cargados Carajos, Rodrigues, Tromelin and the Agalega Islands. Mauritius Island is part of the Mascarene Islands, with the French island of Réunion 170 km (110 mi) to the southwest and the island of Rodrigues 570 km (350 mi) to the east. The area of Mauritius is 2040 km2; its capital city is Port Louis.
The United Kingdom took control of the islands in 1810, from France during the Napoleonic Wars, and Mauritius became independent from the UK in 1968. It is a parliamentary republic and is a member of the Southern African Development Community, the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, the African Union, La Francophonie and the Commonwealth of Nations.
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Mexico
Mexico (i/ˈmɛksɨkoʊ/; Spanish: México, IPA: [ˈmexiko] ( listen)), officially the United Mexican States (Spanish: Estados Unidos Mexicanos (help·info)), is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States of America; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometres (over 760,000 sq mi), Mexico is the fifth largest country in the Americas by total area and the thirteenth largest independent nation in the world. With an estimated population of over 113 million, it is the eleventh most populous country and the most populous Spanish-speaking country. Mexico is a federation comprising thirty-one states and a Federal District, the capital city.
In Pre-Columbian Mexico many cultures matured into advanced civilizations such as the Olmec, the Toltec, the Teotihuacan, the Zapotec, the Maya and the Aztec before the first contact with Europeans. In 1521, Spain conquered and colonized the territory from its base in México-Tenochtitlan, which was administered as the Viceroyalty of New Spain. This territory would eventually become Mexico as the colony's independence was recognized in 1821. The post-independence period was characterized by economic instability, the Mexican-American War and territorial cession to the United States, a civil war, two empires and a domestic dictatorship. The latter led to the Mexican Revolution in 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the country's current political system. Elections held in July 2000 marked the first time that an opposition party won the presidency from the Institutional Revolutionary Party.
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Mongolia
Mongoliai/mɒŋˈɡoʊliə/ (Mongolian: Монгол улс (help·info), literally Mongol country/state) is a landlocked country in East and Central Asia. It is bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south, east and west. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its western-most point is only 38 kilometres (24 mi) from Kazakhstan's eastern tip. Ulan Bator, the capital and largest city, is home to about 45% of the population. Mongolia's political system is a parliamentary republic.
The area of what is now Mongolia has been ruled by various nomadic empires, including the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Rouran, the Gökturks and others. The Mongol Empire was founded by Genghis Khan in 1206. After the collapse of the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongols returned to their earlier pattern of constant internal conflict and occasional raids on the Chinese borderlands. In the 16th and 17th centuries, Mongolia came under the influence of Tibetan Buddhism. At the end of the 17th century, all of Mongolia had been incorporated into the area ruled by the Qing Dynasty. During the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1911, Mongolia declared independence, but had to struggle until 1921 to firmly establish de facto independence from the Republic of China, and until 1945 to gain international recognition.
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Morocco
Morocco (Arabic: المغرب al-Maghrib ; Berber: ⵍⵎⴻⵖⵔⵉⴱ / ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵔⵓⴽElmeɣrib / Amerruk), officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of about 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², including the disputed region of the Western Sahara, seen by and mostly administered by Morocco as the Southern Provinces. Morocco is part of the Maghreb region, in addition to Tunisia, Algeria, Mauritania, and Libya, with which it shares cultural, historical and linguistic ties.
Morocco is a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The King of Morocco holds vast executive powers, including the power to dissolve the parliament. Executive power is exercised by the government but more importantly by the king himself. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament, the Assembly of Representatives and the Assembly of Councillors. The king can also issue decrees called dahirs which have the force of law. The latest Parliamentary elections were held in November 25, 2011, and were considered by some neutral observers to be mostly free and fair. Voter turnout in these elections was estimated to be 43% of registered voters, but only about 25% of Moroccan adult citizens actually voted. The rest either chose not to vote or they were not registered as voters. The political capital is Rabat, but the largest city is Casablanca; other main cities include Marrakesh, Tetouan, Tangier, Salé, Fes, Agadir, Meknes, Oujda, Kenitra, and Nador.
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Nagercoil
Nagercoil (Tamil: நாகர்கோவில்) (Malayalam: നാഗർകോവിൽ) (aka: Nagerkoil) [3] is the 12th largest town in the southernmost Indian state of Tamil Nadu and a municipality and administrative headquarters of Kanyakumari District. The town is situated close to the tip of the Indian peninsula and is the southernmost town on the Indian mainland.
The town was a part of the erstwhile Travancore state, or later Travancore-Cochin state, till almost a decade after the Indian independence in 1947. In 1956, the city and the District were merged with Tamil Nadu. In its earlier days, the town and its surroundings were known as Nanjilnadu.
Nagercoil derives its name from the famous old Nagaraja Temple (temple of the serpent king) [4] which is in the central part of town. It has been an important temple for Hindus for centuries as well as a tourist attraction. According to certain accounts, it may once have been a Jain temple, as icons of the Jain Tirthankaras — Mahavira and Parsvanatha — are found on the pillars of the temple.[citation needed]
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NASA
Coordinates: 38°52′59″N 77°0′59″W / 38.88306°N 77.01639°W / 38.88306; -77.01639
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is the agency of the United States government that is responsible for the nation's civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace research. Since February 2006, NASA's mission statement has been to "pioneer the future in space exploration, scientific discovery and aeronautics research." On September 14, 2011, NASA announced that it had selected the design of a new Space Launch System that it said would take the agency's astronauts farther into space than ever before and provide the cornerstone for future human space exploration efforts by the U.S.
NASA was established by the National Aeronautics and Space Act on July 29, 1958, replacing its predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The agency became operational on October 1, 1958. U.S. space exploration efforts have since been led by NASA, including the Apollo moon-landing missions, the Skylab space station, and later the Space Shuttle. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle and Commercial Crew vehicles. The agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program (LSP) which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches.
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Netherlands
The Netherlands (i/ˈnɛðərləndz/; Dutch: Nederland [ˈneːdə(r)lɑnt] or [ˈneɪ̯də(r)lɑnt] (
listen); West Frisian: Nederlân; Papiamento: Hulanda) is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with some islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders with Belgium, Germany and the United Kingdom. It is a parliamentary democracy organised as a unitary state. The country capital is Amsterdam and the seat of government is The Hague. The Netherlands in its entirety is often referred to as Holland, although North and South Holland are actually only two of its twelve provinces (a case of pars pro toto; see terminology of "the Netherlands").
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New Delhi
New Delhii/ˈnjuː dɛli/ is the capital city of India. As the national capital, New Delhi is the seat of executive, legislative, and judiciary branches of the Government of India. It also serves as the centre of the Government of the National Capital Territory of Delhi. New Delhi is situated within the metropolis of Delhi and is one of the nine districts of Delhi Union Territory.
The definition of New Delhi is unclear and the differentiation between Delhi and New Delhi is blurry. Even administratively, the demarcation between Delhi and New Delhi is not clear. Government of India and Government of Delhi have not clearly defined the area and boundaries of New Delhi. The boundaries of areas of New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC) and New Delhi district of Delhi do not completely overlap. In 1920s, when British constructed New Delhi, there were only two Delhis' – the old walled city called Old Delhi and the new city designed by Edwin Lutyens to serve as capital of British India, which was called 'New Delhi'. The rest of Delhi was rural. But after independence as more and more areas around New Delhi urbanized they also became a part of New Delhi as they were also a part of Delhi which was 'new'. Now, almost all of National Capital Territory of Delhi, with exceptions of the old city called Old Delhi, Civil Lines area, Trans-Yamuna region, some rural areas and some underdeveloped parts of Delhi (e.g. Ashok Vihar, Timarpur, Nangloi, Sultanpuri, Mangolpuri, Badarpur etc.), is designated as 'New Delhi' in postal addresses. Especially, almost all the places in South, South-west, Central and West districts of Delhi are designated as New Delhi. Most of the time, the terms Delhi and New Delhi are used interchangeably.
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Nigeria
Nigeriai/naɪˈdʒɪəriə/, officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal constitutional republic comprising 36 states and its Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. The country is located in West Africa and shares land borders with the Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in the north. Its coast in the south lies on the Gulf of Guinea on the Atlantic Ocean. The three largest and most influential ethnic groups in Nigeria are the Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba.
In terms of religion Nigeria is roughly split half and half between Muslims in the North and Christians in the South; a very small minority practice traditional religion. Since 2002 there have been a spate of clashes, particularly in the North of the country, between government forces and the Islamists Boko Haram, militant jihadists who seek to establish sharia law.
The people of Nigeria have an extensive history. Archaeological evidence shows that human habitation of the area dates back to at least 9000 BCE. The area around the Benue and Cross River is thought to be the original homeland of the Bantu migrants who spread across most of central and southern Africa in waves between the 1st millennium BC and the 2nd millennium.
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North Korea
Coordinates: 40°00′N 127°00′E / 40°N 127°E / 40; 127 The Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK; Chosŏn'gŭl: 조선민주주의인민공화국), commonly referred to as "North Korea" ( listen), is a country in East Asia, occupying the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. Its capital and largest city is Pyongyang. The Korean Demilitarized Zone serves as the buffer zone between North Korea and South Korea. The Amnok, or Yalu, and the Tumen rivers form the border between North Korea and China. A section of the Tumen River in the far northeast is the border with Russia.
The peninsula was governed by the Korean Empire until it was annexed by Japan after the Russo-Japanese War in 1910. It was divided into Soviet- and American-occupied zones in 1945, after the end of World War II. North Korea refused to participate in a United Nations–supervised election held in the south in 1948, which led to the creation of separate Korean governments for the two occupation zones. North and South Korea each claimed sovereignty over the whole Korean Peninsula, which led to the Korean War of 1950. The Armistice Agreement of 1953 ended the fighting; but the two countries are officially still at war against each other, for a peace treaty was never signed. Both states were accepted into the United Nations in 1991.
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Norway
Norwayi/ˈnɔrweɪ/ (Norwegian: Norge (Bokmål) or Noreg (Nynorsk)), officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and the subantarctic Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres (148,747 sq mi) and a population of about 5 million. It is the second least densely populated country in Europe. The majority of the country shares a border to the east with Sweden; its northernmost region is bordered by Finland to the south and Russia to the east; in its south Norway borders the Skagerrak Strait across from Denmark. The capital city of Norway is Oslo. Norway's extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea, is home to its famous fjords.
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Orissa
Orissa /ɔːˈrɪsə/ (Oriya: ଓଡ଼ିଶା [oˑɽisaˑ], Hindi: ओड़िशा – Oṛiśā), officially spelled Odisha, is a state of India, located on the east coast of India, by the Bay of Bengal. It is the modern name of the ancient nation of Kalinga, which was invaded by the Maurya Emperor Ashoka in 261 BCE. The modern state of Orissa was established on April 1, 1936, as a province in India, and consists predominantly of Oriya speakers. April 1st is therefore celebrated as Utkala Dibasa (formation day of Orissa). Cuttack remained the capital of the state for over eight centuries until April 13, 1948 when Bhubaneswar was officially declared as the new capital of Orissa, and is the present capital of this state.
Orissa is the ninth largest state by area in India, and the eleventh largest by population. Oriya (officially spelled Odia) is the official and most widely spoken language, spoken by three quarters of the population. Orissa has a relatively unindented coastline (about 480 km long) and lacked good ports, except for the deepwater facility at Paradip, until the recent launch of the Dhamara Port (The Dhamra Port Company Limited (DPCL) is a 50:50 joint venture of L&T and Tata Steel. DPCL has been awarded a concession by Government of Orissa to build and operate a port north of the mouth of river Dhamra in Bhadrak district). The narrow, level coastal strip, including the Mahanadi River delta supports the bulk of the population. The interior of the state is mountainous and sparsely populated.Deomali at 1672 m is the highest point of the state. Orissa is subject to intense cyclones. The most intense one, in October 1999, Tropical Cyclone 05B caused severe damage and nearly 15,000 deaths.
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Pakistan
Pakistan (i/ˈpækɨstæn/ or i/pɑːkiˈstɑːn/; Urdu: پاکستان) (Urdu pronunciation: [paːkɪˈst̪aːn] ( listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (Urdu: اسلامی جمہوریۂ پاکستان), is a sovereign country in South Asia. It sits at the crossroads of the strategically important regions of South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East. It has a 1,046-kilometre (650 mi) coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by India to the east, Afghanistan to the west and north, Iran to the southwest and China in the far northeast. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistan's narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, and it shares a marine border with Oman.
The territory of modern Pakistan was the site of several ancient cultures, including the Neolithic Mehrgarh and the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation, and has undergone invasions or settlements by Hindu, Persian, Indo-Greek, Islamic, Turco-Mongol, Afghan and Sikh cultures. Thus the area has been ruled by numerous empires and dynasties, including the Indian Mauryan Empire, the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the Arab Umayyad Caliphate, the Mongol Empire, the Mughal Empire, the Durrani Empire, the Sikh Empire and the British Empire. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and India's struggle for independence, Pakistan was created in 1947 as an independent nation for Muslims from the regions in the east and west of India where there was a Muslim majority. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a new constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic. A civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh.
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Peru
Perui/pəˈruː/ (Spanish: Perú; Quechua: Perú;Aymara: Piruw), officially the Republic of Peru (Spanish: República del Perú, pronounced: [reˈpuβlika ðel peˈɾu] ( listen)), is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean.
Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures, spanning from the Norte Chico civilization, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty, which included most of its South American colonies. After achieving independence in 1821, Peru has undergone periods of political unrest and fiscal crisis as well as periods of stability and economic upswing.
Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. Its geography varies from the arid plains of the Pacific coast to the peaks of the Andes Mountains and the tropical forests of the Amazon Basin. It is a developing country with a high Human Development Index score and a poverty level around 31%. Its main economic activities include agriculture, fishing, mining, and manufacturing of products such as textiles.
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Philippines
The Philippinesi/ˈfɪlɨpiːnz/ FI-lə-peenz (Filipino: Pilipinas [ˌpɪlɪˈpinɐs]), officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (Filipino: Republika ng Pilipinas) is a sovereign country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam. The Sulu Sea to the southwest lies between the country and the island of Borneo, and to the south the Celebes Sea separates it from other islands of Indonesia. It is bounded on the east by the Philippine Sea. Its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire and its tropical climate make the Philippines prone to earthquakes and typhoons but have also endowed the country with natural resources and made it one of the richest areas of biodiversity in the world. An archipelago comprising 7,107 islands, the Philippines is categorized broadly into three main geographical divisions: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Its capital city is Manila.
With an estimated population of about 98 million people, the Philippines is the 7th most populated Asian country and the 12th most populated country in the world. An additional 12.5 million Filipinos live overseas. Multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelago's earliest inhabitants. They were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples who brought with them influences from Malay, Hindu, and Islamic societies. Trade introduced Chinese cultural influences which remain to this day.
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Poland
Polandi/ˈpoʊlənd/ (Polish: Polska), officially the Republic of Poland (Polish: Rzeczpospolita Polska; Kashubian: Pòlskô Repùblika; Silesian: Polsko Republika), is a country in Central Europe, bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north. The total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres (120,726 sq mi), making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. Poland has a population of over 38 million people, which makes it the 34th most populous country in the world and the sixth most populous member of the European Union, being its most populous post-communist member. Poland is a unitary state made up of 16 voivodeships. Poland is a member of the European Union, NATO, the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), European Economic Area, International Energy Agency, Council of Europe, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, International Atomic Energy Agency, G6, Council of the Baltic Sea States, Visegrád Group, Weimar Triangle and Schengen Agreement.
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Port Louis
Port Louis (French pronunciation: [pɔʁlwi]) is the capital of Mauritius. It is the largest city of the country and main port, which borders the Indian Ocean. It is located in the Port Louis District. The population of the administrative district was estimated at 128,483, and the urban area at 148,416 in December 2010[update].
Port Louis was already in use as a harbor in 1638. In 1735, under French government, it became the administrative center of Mauritius and a major reprovisioning halt for French ships travelling around the Cape of Good Hope. The Port is named in honour of King Louis XV. The first Governor was Count Bertrand-François Mahé de La Bourdonnais.
The population of the city is now largely made up of the descendants of laborers who were hired for labour from India in the 19th century. Slaves were previously introduced by the British and French who colonized the island in the 18th century. After the abolition of slavery in 1835, many Indian and Chinese workers were brought to work the land, and cultivate sugar cane, at that time used to produce rum. The Immigration Depot in Port Louis is a World Heritage Site commemorating this great migration.
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Portugal
Portugali/ˈpɔrtʃʉɡəl/ (Portuguese: Portugal, IPA: [puɾtuˈɣaɫ]), officially the Portuguese Republic (Portuguese: República Portuguesa) is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula . Portugal is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are part of Portugal. The country is named after its second largest city, Porto, whose Latin name was Portus Cale.
The land within the borders of the current Portuguese Republic has been continuously settled since prehistoric times: occupied by Celts like the Gallaeci and the Lusitanians, integrated into the Roman Republic and later settled by Germanic peoples such as the Suebi, Swabians, Vandals and the Visigoths. In the 8th century most of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Moorish invaders professing Islam, which were later expelled by the Knights Templar under the Order of Christ. During the Christian Reconquista, Portugal established itself as an independent kingdom from León in 1139, claiming to be the oldest European nation state.
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Republic of Ireland
Ireland (/ˈaɪərlənd/ or /ˈɑrlənd/; Irish: Éire, pronounced [ˈeːɾʲə] ( listen)) is a sovereign state in Europe occupying about five-sixths of the island of Ireland. Its capital is Dublin. The population of the state was 4.59 million in 2011. It is a constitutional republic governed as a parliamentary democracy, with an elected president serving as head of state. In the 1937 constitution, the name of the state is given as simply "Ireland". The Constitution of Ireland (Article 4) and the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 provides that the "Republic of Ireland" (Irish: Poblacht na hÉireann) is "the description of the state".
Ireland is a member of the European Union, the Council of Europe, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organisation and the United Nations. A developed country with the seventh highest Human Development Index, Ireland is also highly ranked for press freedom, economic freedom and democracy and political freedom.
The modern Irish state was established in 1922 as the Irish Free State, a dominion within the British Empire, following the Anglo-Irish Treaty which brought an end to the Irish War of Independence. The partition of Ireland had already been provided for in previous British legislation in 1921 in response to opposition to Irish Home Rule or independence by Unionists, who formed a majority in the north-eastern part of the country. Six of the nine counties in the northern province of Ulster were established under that legislation as Northern Ireland, part of the United Kingdom, with which the Irish state shares its only land border. The state is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the Celtic Sea to the south, St George's Channel to the south east, and the Irish Sea to the east.
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Romania
Romania (i/roʊˈmeɪniə/ roh-MAY-nee-ə; dated: Roumania; or Rumania;Romanian: România [romɨˈni.a] ( listen)) is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea. Romania shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and Moldova to the northeast and east, and Bulgaria to the south.
At 238,400 square kilometers (92,000 sq mi), Romania is the ninth largest country of the European Union by area, and has the seventh largest population of the European Union with over 19 million people. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest, the tenth largest city in the EU with about two million people.
The Kingdom of Romania emerged when the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were united under Prince Alexander Ioan Cuza in 1859. Independence from the Ottoman Empire was declared on 9 May 1877, and was internationally recognized the following year. At the end of World War I, Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia united with the Kingdom of Romania. Greater Romania emerged into an era of progression and prosperity that would continue until World War II. By the end of the War, many north-eastern areas of Romania's territories were occupied by the Soviet Union, and Romania forcibly became a socialist republic and a member of the Warsaw Pact.
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Russia
Russiai/ˈrʌʃə/ or /ˈrʊʃə/ (Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijə] ( listen)), also officially known as the Russian Federation (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə] ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, and the US state of Alaska by the Bering Strait. At 17,075,400 square kilometres (6,592,800 sq mi), Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than one eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area. Russia is also the eighth most populous nation with 143 million people. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning nine time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources and is the largest producer of oil and natural gas globally. Russia has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.
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SARAL
SARAL or Satellite with ARgos and ALtiKa is a cooperative altimetry technology mission of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and CNES (Space Agency of France). The ISRO built satellite with payloads modules (AltiKa altimeter, DORIS, Laser Retroreflector Array (LRA) and ARGOS-3 (Advanced Research and Global Observation Satellite) data collection system provided CNES will be launched by Indian Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle rocket into the Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO). ISRO will be responsible for the platform, launch, and operations of the spacecraft. A CNES/ISRO MOU (Memorandum of Understanding) on the SARAL mission was signed on Feb. 23, 2007.
The SARAL satellite, carrying AltiKa and an Argos-3 instrument2, is scheduled to be launched in early 2011.
The SARAL mission is complementary to the Jason-2 mission of NASA/NOAA and CNES/EUMETSAT. It will fill the gap between Envisat and the Sentinel 3 mission of the European GMES program. The combination of two altimetry missions in orbit has a considerable impact on the reconstruction of sea surface height (SSH), reducing the mean mapping error by a factor of 4.
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Shillong
Shillong, India (Khasi: Shillong) is the capital of Meghalaya, one of the smallest states in India and home to the Khasis. It is also the headquarters of the East Khasi Hills district and is situated at an average altitude of 4,908 feet (1,496 m) above sea level, with the highest point being Shillong Peak at 6,449 feet (1,966 m). The city had a population of 314,610 according to the 2011 census. It is said that the rolling hills around the town reminded the European settlers of Scotland. Hence, Shillong is also known as "Scotland of the East." Shillong has steadily grown in size and significance since it was made the civil station of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills in 1864 by the British. In 1874, on the formation of Assam as a Chief Commissioner's Province, it was chosen as the headquarters of the new administration because of its convenient location between the Brahmaputra and Surma valleys and more so because the climate of Shillong was much cooler than tropical India. Shillong remained the capital of undivided Assam until the creation of the new state of Meghalaya on 21 January 1972, when Shillong became the capital of Meghalaya and Assam moved its capital to Dispur in Guwahati.
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South Africa
Coordinates: 30°S 25°E / 30°S 25°E / -30; 25
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is a country located at the southern tip of Africa. It is divided into nine provinces and has 2,798 kilometres (1,739 mi) of coastline. To the north of the country lie the neighbouring territories of Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe; to the east are Mozambique and Swaziland; while Lesotho is an enclave surrounded by South African territory.
South Africa is multi-ethnic and has diverse cultures and languages. Eleven official languages are recognised in the constitution. Two of these languages are of European origin: South African English and Afrikaans, a language which originated mainly from Dutch that is spoken by the majority of white and Coloured South Africans. Though English is commonly used in public and commercial life, it is only the fifth most-spoken home language. All ethnic and language groups have political representation in the country's constitutional democracy comprising a parliamentary republic; unlike most parliamentary republics, the positions of head of state and head of government are merged in a parliament-dependent President.
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South Korea
South Korea ( listen), officially the Republic of Korea (Hangul: 대한민국; Hanja: 大韓民國; Daehan Minguk listen), is a sovereign state in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. The name "Korea" is derived from Goryeo, a dynasty which ruled in the Middle Ages (an initial "G" in Korean is pronounced like an English "K").
Its neighbors are China to the west, Japan to the east, North Korea to the north, and the Korea Strait to the south. South Korea lies in the north temperate zone with a predominantly mountainous terrain. It covers a total area of 99,392 square kilometers and has a population of almost 50 million. The capital and largest city is Seoul, with a population of 9,794,304.
Archaeological findings show that the Korean Peninsula was occupied by the Lower Paleolithic period.Korean history begins with the founding of Gojoseon in 2333 BC by the legendary Dan-gun. Following the unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea under Silla 668 AD, Korea went through the Goryeo Dynasty and Joseon Dynasty as one nation until the end of the Korean Empire in 1910, when it was annexed by Japan. After liberation and occupation by Soviet and U.S. forces at the end of World War II, the nation was divided into North and South Korea. The latter was established in 1948 as a democracy, though political turmoil and times of military rule and martial law characterized much of the period until the foundation of the Sixth Republic in 1987.
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Soviet Union
The Soviet Union (Russian: Советский Союз, tr. Sovetsky Soyuz), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR; Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik; IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲetskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪˈstʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪsˈpublʲɪk] ( listen); abbreviated СССР, SSSR), was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991.
The Soviet Union was a single-party state ruled by the Communist Party from its foundation until 1990. A union of 15 subnational Soviet republics, the Soviet state was structured under a highly centralized government and economy.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 caused the downfall of the Russian Empire. Following the Russian Revolution, there was a struggle for power between the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin, and the anti-communist White movement. In December 1922, the Bolsheviks won the civil war, and the Soviet Union was formed with the merger of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.
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Spain
Spain (i/ˈspeɪn/ SPAYN; Spanish: España, pronounced: [esˈpaɲa] ( listen)), officially the Kingdom of Spain (Spanish: Reino de España), is a sovereign state and a member of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar; to the north and north east by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the northwest and west by the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal.
Spanish territory also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean off the African coast, and two autonomous cities in North Africa, Ceuta and Melilla, that border Morocco. Furthermore, the town of Llívia is a Spanish exclave situated inside French territory. With an area of 504,030 square kilometres (194,610 sq mi), it is the second largest country in Western Europe and the European Union after France, and the fourth largest country in Europe after Russia, Ukraine and France.
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Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (i/ʃriː ˈlɑːŋkə/, /sriːˈlɑːŋkə/, or /sriːˈlæŋkə/;Sinhala: ශ්රී ලංකාව, Tamil: இலங்கை), is a country off the southern coast of the Indian subcontinent in South Asia. Known until 1972 as Ceylon ( /sɨˈlɒn/, /seɪˈlɒn/, or /siːˈlɒn/), Sri Lanka is an island surrounded by the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Mannar, the Palk Strait, and lies in the vicinity of India and the Maldives.
As a result of its location in the path of major sea routes, Sri Lanka is a strategic naval link between West Asia and South East Asia. It was an important stop on the ancient Silk Road. Sri Lanka has also been a center of the Buddhist religion and culture from ancient times, being the nation where the Buddhist teachings were first written down as well as the oldest continually Buddhist country. Sri Lanka boasts a diverse range of cultures, languages and religions. The Sinhalese people form the majority of the population; Tamils, who are concentrated in the north and east of the island, form the largest ethnic minority. Other communities include Moors, Burghers, Kaffirs, Malays and the aboriginal Vedda people.
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Sriharikota
Sriharikota (Telugu: శ్రీహరికోట} is a barrier island off the coast of the southern state of Andhra Pradesh in India. It houses India's only satellite launch centre in the Satish Dhawan Space Centre (also known as SHAR) and is used by the Indian Space Research Organisation to launch satellites using multi-stage rockets such as the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle and the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle.
Sriharikota separates the Pulicat Lake from the Bay of Bengal, and is home to the town of Pulicat. It is in Sri Amarajeevi Potti Sri Ramulu Nellore district in Andhra Pradesh. The nearest town is Sullurpeta, which has the nearest railway station. It is 80 km (50 mi) from Chennai. The nearest Business City is Sri City. It is also connected by expressways to Chennai.
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Sweden
Sweden (i/ˈswiːdən/ SWEE-dən; Swedish: Sverige [ˈsværjɛ] ( listen)), officially the Kingdom of Sweden (Swedish: Konungariket Sverige (help·info)), is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland, and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Øresund.
At 450,295 square kilometres (173,860 sq mi), Sweden is the third largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of about 9.4 million. Sweden has a low population density of 21 inhabitants per square kilometre (54 /sq mi) with the population mostly concentrated to the southern half of the country. About 85% of the population live in urban areas. Sweden's capital city is Stockholm, which is also the largest city.
Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages. In the 17th century, the country expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire. The empire grew to be one of the great powers of Europe in the 17th and early 18th century. Most of the conquered territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were lost during the 18th and 19th centuries. The eastern half of Sweden, present-day Finland, was lost to Russia in 1809. The last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Sweden by military means forced Norway into a personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, practicing "non-participation in military alliances during peacetime and neutrality during wartime". However, Sweden has been a member of the European Union since 1 January 1995 and is a member of the OECD.
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Switzerland
Switzerland (German: die Schweiz[ˈʃvaɪts]; French: Suisse [sɥis(ə)]; Italian: Svizzera [ˈzvit͡sːɛra]; Romansh: Svizra [ˈʒviːtsrɐ] or [ˈʒviːtsʁːɐ]), in its full name the Swiss Confederation (Latin: Confoederatio Helvetica, hence its abbreviation CH), is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western Europe, where it is bordered by Germany to the north, France to the west, Italy to the south, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east.
Switzerland is a landlocked country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2 (15,940 sq mi). While the Alps occupy the greater part of the territory, the Swiss population of approximately 8 million people is concentrated mostly on the Plateau, where the largest cities are to be found. Among them are the two global cities and economic centres of Zurich and Geneva.
The Swiss Confederation has a long history of armed neutrality—it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815—and did not join the United Nations until 2002. It pursues, however, an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. Switzerland is also the birthplace of the Red Cross and home to a large number of international organizations, including the second largest UN office. On the European level, it is a founding member of the European Free Trade Association and is part of the Schengen Area – although it is notably not a member of the European Union, nor the European Economic Area.
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Taiwan
Taiwan (i/ˌtaɪˈwɑːn/ TY-WAHN; Chinese: 臺灣 or 台灣; pinyin: Táiwān; see below), officially the Republic of China (ROC; Chinese: 中華民國; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Mínguó), is a state in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China now governs the island of Taiwan (formerly known as Formosa), which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, and other minor islands. Neighboring states include the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east and northeast, and the Philippines to the south. Taipei is the capital city and economic and cultural centre of the country, and New Taipei is the most populous city.
The earliest evidence of inhabitation of Taiwan dates back to the late Paleolithic era. The island of Taiwan was mainly inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before being colonized in the 17th century by the Dutch and the Spanish Empire. The first Han Chinese polity on Taiwan began when Koxinga's troops defeated Dutch forces and established the Kingdom of Tungning. The island was subsequently ruled by the Qing Dynasty after the kingdom's defeat in the Battle of Penghu in 1683, a period that lasted for over 200 years. Following Japan's victory over the Qing Dynasty in the first Sino-Japanese war, Taiwan was ceded to Japan under the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895.
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Thailand
Thailand ( /ˈtaɪlænd/ TY-land or /ˈtaɪlənd/;Thai: ประเทศไทย, RTGS: Prathet Thai), officially the Kingdom of Thailand (Thai: ราชอาณาจักรไทย, RTGS: Ratcha Anachak Thai; IPA: [râːt.tɕʰā ʔāːnāːtɕàk tʰāj] ( listen)), formerly known as Siam (Thai: สยาม; RTGS: Sayam), is a country located at the centre of the Indochina peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered to the north by Burma and Laos, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the west by the Andaman Sea and the southern extremity of Burma. Its maritime boundaries include Vietnam in the Gulf of Thailand to the southeast, and Indonesia and India in the Andaman Sea to the southwest.
The country is a constitutional monarchy, headed by King Rama IX, the ninth king of the House of Chakri, who, having reigned since 1946, is the world's longest-serving head of state and the longest-reigning monarch in Thai history. The king of Thailand is titled Head of State, Head of the Armed Forces, the Upholder of the Buddhist religion, and the Defender of all Faiths.
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Thiruvananthapuram
Thiruvananthapuram,[needs IPA]known in English as Trivandrum /trɨˈvændrəm/, is the capital of the Indian state of Kerala and the headquarters of the Thiruvananthapuram District. It is located on the west coast of India near the extreme south of the mainland. Referred to by Mahatma Gandhi as the "Evergreen city of India", the city is characterized by its undulating terrain of low coastal hills and busy commercial alleys. With more than 750,000 inhabitants in the city proper, and a population around 1.68 million when including the wider urban agglomeration, Thiruvananthapuram is the largest and most populous city in Kerala. It is an IT hub of the state with over 80% of the state's software exports.
The city houses several central and state government offices and organizations. Apart from being the political nerve centre of Kerala, it is also a major academic hub and is home to several educational institutions including the University of Kerala, and to many science and technology institutions, the most prominent being the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), Technopark, the Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), the Indian Institute of Information Technology and Management, Kerala,Indian Institute of Science, Education and Research (IISER), the Centre for Development Studies, the International Centre for Free and Open Source Software (ICFOSS), the Regional Research Laboratory, the Centre for Earth Science Studies, Rajeev Gandhi Centre for Biotechnology and the Sree Chithira Thirunal Institute for Medical Science and Technology. It is also considered as one of the 10 greenest cities in India. Thiruvananthapuram was ranked as the best city in Kerala to live in by a recent Times of India survey
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Thumba
Thumba is a suburb of Thiruvananthapuram city, capital of Kerala, India.
Thumba became well-known to the out-siders after the establishment of Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS), which was the first of that kind in India. TERLS was founded in Pallithura in 1962 in the district of Trivandrum on the southern tip of India very close to earth's magnetic equator to launch sounding rockets. Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam (who went on to become President of Indian Republic) was amongst the initial team of rocket engineers. The first sounding rocket, Nike-Apache, was launched rocket on 21 Nov 1963. The Rohini Sounding Rocket (RSR) program to develop indigenously developed and fabricated sounding rockets launched the first single-stage Rohini (RH-75) rocket (32 kg rocket with 7 kg payload to ~10 km altitude) in 1967, followed by a two-stage Rohini rocket (100 kg payload to over 320 km altitude). Apart from Indian payload, sounding rockets from many other countries (including USA, Russia, Japan, France, Germany) were also launched from Thumba, as part of mutual international collaboration. TERLS developed infrastructure for all aspects of rocketry, ranging from rocket design, rocket propellant, rocket motor casting, integration, payload-assembly, testing, evaluation besides building subsystems like payload housing and jettisonable nose cone. Fiber Reinforced Plastics composite materials for nosecone were used in early programs at TERLS.
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Tunisia
Tunisia (USi/tuːˈniːʒə/ two-NEE-zhə or UK /tjuːˈnɪziə/ tew-NIZ-iə; Arabic: تونس Tūnis pronounced [ˈtuːnɪs]), officially the Republic of Tunisia (Arabic: الجمهورية التونسية al-Jumhūriyyah at-Tūnisiyyah), is the northernmost country in Africa. It is an Arab Maghreb country and is bordered by Algeria to the west, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Its area is almost 165,000 square kilometres (64,000 sq mi), with an estimated population of just under 10.7 million. Its name is derived from the capital Tunis located in the northeast.
Tunisia is the smallest country in North Africa. The south of the country is composed of the Sahara desert, with much of the remainder consisting of particularly fertile soil and 1,300 kilometres (810 mi) of coastline.
Tunisia has relations with both the European Union—with whom it has an association agreement—and the Arab world. Tunisia is also a member of the Arab Maghreb Union, the Arab League, and the African Union. Tunisia has established close relations with France in particular, through economic cooperation, industrial modernization, and privatisation programs.
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Turkey
Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye), known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( Türkiye Cumhuriyeti (help·info)), is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia (mostly in the Anatolian peninsula) and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe. Turkey is bordered by eight countries: Bulgaria to the northwest; Greece to the west; Georgia to the northeast; Armenia, Azerbaijan (the exclave of Nakhchivan) and Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria to the southeast. The Mediterranean Sea and Cyprus are to the south; the Aegean Sea is to the west; and the Black Sea is to the north. The Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles (which together form the Turkish Straits) demarcate the boundary between East Thrace and Anatolia; they also separate Europe and Asia.
Turkey is one of the six independent Turkic states. The vast majority of the population are Muslims. The country's official language is Turkish, whereas Kurdish and Zazaki languages are spoken by Kurds and Zazas, who constitute 18% of the population.
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Turkmenistan
Turkmenistan (i/tɜrkˈmɛnɨstæn/ or i/tɜrkmɛnɨˈstɑːn/; Turkmen: Türkmenistan), formerly also known as Turkmenia (Russian: Туркмения), is one of the Turkic states in Central Asia. Until 1991, it was a constituent republic of the Soviet Union, the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic (Turkmen SSR). Turkmenistan is one of the six independent Turkic states. It is bordered by Afghanistan to the southeast, Iran to the south and southwest, Uzbekistan to the east and northeast, Kazakhstan to the north and northwest and the Caspian Sea to the west.
Turkmenistan's GDP growth rate of 11% in 2010[update] ranks 4th in the world, but these figures are subject to wide margins of error. It possesses the world's fourth largest reserves of natural gas resources. Although it is wealthy in natural resources in certain areas, most of the country is covered by the Karakum (Black Sand) Desert.
The Turkmen government operates as a single-party system. Turkmenistan was ruled by President for Life Saparmurat Niyazov (called "Türkmenbaşy" — "leader of the Turkmens") until his sudden death on 21 December 2006. Gurbanguly Berdymukhammedov was elected the new president on 11 February 2007.
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Udaipur
Udaipur pronunciation (help·info) (Rajasthani: उदैपर) (उदयपुर), also known as the City of Lakes, is a city, a Municipal Council and the administrative headquarters of the Udaipur district in the state of Rajasthan in western India. It is located 403 kilometres (250 mi) southwest of the state capital, Jaipur, 248 kilometres (154 mi) west of Kota, and 250 kilometres (155 mi) northeast from Ahmedabad. Udaipur is the historic capital of the kingdom of Mewar in the former Rajputana Agency. The Guhils (Sisodia) clan ruled the Mewar and its capital was shifted from Chittorgarh to Udaipur after founding city of Udaipur by Maharana Uday Singh. The Mewar province became part of Rajasthan after India became independent
Apart from its history, culture, and scenic locations, it is also known for its Rajput-era palaces. The Lake Palace, for instance, covers an entire island in the Pichola Lake. Many of the palaces have been converted into luxury hotels. It is often called the "Venice of the East", and is also nicknamed the "Lake City".Lake Pichola, Fateh Sagar Lake, Udai Sagar and Swaroop Sagar in this city are considered some of the most beautiful lakes in the state.
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Ukraine
Ukraine (i/juːˈkreɪn/ yew-KRAYN; Ukrainian: Україна, transliterated: Ukrayina, [ukrɑˈjinɑ]; Russian: Украина; Crimean Tatar: Ukraina) is a country in Central and Eastern Europe. Ukraine borders the Russian Federation to the east and northeast, Belarus to the northwest, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania and Moldova to the southwest, and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south and southeast, respectively. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after the Russian Federation.
According to a popular and well established theory, the medieval state of Kievan Rus was established by the Varangians in the 9th century as the first historically recorded East Slavic state which emerged as a powerful nation in the Middle Ages until it disintegrated in the 12th century. By the middle of the 14th century, Ukrainian territories were under the rule of three external powers—the Golden Horde, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Kingdom of Poland. After the Great Northern War (1700–1721) Ukraine was divided between a number of regional powers and, by the 19th century, the largest part of Ukraine was integrated into the Russian Empire with the rest under Austro-Hungarian control. A chaotic period of incessant warfare ensued, with several internationally recognized attempts at independence from 1917 to 1921, following World War I and the Russian Civil War. Ukraine emerged from its own civil war, and on December 30, 1922 Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic became one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. The Ukrainian SSR's territory was enlarged westward during the civil war shortly before, and after World War II, and further south in 1954 with the Crimea transfer. In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations.
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United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a sovereign state located off the north-western coast of continental Europe. The country includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea.
The United Kingdom is a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system, with its seat of government in the capital city of London. It is a country in its own right and consists of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There are three devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in Belfast, Edinburgh and Cardiff, the capitals of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Associated with the UK, but not constitutionally part of it, are three Crown Dependencies. The United Kingdom has fourteen overseas territories. These are remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in 1922, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's land surface and was the largest empire in history. British influence can still be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former territories.
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United States
The United States of America (commonly abbreviated to the United States, the U.S., the USA, America, and the States) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west, across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Pacific and Caribbean.
At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2) and with over 312 million people, the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area, and the third largest by both land area and population. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The U.S. economy is the world's largest national economy, with an estimated 2011 GDP of $15.1 trillion (22% of nominal global GDP and over 19% of global GDP at purchasing-power parity). Per capita income is the world's sixth-highest.
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Uruguay
Uruguayi/ˈjʊərəɡwaɪ/, officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, sometimes the Eastern Republic of Uruguay; (Spanish: República Oriental del Uruguay pronounced: [re̞ˈpuβ̞lika o̞ɾje̞n̪ˈt̪al̪ d̪e̞l uɾuˈɰwai̯]) is a country in the southeastern part of South America. It is home to 3.3 million people, of whom 1.8 million live in the capital Montevideo and its metropolitan area. An estimated 88% of the population are of European ancestry.
Except for the recent union of Timoteo Domínguez Island and Argentina's Martín García Island, Uruguay's only land border is with Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, to the north. To the west lies the Uruguay River and the estuary of the Río de la Plata to the southwest. To the southeast lies the southern part of the Atlantic Ocean. With an area of approximately 176,000 square kilometres (68,000 sq mi), Uruguay is the second-smallest nation in South America by area, after Suriname.
Colonia del Sacramento, one of the oldest European settlements in the country, was founded by the Portuguese in 1680. Montevideo was founded by the Spanish in the early 18th century as a military stronghold. Uruguay won its independence in 1811–28 following a three-way struggle between the claims of Spain, Argentina and Brazil. It is a constitutional democracy, with a president who is both the head of state and the head of government.
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Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh /ˌʌtər prəˈdɛʃ/, abbreviation U.P. ("Northern Province"; formerly: United Provinces), is a state located in the north western part of India. With a population of over 200 million people, it is India's most populous state, as well as the world's most populous sub-national entity. Were it a nation in its own right, Uttar Pradesh would be the world's fifth most populous country, ahead of Brazil (a country thirty-five times larger in territorial area than Uttar Pradesh). On 9 November 2000, the Himalayan portion of the state, comprising the Garhwal and Kumaon divisions and Haridwar district, was formed into a new state 'Uttaranchal', now called Uttarakhand, meaning the 'Northern Segment' state.
Uttar Pradesh is the second largest state-economy in India, with a GDP of $103.5 billion in 2009. The annual per capita GDP of the state was $1586 in 2009, on purchasing power parity basis. It contributed 8.34% to India's total GDP in the financial year 2010. Agriculture is a significant part of UP's economy. The state was India's sixth largest producer of fruits, and became the largest producer of vegetables in 2010. With an area of 93,933 sq mi (243,290 km2), Uttar Pradesh covers a large part of the highly fertile and densely populated upper Gangetic plain. It shares an international border with Nepal to the north. Other states along Uttar Pradesh's border include Uttarakhand, Haryana and Delhi to the north and northwest; Rajasthan on the west; Madhya Pradesh on the south; Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand on the south east; and Bihar on the east.
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Uzbekistan
Uzbekistani/ʊzˌbɛkɨˈstɑːn/, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan (Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi, Ўзбекистон Республикаси) is the only doubly landlocked country in Central Asia and one of only two such countries worldwide. It shares borders with Kazakhstan to the west and to the north, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan to the east, and Afghanistan and Turkmenistan to the south. Before 1991, it was part of the Soviet Union.
Uzbekistan is one of the Turkic states in Central Asia.
Once part of the Persian Samanid and later Timurid empires, the region was conquered in the early 16th century by Uzbek nomads, who spoke an Eastern Turkic language. Most of Uzbekistan’s population today belong to the Uzbek ethnic group and speak the Uzbek language, one of the family of Turkic languages.
Uzbekistan was incorporated into the Russian Empire in the 19th century, and in 1924 became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union, known as the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (Uzbek SSR). It became independent on 31 August 1991 (officially, from the following day).
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Venezuela
Venezuela (i/ˌvɛnɨˈzweɪlə/ VEN-ə-ZWAY-lə), officially called the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Spanish: República Bolivariana de Venezuela [repuˈβlika βoliβaˈɾjana ðe βeneˈswela]), is a tropical country on the northern coast of South America. It borders Colombia to the west, Guyana to the east, and Brazil to the south. Its northern coastline of roughly 2,800 kilometres (1,700 mi) includes numerous islands in the Caribbean Sea, and in the north east borders the northern Atlantic Ocean. Caribbean islands such as Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, Curaçao, Bonaire, Aruba and the Leeward Antilles lie near the Venezuelan coast. Venezuela's territory covers around 916,445 square kilometres (353,841 sq mi) with an estimated population of 29,105,632. Venezuela is considered a state with extremely high biodiversity, with habitats ranging from the Andes mountains in the west to the Amazon Basin rainforest in the south, via extensive llanos plains and Caribbean coast in the center and the Orinoco River Delta in the east.
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Vietnam
Vietnam ( listen), formally the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (Cộng hòa xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam; listen), is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. With an estimated 91.5 million inhabitants as of 2012, it is the world's 13th-most-populous country, and the eighth-most-populous Asian country. The name Vietnam translates as "South Viet", and was officially adopted in 1945. The country is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea to the east.
The Vietnamese became independent from Imperial China in 938 AD, following the Battle of Bạch Đằng River. Successive Vietnamese royal dynasties flourished as the nation expanded geographically and politically into Southeast Asia, until the Indochina Peninsula was colonized by the French in the mid-19th century. The First Indochina War eventually led to the expulsion of the French in 1954, leaving Vietnam divided politically into two states, North and South Vietnam. Conflict between the two sides intensified, with heavy foreign intervention, during the Vietnam War, which ended with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975.
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Aryabhata
Aryabhata (IAST: Āryabhaṭa, Sanskrit: आर्यभट) (476–550 CE) was the first in the line of great mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy. His most famous works are the Āryabhaṭīya (499 CE, when he was 23 years old) and the Arya-siddhanta.
While there is a tendency to misspell his name as "Aryabhatta" by analogy with other names having the "bhatta" suffix, his name is properly spelled Aryabhata: every astronomical text spells his name thus, including Brahmagupta's references to him "in more than a hundred places by name". Furthermore, in most instances "Aryabhatta" does not fit the metre either.
Aryabhata mentions in the Aryabhatiya that it was composed 3,630 years into the Kali Yuga, when he was 23 years old. This corresponds to 499 CE, and implies that he was born in 476
Aryabhata was born in Taregna (literally, song of the stars), which is a small town in Bihar, India, about 30 km (19 mi) from Patna (then known as Pataliputra), the capital city of Bihar State. Evidences justify his birth there. In Taregna Aryabhata set up an Astronomical Observatory in the Sun Temple 6th century.
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Austria
Austria (i/ˈɒstriə/ or /ˈɔːstriə/; German: Österreich [ˈøːstɐˌʁaɪç] ( listen)), officially the Republic of Austria (German: Republik Österreich (help·info)), is a landlocked country of roughly 8.47 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The territory of Austria covers 83,855 square kilometres (32,377 sq mi) and has a temperate and alpine climate. Austria's terrain is highly mountainous due to the presence of the Alps; only 32% of the country is below 500 metres (1,640 ft), and its highest point is 3,798 metres (12,461 ft). The majority of the population speak local Austro-Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, and German in its standard form is the country's official language. Other local official languages are Burgenland Croatian, Hungarian and Slovene.
The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty when the vast majority of the country was a part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Austria became one of the great powers of Europe and, in response to the coronation of Napoleon I as the Emperor of the French, the Austrian Empire was officially proclaimed in 1804. In 1867, the Austrian Empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary.
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Fred Hoyle
Sir Fred Hoyle FRS (24 June 1915 – 20 August 2001) was an English astronomer and mathematician noted primarily for his contribution to the theory of stellar nucleosynthesis and his often controversial stance on other cosmological and scientific matters—in particular his rejection of the "Big Bang" theory, a term originally coined by him out of ridicule for the main rival of his own theory. In addition to his work as an astronomer, Hoyle was a writer of science fiction, including a number of books co-written with his son Geoffrey Hoyle. Hoyle spent most of his working life at the Institute of Astronomy at Cambridge and served as its director for a number of years. He died in Bournemouth, England, after a series of strokes.
Hoyle was born near Bingley in Gilstead, West Yorkshire, England. His father, Ben Hoyle, worked in the wool trade in Bradford. His mother, Mabel Pickard, had studied music at the Royal College of Music in London. Hoyle was educated at Bingley Grammar School and read mathematics at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. In the autumn of 1940, Hoyle left Cambridge to go to Portsmouth to work for the Admiralty on radar research, for example devising a method to get the altitude of the incoming airplanes. Two key colleagues in this war work were Hermann Bondi and Thomas Gold, and the three had many and deep discussions on cosmology.
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Jawaharlal Nehru
Jawaharlal Nehru (IPA: [dʒəʋaːɦərˈlaːl ˈneːɦru] ( listen), Hindi: जवाहरलाल नेहरू; 14 November 1889 – 27 May 1964), often referred to with the epithet of Panditji, was an Indian lawyer, politician and statesman who became the first Prime Minister of independent India (1947–64) and became noted for his “neutralist” policies in foreign affairs. He was also one of the principal leaders of India’s independence movement in the 1930s and ’40s. Nehru was elected by the Indian National Congress to assume office as independent India's first Prime Minister, and re-elected when the Congress Party won India's first general election in 1951 and 1952. Nehru contributed to the establishment of a parliamentary democracy in India and was one of the founders of the international Non-Aligned Movement.
The son of moderate nationalist leader and Congressman Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru became a leader of the left wing of the Congress when fairly young. Rising to become Congress President under the mentorship of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Nehru was a charismatic leader, advocating complete independence for India from the British Empire. Throughout his life, Nehru advocated Democratic Socialism/Fabian Socialism and a strong public sector as the means by which economic development could be pursued by poorer nations. He was the father of Indira Gandhi and the maternal grandfather of Rajiv Gandhi, who would later serve as the third and sixth Prime Ministers of India respectively.
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Kalpana Chawla
Kalpana Chawla (July 1, 1961 – February 1, 2003) was an Indian-American astronaut who, was a mission specialist on the space shuttle Columbia. She first flew on the Columbia in 1997 as a mission specialist and primary robotic arm operator. Chawla was one of seven crew members killed in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.
Kalpana Chawla was born to a Hindu family in Karnal, Haryana, India on 1st july , 1961 to Banarasi Lal Chawla and Sanjyothi. She had 2 sisters, Sunita and Dipa, and a brother, Sanjay. She became a US citizen in 1990. She was the youngest of four siblings in the family.
Kalpana Chawla completed her earlier schooling at Tagore Public School, Karnal and her Bachelor of Engineering degree in Aeronautical Engineering at Punjab Engineering College at Chandigarh in 1982. She moved to the United States in 1982 and obtained a M.S. degree in aerospace engineering from the University of Texas at Arlington in 1984. Chawla went on to earn a second M.S. degree in 1986 and a Ph.D. in aerospace engineering in 1988 from the University of Colorado at Boulder. Later that year she began working at the NASA Ames Research Center as vice president of Overset Methods, Inc. where she did CFD research on Vertical/Short Takeoff and Landing concepts. Chawla held a Certificated Flight Instructor rating for airplanes, gliders and Commercial Pilot licenses for single and multi-engine airplanes, seaplanes and gliders.
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Meghnad Saha
Meghnad Saha FRS (Bengali: মেঘনাদ সাহা) (6 October 1893 – 16 February 1956) was an Indian astrophysicist noted for his development in 1920 of the thermal ionization equation, which, in the form perfected by the British astrophysicist Edward A. Milne, has remained fundamental in all work on stellar atmospheres. This equation has been widely applied to the interpretation of stellar spectra, which are characteristic of the chemical composition of the light source. The Saha equation links the composition and appearance of the spectrum with the temperature of the light source and can thus be used to determine either the temperature of the star or the relative abundance of the chemical elements investigated.
In his later years Saha increasingly turned his attention to the social relation of science and founded the outspoken journal Science and Culture in 1935. In 1951 he was elected to the Indian Parliament as an independent. He co-authored A Treatise on Heat (4th ed., 1958) and A Treatise on Modern Physics (1934). One of his most important papers is “Ionization in the Solar Chromosphere,” Phil. Mag. (vol. 40, 1920).
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Mylswamy Annadurai
Mylswamy Annadurai (Tamil: மயில்சாமி அண்ணாதுரை) (born 2 July 1958, in Kodhawady near Pollachi in Coimbatore district, Tamilnadu, India) is a scientist with the Indian Space Research Organization and currently serves as Programme Director IRS&SSS (Indian Remote Sensing & Small, Science and Student Satellites) and Project Director of Chandrayaan-1 and Chandrayaan-2. Annadurai writes a regular column, "Kaiyaruke Nila". ("Moon is at our Reach") in the Tamil weekly Kungumam and he is approachable through Facebook.. Annadurai and his works are mentioned in 10th standard Science Text Book of Tamilnadu. He is also the Honorary Editor for a Tamil Periodical on Science, " Valarum Arivial"
Mylswamy Annadurai has his schooling in his native village Kodhawady. He has obtained a Bachelors in Engineering degree at 1980 from Government College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India and completed his Masters Degree in Engineering on 1982 from PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore and Ph.D from Anna University of Technology, Coimbatore Tamilnadu in India. He joined ISRO in 1982. As the Mission Director of INSAT missions he has some of the original contributions to the INSAT systems maintenance.
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Raja Ramanna
Raja Ramanna (January 28, 1925 - September 24, 2004), D.Phil., was an Indian nuclear scientist and a prominent physicist, is best known for his leadership directing the research integral for the development of Indian nuclear programme in its early stages. Having started and joined the nuclear programme in 1964, Ramanna worked under Homi Jehangir Bhabha, and later directed this program in 1967. Ramanna expanded and supervised the scientific research on nuclear weapons and was the first directing officer of the small team of scientists that supervised and carried out the test of the nuclear device, under a codename Smiling Buddha, in 1974.
Ramanna associated and directed the India's nuclear weapons for more than 4 decades, and also initiate industrial defense programmes for the Indian Armed Forces. Because of his directing role and leadership for the developing the Indian nuclear programme for 4 decades, Ramanna is often considered as the "Father of the Indian nuclear programme", and also was a recipient of highest Indian civil decorations for honoring his services to build the nuclear programme. Ramanna died in Mumbai in 2004 at the age of 79. As a physicist and scientist, Dr. Raja Ramanna received highly respected in both India and academic scientists from Pakistan, and remembered as a leading figure in the development of nuclear physics.
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Rakesh Sharma
Wing Commander Rakesh Sharma, AC, Hero of the Soviet Union, (born January 13, 1949) is a former Indian Air Force test pilot, and Cosmonaut aboard Soyuz T-11 as part of an Intercosmos Research Team. Sharma was the first Indian to travel in space.
Rakesh Sharma was born in 1949 in [[Patiala], Punjab, India in a Hindu gaur Brahmin family and was schooled at St. George's Grammar School (Hyderabad) & Kendriya Vidyalaya Tirumalagiri, Hyderabad. He joined the NDA as an Air Force cadet in July 1966. He was commissioned into the Indian Air Force as a Pilot Officer in 1970. In 1971 operations against Pakistan, he flew various missions in his MiG aircraft with distinction.
Sharma joined the Indian Air Force and progressed rapidly through the ranks. Sharma, then a Squadron Leader and pilot with the Indian Air Force embarked on a historic mission in 1984 as part of a joint space program between the Indian Space Research Organisation and the Soviet Intercosmos space program, and spent eight days in space aboard the Salyut 7 space station. Launched along with two Soviet cosmonauts aboard Soyuz T-11 on the 3 April 1984, was 35-year-old Sharma. During the flight, Sharma conducted multi-spectral photography of northern India in anticipation of the construction of hydroelectric power stations in the Himalayas. In a famous conversation, he was asked by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi how India looked from space, to which he replied, ''Main binaa jhijhak ke keh sakta hoon.., Sare Jahan Se Achcha" (a reference to an iconic poem used in India's freedom struggle, usually referred to as 'Saare jahaan se achha Hindustan haamara, ' our land of Hindustan, is the Best in the world').
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Ravish Malhotra
Ravish Malhotra (b. 25 December 1943 in Lahore (now in present day Pakistan)) is a retired Air Commodore of the Indian Air Force.
He became an Air Force test pilot, later stationed at the test center in Bangalore. He was also the Air Officer Commanding of Hindon Air Force Station near Delhi.
In 1982, he was chosen to train for spaceflight in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos program. Malhotra served as backup for Rakesh Sharma on the Soyuz T-11 mission which launched the first Indian citizen into space. Malhotra was awarded the Kirti Chakra in 1984.
Malhotra is presently the Co-Founder & Chief Mentor of the aerospace division of Dynamatic Technologies.
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Satish Dhawan
Satish Dhawan (Punjabi: ਸਤੀਸ਼ ਧਵਨ, Hindi: सतीश धवन) (25 September 1920 – 3 January 2002) was a pioneering aerospace engineer, and an extremely influential rocket scientist, widely regarded as father of experimental fluid dynamics research in India. Born in Srinagar, India, Dhawan was educated in India and further on in the United States. Dhawan was one of the most eminent researchers in the field of turbulence and boundary layers, leading the successful and ingenious development of Indian space prgramme. He succeeded Vikram Sarabhai, the founder of the Indian space programme, as Chairman of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) in 1972.
Dhawan was a graduate of University of the Punjab in Lahore, British India (now Pakistan), where he completed a Bachelors of Arts in Mathematics and Bachelors of Science in Physics, followed by a Master of Arts in Mathematics from the same institution. In 1943, moved to United States to further his education. He attended University of Minnesota, Minneapolis and completed a Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering. In 1947, he completed a Master of Science in Aerospace Engineering and Aeronautical Engineer’s Degree from California Institute of Technology (CIT), followed by a double Ph.D. in Mathematics and Aerospace Engineering under the supervision of Dr. Prof. Hans W. Liepmann as his advisor in 1951.
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Sisir Kumar Mitra
Sisir Kumar Mitra (Bengali: শিশির কুমার মিত্র) [or Shishirkumar Mitra] (October 24, 1890 – August 13, 1963) was an Indian physicist.
He was born and raised in Calcutta. His parents were the doctor Saratkumari and the school teacher Jaykrishna. At the age of nine he witnessed a hot air balloon and became intrigued in the phenomenon, so he began studying science. The family moved to Bhagalpur, where Sisir attended school and the local college. After his father died, his mother supported him through Presidency College of the University of Calcutta where he earned a B.Sc. In 1912 he gained his M.S. at the same institution.
He briefly became a scholar performing research before becoming a teacher. Eventually he taught at Bankura Christian College. In 1914 he married Lilavati Devi.
In 1916, Sisir was invited to join the new postgraduate department of physics at the University Science College. He gained a D.Sc. degree in 1919; then he left for Paris, France to study at the University of Paris. There he earned a second D.Sc. and would join Marie Curie at her laboratory. He developed an interest in the new science of radio communication, and went to the University of Nancy to research this field.
wn.com/Sisir_Kumar_Mitra -
Vikram Sarabhai
Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai (Gujarati: વિક્રમ અંબાલાલ સારાભાઇ) (12 August 1919 – 31 December 1971) was an Indian physicist. He is considered to be the father of the Indian space program.
Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai was born on 12 August 1919 in the city of Ahmedabad, in the state of Gujarat in western India. The Sarabhai family was an important and rich Jain business family. His father Ambalal Sarabhai was an affluent industrialist and owned many mills including some textile mills in Gujarat. Vikram Sarabhai was one of the eight children of Ambalal and Sarla Devi.
Sarabhai matriculated from Gujarat College in Ahmedabad after passing the Intermediate Science examination. After that he moved to England and joined St. John's College, University of Cambridge. He received the Tripos in Natural Sciences from Cambridge in 1940. With the escalation of the Second World War, Sarabhai returned to India and joined the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore and began research in cosmic rays under the guidance of Nobel Laureate C. V. Raman. He returned to Cambridge after the war in 1945 and was awarded a Doctor of Philosophy degree in 1947, for his thesis titled Cosmic Ray Investigation in Tropical Latitudes.
wn.com/Vikram_Sarabhai
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Chandrayaan-1 ISRO - India's Moon Mission Animation by Thejes
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:46
- Updated: 09 Jan 2013
Chandrayaan-1 (ISRO - India's Mission to the Moon) Animation by Thejes. Original high resolution download is available at: www.thejes.com The above link will also take you to the photo gallery, animation project objectives, and links to Chandrayaan related websites. Enjoy, and please remember to post your comments and rate the video.
http://wn.com/Chandrayaan-1_ISRO_India's_Moon_Mission_Animation_by_Thejes
Chandrayaan-1 (ISRO - India's Mission to the Moon) Animation by Thejes. Original high resolution download is available at: www.thejes.com The above link will also take you to the photo gallery, animation project objectives, and links to Chandrayaan related websites. Enjoy, and please remember to post your comments and rate the video.
ISRO successfully launches PSLV-C21 & puts 2 foreign satellites in orbit
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:59
- Updated: 30 Dec 2012
India on Sunday successfully launched its 100th space mission with the native PSLV-C21 rocket putting in orbit two foreign satellites. In a copybook launch, witnessed by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, ISRO's workhorse PSLV placed in orbit France's SPOT-6 satellite and Japanese spacecraft PROTIERES, some 18 minutes after a perfect lift off from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre here. The launch, scheduled for 9.51 am, was delayed by two minutes at the end of the 51-hour countdown. The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), on its 22nd flight, soared into an overcast sky at 9.53 am carrying the 720 kg French satellite, the heaviest satellite to be launched by India for a foreign client.
http://wn.com/ISRO_successfully_launches_PSLV-C21_puts_2_foreign_satellites_in_orbit
India on Sunday successfully launched its 100th space mission with the native PSLV-C21 rocket putting in orbit two foreign satellites. In a copybook launch, witnessed by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, ISRO's workhorse PSLV placed in orbit France's SPOT-6 satellite and Japanese spacecraft PROTIERES, some 18 minutes after a perfect lift off from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre here. The launch, scheduled for 9.51 am, was delayed by two minutes at the end of the 51-hour countdown. The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), on its 22nd flight, soared into an overcast sky at 9.53 am carrying the 720 kg French satellite, the heaviest satellite to be launched by India for a foreign client.
- published: 09 Sep 2012
- views: 6324
- author: Spoon Feeding
ISRO
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:25
- Updated: 06 Jan 2013
Dedicated to Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO). Covers History of ISRO, it's Beginning, Development of Launch Vehicles - Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle PSLV, Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle GSLV, Chandrayaan Mission, Future of ISRO like Chandrayaan - 2, Mars Mission, Manned Space Mission, GSLV Mark 3, Avatar - Reusable Launch Vehicle, Aditya. Enjoy the Video, Join ISRO Share and Like the Video Music from CFI - Indian Institute of Technology Madras (IITM) Don't forget to watch this.. www.youtube.com
http://wn.com/ISRO
Dedicated to Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO). Covers History of ISRO, it's Beginning, Development of Launch Vehicles - Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle PSLV, Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle GSLV, Chandrayaan Mission, Future of ISRO like Chandrayaan - 2, Mars Mission, Manned Space Mission, GSLV Mark 3, Avatar - Reusable Launch Vehicle, Aditya. Enjoy the Video, Join ISRO Share and Like the Video Music from CFI - Indian Institute of Technology Madras (IITM) Don't forget to watch this.. www.youtube.com
- published: 03 Jul 2012
- views: 3207
- author: Ezio Auditore
India's Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle [GSLV] - ISRO report
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 13:04
- Updated: 30 Dec 2012
The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle [GSLV] is currently being developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation [ISRO]. On successful completion of the programme, India would become self-sufficient in launching heavy, commercial, communication satellites from its own soil as well as being able to do the same for other nations. It is also to launch India's second mission to the Moon, Chandrayaan-2. India also operates the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle [PSLV], developed for launching smaller-sized, lighter satellites and placing them in the desired orbit -- sun synchronous or geostationary. It has an extremely high success rate, having performed 17 consecutive successful launches & has placed a total of 41 satellites in orbit, including one in which it put in orbit 10 satellites in a single launch -- a world record. Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle [GSLV] www.isro.org en.wikipedia.org Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle [GSLV] GSLV-Mk III www.isro.org en.wikipedia.org Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle [PSLV] www.isro.org www.isro.org en.wikipedia.org www.thehindu.com www.sify.com www.ndtv.com Chandrayaan Moon Mission Chandrayaan-1 www.isro.gov.in www.isro.org en.wikipedia.org Chandrayaan-2 en.wikipedia.org Indian Space Research Organisation [ISRO] www.isro.org en.wikipedia.org Moi Blog: AA Me www.aame.in
http://wn.com/India's_Geosynchronous_Satellite_Launch_Vehicle_GSLV_ISRO_report
The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle [GSLV] is currently being developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation [ISRO]. On successful completion of the programme, India would become self-sufficient in launching heavy, commercial, communication satellites from its own soil as well as being able to do the same for other nations. It is also to launch India's second mission to the Moon, Chandrayaan-2. India also operates the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle [PSLV], developed for launching smaller-sized, lighter satellites and placing them in the desired orbit -- sun synchronous or geostationary. It has an extremely high success rate, having performed 17 consecutive successful launches & has placed a total of 41 satellites in orbit, including one in which it put in orbit 10 satellites in a single launch -- a world record. Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle [GSLV] www.isro.org en.wikipedia.org Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle [GSLV] GSLV-Mk III www.isro.org en.wikipedia.org Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle [PSLV] www.isro.org www.isro.org en.wikipedia.org www.thehindu.com www.sify.com www.ndtv.com Chandrayaan Moon Mission Chandrayaan-1 www.isro.gov.in www.isro.org en.wikipedia.org Chandrayaan-2 en.wikipedia.org Indian Space Research Organisation [ISRO] www.isro.org en.wikipedia.org Moi Blog: AA Me www.aame.in
- published: 16 May 2011
- views: 27315
- author: Luptonga
ISRO's 100th Mission [PSLV-C21] being readied to launch French & Japanese Satellites
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:51
- Updated: 29 Dec 2012
Foreign Satellite Launch & Construction by Indian Space Research Organisation [ISRO] www.aame.in With the dual launch of the French SPOT-6 & Japanese PROITERES satellites, the Indian Space Research Organisation would have completed 100 missions that include 37 launch vehicles & 62 satellites successfully placed into orbit prior to this. Indian Space Research Organisation [ISRO] www.isro.org en.wikipedia.org SPOT-6 Satellite www.astrium-geo.com en.wikipedia.org PROITERES Satellite space.skyrocket.de www.google.com PSLV C-21 mission docs.google.com Moi Blog: AA Me, IN www.aame.in YouTube Channel: Luptonga youtube.com
http://wn.com/ISRO's_100th_Mission_PSLV-C21_being_readied_to_launch_French_Japanese_Satellites
Foreign Satellite Launch & Construction by Indian Space Research Organisation [ISRO] www.aame.in With the dual launch of the French SPOT-6 & Japanese PROITERES satellites, the Indian Space Research Organisation would have completed 100 missions that include 37 launch vehicles & 62 satellites successfully placed into orbit prior to this. Indian Space Research Organisation [ISRO] www.isro.org en.wikipedia.org SPOT-6 Satellite www.astrium-geo.com en.wikipedia.org PROITERES Satellite space.skyrocket.de www.google.com PSLV C-21 mission docs.google.com Moi Blog: AA Me, IN www.aame.in YouTube Channel: Luptonga youtube.com
- published: 08 Sep 2012
- views: 5603
- author: Luptonga
ISRO's 100th mission to space - NewsX
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:42
- Updated: 29 Sep 2012
This Sunday will be a working day for those at the Indian Space Research Organisation, that too a hectic one. The space agency is set to reach another milestone, the 100th Indian space mission, when PSLV-C21 lifts off from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre at Sriharikota at 9.51 am. And, among those looking up at the sky from the space port for a perfect launch will be Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. PSLV, the 'workhorse' launcher of the ISRO has an enviable track record of 20 launch successes in a row and this time, it will put into orbit two foreign satellites. For more log on to www.newsx.com
http://wn.com/ISRO's_100th_mission_to_space_NewsX
This Sunday will be a working day for those at the Indian Space Research Organisation, that too a hectic one. The space agency is set to reach another milestone, the 100th Indian space mission, when PSLV-C21 lifts off from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre at Sriharikota at 9.51 am. And, among those looking up at the sky from the space port for a perfect launch will be Prime Minister Manmohan Singh. PSLV, the 'workhorse' launcher of the ISRO has an enviable track record of 20 launch successes in a row and this time, it will put into orbit two foreign satellites. For more log on to www.newsx.com
- published: 09 Sep 2012
- views: 2346
- author: newsxlive
ISRO PSLV C21 - SPOT 6
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:38
- Updated: 26 Dec 2012
http://wn.com/ISRO_PSLV_C21_SPOT_6
Chandrayaan project director Dr.Annadurai of ISRO speaking on 11 Feb 2012
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 35:48
- Updated: 17 Nov 2012
A one day seminar on the theme "Chandrayaan- Message from the moon" by Dr.Annadurai,project director Chandrayaan,ISRO Bengaluru, was held in Ramakrishna Math,Hyderabad on 11 Feb 2012.
http://wn.com/Chandrayaan_project_director_DrAnnadurai_of_ISRO_speaking_on_11_Feb_2012
A one day seminar on the theme "Chandrayaan- Message from the moon" by Dr.Annadurai,project director Chandrayaan,ISRO Bengaluru, was held in Ramakrishna Math,Hyderabad on 11 Feb 2012.
- published: 11 Feb 2012
- views: 1020
- author: ramakrishnamathhyd
PM Manmohan Singh on ISRO's 100th mission success - Tv9
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:35
- Updated: 09 Sep 2012
PM Manmohan Singh on ISRO's 100th mission success
http://wn.com/PM_Manmohan_Singh_on_ISRO's_100th_mission_success_Tv9
PM Manmohan Singh on ISRO's 100th mission success
- published: 09 Sep 2012
- views: 1151
- author: tv9telugu
"Muraleedharan and Padmaja on ISRO Spy Case"-Asianet News Hour 15,October Part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 16:11
- Updated: 15 Oct 2012
Asianet News hour, Discussion Topic:Muraleedharan pledges to prove innocence of K Karunakaran in ISRO spy case, Problems within Congress Party Anchor:Vinu V John
http://wn.com/Muraleedharan_and_Padmaja_on_ISRO_Spy_Case-Asianet_News_Hour_15,October_Part_1
Asianet News hour, Discussion Topic:Muraleedharan pledges to prove innocence of K Karunakaran in ISRO spy case, Problems within Congress Party Anchor:Vinu V John
- published: 15 Oct 2012
- views: 2180
- author: asianetnews
Silkroad Online: 11th Degree in iSRO
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:05
- Updated: 20 Oct 2012
Visit www.sro-olympus.com This is A PK edit in iSRO, for 11th degree. It's just a quick edit, nothing fancy. At 11D , both Euro and China Armors look the same. China Wep and Female Armors. Euro Weps and Male Armors. Sorry i forgot the harp and female Light hands. (Sorry) I DON'T CLAIM ANY RESPONSIBILITY FOR THESE SONGS, THEY ARE COPYRIGHTED TO THE OWNERS AND I AM NOT PROFITING FROM
http://wn.com/Silkroad_Online_11th_Degree_in_iSRO
Visit www.sro-olympus.com This is A PK edit in iSRO, for 11th degree. It's just a quick edit, nothing fancy. At 11D , both Euro and China Armors look the same. China Wep and Female Armors. Euro Weps and Male Armors. Sorry i forgot the harp and female Light hands. (Sorry) I DON'T CLAIM ANY RESPONSIBILITY FOR THESE SONGS, THEY ARE COPYRIGHTED TO THE OWNERS AND I AM NOT PROFITING FROM
- published: 05 Sep 2012
- views: 36659
- author: DSPros
ISRO spy case; high court accept Nambi Narayanan harji [Reporter HD]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:16
- Updated: 09 Jan 2013
ഐഎസ്ആർഒ ചാരക്കേസിൽ ഹൈക്കടോതി നമ്പി നാരായണന്റെ ഹർ ജി ഫയലിൽ സ്വീകരിച്ചു. കേസിൽ സംസ്ഥാന സർക്കാരിനും, മൂന്ന് ഉദ്യോഗസ്ഥർക്കും ഹൈക്കോടതി നോട്ടീസ് അയച്ചു. സിബി മാത്യൂസ്, കെ കെ ജോഷ്വാ, എസ് വിജയൻ എന്നിവർക്കും സംസ്ഥാന സർക്കാരിനുമാണ് നോട്ടീസ് അയച്ചത്.
http://wn.com/ISRO_spy_case;_high_court_accept_Nambi_Narayanan_harji_Reporter_HD_
ഐഎസ്ആർഒ ചാരക്കേസിൽ ഹൈക്കടോതി നമ്പി നാരായണന്റെ ഹർ ജി ഫയലിൽ സ്വീകരിച്ചു. കേസിൽ സംസ്ഥാന സർക്കാരിനും, മൂന്ന് ഉദ്യോഗസ്ഥർക്കും ഹൈക്കോടതി നോട്ടീസ് അയച്ചു. സിബി മാത്യൂസ്, കെ കെ ജോഷ്വാ, എസ് വിജയൻ എന്നിവർക്കും സംസ്ഥാന സർക്കാരിനുമാണ് നോട്ടീസ് അയച്ചത്.
- published: 08 Jan 2013
- views: 40
- author: reporterlivechannel
![★ jarock ★ Ultimate Damage Test - Unique Movie [Lepus - ISRO]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130113023644im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/s3V2tLQWaTw/default.jpg "★ jarock ★ Ultimate Damage Test - Unique Movie [Lepus - ISRO]")
★ jarock ★ Ultimate Damage Test - Unique Movie [Lepus - ISRO]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:19
- Updated: 15 Dec 2012
Follow me on facebook ! Like this page: www.facebook.com
http://wn.com/★_jarock_★_Ultimate_Damage_Test_Unique_Movie_Lepus_ISRO_
Follow me on facebook ! Like this page: www.facebook.com
- published: 04 Sep 2012
- views: 2175
- author: romain7401
ISRO INDIA has launched today its new Satellite RI-Sat 1.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:38
- Updated: 21 Dec 2012
ISRO ( Indian Space Research Organisation) has launched today its new Satellite RI-Sat 1( Radar Imaging Satellite ) through its own Rocket PSLV - C 19 from Shreeharikota. AT 5:47 AM today (26 April 2012) RI-Sat - 1 weighs 1158 KG and its heaviest Satellite up till now India ever launched...Star News, DD News Advance Technology.
http://wn.com/ISRO_INDIA_has_launched_today_its_new_Satellite_RI-Sat_1
ISRO ( Indian Space Research Organisation) has launched today its new Satellite RI-Sat 1( Radar Imaging Satellite ) through its own Rocket PSLV - C 19 from Shreeharikota. AT 5:47 AM today (26 April 2012) RI-Sat - 1 weighs 1158 KG and its heaviest Satellite up till now India ever launched...Star News, DD News Advance Technology.
- published: 26 Apr 2012
- views: 8282
- author: niranjan1chinu
Silkroad Online - Medusa kill Rome server (5th of all iSro)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:12
- Updated: 14 Dec 2012
Rome Server Killing Medusa for the first time. Gratz MR_aallloo For the first kill RuBiScO for the second (see link) img17.imageshack.us Gratz Sr972 For the 3rd(Second link XDD) img4.imageshack.us ===================== HONORS for this video ===================== #25 - Most Discussed (Today) - Netherlands #2 - Most Discussed (Today) - Gaming - Netherlands #14 - Most Discussed (This Week) - Gaming - Netherlands #91 - Most Discussed (This Month) - Gaming - Netherlands #13 - Most Viewed (Today) - Gaming - Germany #32 - Most Viewed (Today) - Gaming - Israel #21 - Most Viewed (Today) - Gaming - Netherlands #98 - Most Viewed (Today) - Gaming - Poland #91 - Most Viewed (This Week) - Gaming - Netherlands #87 - Most Viewed (This Month) - Gaming - Netherlands #40 - Top Favorited (Today) - Netherlands #1 - Top Favorited (Today) - Gaming - Netherlands #7 - Top Favorited (This Week) - Gaming - Netherlands #60 - Top Favorited (This Month) - Gaming - Netherlands #15 - Top Rated (Today) - Netherlands #1 - Top Rated (Today) - Gaming - Netherlands #4 - Top Rated (This Week) - Gaming - Netherlands #40 - Top Rated (This Month) - Gaming - Netherlands #91 - Top Rated (This Week) - Netherlands I DON'T CLAIM ANY RESPONSIBILITY FOR THESE SONGS, THEY ARE COPYRIGHTED TO THE OWNERS AND I AM NOT PROFITING FROM PUTTING THEM ON YOUTUBE.
http://wn.com/Silkroad_Online_Medusa_kill_Rome_server_5th_of_all_iSro
Rome Server Killing Medusa for the first time. Gratz MR_aallloo For the first kill RuBiScO for the second (see link) img17.imageshack.us Gratz Sr972 For the 3rd(Second link XDD) img4.imageshack.us ===================== HONORS for this video ===================== #25 - Most Discussed (Today) - Netherlands #2 - Most Discussed (Today) - Gaming - Netherlands #14 - Most Discussed (This Week) - Gaming - Netherlands #91 - Most Discussed (This Month) - Gaming - Netherlands #13 - Most Viewed (Today) - Gaming - Germany #32 - Most Viewed (Today) - Gaming - Israel #21 - Most Viewed (Today) - Gaming - Netherlands #98 - Most Viewed (Today) - Gaming - Poland #91 - Most Viewed (This Week) - Gaming - Netherlands #87 - Most Viewed (This Month) - Gaming - Netherlands #40 - Top Favorited (Today) - Netherlands #1 - Top Favorited (Today) - Gaming - Netherlands #7 - Top Favorited (This Week) - Gaming - Netherlands #60 - Top Favorited (This Month) - Gaming - Netherlands #15 - Top Rated (Today) - Netherlands #1 - Top Rated (Today) - Gaming - Netherlands #4 - Top Rated (This Week) - Gaming - Netherlands #40 - Top Rated (This Month) - Gaming - Netherlands #91 - Top Rated (This Week) - Netherlands I DON'T CLAIM ANY RESPONSIBILITY FOR THESE SONGS, THEY ARE COPYRIGHTED TO THE OWNERS AND I AM NOT PROFITING FROM PUTTING THEM ON YOUTUBE.
- published: 03 Sep 2012
- views: 39334
- author: Tim de, Heer
ISRO to launch communication satellite GSAT-12
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:52
- Updated: 06 Nov 2011
India will launch a new communication satellite at 4:48 pm on Friday evening that will help doctors and teachers in cities diagnose and teach people in rural India via satellite link.
http://wn.com/ISRO_to_launch_communication_satellite_GSAT-12
India will launch a new communication satellite at 4:48 pm on Friday evening that will help doctors and teachers in cities diagnose and teach people in rural India via satellite link.
- published: 15 Jul 2011
- views: 837
- author: ibnlive
Devas CEO Ramachandran Viswanathan on the ISRO Deal
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 20:24
- Updated: 05 Jun 2012
Kunal Majumder, Tehelka, speaks to Devas Multimedia CEO, Ramachandran Viswanathan on the ISRO Deal
http://wn.com/Devas_CEO_Ramachandran_Viswanathan_on_the_ISRO_Deal
Kunal Majumder, Tehelka, speaks to Devas Multimedia CEO, Ramachandran Viswanathan on the ISRO Deal
- published: 11 Feb 2011
- views: 1507
- author: tehelkatv
PSLV C19 RISAT-1 LAUNCH APRIL 26 2012 ISRO
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 19:34
- Updated: 29 Nov 2012
On 26 April 2012 5.47 am India will launch another Historic Mission PSLV C19/RISAT-1. The satellite RISAT-1 is heaviest (1858 Kg) ever launched on PSLV. Importantly it is First Radar Imaging Satellite of India which took 10 years to build. Project Director for this Mission is Dr.N.Valarmathi second female scientist after AKANURADHA (ISRO GSAT12)to be Project Director of a Mission. Kindly visit www.ournewplanets.com for Powerpoint,Slide show etc...Source:ISRO
http://wn.com/PSLV_C19_RISAT-1_LAUNCH_APRIL_26_2012_ISRO
On 26 April 2012 5.47 am India will launch another Historic Mission PSLV C19/RISAT-1. The satellite RISAT-1 is heaviest (1858 Kg) ever launched on PSLV. Importantly it is First Radar Imaging Satellite of India which took 10 years to build. Project Director for this Mission is Dr.N.Valarmathi second female scientist after AKANURADHA (ISRO GSAT12)to be Project Director of a Mission. Kindly visit www.ournewplanets.com for Powerpoint,Slide show etc...Source:ISRO
- published: 25 Apr 2012
- views: 2652
- author: ssamedia27
PSLV-C16 successfully launched by ISRO
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:57
- Updated: 26 May 2012
The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle -C16 rocket, carrying India's Resourcesat-2 and two nano satellites, has been successfully launched from Sriharikota.
http://wn.com/PSLV-C16_successfully_launched_by_ISRO
The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle -C16 rocket, carrying India's Resourcesat-2 and two nano satellites, has been successfully launched from Sriharikota.
- published: 20 Apr 2011
- views: 7413
- author: newsxlive
ISRO successfully launches GSAT-12 communication satellite
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:54
- Updated: 26 May 2012
After a series of embarrassing launch failures, ISRO bounced back with the successful blast-off of a complex configuration of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle from Sriharikota launching the GSAT-12 satellite into space.
http://wn.com/ISRO_successfully_launches_GSAT-12_communication_satellite
After a series of embarrassing launch failures, ISRO bounced back with the successful blast-off of a complex configuration of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle from Sriharikota launching the GSAT-12 satellite into space.
- published: 15 Jul 2011
- views: 2638
- author: newsxlive
![ISRO child labour issue [ Reporter HD ]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130113023644im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/CWU5AP1yLh4/default.jpg "ISRO child labour issue [ Reporter HD ]")
ISRO child labour issue [ Reporter HD ]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:20
- Updated: 10 Jan 2012
reporteronlive
http://wn.com/ISRO_child_labour_issue_Reporter_HD_
ISRO's PSLV-C15 launched from Sriharikota part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:56
- Updated: 10 Dec 2012
ISRO's PSLV-C15 launched from Sriharikota
http://wn.com/ISRO's_PSLV-C15_launched_from_Sriharikota_part_1
ISRO's PSLV-C15 launched from Sriharikota
- published: 12 Jul 2010
- views: 34324
- author: TeluguSnehatv9
photo: AP / Mohamed Sheikh Nor
12 Jan 2013
Helicopter raid fails to rescue agent 'Denis Allex' from Islamist group al-Shabaab, as French combat pilot killed in Mali. French secret service hostage 'Denis Allex' pictured in Somalia in October 2012. Photograph. SITE Monitoring Service/AFP/Getty Images. A French hostage and two French soldiers have been killed during a failed secret service rescue mission in Somalia ... The group said it had also captured a wounded French commando ... ....(size: 4.7Kb)
photo: AP / Alexandre Meneghini
10 Jan 2013
Mexican has enacted a law that will ensure that the victims and relatives of crime are compensated with payments and social services from the state. The law, enacted by President Enrique Pena Nieto on Wednesday, comprises the creation of a fund to pay relatives up to $70,000 in compensation for an innocent victim killed in attacks by drug gangs ... “There are thousands of people who have suffered the ravages of violence ... Share ... ....(size: 18.3Kb)
photo: AP / Jacques Brinon
10 Jan 2013
PARIS. Three Kurdish women, including one of the founders of a militant group battling Turkish troops since 1984, were "executed" at a Kurdish center in Paris, the interior minister said on Thursday. Turkey's Anadolu news agency identified one of the victims as Sakine Cansiz, a founding member of the Kurdistan Workers Party, or PKK ... He called it a "totally intolerable act." ... ....(size: 1.7Kb)
photo: WN / Bhaskar Mallick
10 Jan 2013
As much as half of the world's food, amounting to two billion tonnes worth, ends up being thrown away, a UK-based report has claimed. The Institution of Mechanical Engineers said the waste was being caused by poor storage, strict sell-by dates, bulk offers and consumer fussiness. The study also found that up to 30% of vegetables in the UK were not harvested because of their physical appearance ... 'Waste of resources' ... Dr Fox said ... ....(size: 2.6Kb)
photo: AP / Arshad Butt
11 Jan 2013
QUETTA, Pakistan -- A series of bombings killed 115 people in Pakistan yesterday, including 81 who died in a sectarian attack on a billiard hall in the southwest city of Quetta, officials said. The blasts punctuated one of the deadliest days in recent years in Pakistan, where the government faces a bloody insurgency by militants in the northwest and Baluch militants in the southwest ... No group claimed responsibility for the attack.. . .....(size: 7.7Kb)
The Times of India
12 Jan 2013
MANGALORE. Kasturirangan, member, Planning Commission , Government of Indaand former Chairman of ISRO visited Campco factory at Puttur along with VV Bhat, member (finance), Atomic Energy Commission, Government of India ... ....(size: 1.3Kb)
Deccan Herald
12 Jan 2013
It is being done to assess the extent of impact the project could have on the Western Ghats. The nine-member panel, which has completed its field visits in Maharashtra, is presently in Karnataka ... Spatial data with much finer resolution (30 meters x 30 meters) has been sought from National Remote Sensing Agency of ISRO and others, and is being superimposed to ascertain the ground conditions of the natural and cultural landscape ... ....(size: 3.3Kb)
The Times of India
11 Jan 2013
THIRUVANANTHAPURAM. Art of Living Foundation founder Sri Sri Ravishankar on Thursday blamed vested interests for the conflict between India and Pakistan. "It's operated by vested interests, corrupt politicians and arms dealers through nexus with mafia who wish to continue such conflicts between two nations" ... ISRO former chairman Dr G Madhavan Nair, Kerala State Council for Science Technology and Environment (KSCSTE) ... ....(size: 2.6Kb)
Seeking Alpha
08 Jan 2013
HERNDON, Va., Jan. 8, 2013 /PRNewswire/ -- GeoEye, Inc ... (Logo. http.//photos.prnewswire.com/prnh/20080625/LAW528LOGO) ... NRSC will oversee the delivery of the imagery to RITES and the Indian Railways Ministry ... Located at Hyderabad , NRSC is one of the centers of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), striving to realize the Indian Space Vision, as a key player in Earth Observation program and Disaster Management Support program ... ....(size: 6.1Kb)
Indian Express
07 Jan 2013
Indias bid to explore Mars will be a scaled-down affair with the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) launching experimental payload of less than 15 kg as against 25 kg planned originally ... Work on the Mars Orbiter Mission is going on in full force and equipment for the five experiments planned during the mission are expected to be delivered to ISRO in March....(size: 1.8Kb)
The Hindu
07 Jan 2013
The use of Telemedicine for the management of patients under intensive care is not far away. The Sri Ramachandra Medical College (SRMC) Telemedicine Department Chairman K. Selvakumar said that the college had procured a robot that will be used in the hospital wards and ICUs to manage patients ... Former scientific secretary of ISRO A. Bhaskar Narayana explained in detail how ISRO created the satellite technology required for telemedicine....(size: 2.8Kb)
The Times of India
06 Jan 2013
In an exclusive interview to TOI, ISRO chairman K Radhakrishnan speaks about the increasing number of commercial launches by the space agency, entrusting private players with the task of building rockets and satellites and on the formation of a consortium to build PSLV for 21 consecutive launches by 2017 ... How does the trend of entrusting private players with the task of building rockets and satellites help Isro?....(size: 4.1Kb)
The Hindu
06 Jan 2013
Work on the Mars Orbiter Mission is going on full steam and equipments for the five experiments planned during the mission are expected to be delivered to ISRO in March. ISRO’s trusted warhorse rocket PSLV-XL is expected to launch the mission some time in October from the spaceport Sriharikota which will first keep orbiting the Earth, achieving the necessary velocity to escape the Earth’s gravitational pull....(size: 3.3Kb)
photo: PIB
06 Jan 2013
Work on the Mars Orbiter Mission is going on full steam and equipments for the five experiments planned during the mission are expected to be delivered to ISRO in March. ISRO’s trusted warhorse rocket PSLV-XL is expected to launch the mission some time in October from the spaceport Sriharikota which will first keep orbiting the Earth, achieving the necessary velocity to escape the Earth’s gravitational pull....(size: 3.3Kb)
Deccan Herald
06 Jan 2013
Deccan Herald
06 Jan 2013
Work on the Mars Orbiter Mission is going on full steam and equipment of the five experiments planned during the mission are expected to be delivered to ISRO in March. ISRO's trusted warhorse rocket PSLV-XL is expected to launch the mission some time in October from the spaceport Sriharikota which will first keep orbiting the earth, achieving the necessary velocity to escape the earth's gravitational pull ... ....(size: 3.2Kb)
Deccan Chronicle
06 Jan 2013
. Kolkata ... Work on the Mars Orbiter Mission is going on full steam and equipment of the five experiments planned during the mission are expected to be delivered to ISRO in March. ISRO's trusted warhorse rocket PSLV-XL is expected to launch the mission sometime in October from the spaceport Sriharikota which will first keep orbiting the earth, achieving the necessary velocity to escape the earth's gravitational pull ... ....(size: 3.1Kb)
Zeenews
06 Jan 2013
Kolkata ... Work on the Mars Orbiter Mission is going on full steam and equipment of the five experiments planned during the mission are expected to be delivered to ISRO in March. ISRO's trusted warhorse rocket PSLV-XL is expected to launch the mission some time in October from the spaceport Sriharikota which will first keep orbiting the earth, achieving the necessary velocity to escape the earth's gravitational pull ... PTI ... First Published ... ....(size: 3.6Kb)
Coordinates: 12°58′0″N 77°34′0″E / 12.966667°N 77.566667°E / 12.966667; 77.566667
| 173px ISRO logo |
|
| Established | August 15, 1969 (1969-08-15) (42 years ago) (Superseded INCOSPAR) |
|---|---|
| Headquarters | Bangalore, India |
| Primary spaceport | Satish Dhawan Space Centre |
| Administrator | K. Radhakrishnan, Chairman |
| Budget |  66 billion (US$1.32 billion) (2010-11)[1] |
| Website | www.isro.org |
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO, /ˈɪəɛrɵ/; Hindi: भारतीय अंतरिक्ष अनुसंधान संगठन Bhāratīya Antarikṣa Anusandhāna Saṅgaṭhana) is the primary space agency of the Indian government ISRO is among the six largest space research organisations in the world. Its primary objective is to advance space technology and use its applications for national benefit.[2]
Established in 1969, ISRO superseded the erstwhile Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR). Headquartered in Bangalore, ISRO is under the administrative control of the Department of Space, Government of India.
ISRO has achieved numerous milestones since its establishment. India’s first satellite, Aryabhata, was built by ISRO and launched by the Soviet Union in 1975. Rohini, the first satellite to be placed in orbit by an Indian-made launch vehicle, SLV-3), was launched in 1980. ISRO subsequently developed two other rockets: the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) for putting satellites into polar orbits and the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) for placing satellites into geostationary orbits. These rockets have launched numerous communications satellites, earth observation satellites, and, in 2008, Chandrayaan-1, India’s first mission to the Moon.
Over the years, ISRO has conducted a variety of operations for both Indian and foreign clients. ISRO's satellite launch capability is mostly provided by indigenous launch vehicles and launch sites. In 2008, ISRO successfully launched its first lunar probe, Chandrayaan-1, while future plans include indigenous development of GSLV, manned space missions, further lunar exploration, and interplanetary probes. ISRO has several field installations as assets, and cooperates with the international community as a part of several bilateral and multilateral agreements.
Objective[link]
The objective of ISRO (Indian Space Research Organization) is to develop space technology and its application to various national tasks. Accordingly Indian Research Space Organization(ISRO) has successfully put into operation two major satellite systems namely Indian national Satellites(INSAT) for communication services and Indian Remote Sensing(IRS) satellites for management for natural resources; also, Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle(PSLV) for launching IRS type of satellite and Geostationary Satellite Launch Vehicle(GSLV) for INSAT type of satellites.
Formative years[link]
Modern space research in India is most visibly traced to the activities of scientist S. K. Mitra who conducted a series of experiments leading to the sounding of the ionosphere by application of ground based radio methods in 1920's Calcutta.[3] Later, Indian scientists like C.V. Raman and Meghnad Saha contributed to scientific principles applicable in space sciences.[3] However, it was the period after 1945 which saw important developments being made in coordinated space research in India.[3] Organized space research in India was spearheaded by two scientists: Vikram Sarabhai—founder of the Physical Research Laboratory at Ahmedabad—and Homi Bhabha, who had played a role in the establishment of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in 1945.[3] Initial experiments in space sciences included the study of cosmic radiation, high altitude and airborne testing of instruments, deep underground experimentation at the Kolar mines—one of the deepest mining sites in the world — and studies of the upper atmosphere.[4] Studies were carried out at research laboratories, universities, and independent locations.[4][5]
Government support became visible by 1950 when the Department of Atomic Energy was founded with Homi Bhabha as secretary.[5] The Department of Atomic Energy provided funding for space research throughout India.[6] Tests on the Earth's magnetic field—studied in India since the establishment of the observatory at Colaba in 1823—and aspects of meteorology continued to yield valuable information and in 1954, Uttar Pradesh state observatory was established at the foothills of the Himalayas.[5] The Rangpur Observatory was set up in 1957 at Osmania University, Hyderabad.[5] Both these facilities enjoyed the technical support and scientific cooperation of the United States of America.[5] Space research was further encouraged by the technically inclined prime minister of India—Jawaharlal Nehru.[6] In 1957, the Soviet Union successfully launched Sputnik and opened up possibilities for the rest of the world to conduct a space launch.[6] The Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was found in 1962 with Vikram Sarabhai as its chairman.[6]
Goals and objectives[link]
The prime objective of ISRO is to develop space technology and its application to various national tasks.[2] The Indian space program was driven by the vision of Dr Vikram Sarabhai, considered the father of Indian Space Programme.[7] As stated by him:
| “ | There are some who question the relevance of space activities in a developing nation. To us, there is no ambiguity of purpose. We do not have the fantasy of competing with the economically advanced nations in the exploration of the moon or the planets or manned space-flight. But we are convinced that if we are to play a meaningful role nationally, and in the community of nations, we must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to the real problems of man and society.[2] | ” |
As also pointed out by Dr APJ Kalam:
| “ | Many individuals with myopic vision questioned the relevance of space activities in a newly independent nation, which was finding it difficult to feed its population. Their vision was clear if Indians were to play meaningful role in the community of nations, they must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to their real-life problems. They had no intention of using it as a means of displaying our might.[8] | ” |
India's economic progress has made its space program more visible and active as the country aims for greater self-reliance in space technology.[9] Hennock etc. hold that India also connects space exploration to national prestige, further stating: "This year India has launched 11 satellites, including nine from other countries—and it became the first nation to launch 10 satellites on one rocket."[9] Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has successfully put into operation two major satellite systems namely Indian National Satellites (INSAT) for communication services and Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites for management of natural resources; also, Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) for launching IRS type of satellites and Geostationary Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) for launching INSAT type of satellites.
Launch vehicle fleet[link]
Geopolitical and economic considerations during the 1960s and 1970s compelled India to initiate its own launch vehicle program. During the first phase (1960s-1970s) the country successfully developed a sounding rockets program, and by the 1980s, research had yielded the Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 and the more advanced Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), complete with operational supporting infrastructure.[10] ISRO further applied its energies to the advancement of launch vehicle technology resulting in the creation of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) technologies.
Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV)[link]
Main article: Satellite Launch Vehicle
-
- Status: Decommissioned
The Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation SLV or SLV-3 was a 4-stage solid-fuel light launcher. It was intended to reach a height of 500 km and carry a payload of 40 kg.[11] Its first launch took place in 1979 with 2 more in each subsequent year, and the final launch in 1983. Only two of its four test flights were successful.[12]
Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV)[link]
Main article: ASLV
-
- Status: Decommissioned
The Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation ASLV was a 5-stage solid propellant rocket with the capability of placing a 150 kg satellite into LEO. This project was started by the ISRO during the early 1980s to develop technologies needed for a payload to be placed into a geostationary orbit. Its design was based on Satellite Launch Vehicle.[13] The first launch test was held in 1987, and after that 3 others followed in 1988, 1992 and 1994, out of which only 2 were successful, before it was decommissioned.[12]
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)[link]
Main article: PSLV
-
- Status: Active
The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation PSLV, is an expendable launch system developed to allow India to launch its Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites into sun synchronous orbits, a service that was, until the advent of the PSLV, commercially viable only from Russia. PSLV can also launch small satellites into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). The reliability and versatility of the PSLV is proven by the fact that it has launched 30 spacecraft (14 Indian and 16 from other countries) into a variety of orbits so far.[14] In April 2008, it successfully launched 10 satellites at once, breaking a world record held by Russia.[15]
On July 15, 2011 the PSLV flew its 18th consecutive successful mission orbiting satellites. Its only failure in 19 flights was its maiden voyage in September 1993, providing the rocket with a 94 percent success rate.[16]
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)[link]
Main article: GSLV
-
- Status: Active
The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation GSLV, is an expendable launch system developed to enable India to launch its INSAT-type satellites into geostationary orbit and to make India less dependent on foreign rockets. At present, it is ISRO's heaviest satellite launch vehicle and is capable of putting a total payload of up to 5 tons to Low Earth Orbit. The vehicle is built by India with the cryogenic engine purchased from Russia while the ISRO develops its own engine program.
In a setback for ISRO, the latest attempt to launch the GSLV, GSLV-F06 carrying GSAT-5P, failed on 25 December 2010. The initial evaluation implies that loss of control for the strap-on boosters caused the rocket to veer from its intended flight path, forcing a programmed detonation. Sixty-four seconds into the first stage of flight, the rocket began to break up due to the acute angle of attack. The body housing the 3rd stage, the cryogenic stage, incurred structural damage, forcing the range safety team to initiate a programmed detonation of the rocket.[17]
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark-III (GSLV III)[link]
Main article: GSLV III
-
- Status: In Development
The Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark-III is a launch vehicle currently under development by the Indian Space Research Organisation. It is intended to launch heavy satellites into geostationary orbit, and will allow India to become less dependent on foreign rockets for heavy lifting. The rocket, though the technological successor to the GSLV, however is not derived from its predecessor. The maiden flight is scheduled to take place in 2012.[18]
Earth observation and communication satellites[link]
India's first satellite, the Aryabhata, was launched by the Soviet Union on 19 April 1975 from Kapustin Yar using a Cosmos-3M launch vehicle. This was followed by the Rohini series of experimental satellites which were built and launched indigenously. At present, ISRO operates a large number of earth observation satellites.
The INSAT series[link]
Main article: Indian National Satellite System
INSAT (Indian National Satellite System) is a series of multi-purpose geostationary satellites launched by ISRO to satisfy the telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology and search-and-rescue needs of India. Commissioned in 1983, INSAT is the largest domestic communication system in the Asia-Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of the Department of Space, Department of Telecommunications, India Meteorological Department, All India Radio and Doordarshan. The overall coordination and management of INSAT system rests with the Secretary-level INSAT Coordination Committee.
The IRS series[link]
Main article: Indian Remote Sensing satellite
Indian Remote Sensing satellites (IRS) are a series of earth observation satellites, built, launched and maintained by ISRO. The IRS series provides remote sensing services to the country. The Indian Remote Sensing Satellite system is the largest constellation of remote sensing satellites for civilian use in operation today in the world. All the satellites are placed in polar sun-synchronous orbit and provide data in a variety of spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to enable several programs to be undertaken relevant to national development. The initial versions are composed of the 1 (A,B,C,D) nomenclature. The later versions are named based on their area of application including OceanSat, CartoSat, ResourceSat.
Radar Imaging Satellites[link]
ISRO currently operates two Radar Imaging Satellites.RISAT-1 was launched from Sriharikota Spaceport on 26 April 2012 onboard a PSLV.RISAT-1 carries a C-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) payload, operating in a multi-polarisation and multi-resolution mode and can provide images with coarse, fine and high spatial resolutions.[19].India also operates RISAT-2 which was launched in 2009 and acquired from Israel at a cost $110 million.[20]
Other satellites[link]
ISRO has also launched a set of experimental geostationary satellites known as the GSAT series. Kalpana-1, ISRO's first dedicated meteorological satellite,[21] was launched by the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle on 12 September 2002.[22] The satellite was originally known as MetSat-1.[23] In February 2003 it was renamed to Kalpana-1 by the the Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in memory of Kalpana Chawla – a NASA astronaut of Indian origin who perished in Space Shuttle Columbia.
Extraterrestrial exploration[link]
India's first mission beyond Earth's orbit was Chandrayaan-1, a lunar spacecraft which successfully entered the lunar orbit on 8 November 2008. ISRO plans to follow up Chandrayaan-1 with Chandrayaan-2 and unmanned missions to Mars and Near-Earth objects such as asteroids and comets.
Lunar exploration[link]
Main article: Chandrayaan-1
Chandrayaan-1 (Sanskrit: चंद्रयान-१) is India's first mission to the moon. The unmanned lunar exploration mission includes a lunar orbiter and an impactor called the Moon Impact Probe. India launched the spacecraft using a modified version of the PSLV is C11 on 22 October 2008 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota. The vehicle was successfully inserted into lunar orbit on 8 November 2008. It carries high-resolution remote sensing equipment for visible, near infrared, and soft and hard X-ray frequencies. Over its two-year operational period, it is intended to survey the lunar surface to produce a complete map of its chemical characteristics and 3-dimensional topography. The polar regions are of special interest, as they might contain ice. The lunar mission carries five ISRO payloads and six payloads from other international space agencies including NASA, ESA, and the Bulgarian Aerospace Agency, which were carried free of cost. The Chandrayaan-1 became the first lunar mission to discover existence of water on the moon.[24]
Mars orbiter mission[link]
The Indian Space Research Organisation is preparing an orbiter mission to Mars and received 
125 crore (over USD$24 million) from the government to complete the required studies.[25] The space agency is looking at a November 2013 launch and would use its Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle rocket to put the satellite in orbit.[25] The agency is also considering using ion-thrusters, liquid engines or nuclear power to propel the bus further towards Mars.[26] Scientific proposals and specific objectives are still in progress.[27][25]
The November 2013 launch would allow the spacecraft to enter a highly elliptical orbit of 500 km x 80,000 km around Mars in September 2014. The proposed payload of 25kg consists of ten instruments, including:[28][29]
- Probe For Infrared Spectroscopy for Mars (Prism)
- Mars Exospheric Neutral Composition Analyzer (Menca)
- "TIS" instrument (thermal emissions)
- Mars Color Camera (MCC)
- Methane Sensor For Mars (MSM)
- Mars Radiation Spectrometer (Maris)
- Plasma and Current Experiment (Pace)
Human spaceflight program[link]
Main article: Indian human spaceflight program
The Indian Space Research Organisation has been sanctioned a budget of 12,400 crore (US$2.47 billion) for its human spaceflight program.[30] According to the Space Commission which passed the budget, an unmanned flight will be launched in 2013[31] and manned mission will launch in 2016.[32] If realized in the stated time-frame, India will become the fourth nation, after the USSR, USA and China, to successfully carry out manned missions indigenously.
Technology demonstration[link]
The Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SCRE or more commonly SRE or SRE-1)[33] is an experimental Indian spacecraft which was launched using the PSLV C7 rocket, along with three other satellites. It remained in orbit for 12 days before re-entering the Earth's atmosphere and splashing down into the Bay of Bengal.[34]
The SRE-1 was designed to demonstrate the capability to recover an orbiting space capsule, and the technology for performing experiments in the microgravity conditions of an orbiting platform. It was also intended to test thermal protection, navigation, guidance, control, deceleration and flotation systems, as well as study hypersonic aero-thermodynamics, management of communication blackouts, and recovery operations.
ISRO also plans to launch SRE-2 and SRE-3 in the near future to test advanced re-entry technology for future manned missions.[35]
Astronaut training and other facilities[link]
ISRO will set up an astronaut training centre in Bangalore by 2012 to prepare personnel for flights on board the crewed vehicle. The centre will use water simulation to train the selected astronauts in rescue and recovery operations and survival in zero gravity, and will undertake studies of the radiation environment of space.
ISRO will build centrifuges to prepare astronauts for the acceleration phase of the mission. It also plans to build a new Launch pad to meet the target of launching a manned space mission by 2015. This would be the third launchpad at the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota.
Development of crew vehicle[link]
Main article: ISRO Orbital Vehicle
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is working towards a maiden manned Indian space mission vehicle that can carry three astronauts for seven days in a near earth orbit. The Indian manned spacecraft temporarily named as Orbital Vehicle intends to be the basis of indigenous Indian human spaceflight program.
The capsule will be designed to carry three people, and a planned upgraded version will be equipped with a rendezvous and docking capability. In its maiden manned mission, ISRO's largely autonomous 3-ton capsule will orbit the Earth at 248 miles (400 km) in altitude for up to seven days with a two-person crew on board. The crew vehicle would launch atop of ISRO's GSLV Mk II, currently under development. The GSLV Mk II features an indigenously developed cryogenic upper-stage engine.[36] The first test of the cryogenic engine, held on 15 April 2010, failed as the cryogenic phase did not perform as expected and rocket deviated from the planned trajectory.[37] A future launch has been scheduled for 2011. If successful then ISRO will become the sixth entity, after United States, Russia, China, Japan and Europe, to develop this technology.
Planetary sciences and astronomy[link]
India's space era dawned when the first two-stage sounding rocket was launched from Thumba in 1963. Even before this, noteworthy contributions were made by the Indian scientists in the following areas of space science research:
- Cosmic rays and high energy astronomy using both ground based as well as balloon borne experiments/studies such as neutron/meson monitors, Geiger Muller particle detectors/counters etc.
- Ionospheric research using ground based radio propagation techniques such as ionosonde, VLF/HF/VHF radio probing, a chain of magnetometer stations etc.
- Upper atmospheric research using ground based optical techniques such as Dobson spectrometers for measurement of total ozone content, air glow photometers etc.
- Indian astronomers have been carrying out major investigations using a number of ground based optical and radio telescopes with varying sophistication.
With the advent of the Indian space program, emphasis was laid on indigenous, self-reliant and state-of-the-art development of technology for immediate practical applications in the fields of space science research activities in the country.
There is a national balloon launching facility at Hyderabad jointly supported by TIFR and ISRO. This facility has been extensively used for carrying out research in high energy (i.e., X- and gamma ray) astronomy, IR astronomy, middle atmospheric trace constituents including CFCs & aerosols, ionisation, electric conductivity and electric fields.
The flux of secondary particles and X-ray and gamma-rays of atmospheric origin produced by the interaction of the cosmic rays is very low. This low background, in the presence of which one has to detect the feeble signal from cosmic sources is a major advantage in conducting hard X-ray observations from India. The second advantage is that many bright sources like Cyg X-1, Crab Nebula, Scorpius X-1 and Galactic Centre sources are observable from Hyderabad due to their favourable declination. With these considerations, an X-ray astronomy group was formed at TIFR in 1967 and development of an instrument with an orientable X-ray telescope for hard X-ray observations was undertaken. The first balloon flight with the new instrument was made on 28 April 1968 in which observations of Scorpius X-1 were successfully carried out. In a succession of balloon flights made with this instrument between 1968 and 1974 a number of binary X-ray sources including Scorpius X-1, Cyg X-1, Her X-1 etc. and the diffuse cosmic X-ray background were studied. Many new and astrophysically important results were obtained from these observations.[38]
One of most important achievements of ISRO in this field was the discovery of three species of bacteria in the upper stratosphere at an altitude of between 20–40 km. The bacteria, highly resistant to ultra-violet radiation, are not found elsewhere on Earth, leading to speculation on whether they are extraterrestrial in origin. These three bacteria can be considered to be extremophiles. Until then, the upper stratosphere was believed to be inhospitable because of the high doses of ultra-violet radiation. The bacteria were named as Bacillus isronensis in recognition of ISRO's contribution in the balloon experiments, which led to its discovery, Bacillus aryabhata after India's celebrated ancient astronomer Aryabhata and Janibacter Hoylei after the distinguished astrophysicist Fred Hoyle.[39]
Facilities[link]
ISRO's headquarters is located at Antariksh Bhavan in Bangalore.
Research facilities[link]
| Facility | Location | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Physical Research Laboratory | Ahmedabad | Solar planetary physics, infrared astronomy, geo-cosmo physics, plasma physics, astrophysics, archaeology, and hydrology are some of the branches of study at this institute.[40] An observatory at Udaipur also falls under the control of this institution.[40] |
| Semi-Conductor Laboratory | Chandigarh | Research & Development in the field of semiconductor technology, micro-electromechanical systems and process technologies relating to semiconductor processing. |
| National Atmospheric Research Laboratory | Chittoor | The NARL carries out fundamental and applied research in Atmospheric and Space Sciences. |
| Space Applications Centre | Ahmedabad | The SAC deals with the various aspects of practical use of space technology.[40] Among the fields of research at the SAC are geodesy, satellite based telecommunications, surveying, remote sensing, meteorology, environment monitoring etc.[40] The SEC additionally operates the Delhi Earth Station.[41] |
| North Eastern-Space Applications Center | Shillong | Providing developmental support to North East by undertaking specific application projects using remote sensing, GIS, satellite communication and conducting space science research. |
Test facilities[link]
| Facility | Location | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre | Bangalore, Thiruvananthapuram, and Nagercoil | The LPSC handles testing and implementation of liquid propulsion control packages and helps develop engines for launch vehicles and satellites.[40] The testing is largely conducted at Mahendragiri.[40] The LPSC also constructs precision transducers.[42] |
Construction and launch facilities[link]
| Facility | Location | Description |
|---|---|---|
| ISRO Satellite Centre | Bangalore | The venue of eight successful spacecraft projects is also one of the main satellite technology bases of ISRO. The facility serves as a venue for implementing indigenous spacecraft in India.[40] The satellites Ayrabhata, Bhaskara, APPLE, and IRS-1A were constructed at this site, and the IRS and INSAT satellite series are presently under development here.[42] |
| Laboratory for Electro-Optics Systms-LEOS | Bangalore | The Unit of ISRO responsible for the development of attitude sensors for all satellites. The high precision optics for all cameras and payloads in all ISRO satellites including Chandrayaan-1 are developed at this laboratory. Located at Peenya Industrial Estate, Bangalore. |
| Satish Dhawan Space Centre | Sriharikota | With multiple sub-sites the Sriharikota island facility acts as a launching site for India's satellites.[40] The Sriharikota facility is also the main launch base for India's sounding rockets.[42] The centre is also home to India's largest Solid Propellant Space Booster Plant (SPROB) and houses the Static Test and Evaluation Complex (STEX).[42] |
| Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre | Thiruvananthapuram | The largest ISRO base is also the main technical centre and the venue of development of the SLV-3, ASLV, and PSLV series.[40] The base supports India's Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station and the Rohini Sounding Rocket program.[40] This facility is also developing the GSLV series.[40] |
| Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station | Thiruvananthapuram | TERLS is used to launch sounding rockets. |
Tracking and control facilities[link]
| Facility | Location | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Indian Deep Space Network (IDSN) | Bangalore | This network receives, processes, archives and distributes the spacecraft health data and payload data in real time. It can track and monitor satellites up to very large distances, even beyond the Moon. |
| National Remote Sensing Centre | Hyderabad | The NRSC applies remote sensing to manage natural resources and study aerial surveying.[40] With centres at Balanagar and Shadnagar it also has training facilities at Dehradun in form of the Indian Institute of Remote Sensing.[40] |
| Indian Space Research Organisation Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network | Bangalore (headquarters) and a number of ground stations throughout India and World.[41] | Software development, ground operations, Tracking Telemetry and Command (TTC), and support is provided by this institution.[40] ISTRAC has Tracking stations throughout the country and all over the world in Port Louis (Mauritius), Bearslake (Russia), Biak (Indonesia) and Brunei. |
| Master Control Facility | Hassan; Karnataka | Geostationary satellite orbit raising, payload testing, and in-orbit operations are performed at this facility.[43] The MCF has earth stations and Satellite Control Centre (SCC) for controlling satellites.[43] A second MCF-like facility named 'MCF-B' is being constructed at Bhopal.[43] |
Human resource development[link]
| Facility | Location | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS) | Dehradun | Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS), an independent unit of Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), Department of Space, Govt. of India is a premier training and educational institute set up for developing trained professionals (P.G and PhD level) in the field of Remote Sensing, Geoinformatics and GPS Technology for Natural Resources, Environmental and Disaster Management. IIRS is also executing many R&D projects on Remote Sensing and GIS for societal applications. |
| Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST) | Thiruvananthapuram | The institute offers undergraduate and graduate courses in Aerospace engineering, Avionics and Physical Sciences. The students of first batch of IIST were inducted into different ISRO centres in the end of July 2011. |
| Development and Educational Communication Unit | Ahmedabad | The centre works for education, research, and training, mainly in conjunction with the INSAT program.[40] The main activities carried out at DECU include GRAMSAT and EDUSAT projects.[42] The Training and Development Communication Channel (TDCC) also falls under the operational control of the DECU.[41] |
Commercial wing[link]
| Facility | Location | Description |
|---|---|---|
| Antrix Corporation | Bangalore | The marketing agency under government control markets ISRO's hardware, manpower, and software.[43] |
Other facilities include:
- Balasore Rocket Launching Station (BRLS) – Orissa
- INSAT Master Control Facility (IMCF) – Bhopal
- ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU) – Thiruvananthapuram
- Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS)
- Aerospace Command of India (ACI)
- Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR)
- Inter University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA)
- Indian Department of Space (IDS)
- Indian Space Science Data Centre (ISSDC)
- Spacecraft Control Centre (SCC)
- Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres (RRSSC)
- Development and Educational Communication Unit (DECU)
Vision for the future[link]
ISRO plans to launch a number of new-generation Earth Observation Satellites in the near future. It will also undertake the development of new launch vehicles and spacecraft. ISRO has stated that it will send unmanned missions to Mars and Near-Earth Objects.
Forthcoming Satellites
| Satellite Name | Details |
|---|---|
| INSAT-3D | INSAT-3D is a meteorological satellite, planned to be launched on-board GSLV in September 2012. The satellite has many new technology elements like star sensor, micro stepping Solar Array Drive Assembly (SADA) to reduce the spacecraft disturbances and Bus Management Unit (BMU) for control and telecomm and/telemetry function. It also incorporates new features of bi-annual rotation and Image and Mirror motion compensations for improved performance of the meteorological payloads. |
| SARAL | The Satellite for ARGOS and ALTIKA (SARAL) is a joint ISRO-CNES mission and planned to be launched December 2013. The Ka band altimeter, ALTIKA, provided by CNES payload consists of a Ka-band radar altimeter, operating at 35.75 GHz. A dual frequency total power type microwave radiometer (23.8 and 37 GHz) is embedded in the altimeter to correct tropospheric effects on the altimeter measurement. Doppler Orbitography and Radio-positioning Integrated by Satellite (DORIS) on board enables precise determination of the orbit. A Laser Retroreflector Array (LRA) helps to calibrate the precise orbit determination system and the altimeter system several times throughout the mission. |
| ASTROSAT | ASTROSAT is a first dedicated Indian Astronomy satellite mission, which will enable multi-wavelength observations of the celestial bodies and cosmic sources in X-ray and UV spectral bands simultaneously. The scientific payloads cover the Visible (3500-6000 Å ), UV (1300-3000 Å ), soft and hard X-ray regimes (0.5-8 keV; 3-80 keV). The uniqueness of ASTROSAT lies in its wide spectral coverage extending over visible, UV, soft and hard X-ray regions. |
| GSAT-6 / INSAT-4E | The primary goal of GSAT-6/INSAT-4E, which is a Multimedia broadcast satellite, is to cater to the consumer requirements of providing entertainment and information services to vehicles through Digital Multimedia consoles and to the Multimedia mobile Phones. The satellite carries a 5 spot beam BSS and 5 spot beam MSS. It will be positioned at 83° East longitude with a mission life of 12 years. |
| GSAT-7 / INSAT-4F | GSAT-7/INSAT-4F is a multi-band satellite carrying payloads in UHF, S-band, C-band and Ku band. The satellite weighs 2330 kg with a payload power of 2000W and mission life of 9 years. |
| GSAT-9 | GSAT-9 will carry 6 C band and 24 Ku band transponders with India coverage beam. The satellite is planned to be launched during 2011-12 with a mission life of 12 years and positioned at 48° East longitude. This I-2K satellite has a liftoff mass of 2330 kg and payload power of 2300 W. |
| GSAT-10 | GSAT-I0 will carry 12 Normal C-band, 12 Extended C-band and 12 Ku band transponders. It will also carry GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) payload. The satellite is planned to be launched during 2011 with a mission life of 15 years and positioned at 83° East longitude. This I-3K satellite with liftoff mass of 3435 kg and payload power of 4500 W will be launched on board ARIANE-5. |
| GSAT-11 | GSAT-11 is based on I-4K bus which is under advanced stage of development. The spacecraft can generate 10-12 KW of power and can support payload power of 8KW. The payload configuration is on-going. It consists of 16 spot beams covering entire country including Andaman & Nicobar islands. The communication link to the user-end terminals operate in Ku-band while the communication link to the hubs operate in Ka-band. The payload is configured to be operated as a high data throughput satellite, to be realised in orbit in 2013 time frame. |
| GSAT-14 | GSAT-14 is intended to serve as a replacement for EDUSAT as the spacecraft is configured with 6 Ku and 6 Ext C band transponders providing India coverage beams. In addition, the spacecraft also carries Ka band beacons, which are planned to be used to carry out studies related to rain and atmospheric effects on Ka band satellite communication links in Indian region. The spacecraft weighs around 2050 kg and is planned to be launched by GSLV with indigenous cryogenic upper stage. |
| IRNSS-1 | Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS)-1, the first of the seven satellites of the IRNSS constellation, carries a Navigation payload and a C-band ranging transponder. The spacecraft employs an optimised I-1K structure with a power handling capability of around 1600W and a lift off mass of 1380 kg, and is designed for a nominal mission life of 7 years. The first satellite of IRNSS constellation is planned to be launched onboard PSLV during 2012-13 while the full constellation is planned to be realised during 2014 time frame. |
Future launch vehicles[link]
GSLV-Mk III
GSLV-Mk III is envisaged to launch four tonne satellite into geosynchronous transfer orbit. GSLV-Mk III is a three-stage vehicle with a 110 tonne core liquid propellant stage (L-110) and a strap-on stage with two solid propellant motors, each with 200 tonne propellant (S-200). The upper stage will be cryogenic with a propellant loading of 25 tonne (C-25). GSLV Mk-III will have a lift-off weight of about 626 tonne and will be 43.43 m tall. The payload fairing will have a diameter of 5 metre and a payload volume of 100 cubic metre. GSLV Mk III is planned to be launched during 2013.
Reusable Launch Vehicle-Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD)
As a first step towards realizing a Two Stage To Orbit (TSTO) fully re-usable launch vehicle, a series of technology demonstration missions have been conceived. For this purpose a Winged Reusable Launch Vehicle technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) has been configured. The RLV-TD will act as a flying test bed to evaluate various technologies viz., hypersonic flight, autonomous landing, powered cruise flight and hypersonic flight using air-breathing propulsion. First in the series of demonstration trials is the hypersonic flight experiment (HEX). Human Space Flight Mission Programme
Space exploration[link]
Lunar exploration program
Following the success of Chandrayaan-1, the country's first moon mission, ISRO is planning a series of further lunar missions in the next decade, including a manned mission which is stated to take place in 2020 – approximately the same time as the China National Space Administration (CNSA) manned lunar mission and NASA's Project Constellation plans to return to the moon with its Orion-Altair project.[citation needed]
- Chandrayaan-2 (Sanskrit: चंद्रयान-२) India’s second unmanned mission to the Moon, will have an Orbiter and Lander-Rover module. ISRO will have the prime responsibility for the Orbiter and Rover; Roskosmos, Russia will be responsible for Lander. Chandrayaan-2 will be launched on India’s Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV-MkII) around 2012-13 timeframe. The science goals of the mission are to further improve the understanding of the origin and evolution of the Moon using instruments onboard Orbiter and in-situ analysis of lunar samples using Lander and Rover.
Mars exploration program
- ISRO plans to carry out an unmanned mission to Mars in this decade. According to ISRO, the Mars mission remains at a conceptual stage but is expected to be finalised shortly. The current version of India's geo-synchronous satellite launch vehicle will be used to lift the new craft into space.[45]
Solar exploration program
- ISRO plans to carry out an unmanned mission to Sun by the year 2014. The probe is named as Aditya-1 and will weigh about 700 kg.[46]
Space science missions[link]
Space Capsule Recovery Experiment II The main objective of SRE II is to realize a fully recoverable capsule and provide a platform to conduct microgravity experiments on Micro-biology, Agriculture, Powder Metallurgy, etc. SRE-2 is proposed to be launched on board PSLV.
Aditya (spacecraft) The First Indian space based Solar Coronagraph to study solar Corona in visible and near IR bands. Launch of the Aditya mission is planned during the next high solar activity period ~ 2012. The main objectives is to study the Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) and consequently the crucial physical parameters for space weather such as the coronal magnetic field structures, evolution of the coronal magnetic field etc. This will provide completely new information on the velocity fields and their variability in the inner corona having an important bearing on the unsolved problem of heating of the corona would be obtained.
Satellite navigation[link]
GAGAN
The Ministry of Civil Aviation has decided to implement an indigenous Satellite-Based Regional GPS Augmentation System also known as Space-Based Augmentation System (SBAS) as part of the Satellite-Based Communications, Navigation and Surveillance (CNS)/Air Traffic Management (ATM) plan for civil aviation. The Indian SBAS system has been given an acronym GAGAN - GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation. A national plan for satellite navigation including implementation of Technology Demonstration System (TDS) over the Indian air space as a proof of concept has been prepared jointly by Airports Authority of India (AAI) and ISRO. TDS was successfully completed during 2007 by installing eight Indian Reference Stations (INRESs) at eight Indian airports and linked to the Master Control Center (MCC) located near Bangalore.
The first GAGAN navigation payload has been fabricated and it was proposed to be flown on GSAT-4 during Apr 2010. However, GSAT-4 was not placed in orbit as GSLV-D3 could not complete the mission. Two more GAGAN payloads will be subsequently flown, one each on two geostationary satellites, GSAT-8 and GSAT-10. On 12th May, 2012, ISRO announced the successful testing of its indigenous cryogenic engine for 200 seconds for its forthcoming GSLV-D5 flight. [47]
IRNSS
Main article: IRNSS
The Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS) is an autonomous regional satellite navigation system being developed by Indian Space Research Organisation which would be under total control of Indian government. The requirement of such a navigation system is driven by the fact that access to Global Navigation Satellite Systems like GPS are not guaranteed in hostile situations. ISRO plans to launch the constellation of satellites between 2010 and 2012.
Applications[link]
India uses its satellites communication network – one of the largest in the world – for applications such as land management, water resources management, natural disaster forecasting, radio networking, weather forecasting, meteorological imaging and computer communication.[48] Business, administrative services, and schemes such as the National Informatics Centre (NICNET) are direct beneficiaries of applied satellite technology.[49] Dinshaw Mistry—on the subject of practical applications of the Indian space program—writes:
The INSAT-2 satellites also provide telephone links to remote areas; data transmission for organizations such as the National Stock Exchange; mobile satellite service communications for private operators, railways, and road transport; and broadcast satellite services, used by India’s state-owned television agency as well as commercial television channels. India’s EDUSAT (Educational Satellite), launched aboard the GSLV in 2004, was intended for adult literacy and distance learning applications in rural areas. It augmented and would eventually replace such capabilities already provided by INSAT-3B.
The IRS satellites have found applications with the Indian Natural Resource Management program, with regional Remote Sensing Service Centers in five Indian cities, and with Remote Sensing Application Centers in twenty Indian states that use IRS images for economic development applications. These include environmental monitoring, analyzing soil erosion and the impact of soil conservation measures, forestry management, determining land cover for wildlife sanctuaries, delineating groundwater potential zones, flood inundation mapping, drought monitoring, estimating crop acreage and deriving agricultural production estimates, fisheries monitoring, mining and geological applications such as surveying metal and mineral deposits, and urban planning.
India’s satellites and satellite launch vehicles have had military spin-offs. While India’s 93–124 mile (150–250 km) range Prithvi missile is not derived from the Indian space program, the intermediate range Agni missile is drawn from the Indian space program’s SLV-3. In its early years, when headed by Vikram Sarabhai and Satish Dhawan, ISRO opposed military applications for its dual-use projects such as the SLV-3. Eventually, however, the Defence Research and Development Organisation(DRDO)–based missile program borrowed human resources and technology from ISRO. Missile scientist A. P. J. Abdul Kalam (elected president of India in 2002), who had headed the SLV-3 project at ISRO, moved to DRDO to direct India’s missile program. About a dozen scientists accompanied Abdul Kalam from ISRO to DRDO, where Abdul Kalam designed the Agni missile using the SLV-3’s solidfuel first stage and a liquid-fuel (Prithvi-missile-derived) second stage. The IRS and INSAT satellites were primarily intended and used for civilian-economic applications, but they also offered military spin-offs. In 1996 New Delhi’s Ministry of Defence temporarily blocked the use of IRS-1C by India’s environmental and agricultural ministries in order to monitor ballistic missiles near India’s borders. In 1997 the Indian air force’s “Airpower Doctrine” aspired to use space assets for surveillance and battle management.[50]
Institutions like the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) and the Indian Institute of Technology use satellites for scholarly applications.[51] Between 1975 and 1976, India conducted its largest sociological program using space technology, reaching 2400 villages through video programming in local languages aimed at educational development via ATS-6 technology developed by NASA.[52] This experiment—named Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)—conducted large scale video broadcasts resulting in significant improvement in rural education.[52]
ISRO has applied its technology to "telemedicine", directly connecting patients in rural areas to medical professionals in urban locations via satellites.[51] Since high-quality healthcare is not universally available in some of the remote areas of India, the patients in remote areas are diagnosed and analyzed by doctors in urban centres in real time via video conferencing.[51] The patient is then advised medicine and treatment.[51] The patient is then treated by the staff at one of the 'super-specialty hospitals' under instructions from the doctor.[51] Mobile telemedicine vans are also deployed to visit locations in far-flung areas and provide diagnosis and support to patients.[51]
ISRO has also helped implement India's Biodiversity Information System, completed in October 2002.[53] Nirupa Sen details the program: "Based on intensive field sampling and mapping using satellite remote sensing and geospatial modelling tools, maps have been made of vegetation cover on a 1 : 250,000 scale. This has been put together in a web-enabled database which links gene-level information of plant species with spatial information in a BIOSPEC database of the ecological hot spot regions, namely northeastern India, Western Ghats, Western Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. This has been made possible with collaboration between the Department of Biotechnology and ISRO."[53]
The Indian IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was equipped with high-resolution panchromatic equipment to enable it for cartographic purposes.[7] IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was followed by a more advanced model named IRS-P6 developed also for agricultural applications.[7] The CARTOSAT-2 project, equipped with single panchromatic camera which supported scene-specific on-spot images, succeed the CARTOSAT-1 project.[54]
Global cooperation[link]
ISRO has had the benefit of International cooperation since inception.
- Establishment of TERLS, conduct of SITE & STEP, launches of Aryabhata, Bhaskara, APPLE, IRS-IA and IRS-IB/ satellites, manned space mission, etc. involved international cooperation.
- ISRO operates LUT/MCC under the international COSPAS/SARSAT Programme for Search and Rescue.
- India has established a Center for Space Science and Technology Education in Asia and the Pacific (CSSTE-AP) that is sponsored by the United Nations.
- India hosted the Second UN-ESCAP Ministerial Conference on Space Applications for Sustainable Development in Asia and the Pacific in November 1999.
- India is a member of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, Cospas-Sarsat, International Astronautical Federation, Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), International Space University, and the Committee on Earth Observation Satellite (CEOS).[55]
- Chandrayaan-1 carried scientific payloads from NASA, ESA and the Bulgarian Space Agency.
- The Russian Space Agency is cooperating with India in developing the rover for Chandrayaan-2 and also in the Indian manned mission.
- The United States on 24 January 2011, removed several Indian government defense-related companies, including ISRO, from the so-called Entity List, in an effort to drive hi-tech trade and forge closer strategic ties with India.[56]
ISRO and the Department of Space have signed formal Memorandum of Understanding agreements with a number of foreign political entities, including:-
India carries out joint operations with foreign space agencies, such as the Indo-French Megha-Tropiques Mission.[55] On 25 June 2002 India and the European Union agreed to bilateral cooperation in the field of science and technology.[57] A joint EU-India group of scholars was formed on 23 November 2001 to further promote joint research and development.[57] India holds observer status at CERN while a joint India-EU Software Education and Development Center is due at Bangalore.[57]
See also[link]
- Asian Space Race
- AVATAR RLV
- Bhoosampada
- Bhuvan
- Communication-Centric Intelligence Satellite
- GSLV Mk.III
- List of aerospace engineering topics
- List of Indian satellites
- List of Space Agencies
- Timeline of Solar System exploration
- Chairman of the Indian Space Research Organization
Notes[link]
- ^ Indian Space Budget Boost Supports Existing Programs | SpaceNews.com
- ^ a b c "About ISRO - Introduction". ISRO. http://isro.org/scripts/Aboutus.aspx.
- ^ a b c d Daniel, 486
- ^ a b Daniel, 487
- ^ a b c d e Daniel, 488
- ^ a b c d Daniel, 489
- ^ a b c Burleson, 136
- ^ In Wings of Fire: An Autobiography of APJ Kalam (1999), his autobiography.
- ^ a b Hennock etc. (2008), "The Real Space Race Is In Asia", Newsweek.
- ^ Gupta, 1697
- ^ "ISRO vehicles". Jean-Jacques Serra for TBS Satellite. http://www.tbs-satellite.com/tse/online/lanc_isro.html. Retrieved 2009-01-27.
- ^ a b "ISRO milestones". ISRO. Archived from the original on 14 October 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071014010815/http://www.isro.org/mileston.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-27.
- ^ "ASLV". ISRO. Archived from the original on 17 October 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071017032729/http://www.isro.org/aslv.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-27.
- ^ PSLV-C11 Successfully Launches Chandrayaan-1
- ^ Majumder, Sanjoy (2008-10-21). "India sets its sights on the Moon". BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7681701.stm. Retrieved 2008-10-23.
- ^ Antara News : India successfully puts 3 satellites into orbit
- ^ "Indian space program hit by another launch mishap". SpaceFlightNow. 25 December 2010. http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n1012/25gslv/.
- ^ "Welcome To ISRO :: Launch Vehicles :: GSLV Mark III". Isro.org. http://www.isro.org/Launchvehicles/GSLVMARKIII/mark3.aspx. Retrieved 2010-08-12.
- ^ {{cite news|url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/isro-successfully-launches-spy-satellite-risat-1-202464?pfrom=home-otherstorieso%7Ctitle='ISRO successfully launches 'spy satellite' RISAT-1'|date=2012-04-26|publisher=ndtv|
- ^ {{cite news|url=http://www.ndtv.com/article/india/isro-successfully-launches-spy-satellite-risat-1-202464?pfrom=home-otherstorieso%7Ctitle='ISRO successfully launches 'spy satellite' RISAT-1'|date=2012-04-26|publisher=ndtv|
- ^ "eoPortal directory: Kalpana-1/MetSat-1 (Meteorological Satellite-1)". Eoportal.org. http://www.eoportal.org/directory/pres_Kalpana1MetSat1MeteorologicalSatellite1.html. Retrieved 2011-03-11.
- ^ "Space Technology in India | Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)". Indiaonline.in. http://www.indiaonline.in/Profile/Science/research/Space-Technology.aspx. Retrieved 2011-03-11.
- ^ "The Hindu Business Line : ISRO left poorer by transponder crunch, foreign leases". Thehindubusinessline.in. 2011-01-08. http://www.thehindubusinessline.in/2011/01/08/stories/2011010850851000.htm. Retrieved 2011-03-11.
- ^ "‘Mission definitely over’". 90-95% of the job done (Chennai, India: The Hindu). 2009-08-30. http://www.hindu.com/2009/08/30/stories/2009083060730100.htm. Retrieved 2009-08-29.
- ^ a b c [http://www.marsdaily.com/reports/Indias_Mars_mission_gets_Rs_125_crore_999.html India's Mars mission gets Rs.125 crore (19 March 2012)
- ^ "ISRO Eyes Mission To Mars As Government Sanctions Funding". Mars Daily. http://www.marsdaily.com/reports/ISRO_Eyes_Mission_To_Mars_As_Government_Sanctions_Funding_999.html.
- ^ Click! ISRO to launch Mars mission by 2015
- ^ Indian Scientists Propose 10 Experiments For 2013 Mission To Mars
- ^ http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/technology/article3003109.ece
- ^ "Plan panel okays ISRO manned space flight". Indianexpress.com. 2009-02-23. http://www.indianexpress.com/news/plan-panel-okays-isro-manned-space-flight/426945/. Retrieved 2011-03-11.
- ^ ISRO To Put Unmanned Test Capsule In Orbit By 2013 - July 14th,2010
- ^ BBC.co.uk - India announces first manned space mission - Jan 27th, 2010
- ^ Express News Service (2009-04-16). "UoP part of ISRO’s bio experiment in space". Express India. http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/uop-part-of-isros-bio-experiment-in-space/447572/. Retrieved 2011-03-11.
- ^ "The Hindu : Opinion / Letters to the Editor : Well done ISRO". Hinduonnet.com. 2007-01-24. http://www.hinduonnet.com/2007/01/24/stories/2007012404431200.htm. Retrieved 2011-03-11.
- ^ "UoP part of ISRO’s bio experiment in space". Indianexpress.com. 2009-04-16. http://www.indianexpress.com/news/uop-part-of-isros-bio-experiment-in-space/447572/. Retrieved 2011-03-11.
- ^ "Breaking news, views, current affairs & Infotainment". Khabrein.info. http://www.khabrein.info/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=20043&Itemid=62. Retrieved 2010-08-12.
- ^ "India cryogenic satellite space launch fails". BBC World News. 15 April 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8622602.stm. Retrieved 10 Jone 2010.
- ^ [1][dead link]
- ^ ISRO finds ‘alien’ life in upper atmosphere
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o India in Space", Science & Technology edited by N.N. Ojha, 142.
- ^ a b c "Space Research", Science and Technology in India edited by R.K. Suri and Kalapana Rajaram, 415.
- ^ a b c d e "Space Research", Science and Technology in India edited by R.K. Suri and Kalapana Rajaram, 414.
- ^ a b c d "Space Research", Science and Technology in India edited by R.K. Suri and Kalapana Rajaram, 416.
- ^ http://ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov/satellite_missions/list_of_satellites/sara_general.html
- ^ ISRO confirms new space plans
- ^ ISRO targets Sun after the moon
- ^ "Isro successfully tests indigenous cryogenic engine". Hindustan Times. 12 May 2012. http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/Chennai/Isro-successfully-tests-indigenous-cryogenic-engine/Article1-854840.aspx. Retrieved 12 May 2012.
- ^ Bhaskaranarayana, 1738–1746
- ^ Bhaskaranarayana, 1738
- ^ Mistry, 94–95
- ^ a b c d e f Bhaskaranarayana, 1744
- ^ a b Bhaskaranarayana, 1737
- ^ a b Sen, 490
- ^ Burleson, 143
- ^ a b "Space Research", Science and Technology in India edited by R.K. Suri and Kalapana Rajaram, 447.
- ^ Times of India (2011-01-25). "US removes ISRO, DRDO from export control list". The Times Of India. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/us/US-removes-ISRO-DRDO-from-export-control-list/articleshow/7357500.cms. Retrieved 2011-02-24.
- ^ a b c Ketkar, Prafulla (2006), "European Union, Relations with (Science and technology)", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2), edited by Stanley Wolpert, 48-51, Thomson Gale: ISBN 0-684-31351-0.
References[link]
 |
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (February 2011) |
- Bhaskaranarayana etc. (2007), "Applications of space communication", Current Science, 93 (12): 1737-1746, Bangalore: Indian Academy of Sciences.
- Burleson, D. (2005), "India", Space Programs Outside the United States: All Exploration and Research Efforts, Country by Country, pp. 136–146, United States of America: McFarland & Company, ISBN 0-7864-1852-4.
- Daniel, R.R. (1992), "Space Science in India", Indian Journal of History of Science, 27 (4): 485-499, New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy.
- Gupta, S.C. etc. (2007), "Evolution of Indian launch vehicle technologies", Current Science, 93 (12): 1697-1714, Bangalore: Indian Academy of Sciences.
- "India in Space", Science & Technology edited by N.N. Ojha, pp. 110–143, New Delhi: Chronicle Books.
- Mistry, Dinshaw (2006), "Space Program", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 4) edited by Stanley Wolpert, pp. 93–95, Thomson Gale, ISBN 0-684-31353-7.
- Narasimha, R. (2002), "Satish Dhawan", Current Science, 82 (2): 222-225, Bangalore: Indian Academy of Sciences.
- Sen, Nirupa (2003), "Indian success stories in use of Space tools for social development", Current Science, 84 (4): 489-490, Bangalore: Indian Academy of Sciences.
- "Space Research", Science and Technology in India edited by R.K. Suri and Kalapana Rajaram, pp. 411–448, New Delhi: Spectrum, ISBN 81-7930-294-6.
Further reading[link]
- [ISRO plans human colony on moon]; by Bibhu Ranjan Mishra in Bangalore; 18 December 2007; Rediff India Abroad (Rediff.com)
- The Economics of India's Space Programme, by U.Sankar, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2007, ISBN.13:978-0-19-568345-5
External links[link]
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Space program of India |
- ISRO Home Page
- NARL Home Page
- FAS article on ISRO.
- Article on India's space program.
- About India's space program, launch Vehicles,Chandrayaan.
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For the film director, see Manmohan Singh (director).
| Manmohan Singh ਮਨਮੋਹਨ ਸਿੰਘ मनमोहन सिंह |
|
|---|---|
 |
|
| 13th Prime Minister of India[1] | |
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office 19 May 2004 |
|
| President | Pratibha Patil |
| Preceded by | Atal Bihari Vajpayee |
| Minister of Railways | |
| In office 19 May 2011 – 13 July 2011 |
|
| President | Pratibha Patil |
| Preceded by | Mamata Banerjee |
| Succeeded by | Dinesh Trivedi |
| Minister of Finance | |
| In office 30 November 2008 – 24 January 2009 |
|
| Preceded by | P. Chidambaram |
| Succeeded by | Pranab Mukherjee |
| In office 21 June 1991 – 16 May 1996 |
|
| Prime Minister | Narasimha Rao |
| Preceded by | Yashwant Sinha |
| Succeeded by | Jaswant Singh |
| Minister of External Affairs | |
| In office 6 November 2005 – 24 October 2006 |
|
| Preceded by | Kunwar Natwar Singh |
| Succeeded by | Pranab Mukherjee |
| Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission | |
| In office 15 January 1985 – 31 August 1987 |
|
| Prime Minister | Rajiv Gandhi |
| Preceded by | Narasimha Rao |
| Succeeded by | Punjala Shiv Shankar |
| Governor of the Reserve Bank | |
| In office 15 September 1982 – 15 January 1985 |
|
| Preceded by | Indraprasad Gordhanbhai Patel |
| Succeeded by | Amitav Ghosh |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1932-09-26) 26 September 1932 (age 79) Gah, Punjab, British India[2] |
| Political party | Indian National Congress |
| Spouse(s) | Gursharan Kaur (1958–present) |
| Children | Upinder Daman Amrit |
| Residence | Panchavati, New Delhi (Official) Guwahati (Private) |
| Alma mater | Panjab University, Chandigarh St John's College, Cambridge Nuffield College, Oxford |
| Profession | Economist Civil servant Social worker Professor |
| Religion | Sikhism |
| Signature |  |
| Website | Prime Minister's Office |
Manmohan Singh (Punjabi: ਮਨਮੋਹਨ ਸਿੰਘ [mənˈmoːɦən ˈsɪ́ŋɡ], Hindi: मनमोहन सिंह [mənˈmoːɦən ˈsɪŋɦ] ( listen); born 26 September 1932) is the 13th and current Prime Minister of India. He is the only Prime Minister since Jawaharlal Nehru to return to power after completing a full five-year term.[3] A Sikh, he is the first non-Hindu to occupy the office. Singh is also the 7th Prime Minister from the Indian National Congress (Congress) party. He is a four-time Member of Parliament from the Upper House of the Parliament of India, the Rajya Sabha, representing the state of Assam.[4] His term in the 14th Rajya Sabha was from 22 May 2004 to 26 February 2009. In the 15th Rajya Sabha his term started 22 May 2009 and is scheduled to continue till 2014. On 27 May 2012, he became the first Indian Prime Minister to visit Myanmar in 25 years.[5]
Born in Gah, Punjab in British India (now Pakistan) in 1932, he migrated to India with his family at the time of Partition in 1947. Singh studied at Panjab University, University of Cambridge and University of Oxford.[6] Thereafter, while Singh was working at United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), Lalit Narayan Mishra, the then Indian Minister for Foreign Trade, appointed Singh as an advisor to his ministry. He was appointed Governor of the Reserve Bank of India between 1982 and 1985,[6] Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission of India from 1985 to 1987 [6] and Secretary General of the South Commission from 1987 to 1990.[7] Elected to the Rajya Sabha in 1991, he was inducted into Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao's cabinet as Finance Minister the same year, a post he held until 1996. His tenure as Finance Minister is best remembered for the economic reforms he carried out, which ended the Licence Raj system and helped open the Indian economy.[8]
When the Congress-led United Progressive Alliance (UPA) came to power after the 2004 general elections, Singh became Prime Minister when Congress President Sonia Gandhi unexpectedly declined the position.[9] In 2009, the UPA and Singh were reelected for a second consecutive five year term.
Key legislation passed during his tenure include the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act and the Right to Information Act, 2005. Major initiatives include the National Rural Health Mission of India and the Unique Identification Authority of India.
Contents |
Early life and education[link]
Manmohan Singh was born to Gurmukh Singh and Amrit Kaur on 26 September 1932, in Gah, Punjab, British India, into a Sikh Khatri family.[6] He lost his mother when he was very young and was raised by his paternal grandmother, to whom he was very close.
After the Partition of India, his family migrated to Amritsar, India, where he studied at Hindu College. He attended Panjab University, Chandigarh, then in Hoshiarpur,[10][11][12] Punjab, studying Economics and got his bachelor's and master's degrees in 1952 and 1954, respectively, standing first throughout his academic career. He went on to read for the Economics Tripos at Cambridge as a member of St John's College. He won the Wright's Prize for distinguished performance in 1955 and 1957. He was also one of the few recipients of the Wrenbury scholarship. In 1962, Singh completed his studies from the University of Oxford where he was a member of Nuffield College. His doctoral thesis "India’s export performance, 1951–1960, export prospects and policy implications" which was later the base for his book "India’s Export Trends and Prospects for Self-Sustained Growth".[13]
Early career[link]
After completing his Ph.D., Singh worked for the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) from 1966–1969. During the 1970s, he taught at the University of Delhi and worked for the Ministry of Foreign Trade with the former Cabinet Minister for Foreign Trade, Lalit Narayan Mishra. As the Minister of Foreign Trade, Lalit Narayan Mishra was one of the first to recognize Singh's talent as an economist and appointed him his advisor at the Ministry of Foreign Trade. Singh and Mishra first met, coincidentally, on a flight from India to Chile. Mishra was on his way to Santiago, Chile to attend an UNCTAD meeting.[14]
In 1982, he was appointed the Governor of the Reserve Bank of India and held the post until 1985.[6] He went on to become the deputy chairman of the Planning Commission of India from 1985 to 1987.[6] Following his tenure at the Planning Commission, he was Secretary General of the South Commission, an independent economic policy think tank headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland from 1987 to 1990.[7]
Finance Minister of India[link]
In 1991, India's Prime Minister at the time, P.V. Narasimha Rao, chose Singh to be his Finance Minister. At this time, India's fiscal deficit was close to 8.5 per cent of the gross domestic product, the balance of payments deficit was huge and the current account deficit was close to 3.5 percent of India's GDP.[15] India's foreign reserves barely amounted to US$1 billion, enough to pay for a few weeks of imports, in comparison to US$283 billion today.[16]
Evidently, India was facing an economic crisis. At this point, the government of India sought relief from the supranational International Monetary Fund, which, while assisting India financially, imposed several conditions regarding India's economic policy. In effect, IMF-dictated policy meant that the ubiquitous Licence Raj had to be dismantled, and India's attempt at a state-controlled economy had to end. Accordingly, Singh, who had thus far been one of the most influential architects of India's socialist economy, slowly opened the Indian economy to foreign investment and business competition.[15][17]
Rao and Singh thus implemented policies to open up the economy and change India's socialist economy to a more capitalistic one, in the process dismantling the Licence Raj, a system that inhibited the prosperity of private businesses. They removed many obstacles standing in the way of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), and initiated the process of the privatization of public sector companies. However, in spite of these reforms, Rao's government was voted out in 1996 due to non-performance of government in other areas. In praise of Singh's work that pushed India towards a market economy, long-time Cabinet minister P. Chidambaram has referred to Singh as the Deng Xiaoping of India.[18]
In 1993, Singh offered his resignation from the post of Finance Minister after a parliamentary investigation report criticised his ministry for not being able to anticipate a US$1.8 billion securities scandal. Prime Minister Rao refused Singh's resignation, instead promising to punish the individuals directly accused in the report.[19]
Career in the Rajya Sabha[link]
Singh was first elected to the upper house of Parliament, the Rajya Sabha, in 1991[20] by the legislature of the state of Assam, and was re-elected in 1995, 2001 and 2007.[6] From 1998 to 2004, while the Bharatiya Janata Party was in power, Singh was the Leader of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha. In 1999, he contested for the Lok Sabha from South Delhi but was unable to win the seat.[21]
Prime ministership[link]
14th Lok Sabha[link]
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Wikinews has related news: Manmohan Singh becomes the third longest serving Prime Minister of India. |
After the 2004 general elections, the Indian National Congress ended the incumbent National Democratic Alliance (NDA) tenure by becoming the political party with the single largest number of seats in the Lok Sabha. It formed United Progressive Alliance (UPA) with allies and staked claim to form government. In a surprise move, Chairperson Sonia Gandhi declared Manmohan Singh, a technocrat, as the UPA candidate for the Prime Ministership. Despite the fact that Singh had never won a Lok Sabha seat, he "has enjoyed massive popular support, not least because he was seen by many as a clean politician untouched by the taint of corruption that has run through many Indian administrations."[24] He took the oath as the Prime Minister of India on 22 May 2004.[25][26]
Economic policy[link]
Following the advice of International Monetary Fund in 1991, Singh as Finance Minister, freed India from the Licence Raj, source of slow economic growth and corruption in the Indian economy for decades. He liberalized the Indian economy, allowing it to speed up development dramatically. During his term as Prime Minister, Singh continued to encourage growth in the Indian market, enjoying widespread success in these matters. Singh, along with the former Finance Minister, P. Chidambaram, have presided over a period where the Indian economy has grown with an 8–9% economic growth rate. In 2007, India achieved its highest GDP growth rate of 9% and became the second fastest growing major economy in the world.[27][28]
Singh is now a strong supporter of globalization, seeing India's immense labor capacity as a path to delivering Indian goods in a worldwide market and eventually relieving large-scale poverty.[29]
Singh's government has continued the Golden Quadrilateral and the highway modernisation program that was initiated by Vajpayee's government. Singh has also been working on reforming the banking and financial sectors, as well as public sector companies. The Finance ministry has been working towards relieving farmers of their debt and has been working towards pro-industry policies. In 2005, Singh's government introduced the value added tax, replacing sales tax. In 2007 and early 2008, the global problem of inflation impacted India.[30]
Healthcare and education[link]
In 2005, Prime Minister Singh and his government's health ministry started the National Rural Health Mission, which has mobilised half a million community health workers. This rural health initiative was praised by the American economist Jeffrey Sachs.[31] In 2006, his Government implemented the proposal to reserve 27% of seats in All India Institute of Medical Studies (AIIMS), Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), the Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs) and other central institutions of higher education for Other Backward Classes which led to 2006 Indian anti-reservation protests.
Singh has announced that eight more Indian Institutes of Technology will be opened in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Orissa, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh. The Singh government has also continued the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan programme, begun by his predecessor, Mr. Vajpayee. The programme has included the introduction and improvement of mid-day meals and the opening of schools all over India, especially in rural areas, to fight illiteracy.
Security and Home Affairs[link]
His government has been instrumental in strengthening anti-terror laws with amendments to Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA), where most of provisions of POTA were reincorporated,critics however cite that the amendments make the act equally draconian. National Investigation Agency (India) (NIA) was also created soon after the Nov 2008 Mumbai terror attacks as need for a central agency to combat terrorism was realised. Also Unique Identification Authority of India was established in February 2009, an agency responsible for implementing the envisioned Multipurpose National Identity Card with the objective of increasing national security and facilitating e-governance. His government has been criticized by some human rights organizations,that these measures could help establish a police state.
His government has also been criticized for not being able to reduce the Naxal terrorism that is menacing rural areas in Eastern and Central India. Singh's government has, however, extended the ban on the radical Islamic terror group Student's Islamic Movement of India (SIMI).
Singh's administration initiated a massive reconstruction effort in Kashmir to stabilise the region but after some period of success, insurgent infiltration and terrorism in Kashmir has increased since 2009.[32] However, the Singh administration has been successful in reducing terrorism in Northeast India.[32]
Legislation[link]
The important National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) and the Right to Information Act were passed by the Parliament in 2005 during his tenure. While the effectiveness of the NREGA has been successful at various degrees, in various regions, the RTI act has proved crucial in India's fight against corruption.[33]
Foreign policy[link]
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Manmohan Singh has continued the pragmatic foreign policy that was started by P.V. Narasimha Rao and continued by Bharatiya Janata Party's Atal Bihari Vajpayee. Singh has continued the peace process with Pakistan initiated by his predecessor, Atal Bihari Vajpayee. Exchange of high-level visits by top leaders from both countries have highlighted his tenure. Efforts have been made during Singh's tenure to end the border dispute with People's Republic of China. In November 2006, Chinese President Hu Jintao visited India which was followed by Singh's visit to Beijing in January 2008. A major development in Sino-Indian relations was the reopening of the Nathula Pass in 2006 after being closed for more than four decades. As of 2010, the People's Republic of China is the second biggest trade partner of India.[34]
Relations with Afghanistan have also improved considerably, with India now becoming the largest regional donor to Afghanistan.[35] During Afghan President Hamid Karzai's visit to New Delhi in August 2008, Manmohan Singh increased the aid package to Afghanistan for the development of more schools, health clinics, infrastructure, and defence.[36] Under the leadership of Singh, India has emerged as one of the single largest aid donors to Afghanistan.[36]
Singh's government has worked towards stronger ties with the United States. He visited the United States in July 2005 initiating negotiations over the Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement. This was followed by George W. Bush's successful visit to India in March 2006, during which the declaration over the nuclear agreement was made, giving India access to American nuclear fuel and technology while India will have to allow IAEA inspection of its civil nuclear reactors. After more than two years for more negotiations, followed by approval from the IAEA, Nuclear Suppliers Group and the US Congress, India and the U.S. signed the agreement on 10 October 2008 with Pranab Mukherjee representing India.[37]
Singh had the first official state visit to the White House during the administration of U.S. President Barack Obama. The visit took place in November 2009, and several discussions took place, including on trade and nuclear power.
Relations have improved with Japan and European Union countries, like the United Kingdom, France, and Germany. Relations with Iran have continued and negotiations over the Iran-Pakistan-India gas pipeline have taken place. New Delhi hosted an India–Africa Summit in April 2006 which was attended by the leaders of 15 African states.[38] Relations have improved with other developing countries, particularly Brazil and South Africa. Singh carried forward the momentum which was established after the "Brasilia Declaration" in 2003 and the IBSA Dialogue Forum was formed.[39]
Manmohan Singh's government has also been especially keen on expanding ties with Israel. Since 2003, the two countries have made significant investments in each other[40] and Israel now rivals Russia to become India's defence partner.[41] Though there have been a few diplomatic glitches between India and Russia, especially over the delay and price hike of several Russian weapons to be delivered to India,[42] relations between the two remain strong with India and Russia signing various agreements to increase defence, nuclear energy and space cooperation.[43]
15th Lok Sabha[link]
India held general elections to the 15th Lok Sabha in five phases between 16 April 2009 and 13 May 2009. The results of the election were announced on 16 May 2009.[44] Strong showing in Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh helped the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) form the new government under the incumbent Singh, who became the first prime minister since Jawaharlal Nehru in 1962 to win re-election after completing a full five-year term.[45] The Congress and its allies were able to put together a comfortable majority with support from 322 members out of 543 members of the House. These included those of the UPA and the external support from the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), Samajwadi Party (SP), Janata Dal (Secular) (JD(S)), Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD) and other minor parties.[46]
On 22 May 2009, Manmohan Singh was sworn in as the Prime Minister during a ceremony held at Rashtrapati Bhavan.[47][48] The 2009 Indian general election was the largest democratic election in the world held to date, with an eligible electorate of 714 million.
Public image[link]
Singh has always been perceived as a man of clean background. He is seen as a man of few words. The Independent described him as "one of the world's most revered leaders" and "a man of uncommon decency and grace," noting that he drives a Maruti 800, one of the humblest cars in the Indian market. Khushwant Singh lauded Singh as the best prime minister India has had, even rating him higher than Jawaharlal Nehru. He mentions an incident in his book Absolute Khushwant: The Low-Down on Life, Death and Most things In-between where after losing the 1999 Lok Sabha elections, Singh immediately returned the 2 lakh (US$4,000) he had borrowed from the writer for hiring taxis. Terming him as the best example of integrity, Khushwant Singh stated, "When people talk of integrity, I say the best example is the man who occupies the country's highest office." [49]
His personal assets amount to five crore rupees (approx 1 million USD).[50]
In 2010, Newsweek magazine recognized him as a world leader who is respected by other heads of state, describing him as "the leader other leaders love." The article quoted Mohamed ElBaradei, who remarked that Singh is "the model of what a political leader should be."[51] Singh is number 18 on the 2010 Forbes list of the world's most powerful people.[52] Forbes magazine described Singh as being "universally praised as India's best prime minister since Nehru".[53]
His public image has been tarnished recently as he heads the government which is mired in some of the biggest corruption scandals in recent history.[54][55][56] He is also accused of being a weak prime minister by several politicians and social activists.[57][58][59]
Family and personal life[link]
Singh married Gursharan Kaur in 1958. They have three daughters, Upinder Singh, Daman Singh and Amrit Singh.[60]
Upinder Singh is a professor of history at Delhi University. She has written six books, including Ancient Delhi (1999) and A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (2008).[61] Daman Singh is a graduate of St. Stephen's College, Delhi and Institute of Rural Management, Anand, Gujarat, and author of The Last Frontier: People and Forests in Mizoram and a novel Nine by Nine, [62] she is married to an I.P.S official Ashok Patnaik who is on deputation to Intelligence Bureau. Amrit Singh is a staff attorney at the American Civil Liberties Union.[63]
Singh has undergone multiple cardiac bypass surgeries, the most recent of which took place in January 2009.[64]
Singh and his wife both belong to the Kohli clan,[65][66] though neither uses the name as their surname.
Degrees and posts held[link]
- BA (Hons) in Economics 1952; MA First Class in Economics, 1954 Panjab University, Chandigarh {was then in Hoshiarpur,Punjab}, India
- Honours degree in Economics, University of Cambridge – St John's College (1957)
- Senior Lecturer, Economics (1957–1959)
- Reader (1959–1963)
- Professor (1963–1965)
- Professor of International Trade (1969–1971)
- DPhil in Economics, University of Oxford – Nuffield College (1962)
- Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi
- Honorary Professor (1966)
- Chief, Financing for Trade Section, UNCTAD, United Nations Secretariat, Manhattan, New York
- 1966 : Economic Affairs Officer 1966
- Economic Advisor, Ministry of Foreign Trade, India (1971–1972)
- Chief Economic Advisor, Ministry of Finance, India, (1972–1976)
- Honorary Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi (1976)
- Director, Reserve Bank of India (1976–1980)
- Director, Industrial Development Bank of India (1976–1980)
- Secretary, Ministry of Finance (Department of Economic Affairs), Government of India, (1977–1980)
- Governor, Reserve Bank of India (1982–1985)
- Deputy Chairman, Planning Commission of India, (1985–1987)
- Secretary General, South Commission, Geneva (1987–1990)
- Advisor to Prime Minister of India on Economic Affairs (1990–1991)
- Chairman, University Grants Commission (15 March 1991 – 20 June 1991)[6]
- Finance Minister of India, (21 June 1991 – 15 May 1996)
- Leader of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha (1998–2004)
- Prime Minister of India (22 May 2004 – Present)
Honours, awards and international recognition[link]
In March 1983, Panjab University, Chandigarh awarded him Doctor of Letters and in 2009 created a Dr. Manmohan Singh chair in their economics department.[67] In 1997, the University of Alberta awarded him an Honorary Doctor of Law degree.[68] The University of Oxford awarded him an honorary Doctor of Civil Law degree in July 2005,[69] and in October 2006, the University of Cambridge followed with the same honour.[70] St. John's College further honoured him by naming a Ph.D Scholarship after him, the Dr. Manmohan Singh Scholarship. In 2008, he was awarded honorary Doctor of Letters degree by Benaras Hindu University[71] and later that year he was awarded an honorary doctorate degree by University of Madras.[72] In 2010, he was awarded honorary doctorate degree by King Saud University.[73]
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This biographical section of an article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (March 2012) |
| Year of Award or Honor | Name of Award or Honor | Awarding Organisation |
|---|---|---|
| 2010 | World Statesman Award[74] | Appeal of Conscience Foundation |
| 2005 | Top 100 Influential People in the World[75] | Time |
| 2002 | Outstanding Parliamentarian Award | Indian Parliamentary Group |
| 2000 | Annasaheb Chirmule Award | Annasaheb Chirmule Trust |
| 1999 | H.H. Kanchi Sri Paramacharya Award for Excellence | Shri R. Venkataraman, The Centenarian Trust |
| 1999 | Fellow of the National Academy of Agricultural Sciences, New Delhi | National Academy of Agricultural Sciences |
| 1997 | Lokmanya Tilak Award | Tilak Smarak Trust, Pune |
| 1997 | Justice K.S. Hegde Foundation Award | Justice K.S. Hegde Foundation |
| 1997 | Nikkei Asia prize for Regional Growth | Nihon Keizai Shimbun Inc. |
| 1996 | Honorary Professorship | Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, Delhi |
| 1995 | Jawaharlal Nehru Birth Centenary Award (1994–95) | Indian Science Congress Association |
| 1994 | Finance Minister of the Year | Asiamoney |
| 1994 | Jawaharlal Nehru Birth Centenary Award (1994–95) | Indian Science Congress Association |
| 1994 | Elected Distinguished Fellow of the London School of Economics | London School of Economics, Centre for Asia Economy, Politics and Society |
| 1994 | Elected Honorary Fellow, Nuffield College | Nuffield College, University of Oxford, Oxford, U.K. |
| 1994 | Elected Distinguished Fellow of the London School of Economics | London School of Economics, Centre for Asia Economy, Politics and Society |
| 1994 | Elected Honorary Fellow of the All India Management Association | All India Management Association |
| 1993 | Finance Minister of the Year | Euromoney |
| 1993 | Finance Minister of the Year | Asiamoney |
| 1987 | Padma Vibhushan | President of India |
| 1986 | Elected National Fellow, National Institute of Education | National Institute of Education |
| 1985 | Elected President of the Indian Economic Association | Indian Economic Association |
| 1982 | Elected Honorary Fellow, St. John’s College | St. John’s College, Cambridge |
| 1982 | Elected Honorary Fellow, Indian Institute of Bankers | Indian Institute of Bankers |
| 1976 | Honorary Professorship | Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi |
| 1957 | Elected Wrenbury Scholar | University of Cambridge, U.K. |
| 1956 | Adam Smith Prize | University of Cambridge, U.K. |
| 1955 | Wright Prize for Distinguished Performance | St. John’s College, Cambridge, U.K. |
| 1954 | Uttar Chand Kapur Medal, for standing first in M.A. (Economics) | Panjab University, Chandigarh{Was then in Hoshiarpur,Punjab} |
| 1952 | University Medal for standing first in B.A. (Honors Economics) | Panjab University, Chandigarh |
See also[link]
- Dr. Manmohan Singh Scholarship at the University of Cambridge
- Economic reforms under Manmohan Singh
References[link]
- ^ Unattributed (2005). "Profile: Prime Minister of India - Dr. Manmohan Singh". india.gov.in. Government of India. http://india.gov.in/govt/whoswho.php?id=4. Retrieved 30 December2011.
- ^ Hindus Contribution Towards Making Of Pakistan 22 May 2010 Retrieved 28 January 2011
- ^ "Background Note: India". Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs. U. S. Department of State. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3454.htm. Retrieved 27 March 2012.
- ^ "RAJYA SABHA(COUNCIL OF STATES)". http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/miscellaneous_statistics/rajya_sabha_council.pdf. Retrieved 2011-12-18.
- ^ "http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/rest-of-world/Manmohan-arrives-in-Myanmar-First-Indian-PM-to-visit-in-25-years/articleshow/13571678.cms". http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/rest-of-world/Manmohan-arrives-in-Myanmar-First-Indian-PM-to-visit-in-25-years/articleshow/13571678.cms. Retrieved 2012-05-27.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "Detailed Profile: Dr. Manmohan Singh". http://india.gov.in/govt/rajyasabhampbiodata.php?mpcode=2. Retrieved 2011-12-18.
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- ^ Waldman, Amy (23 May 2004). "India Swears In 13th Prime Minister and First Sikh in Job". NYT. http://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/23/world/india-swears-in-13th-prime-minister-and-first-sikh-in-job.html.
- ^ "Government College, Hoshiarpur | Colleges in Hoshiarpur Punjab". Punjabcolleges.com. http://www.punjabcolleges.com/522-indiacolleges-Government-College-Hoshiarpur/. Retrieved 2011-09-26.
- ^ "Three sardars and their Hoshiarpur connection". Portal.bsnl.in. 1932-03-23. http://portal.bsnl.in/bsnl/asp/content%20mgmt/html%20content/hotnews/hotnews35448.html. Retrieved 2011-09-26.
- ^ "Hoshiarpur". The Times Of India. http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/keyword/hoshiarpur/recent/4.
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- ^ "Lalit Narayan Mishra". http://lalit-narayan-mishra.co.tv/.
- ^ a b rediff Business Desk (26 September 2005). "Manmohan Singh: Father of Indian Reform". Rediff.com. http://www.rediff.com/money/2005/sep/26pm.htm. Retrieved 3 January 2010.
- ^ Mahalakshmi Hariharan (Saturday 2 January 2010). "Forex reserves swell 11% in 2009". Yahoo Finance India. http://in.biz.yahoo.com/100101/50/bauua1.html. Retrieved 3 January 2010.
- ^ Friedman, Thomas L. (2008). The World is Flat – A brief history of the twenty-first century. Picador. p. 488. ISBN 0-374-29288-4.
- ^ "Manmohan is Deng Xiaoping of India: P Chidambaram – Oneindia News". News.oneindia.in. 2 May 2008. http://news.oneindia.in/2008/05/02/manmohan-is-deng-xiaoping-of-india-p-chidambaram-1209740775.html. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
- ^ "Indian Leader Bars Key Aide From Quitting in Stock Scam". The New York Times. 1 January 1994. http://www.nytimes.com/1994/01/01/world/indian-leader-bars-key-aide-from-quitting-in-stock-scam.html?pagewanted=1. Retrieved 7 April 2010.
- ^ "Profile: Prime Minister India". Indian gov.. http://india.gov.in/govt/primeminister.php. Retrieved 23 May 2009.
- ^ "Candidate Statistics Manmohan Singh". IBN Live. http://ibnlive.in.com/politics/electionstats/candidate/MANMOHAN%20SINGH.html. Retrieved 30 November 2009.
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- ^ Strengthen Team India – The Australian
- ^ "Profile: Manmohan Singh". BBC News. 30 March 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3725357.stm. Retrieved 7 April 2010.
- ^ "Manmohan to Advani: Change your astrologers, stop abuse against me". Thaindian News. 22 July 2008. http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/south-asia/manmohan-to-advani-change-your-astrologers-stop-abuse-against-me_10074778.html. Retrieved 23 July 2008.
- ^ "Manmohan takes on Advani: Babri destruction his only contribution". Southasia Times. 25 March 2009.
- ^ "CIA – The World Factbook". Cia.gov. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html#Econ. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
- ^ "The India Report". Astaire Research. http://www.ukibc.com/ukindia2/files/India60.pdf.
- ^ "Manmohan Singh: Father of Indian Reform". Rediff.com. 26 September 2005. http://www.rediff.com/money/2005/sep/26pm.htm. Retrieved 3 January 2010.
- ^ Kevin Plumberg; Steven C. Johnson (2 November 2008). "Global inflation climbs to historic levels". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/12/business/worldbusiness/12iht-inflate.1.9963291.html. Retrieved 17 June 2011.
- ^ Sachs, Jeffrey D. (6 March 2005). "The End of Poverty". Time. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1034738,00.html.
- ^ a b Infiltration has not reduced in Kashmir, insurgency down in North East: Chidambaram
- ^ RTI Act: A strong tool to cleanse corruption in India
- ^ China becomes India's 2nd largest trade partner
- ^ Bajoria, Jayshree (23 October 2008). "India-Afghanistan Relations". Council on Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/publication/17474/indiaafghanistan_relations.html. Retrieved 11 December 2008.
- ^ a b India announces more Afghan aid
- ^ "U.S., India ink historic civilian nuclear deal". People's Daily. 11 October 2008. http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90777/90852/6513319.html. Retrieved 11 December 2008.
- ^ "Several African leaders to attend Africa-India summit, AU says". African Press International. 28 March 2008. http://africanpress.wordpress.com/2008/03/28/several-african-leaders-to-attend-africa-india-summit-au-says/. Retrieved 11 December 2008.
- ^ Beri, Ruchita (10 December 2008). "IBSA Dialogue Forum: A Strategic Partnership". The African Executive. http://www.africanexecutive.com/modules/magazine/articles.php?article=3708. Retrieved 11 December 2008.
- ^ Halarnkar, Samar (23 October 2007). "India and Israel: The great seduction". Hindustan Times. http://www.hindustantimes.com/StoryPage/StoryPage.aspx?id=ea163747-b106-4e32-b231-7eb64de62985. Retrieved 11 December 2008.
- ^ Waldman, Amy (7 September 2003). "The Bond Between India and Israel Grows". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE3DD163BF934A3575AC0A9659C8B63. Retrieved 11 December 2008.
- ^ Dikshit, Sandeep (17 April 2008). "Centre admits to problems in naval deals". The Hindu (Chennai, India). http://www.hindu.com/2008/04/17/stories/2008041761781200.htm. Retrieved 11 December 2008.
- ^ Roychowdhury, Amitabh (6 December 2006). "India, Russia sign agreements to further strengthen ties". Outlook. http://www.outlookindia.com/pti_news.asp?id=339943. Retrieved 11 December 2008.
- ^ "India's ruling party wins resounding victory". Associated Press. 16 May 2009. http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5gf53l7BbUSc4DUHCgzjLF4YfW9CgD987BC100. Retrieved 16 May 2009.
- ^ "Second UPA win, a crowning glory for Sonia's ascendancy". Business Standard. 16 May 2009. http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/second-upa-wincrowning-glory-for-sonia%5Cs-ascendancy/61892/on. Retrieved 13 June 2009.
- ^ "Smooth sailing for UPA, parties scramble to support". CNN-IBN. 19 May 2009. http://ibnlive.in.com/news/smooth-sailing-for-upa-parties-scramble-to-support/92967-37.html. Retrieved 13 June 2009.
- ^ "Team Manmohan set to form govt today". Times Now. 22 May 2009. http://www.timesnow.tv/Team-manmohan-set-to-form-govt-today/articleshow/4317510.cms. Retrieved 13 June 2009.
- ^ "India PM Singh takes oath for second term". Reuters. 22 May 2009. http://www.reuters.com/article/marketsNews/idUSDEL00004820090522. Retrieved 13 June 2009.
- ^ PM Manmohan Singh is the best example of integrity: Khushwant Singh date= 17 August 2010 publisher Times Of India
- ^ "Cabinet declares assets, Kamal Nath richest". The Times Of India. 3 September 2011. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Cabinet-declares-assets-Kamal-Nath-richest/articleshow/9847484.cms.
- ^ by Christopher DickeyAugust 16, 2010 (16 August 2010). "Go to the Head of the Class". Newsweek. http://www.newsweek.com/content/newsweek/2010/08/16/go-to-the-head-of-the-class.html. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
- ^ "The World's Most Powerful People: Manmohan Singh". Forbes. 3 November 2010. http://www.forbes.com/profile/manmohan-singh.
- ^ "The World's Most Powerful People: Sonia Gandhi". Forbes. 3 November 2010. http://www.forbes.com/profile/sonia-gandhi.
- ^ "Number 3: Manmohan Singh - India's most hated politicians". India Today. http://indiatoday.intoday.in/gallery/india-today-opinion-poll-list-of-indian-politicians-youth-hates-most/1/5971.html#photo3.
- ^ "Manmohan Singh: A politician once seen as India's most honest: India's corruption scandals". BBC. 19 August 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12769214.
- ^ "Number 3: Manmohan Singh - India's most hated politicians". India Today. http://indiatoday.intoday.in/gallery/india-today-opinion-poll-list-of-indian-politicians-youth-hates-most/1/5971.html#photo3.
- ^ "Manmohan Singh is a weak PM, reiterates Advani : East News - India Today". http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/manmohan-singh-lk-advani-jan-chetna-yatra/1/157000.html. Retrieved 2012-05-17. . Indiatoday.intoday.in (2011-10-21). Retrieved on 2012-05-17.
- ^ "Dangerous to have a weak PM: Anna". http://zeenews.india.com/news/nation/dangerous-to-have-a-weak-pm-anna_746121.html. Retrieved 2012-05-17. . Zeenews.india.com (2011-12-09). Retrieved on 2012-05-17.
- ^ "Manmohan Singh weak PM, unbecoming of the coveted post: BJP - India - DNA". http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report_manmohan-singh-weak-pm-unbecoming-of-the-coveted-post-bjp_1640518. Retrieved 2012-05-17. . Dnaindia.com (2012-01-21). Retrieved on 2012-05-17.
- ^ "Dr. Manmohan Singh: Personal Profile". Prime Minister's Office, Government of India. http://www.pmindia.nic.in/meet.htm. Retrieved 4 April 2009.
- ^ Raote, Rrishi (10 October 2008). "This Singh is King of History". Business Standard. http://www.business-standard.com/india/storypage.php?autono=330920&chkFlg=. Retrieved 4 April 2009.
- ^ "Meet Dr. Singh's daughter". Rediff.com. 28 January 2009. http://specials.rediff.com/news/2009/jan/28slid1-dr-manmohan-singhs-daughter-daman-singh-turns-author.htm. Retrieved 4 April 2009.
- ^ Rajghatta, Chidanand (21 December 2007). "PM's daughter puts White House in the dock". Times of India. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/msid-2639327,prtpage-1.cms. Retrieved 13 October 2008.
- ^ "One graft successfully performed on Manmohan Singh". The Hindu (Chennai, India). 24 January 2009. http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/000200901241640.htm. Retrieved 24 January 2009.
- ^ Puneet Singh Lamba (14 November 2005). "Biographies – Manmohan Singh: Architect of the New India". The Sikh Times. http://www.sikhtimes.com/bios_111405a.html. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
- ^ "Gursharan Kaur Kohli 's Profile". Katagogi. http://www.katagogi.com/Profile/Profile.aspx?l=EN&fid=13495&No=2e8d9c84-1000-48e4-8c20-0da2e2c3b58e&PreveVal=7827. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
- ^ "What happened to PM's honorary degree?". Asian Age. http://www.asianage.com/india/what-happened-pms-honorary-degree-100. Retrieved May 20, 2012.
- ^ "University of Alberta confers honorary doctorate on Manmohan Singh". http://www.ualberta.ca/~publicas/folio/34/15/03.html.
- ^ "Oxford University confers doctorate degree on Manmohan Singh". http://www.ox.ac.uk/media/news_stories/2005/050214.html.
- ^ "Cambridge University confers doctorate degree on Manmohan Singh". http://www.telegraphindia.com/1061015/asp/look/story_6862282.asp.
- ^ "Manmohan Singh awarded honorary doctorate degree by BHU". The Times Of India. 15 March 2008. http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-03-15/india/27741134_1_d-litt-honorary-doctorate-satish-gujral-and-historian.
- ^ "Manmohan Singh conferred honorary doctorate degree by Madras University". http://news.oneindia.in/2008/09/05/manmohan-conferred-honorary-doctorate-degree-madras-university-1220621460.html.
- ^ "Manmohan conferred honorary doctorate by King Saud University". The Hindu (Chennai, India). 1 March 2010. http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article124297.ece.
- ^ PTI (September 23, 2010). "Manmohan Singh honoured with 2010 World Statesman Award". Hindustan Times. http://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/Americas/Manmohan-Singh-honoured-with-2010-World-Statesman-Award/Article1-603591.aspx. Retrieved 27 March 2012.
- ^ Sen, Amartya (April 18, 2005). "Manmohan Singh: The 2005 TIME 100". Time. http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1972656_1972691_1973012,00.html. Retrieved 27 March 2012.
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Manmohan Singh |
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Manmohan Singh |
- Official
- Prime Minister Manmohan Singh official website
- Profile & Curriculum Vitae
- List of current Union Ministers
- Other
- Profile at BBC News
- Profile at Forbes
- Official State Visit at the White House
- Manmohan Singh collected news and commentary at Al Jazeera English
- Manmohan Singh collected news and commentary at The New York Times
- Manmohan Singh collected news and commentary at The Wall Street Journal
- Manmohan Singh collected news and commentary at The Times of India
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- Manmohan Singh on Charlie Rose
- Articles authored at Journalisted
- Works by or about Manmohan Singh in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Manmohan Singh at the Notable Names Database
| Political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Indraprasad Gordhanbhai Patel |
Governor of the Reserve Bank 1982–1985 |
Succeeded by Amitav Ghosh |
| Preceded by Narasimha Rao |
Deputy Chairperson of the Planning Commission 1985–1987 |
Succeeded by Punjala Shiv Shankar |
| Preceded by Yashwant Sinha |
Minister of Finance 1991–1996 |
Succeeded by Jaswant Singh |
| Preceded by Atal Bihari Vajpayee |
Prime Minister of India 2004–present |
Incumbent |
| Chairperson of the Planning Commission 2004–present |
||
| Preceded by Kunwar Natwar Singh |
Minister of External Affairs 2005–2006 |
Succeeded by Pranab Mukherjee |
| Preceded by P. Chidambaram |
Minister of Finance 2008–2009 |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Singh, Manamohan |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Indian politician |
| Date of birth | 26 September 1932 |
| Place of birth | Gah, Punjab, British India |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Manmohan_Singh
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S. Nambi Narayanan was a former head at the Indian Space Research Organisation(ISRO). At the time, Nambi Narayanan was in-charge of the overall cryogenic project.[1] In 1994, he was falsely charged with espionage.
Career[link]
It was Narayanan who introduced the liquid fuel rocket technology in India in the early 1970s while A. P. J. Abdul Kalam’s team worked on solid motors. Narayanan foresaw the need for liquid fuelled engines for ISRO’s future civilian space programmes. He was encouraged by the then ISRO chairman Satish Dhawan and his successor U.R. Rao. Narayanan developed liquid propellant motors, first building the successful 600-kg thrust engine in the mid-1970s and thereafter moving on to bigger engines.
After working for nearly two decades, with French assistance, his team developed the Vikas engine used today by all ISRO rockets including the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle(PSLV) that took Chandrayaan-1 to the moon on Oct 22, 2008.
The Vikas engine is used in the second stage of PSLV and as the second and the four strap-on stages of Geo-Synchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV).[2]
He has since retired in 2001.
Charges against Narayanan[link]
In 1994, Narayanan was charged with leaking vital defense secrets to two alleged Maldivian intelligence officers, Mariam Rasheeda and Fauzia Hassan. Defense officials said the secrets pertained to highly confidential ."flight test data" from experiments with rocket and satellite launches
Nambi Narayanan, was among two scientists (the other being D Sasikumaran) that were accused of selling ISRO secrets for millions. He was charged with the leaking of vital defence secrets to two Maldivian intelligence officers, Mariam Rasheeda and Fauzia Hassan. Defence officials said the secrets were related to confidential flight test data from rocket launches. However, his house seemed nothing of the ordinary and did not show signs of the opulence he was accused of stolen.[3]
Narayanan spent 50 days in jail. He says that the Intelligence Bureau officials who interrogated him wanted him to make false accusations against the top brass of ISRO. He alleges that two IB officials had asked him to implicate A E Muthunanakom, his boss and then Director of the Liquid Propulsion System Centre (LPSC). When he refused to comply, he was tortured until he collapsed and was hospitalised.[4] He says his main complaint against ISRO is that it did not support him. Krishnaswamy Kasturirangan, who was ISRO chairman at the time stated that ISRO could not interfere in a legal matter.
In May 1996, The charges were dismissed as phony by the Central Bureau of Investigation. They were also dismissed by the Supreme court of India in April 1998. In September 1999, the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) passed strictures against the government of Kerala for having damaged Narayanan’s distinguished career in space research along with the physical and mental torture to which he and his family were subjected.
After the dismissal of charges against them, the two scientists, Sasikumar and Nambi Narayanan have since been transferred out of Thiruvananthapuram and been given desk jobs.[5]
Narayanan is now fighting court cases to get Rs.1 million from the Kerala state government that the NHRC ordered to be paid as interim relief and Rs.10 million in damages he had claimed from the state and central government.
References[link]
- ^ http://rehendhi.tripod.com/spicegirls/id3.html
- ^ http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/sci-tech/unsung-hero-of-moon-mission-is-sad-but-forgiving_100226418.html
- ^ http://www.rediff.com/news/1998/may/08isro.htm
- ^ http://www.expressindia.com/news/ie/daily/19990103/0035021.html
- ^ http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?204019
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Narayanan, Nambi |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Scientist |
| Date of birth | |
| Place of birth | |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Nambi_Narayanan
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nambi_Narayanan
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
